Lesson 2.

4 Foundations of Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Describe the foundations of curriculum development
 Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development

Take Off

Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid foundation. Although considered to

be a new discipline, its significance in the light of global developments has now been
acknowledged. What philosophical, historical, psychological and sociological influences inform
the current school curriculum? How do these foundations reflect the development of curriculum
in our 21st century classrooms and learning environment? Who are the identified curricularists
with these foundations? Let us find out!

Content Focus

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’
classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What
are schools for? What subjects are important? How should students learn? What methods should
be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John
Dewey influenced the use of “Learning by doing", he being a pragmatist. Or to an essentialist,
the focus is on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic, the essential subjects in the
curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate those as presented by
Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.
A. Perennialism
 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical
thinking: HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is
enduring
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and
 Liberal Arts
(Plato, Aristotle or
Thomas Aquinas)
B. Essentialism  Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become
competent
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
 Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural
literacy

William Bagley
(1974-1946)
C. Progressivism  Aim: Promote democratic social living
 Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of
lifelong learners
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered.
Outcomes-based
 Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized
curriculum, Humanistic education

John Dewey (1859-1952

D. Reconstructionism Aim: To improve and reconstruct society

Education for change
Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus: Present and future educational landscape
Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education,
Collaboration and Convergence
Standards and Competencies

Theodore Brameld
(1904-1987)

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us
the chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum
development started when Franklin Bobbit (1896-1956) wrote the book “The Curriculum." Let
us see how each curriculum development during his own time. Here are eight and the many
whom we consider to have great contributions.

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 He started the curriculum development movement.
 Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together when tasks
are clarified.

Franklin Bobbit
(1876-1956)
 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and
emphasizes students' needs.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or
content relates to objectives.

Werret Charters
(1875-1952)
 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.
 The purpose of the curriculum is child development and
growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and
student plan the activities.
 Curriculum develops social relationships and small group
instruction.

William Kilpartick
(1875-1952)
 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-
centered.
 With the statement of objectives and relate learning activities,
 curriculum should produce outcomes.
 He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher
plans curriculum in advance.

Harold Rugg
(1886-1960)

 Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes,

organized knowledge and learner's interest.
 Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is
developed around social functions and learners interests

Hollis Caswell
(1901-1989)

 Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's

philosophy. It is based on students' needs and interest.
 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is
organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to
educate generalists and not specialists.

Ralph Tyler
(1902-1994)

 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical

foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in
social studies curriculum.
 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.
 He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavour.
 Hilda Taba
(1902-2012)

 Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional

core of planners.
 Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

Peter Oliva
(1992-2012)

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is
the optimal level of students participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum? In
this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or association
theories; cognitive-information processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R

theory.
 The key to learning in early years of life is to train them what
you want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
indoctrination.
 Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)

 He championed the connectionism theory.

 He proposed the three laws of learning:
- Law of readiness
- Law of exercise
- Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response.

Edward Thorndike
(1874-1949)

 He proposed the hierarch

 Learning follows a hierarchy.
 Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

Robert Gagne
(1916-2002)

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles
 Theories of Jean Piaget
 Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.
 Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operations stage (7-11) and formal operations (11- onwards)

 Keys to learning
 Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
 Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
 Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)
 Jean Piaget
(1896-1980)
 Theories of Lev Vygotsky
 Cultural transmission and development stage.
 Children could, as a result of their interaction with
society, actually perform certain cognitive actions prior
to arriving at developmental stage.
 Learning precedes development.
 Sociocultural development theory.

 Keys to Learning
 Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to
development.
 The child is an active agent in his or her educational
process.

Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934)
 Gardner's multiple intelligences
 Humans have several different ways of processing
information and these ways are relatively independent of
one another.
 There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-
mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic,
interpersonal intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Howard Gardner
  Emotion contains the power to affect action.
 He called this Emotional Quotient.

Daniel Goleman

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles
 Gestalt Theory
 Learning is explained in terms of "wholeness" of the
problem.
 Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but
to an organization or pattern of stimuli.

 Keys to learning
 Learning is complex and abstract.
 Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between
essential and nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.
 Learners will perceive something in relation to the
whole. What/how they perceive is related to their
previous experiences.
Gestalt

 He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory

 Classic theory of human needs
 A child whose basic needs are not met will not be
interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.
 He put importance to human emotions, based on love
and trust.

 Key to learning
 Produce a healthy and happy learner who can
accomplish, grow and actualize his or her human
self.
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
 Nondirective and therapeutic learning
 He established counselling procedures and methods
for facilitating learning.
 Children's perceptions, which are highly
individualistic, influence their learning and
behaviour in class.

 Key to learning
 Curriculum is concerned with process, not product,
Carl Rogers personal needs, not subject matter psychological
(1902-1987) meaning, not cognitive scores.

4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Society as a source of change

 Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change

Schools and Society

 Influence of society and social context in education

 Things that surround individuals can change, develop
their behavior.
 Considered two fundamental elements which are
schools and civil society

Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917)

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the
future
 Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a
result of technology, not in spite of it.
 (Home Schooling)
  Foresaw schools and students worked creatively,
collaboratively, and independent of their age

Alvin Toffler

Other Theorists

 Education as a means of shaping the person and society

through critical reflections and "conscientization"
 Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach
to raise students’ consciousness
 Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical
thinking
 Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

Paulo Freire
(1921-1997)

 Curriculum organized around needs of society and the

students
 Reduce student conformity in classroom
 Constant need for school improvement
 Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking
 Involvement of students in planning curriculum content
and instructional activities
 Need to align content with standards
 Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are
Schools For? 1989
John Goodland
(1920-2014)

 Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich the

practice
 Understand the nature of the educational experience
 Curriculum involves multiple disciplines
 Curriculum should be studied from historical, racial,
gendered, phenomenological, postmodern theological
and international perspective.
 William Pinar

In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational

philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of
these foundations are interrelated.