From Garden To Landscape
From Garden To Landscape
From Garden To Landscape
Dispen
Contents
1 Paradise 1
1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Biblical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Slavic Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Jehovah's Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Mormonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 The Urantia Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Garden of Eden 5
2.1 Biblical narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Eden in Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Eden in Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Proposed locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Parallel concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Other views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 Jewish eschatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.2 Islamic view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.3 Latter-day Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Roman gardens 12
i
ii CONTENTS
3.1 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Parts of a Roman Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.2 Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.3 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Topiary 15
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.2 Far Eastern topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.3 Renaissance topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.4 Decline in the 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Notable topiary displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.2 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.3 Central America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.4 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.5 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.6 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.7 References and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5 Persian gardens 22
5.1 Concept and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3 Elements of the Persian Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4 Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.1 Hayāt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.2 Meidān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.3 Chahar Bāgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.4 Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
CONTENTS iii
5.5.5 Bāgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6 World Heritage Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Hortus conclusus 27
6.1 The Virgin Mary as hortus conclusus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.2 Actual gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 In art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4 Modern cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7 Botanical garden 32
7.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.1.1 The botanical gardens network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.2 16th- and 17th-century European gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2.3 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2.4 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.2.5 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.3 Role and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.4 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.5 Photo gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8 Giardino all'italiana 44
8.1 History and influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.1.1 Roman influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.1.2 Italian Medieval gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.1.3 Italian Renaissance gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.2 Italian villas with notable gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.2.1 The Medici Villa at Fiesole (1455–1461) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
iv CONTENTS
13 Mughal gardens 85
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.2 Design and symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.3 Sites of Mughal gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.1 Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.2 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.3 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
14 Chinese garden 89
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14.1.1 Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
CONTENTS vii
Paradise
For other uses, see Paradise (disambiguation). virtuous dead. In Christian and Islamic understanding,
Paradise (Persian: پردیس, Paradise garden) is the Heaven is a paradisaical relief. In old Egyptian beliefs,
the otherworld is Aaru, the reed-fields of ideal hunting
and fishing grounds where the dead lived after judgment.
For the Celts, it was the Fortunate Isle of Mag Mell. For
the classical Greeks, the Elysian fields was a paradisaical
land of plenty where the heroic and righteous dead hoped
to spend eternity. The Vedic Indians held that the physi-
cal body was destroyed by fire but recreated and reunited
in the Third Heaven in a state of bliss. In the Zoroastrian
Avesta, the“Best Existence”and the“House of Song”
are places of the righteous dead. On the other hand, in
cosmological contexts 'paradise' describes the world be-
fore it was tainted by evil.
The concept is a topos in art and literature, particularly of
the pre-Enlightenment era, a well-known representative
of which is John Milton's Paradise Lost.
1.1 Etymology
1
2 CHAPTER 1. PARADISE
and menageries. The term eventually appeared in Greek three times in the New Testament writings:
as parádeisos “park for animals”in the Anabasis of the
early 4th century BCE Athenian Xenophon. Aramaic • Luke 23:43 – by Jesus on the cross, in response to
pardaysa similarly reflects “royal park”. the thief's request that Jesus remember him when he
Hebrew ( פרדסpardes) appears thrice in the Tanakh; came in his kingdom.
in the Song of Solomon 4:13, Ecclesiastes 2:5 and
Nehemiah 2:8. In those contexts it could be interpreted • 2 Cor.12:4 – in Paul's description of a man's descrip-
as an“orchard”or a“fruit garden”. In the Septuagint tion of a third heaven paradise, which may in fact be
(3rd–1st centuries BCE), Greek παράδεισος parádeisos a vision Paul himself saw.
was used to translate both Hebrew pardes and Hebrew • Rev.2:7 – in a reference to the Gen.2:8 paradise and
gan,“garden": it is from this usage that the use of“par- the tree of life
adise”to refer to the Garden of Eden derives. The same
usage also appears in Arabic and in the Quran as firdaws
فردوس.
1.3 Judaism
The word's etymology is ultimately derived from a PIE
root *dheigʷ “to stick and set up”. It is reflected in
Avestan as pairi-daêza-.* [1]* [2] The literal meaning of See also: Heaven in Judaism
this Eastern Old Iranian language word is “walled (en-
closure)",* [1] from pairi- “around”and -diz “to make, In Rabbinical Judaism, the word 'Pardes' recurs, but less
form (a wall), build”.* [3]* [4] The word is not attested often in the Second Temple context of Eden or restored
in other Old Iranian languages (these may however be Eden. A well-known reference is in the Pardes story,
hypothetically reconstructed, for example as Old Persian where the word may allude to mystic philosophy.* [5]
*paridayda-). The idea of a walled enclosure was not pre-
The Zohar gives the word a mystical interpretation, and
served in most Iranian usage, and generally came to refer
associates it with the four kinds of Biblical exegesis: pe-
to a plantation or other cultivated area, not necessarily
shat (literal meaning), remez (allusion), derash (anagog-
walled. For example, the Old Iranian word survives in
ical), and sod (mystic). The initial letters of those four
New Persian pālīz (or “jālīz”), which denotes a veg-
words then form – פּ ַ ְרדֵּסp(a)rd(e)s, which was in turn felt
etable patch.
to represent the fourfold interpretation of the Torah (in
which sod – the mystical interpretation – ranks highest).
1.2 Biblical
1.4 Christianity
1.2.1 Old Testament
See also: World to Come and Kingship and kingdom of
The word pardes, borrowed from the Old Persian word,
God
does not appear before the post-Exilic period (post-538
In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus distinguished paradise
BCE); it occurs in the Song of Songs 4:13, Ecclesiastes
2:5, and Nehemiah 2:8, in each case meaning “park”
or “garden”, the original Persian meaning of the word,
where it describes to the royal parks of Cyrus the Great
by Xenophon in Anabasis.
Later in Second Temple era Judaism “paradise”came
to be associated with the Garden of Eden and prophesies
of restoration of Eden, and transferred to heaven. The
Septuagint uses the word around 30 times, both of Eden,
(Gen.2:7 etc.) and of Eden restored (Ezek. 28:13, 36:35
etc.). In the Apocalypse of Moses, Adam and Eve are ex-
pelled from paradise (instead of Eden) after having been
tricked by the serpent. Later after the death of Adam,
the Archangel Michael carries the body of Adam to be
buried in Paradise, which is in the Third Heaven.
1.2.2 New Testament Mead Bradock, Paradise According to Three Different Hypothe-
ses, 1747
The New Testament use and understanding of paradise
parallels that of contemporary Judaism. The word is used from heaven. In Against Heresies, he wrote that only
1.5. ISLAM 3
those deemed worthy would inherit a home in heaven, Eve as caretakers of a global paradise. However, Adam
while others would enjoy paradise, and the rest live in and Eve rebelled against God's sovereignty and were ban-
the restored Jerusalem (which was mostly a ruin after ished from the Garden of Eden, driven out of paradise
the Jewish–Roman wars but was rebuilt beginning with into toil and misery.
Constantine the Great in the 4th century). Origen like- Jehovah's Witnesses believe that disobedient and wicked
wise distinguished paradise from heaven, describing par- people will be destroyed by Christ at Armageddon and
adise as the earthly “school”for souls of the righteous those obedient to Christ will live eternally in a restored
dead, preparing them for their ascent through the celestial earthly paradise. Joining the survivors will be the resur-
spheres to heaven.* [6]
rected righteous and unrighteous people who died prior
Many early Christians identified Abraham's bosom with to Armageddon. The latter are brought back because
paradise, where the souls of the righteous go until the res- they paid for their sins by their death and/or because they
urrection, others were inconstant in their identification of lacked opportunity to learn of Jehovah's requirements be-
paradise, such as St. Augustine whose views varied.* [7] fore dying. These will be judged on the basis of their
In Luke 23:43 Jesus has a conversation with one of those post-resurrection obedience to instructions revealed in
crucified with him, he asks: “Jesus, remember me when new “scrolls”. They believe that resurrection of the
you come into your kingdom”and Jesus answered him, dead to paradise earth is made possible by Christ's blood
“Truly I tell you today you will be with me in paradise.” and the ransom sacrifice. This provision does not apply to
;* [8] which is often understood to mean, that on that same those whom Christ as Judge deems to have sinned against
day the thief and Jesus would enter the intermediate rest- God's holy spirit.* [10]* [11]
ing place of the dead who were waiting for the Resur- One of Jesus's last recorded statements before he died
rection.* [9] Divergent views on paradise and when one were the words to a man hanging alongside him, “you
enters it may have be responsible for a punctuation dif- will be with me in Paradise.”* [Luke 23:43] The New
ference in Luke; for example the two early Syriac ver- World Translation places a comma after the word 'today',
sions translate Luke 23:43 differently. The Curetonian dividing it into two separate phrases, “I tell you today”
Gospels read “Today I tell you that you will be with me and “you will be with me in Paradise”. This differs
in paradise”, whereas the Sinaitic Palimpsest reads“I tell from standard translations of this verse as “I tell you to-
you, today you will be with me in paradise”. Likewise day you will be with me in Paradise”.* [12] Based on
the two earliest Greek codices with punctuation disagree: scriptures such as Matthew 12:40, 27:63, Mark 8:31 and
Codex Vaticanus has a pause mark in the original ink af- 9:31, Witnesses believe Jesus' expectation that he would
ter 'today', whereas Codex Alexandrinus has the “today be bodily resurrected after three days precluded his being
in paradise”reading. in paradise on the same day that he died.* [13]
In Christian art Fra Angelico's Last Judgement painting
shows Paradise on its left side. There is a tree of life (and 1.4.3 Mormonism
another tree) and a circle dance of liberated souls. In the
middle is a hole. In Muslim art it similarly indicates the In Latter Day Saint theology, paradise usually refers to the
presence of the Prophet or divine beings. It visually says, spirit world, the place where spirits dwell following death
“Those here cannot be depicted.” and awaiting the resurrection. In that context,“paradise”
is the state of the righteous after death.* [14] In contrast,
1.4.1 Slavic Christianity the wicked and those who have not yet learned the gospel
of Jesus Christ await the resurrection in spirit prison. Af-
Main article: Rai (paradise) ter the universal resurrection, all persons will be assigned
to a particular kingdom or degree of glory. This may also
be termed “paradise”.
Slavic languages, and Romanian which is not Slavic but
Slavic-influenced, have a distinct term for “paradise”,
“raj”(read “rai”) which is generally agreed to derive
from Persian ray and co-exists alongside terms deriving
1.5 Islam
from the Persian word pardeis.
Main article: Jannah
his prophets and messengers, the Day of Judgement and [5] “JewishEncyclopedia.com”. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
the afterlife, and follow God's will in their life. Heaven
[6] Church fathers: De Principiis (Book II) Origen, newad-
in Islam is used to describe the Universe. It is also used
vent.org
in the Qur'an to describe skies in the literal sense, i.e.,
above earth. In Islam, the bounties and beauty of Heaven [7] Jean Delumeau (1995). History of paradise. University
are immense, so much so that they are beyond the abilities of Illinois Press. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-0-252-06880-5.
of mankindʼs worldly mind to comprehend. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
1.6 The Urantia Book [9] A. W. Zwiep (1997). The Ascension of the Messiah in
Lukan Christology /. BRILL. pp. 150–. ISBN 978-90-
04-10897-4. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
The Urantia Book portrays Paradise as the "eternal cen-
ter of the universe of universes,”and as “the abiding [10] What Does the Bible Really Teach? (Watchtower Bible &
place of the Universal Father, the Eternal Son, the Infinite Tract Society, 2005), Chapter 7
Spirit, and their divine co-ordinates and associates.”The
[11] Insight on the Scriptures (Watchtower Bible & Tract Soci-
book states that paradise is the primal origin and the fi- ety, 1988), 783–92
nal destiny for all spirit personalities, and for all the as-
cending creatures of the evolutionary worlds of time and [12] “Luke 23:43”. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
space.* [15]
[13]“Meeting the Challenge of Bible Translation”, The
Watchtower, June 15, 1974, page 362–363
1.7 See also [14] Duane S. Crowther - Life Everlasting Chapter 5 - Paradise
of the Wicked - Retrieved 8 July 2014.
• Eridu
1.9 External links
• El Dorado
• Etymology of “paradise”, Balashon.com
• Fiddler's Green
• Etymology OnLine, etymonline.com
• Golden Age
• Goloka
• Indulgence
• Nirvana
• Paradise garden
• Purgatory
• Shangri-La
• Valhalla
1.8 References
[1] New Oxford American Dictionary
Garden of Eden
Not to be confused with Eden Gardens or Eden Garden. The Lord God made all kinds of trees grow
For other uses, see Garden of Eden (disambiguation). out of the ground̶trees that were pleasing to
The Garden of Eden (Hebrew ַּגן ֵעֶדן, Gan ʿEḏen) is the the eye and good for food. In the middle of the
biblical“garden of God”, described most notably in the garden were the tree of life and the tree of the
Book of Genesis chapters 2 and 3, and also in the Book of knowledge of good and evil. ̶Genesis 2:9
Ezekiel.* [2]* [3] The“garden of God”, not called Eden,
is mentioned in Genesis 13, and the“trees of the garden” The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except
are mentioned in Ezekiel 31. The Book of Zechariah and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Last of all,
the Book of Psalms also refer to trees and water in relation
the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to
to the temple without explicitly mentioning Eden.* [4] be a companion to the man. In chapter 3, the man and
Traditionally, the favored derivation of the name“Eden” the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the
was from the Akkadian edinnu, derived from a Sumerian forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden
word meaning “plain”or “steppe”. Eden is now be- to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus
lieved to be more closely related to an Aramaic root word living forever. Cherubims were placed east of the garden,
meaning“fruitful, well-watered.”* [3] The Hebrew term “and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep
is translated“pleasure”in Sarah's secret saying in Genesis him away from the tree of life”. (Gen.3:24)
18:12.* [5] Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the
The story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, the Tigris, and the
king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine gar- Euphrates. It also refers to the land of Cush - trans-
den to guard the tree of life.* [6] In the Hebrew Bible, lated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to
Adam and Eve are depicted as walking around the Gar- equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the
den of Eden naked due to their innocence.* [7] Eden and Kassites.* [10] These lands lie north of Elam, imme-
its rivers may signify the real Jerusalem, the Temple of diately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike
Solomon, or the Promised Land. It may also represent Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.* [11]
the divine garden on Zion, and the mountain of God, In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish histo-
which was also Jerusalem. The imagery of the Garden, rian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what “the Greeks
with its serpent and cherubs, has been compared to the called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.* [12]
images of the Solomonic Temple with its copper serpent
(the nehushtan) and guardian cherubs.* [8]
2.1.2 Eden in Ezekiel
5
6 CHAPTER 2. GARDEN OF EDEN
Although the Garden of Eden is considered to be mytho- • The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology
logical by most scholars,* [17]* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21]* [22] was somewhat similar to the Christian concept of
there have been other suggestions for its location:* [23] the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger
for example, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern intellectual association was made in the Cranach
Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates painting (see illustration at top). In this painting, only
rivers run into the sea;* [24] in Iranian Azerbaijan, and in the action that takes place there identifies the setting
the vicinity of Tabriz;* [25] and in the Armenian Highland as distinct from the Garden of the Hesperides, with
or Armenian Plateau.* [26]* [27]* [28] its golden fruit.
According to the Bible, the location of Eden is described
in the Book of Genesis, chapter 2, verse 10-14:
• The Persian term "paradise" (Hebrew פרדס,
pardes), meaning a royal garden or hunting-park,
gradually became a synonym for Eden after c. 500
A river flowed from Eden to water the gar- BCE. The word "pardes" occurs three times in the
den, and from there it divided to make four Old Testament, but always in contexts other than
streams. a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon
iv. 13: “Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of
The first is named the Pishon, and this pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with
winds all through the land of Havilah where spikenard"; Ecclesiastes 2. 5: “I made me gardens
there is gold. The gold of this country is pure; and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them
bdellium and cornelian stone are found there. of all kind of fruits"; and in Nehemiah ii. 8: “And
The second river is named the Gihon, and this a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard
winds all through the land of Cush. The third (pardes), that he may give me timber to make
river is named the Tigris, and this flows to the beams for the gates of the palace which appertained
east of Ashur. The fourth river is the Eu- to the house, and for the wall of the city.”In these
phrates. examples pardes clearly means “orchard”or
“park”, but in the apocalyptic literature and in the
Talmud, “paradise”gains its associations with the
According to author Brook Wilensky-Lanford,* [29] pre- Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, and
Christian Jews did not consider the Garden of Eden to in the New Testament “paradise”becomes the
be a physical place, and Augustine of Hippo was the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the
first notable Christian scholar to advance the view that cursed) among those who have already died, with
it was.* [30] literary Hellenistic influences.
8 CHAPTER 2. GARDEN OF EDEN
no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden in made in
taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is un- Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still un-
clear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, der Byzantine control. Excellent preserved blue mosaic
but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it some- is part of mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motives
where in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson are representing flowers of the garden of Eden.
County.* [46]* [47]
2.7 References
[1] Gibson, Walter S. Hieronymus Bosch. New York:Hudson,
1973. p. 26. ISBN 0-500-20134-X
[12] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Book I, Chapter 1, Sec- [32] Cohen 2011, pp. 229.
tion 3.
[33] Gan Eden – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
[13] Stordalen 2000, p. 164
[34] Olam Ha-Ba – The Afterlife - JewFAQ.org; 02-22-2010.
[14] Brown 2001, p. 138
[35] Eshatology – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
[15] Swarup 2006, p. 185
[36]“Gehinnom is the Hebrew name; Gehenna is Yiddish.”
[16] Smith 2009, p. 61 Gehinnom – Judaism 101 websourced 02-10-2010.
[17] Levenson 2004, p. 11 “How much history lies behind [37]“Gan Eden and Gehinnom”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2011-
the story of Genesis? Because the action of the primeval 06-30.
story is not represented as taking place on the plane of
ordinary human history and has so many affinities with [38] “End of Days”. End of Days. Aish. Retrieved 1 May
ancient mythology, it is very far-fetched to speak of its 2012.
narratives as historical at all.”
[39] See list of occurrences.
[18] Schwartz, Howard; Loebel-Fried, Caren; Ginsburg, Elliot
K. (2007). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Ox- [40] Leaman, Oliver The Quran, an encyclopedia, p. 11, 2006
ford University Press. p. 704.
[41] Wheeler, Brannon Mecca and Eden: ritual, relics, and ter-
[19] George, Arthur; George, Elena (2014). The Mythology of ritory in Islam p. 16, 2006
Eden. Hamilton Books. p. 458.
[42]
[20] Delumeau, Jean; O'Connell, Matthew (2000). History of
Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition. [43]
University of Illinois Press. p. 276.
[44]
[21] Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths:
The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315. [45] “Joseph Smith/Garden of Eden in Missouri”, FairMor-
mon Answers
[22] Albright, W. F. (October 1922). “The Location of the
Garden of Eden”. The American Journal of Semitic Lan- [46] Bruce A. Van Orden, “I Have a Question: What do we
guages and Literatures (The University of Chicago Press) know about the location of the Garden of Eden?", Ensign,
39 (1): 15–31. January 1994, pp. 54–55.
[24] Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987). “Has the Garden of [48] Curtius 1953, p. 200,n.31
Eden been located at last?" (PDF). Smithsonian (maga-
zine) 18 (2). Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[25] Cline, Eric H. (2007). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling 2.8 Bibliography
Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic. p. 10. ISBN
978-1-4262-0084-7.
• Brown, John Pairman (2001). Israel and Hel-
[26] Duncan, Joseph E. Miltonʼs Earthly Paradise: A His- las, Volume 3. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN
torical Study of Eden. 1972. University Of Minnesota 9783110168822.
Press; Minnesota Archive Editions edition (July 6, 1972),
pp. 96, 212. • Cohen, Chaim (2011). “Eden”. In Berlin, Adele;
Grossman, Maxine. The Oxford Dictionary of the
[27] Scafi, Alessandro. Return to the Sources: Paradise in Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN
Armenia, in: Mapping Paradise: A History of Heaven
9780199730049.
on Earth. 2006. London-Chicago: British Library-
University of Chicago Press, pp. 317-322. • Curtius, Ernst Robert; [trans. Willard R. Trask,
[28] Willcocks, Sir William, Hormuzd Rassam. 1990] (1953). European Literature and the Latin
Mesopotamian Trade. Noahʼs Flood: The Gar- Middle Ages. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-
den of Eden, in: The Geographical Journal 35, No. 4 01899-7. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coau-
(April 1910), pp. 459-460. thors= (help)
2.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 11
Roman gardens
3.1 Influences
Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian,
and Greek gardening techniques. Formal gardens existed
in Egypt as early as 2800 BC. During the eighteenth dy-
nasty of Egypt, gardening techniques were fully devel-
oped and beautified the homes of the wealthy. Porticos
were developed to connect the home with the outdoors
and created outdoor living spaces. Persian gardens de-
veloped according to the needs of the arid land. The
gardens were enclosed to protect from drought and were
rich and fertile in contrast to the dry and arid Persian
terrain. Pleasure gardens originated from Greek farm
gardens, which served the functional purpose of growing
Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Painters in fruit. The Peristyle garden also came from Greek influ-
Pompeii
ence, they were used to beautify temple groves and create
recreational spaces. Open peristyle courts were first de-
signed to fuse homes with the outside world. In Ancient
Latium, a garden was part of every farm. According to
Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house
and should have flower beds and ornamental trees Cimon
of Athens is said to have torn down the walls of his garden
to transform it into a public space.* [1] As Alexander the
Great conquered parts of Western Asia, he brought back
with him new varieties of fruits and plants that prompted
a renewed interest in horticulture. .* [2] Horace wrote
that during his time flower gardens became a national in-
dulgence.* [3] Augustus constructed the Porticus Liviae,
a public garden on the Oppian Hill in Rome. Outside
Rome, gardens tended to proliferate at centers of wealth.
12
3.3. USES 13
*
[5] Urban Villa "Villa Urbana" - These villas are where 3.3 Uses
roman citizens would go on holiday excursion or they
would stop and rest when traveling late through the night. Roman Gardens were built for a wide range of activities.
Suburban Villa "Villa Suburbana" - A roman take on the In the early beginning, gardens were a common way for
country home, used specifically for recreational use. the less wealthy Romans to support themselves and their
families. The gardens were used to grow mainly herbs
Palace Villa - Reserved for imperial families alone. Very
and vegetables, soon different influences of Greek, Egyp-
large and extravagant.
tian, Italian and Persian gardens leaked into the Romans
Non-Residential Gardens - These would be the public culture. Producing Villas and Palatial pleasure gardens,
parks, pleasure gardens, temple gardens, tombs, etc... along with public parks and Gardens purely meant to ex-
All roman gardens were generally separated into the same ercise in. No type of garden was specifically reserved for
basic parts; depending on the style or type of garden parts wealthy Romans; all a civilian needed was to have their
may be added and/or embellished more, or parts may be own land and/or home. Excavations in Pompeii show
omitted completely.* [4] Even though an atrium is found that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down
inside the house, it is considered part of the garden be- to meet the space constraints of the home of the aver-
cause it is the opening that would allow Romans to col- age Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs
lect rain water used to irrigate the plants and gardens lo- were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and
cated on the property. Peristyle is a Greek word, when Britannia. As town houses were replaced by tall insula
broken down “Peri”means around and “style”means (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced
column. So it is a type of open courtyard connected to the by window boxes or roof gardens.
home, that is surrounded by walls of columns supporting a Roman garden designs were later adopted by
portico.* [6] A Hortus or xystus (garden walk or terrace) is Renaissance, Baroque, Neoclassical, and even 20th
the meat of what is found in Roman gardens. The xystus century landscape architects.
often overlooked a lower garden, or ambulation. The am-
bulation consisted of a variety of flowers, trees, and other
foliage and served as an ideal milieu for a leisurely stroll
after a meal, some mild conversation, or other Roman
3.4 See also
recreation activities. The gestation was a shaded avenue
where the master of a home could ride horseback or be • Gardens of Sallust
carried by his slaves. It generally encircled the ambula-
tion, or was constructed as a separate oval shaped space. • Giardino all'italiana
Paths or walk ways were often constructed for easy routes
• Landscape design history
around the garden. These were made with loose stone,
gravel, sand or packed earth. Gardens featured many or- • Roman Agriculture
namental styles, from sculpture to frescoes to sundials.
These depict nature scenes or were put in place as a shrine •
(aediculae) to the gods or other worldly creatures.
Pleasure gardens would incorporate different designs de-
pending on the taste of those who built them. All gardens 3.5 Notes
of this type have the same basic parts to them; there is a
patio at the entrance, a terrace, an orchard or vineyard,
[1] Semple (1929), p. 431
several water features, a kitchen garden, shrines or grot-
toes and other decorations that would personalize the pre- [2] Semple (1929), p. 435
sentation of the garden tour. The patio would normally be
decorated with outside garden furniture, a type of water [3] Semple (1929), p. 436
basin/fountain and the start of a walk that would show off
all the splendid exhibits to be found there. [4] Turner, Tom. Garden History Reference Encyclopedia:
Historic books etc on garden design and landscape archi-
*
[7] The plants that were grown in these gardens, ranged tecture. Gardenvisit.com.
from a number of flowering ones to herbs and vegeta-
bles for everyday use; and trees. The most popular plants [5] “The Classics Pages: Antony Kamm's 'The Romans': 6.4
found in the typical Roman family garden's are roses, Domestic architecture”. www.the-romans.co.uk. Re-
cypress, rosemary, mulberry, fig trees. A wide variety trieved 2015-11-12.
of dwarf trees, tall trees, marigolds, hyacinths, narcissi,
[6] “What is a Peristyle? Definition of a Peristyle - Quatr.us”
violets, saffron, cassia and thyme. . quatr.us. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
• Turner, Tom, and Marie Luise Schroeter Gothein. [1] “LacusCurtius • The Greek and Roman Garden (Smith's
“Ancient Rome.”Garden History Reference Ency- Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved
clopedia. London: Gardenvisit. Com, 2004. N. 2015-11-11.
pag. Print.
3.6.2 Articles
• Semple, Ellen Churchill (July 1929). “Ancient
Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens”. Geographical
Review (American Geographical Society) 19 (3):
420–443. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149.
• * [1]
3.6.3 Websites
• Admin.“Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Gar-
den.”Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Garden.
N.p., 1 June 2012. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.
Topiary
15
16 CHAPTER 4. TOPIARY
The topiary garden at Manor d'Eyrignac, France Topiary elephants at Bang Pa-In Royal Palace
4.4.5 Europe
• Cliveden (Buckinghamshire, England)
• In the Stephen King novel The Shining, topiary ani- 4.8 Further reading
mals that move when people aren't looking frighten
the Torrance family. • Hadfield, Miles. Topiary and Ornamental Hedges:
• In the children's novel The Children of Green Knowe Their history and cultivation. London: Adam &
by Lucy M. Boston, an overgrown topiary figure of Charles Black, 1971. ISBN 0-7136-1193-6
Noah plays a sinister role. • Francesco Pona. Il Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo
• A real-life topiary artist is one of the subjects of archetipo de' Giardini. Verona: Angelo Tamo,
Errol Morris's Fast, Cheap and Out of Control. 1622.
[1]
[2] Coombs, Duncan; Blackburne-Maze, Peter; Cracknell,
Martyn; Bentley, Roger (2001),“9”, The Complete Book
of Pruning (illustrated ed.), Sterling Publishing Company,
p. 99, ISBN 978-1-84188-143-0
[3] A list of common subjects, including the now rarely
used Phillyrea common in 17th-century topiary, forms the
second part of Miles Hadfield, Topiary and Ornamental
Hedges (London) 1971.
[4] Brent Elliott, “Historical Revivalism in the Twentieth
Century: A Brief Introduction”Garden History 28.1,
“Reviewing the Twentieth-Century Landscape”(Summer
2000:17-31) p. 19.
[5] Elliott 2000:19.
[6] Decorative display - US Patent 6237882 Full Text, US
Patent 6237882 - Decorative display. US Patent Issued
on May 29, 2001.
[7] Railton Tasmania Town of Topiary
[8] “Leisure Valley - TOPIARY PARK, Sector 35”. Re-
trieved 28 August 2011.
[9] • Francesco Pona: Sileno overo Delle Bellezze del
Luogo dell'Ill.mo Sig. Co. Gio. Giacomo Giusti,
1620 Angelo Tamo, Verona * Francesco Pona: Il
Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo archetipo de' Giardini,
1622 Angelo Tamo, Verona * Paolo Villa: Giardino
Giusti 1993-94, pdf with maps and 200 photos
Sources
Persian gardens
22
5.3. ELEMENTS OF THE PERSIAN GARDEN 23
a place for protected relaxation in a variety of manners: Babur introduced the Persian garden to India. The now
spiritual, and leisurely (such as meetings with friends), es- unkempt Aram Bāgh garden in Agra was the first of many
sentially a paradise on earth. The Common Iranian word Persian gardens he created. The Taj Mahal embodies the
for “enclosed space”was *pari-daiza- (Avestan pairi- Persian concept of an ideal, paradise-like garden.
daēza-), a term that was adopted by Christianity to de- The Safavid Dynasty (seventeenth to eighteenth century)
scribe the garden of Eden or Paradise on earth.* [4] built and developed grand and epic layouts that went be-
The garden's construction may be formal (with an empha- yond a simple extension to a palace and became an in-
sis on structure) or casual (with an emphasis on nature), tegral aesthetic and functional part of it. In the follow-
following several simple design rules. This allows a max- ing centuries, European garden design began to influence
imization, in terms of function and emotion, of what may Persia, particularly the designs of France, and secondarily
be done in the garden. that of Russia and the United Kingdom. Western influ-
ences led to changes in the use of water and the species
used in bedding.
5.2 History Traditional forms and style are still applied in modern Ira-
nian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums
and affixed to the houses of the rich.
The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with 5.5.1 Hayāt
outdoors through the connection of a surrounding garden
with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architec- Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout with heavy em-
tural elements such as vaulted arches between the outer phasis on aesthetics over function. Man-made structures
and interior areas to open up the divide between them. in the garden are particularly important, with arches and
pools (which may be used to bathe). The ground is of-
ten covered in gravel flagged with stone. Plantings are
typically very simple - such as a line of trees, which also
5.4 Descriptions provide shade.
Privately, these gardens are often pool-centred and, again,
An early description (from the first half of the fourth cen- structural. The pool serves as a focus and source of hu-
tury BCE) of a Persian garden is found in Xenophons midity for the surrounding atmosphere. There are few
Oeconomicus in which he has Socrates relate the story of plants, often due to the limited water available in urban
the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince areas.
Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his “paradise
at Sardis”. In this story Lysander is “astonished at the
beauty of the trees within, all planted at equal intervals, 5.5.2 Meidān
the long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect reg-
ularity, the rectangular symmetry of the whole, and the
many sweet scents which hung about them as they paced
the park”* [7]
The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations
of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran
from the west. These accounts include Ibn Battuta in
the fourteenth century, Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo in the
fifteenth century and Engelbert Kaempfer in the seven-
teenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made only passing
references to gardens and did not describe their design,
but Kaempfer made careful drawings and converted them
into detailed engravings after his return to Europe. They
show chahar bāgh type gardens that featured an enclos-
ing wall, rectangular pools, an internal network of canals,
garden pavilions and lush planting. There are surviv- Naghsh-i Jahan square, the charbagh Royal Square (Maidan) in
ing examples of this garden type at Yazd (Dowlatabad) Isfahan, constructed between 1598 and 1629
and at Kashan (Bāgh-e Fin). The location of the gardens
Kaempfer illustrated in Isfahan can be identified. Main article: Meidan
The garden in the Golestan Palace of Tehran. These gardens are private and formal. The basic structure
consists of four quadrants divided by waterways or path-
The six primary styles of the Persian garden may be seen ways. Traditionally, the rich used such gardens in work-
in the following table, which puts them in the context of related functions (such as entertaining ambassadors).
their function and style. Gardens are not limited to a par- These gardens balance structure with greenery, with the
ticular style, but often integrate different styles, or have plants often around the periphery of a pool and path
areas with different functions and styles. based structure.
5.7. SEE ALSO 25
5.5.4 Park
8
Much like many other parks, the Persian park serves a
casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They 9
provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually
limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of 10
such places is relaxation and socialisation.
11
5.5.5 Bāgh 12
Main article: Bagh (garden) Location of Persian Garden World Heritage Sites
6
View of the garden at the Taj Mahal, Agra, India.
7
26 CHAPTER 5. PERSIAN GARDENS
[2] Centre, UNESCO World Heritage.“The Persian Garden 5.11 External links
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre”. whc.unesco.org.
Retrieved 2016-02-09. • Isfahan“Persian Garden Design”website. Retrieved
[3] Fakour M., Achaemenid Gardens ; CAIS-Online - ac- 3 January 2012.
cessed Jan 15, 2007
• Babur's Garden - video from the Asia Society, US
[4] Persians: Masters of Empire, p 62, ISBN 0-8094-9104-4
• Animated film inspired by the Persian Architecture
[5] Khansari, Mehdi; Moghtader, M. R.; Yavari, Minouch
(2003-12-31). The Persian Garden: Echoes of Par- • Farnoush Tehrāni, The Meaning of the Persian Gar-
adise. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. ISBN den, in Persian, Jadid Online, 12 Novembre 2009.
9780934211758.
• Audio slideshow: (5 min 58 sec).
[6] “Pasargadae: The Persian Gardens | Kaveh Farrokh”.
kavehfarrokh.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
• Farnoush Tehrāni, The Face of the Persian Garden,
[7] Xenephon.“Oeconomicus”. Gutenberg Press. Retrieved in Persian, 13 November 2009.
11 June 2015.
Hortus conclusus
27
28 CHAPTER 6. HORTUS CONCLUSUS
tise by Pietro Crescenzi of Bologna, Liber ruralium com- gravelled paths.* [12]
modorum, a work that was often copied, as the many sur- The Farnese Gardens (Orti Farnesiani sul Palatino̶or
viving manuscripts of its text attest, and often printed in “Gardens of Farnese upon the Palatine”) were created
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Late medieval paint- by Vignola in 1550 on Rome's northern Palatine Hill, for
ings and illuminations in manuscripts such as for The Ro- Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (1520–89). These become
mance of the Rose̶where the garden in the text is largely the first private botanical gardens in Europe (the first
allegorical̶often show a turfed bank for a seat as a fea- botanical gardens of any kind in Europe being started by
ture of the hortus conclusus. Only in the fifteenth century, Italian universities in the mid-16th century, only a short
at first in Italy, did some European gardens begin to look
time before). Alessandro called his summer home at the
outward. site Horti Farnesiani, probably in reference to the hortus
conclusus. These gardens were also designed in the Ro-
man peristylium style with a central fountain.* [13]
Again in the age of the automobile, the enclosed garden
that had never disappeared in Islamic society, became an
emblem of serenity and privacy in the Western world.
6.3 In art
Virgin and Child with saints and donor family, Cologne, c. 1430
Coronation of the Virgin. Germany and the Netherlands ments and those that seemingly treat the garden as a sub-
in the 15th century saw the peak popularity of this de- ject in itself"; in reviewing it Timothy Husband, warned
piction of the Virgin, usually with Child, and very often a against uncritical interpretation of the refined detail in
crowd of angels, saints and donors, in the garden - the gar- manuscript illuminations'“seemingly objective represen-
den by itself, to represent the Virgin, was much rarer. Of- tation”. “Late medieval garden imagery, by subjugating
ten walls, or trellises close off the sides and rear, or it may direct observation to symbolic or allegorical intention, re-
be shown as open, except for raised banks, to a landscape flects more a state of mind than reality,”* [21] if a disjunct
beyond. Sometimes, as with a Gerard David in London, can be detected where the objects of the world shim-
the garden is very fully depicted; at other times, as in mered with pregnant allegorical meaning. South Nether-
engravings by Martin Schongauer, only a wattle fence and landish illuminations and painting appear to document
a few sprigs of grass serve to identify the theme. Italian the “turf benches, fountains, raised beds, 'estrade'* [22]
painters typically also keep plants to a minimum, and do trees, potted plants, walkways, enclosing walls, trellises,
not have grass benches. A sub-variety of the theme was wattle fences and bowers" familiar to contemporary view-
the German “Madonna of the Roses”, sometimes at- ers, but assembled into an illusion of reality.* [23]
tempted in sculptured altarpieces. The image was rare in
Orthodox icons, but there are at least some Russian ex- • Gentile da Fabriano
amples.* [15]
• Fra Angelico
One type of depiction, not usually compatible with cor-
rect perspective, concentrates on showing the whole wall, • Gerard David
and several garden structures or features that symbolize • Stefan Lochner
the mystery of Christ's conception, mostly derived from
the Song of Songs or other Biblical passages, as inter- • Bartolomé Bermejo, Virgen de Montserrat altar-
preted by theological writers. These may include one piece, 1485
or more temple or church-like buildings, an Ivory Tower • Cologne, ca. 1520
(SS 7.4), an open-air altar with Aaron's rod flowering,
surrounded by the bare rods of the other tribes, a gate- • Juan de Juanes, after 1530
house“tower of David, hung with shields”(SS 7.4),* [16]
with the gate closed, the Ark of the Covenant, a well (of-
ten covered), a fountain, and the morning sun above (SS 6.4 Modern cultural references
6.10).* [17] This type of depiction usually shows the An-
nunciation, although sometimes the child Jesus is held by
The concept for the 2011 Serpentine Gallery Pavilion
Mary.* [18] The miniature at right shows a relatively sim-
was the hortus conclusus, a contemplative room, a gar-
ple example; below a large Spanish altarpiece is able to
den within a garden. Designed by Swiss architect Peter
combine many of the usual features (others no doubt con-
Zumthor and with a garden created by Piet Oudolf, the
tained in the many chapels) with correct perspective.
Pavilion was a place abstracted from the world of noise
A rather rare, late 15th century, variant of this depiction and traffic and the smells of London – an interior space
was to combine the Annunciation in the hortus conclusus within which to sit, to walk, to observe the flowers.* [24]
with the Hunt of the Unicorn and Virgin and Unicorn, so
popular in secular art. The unicorn already functioned as
a symbol of the Incarnation and whether this meaning is 6.5 See also
intended in many prima facie secular depictions can be
a difficult matter of scholarly interpretation. There is no • Gaston Bachelard
such ambiguity in the scenes where the archangel Gabriel
is shown blowing a horn, as hounds chase the unicorn into • Locus amoenus
the Virgin's arms, and a little Christ Child descends on
• Topophilia
rays of light from God the Father. The Council of Trent
finally banned this somewhat over-elaborated, if charm-
ing, depiction,* [19] partly on the grounds of realism, as
no one now believed the unicorn to be a real animal. In 6.6 References
the 16th century the subject of the hortus conclusus drifts
into the open air Sacra Conversazione and the Madonnas [1] Clifford, A History of Garden design, (New York:Praeger)
in a landscape of Giovanni Bellini, Albrecht Dürer and 1963:17.
Raphael, where it is hard to say if an allusion is intended. [2] Stanley Stewart, The Enclosed Garden: The Tradition and
An exhibition of later medieval visual representations of Image in Seventeenth-Century Poetry (Madison: Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Press) 1966, discussed late sixteenth
hortus inclusus was mounted at Dumbarton Oaks, Wash-
and seventeenth-century poetry in English; its four first
ington DC;* [20] the exhibition drew a distinction be- chapters trace the hortus conclusus theme in European lit-
tween “garden representations as thematic reinforce- eratures and the visual arts.
6.7. FURTHER READING 31
[3] Brian E. Daley, “The 'Closed Garden'and the 'Sealed 6.7 Further reading
Fountain': Song of Songs 4:12 in the Late Medieval
Iconography of Mary”, Elizabeth B. Macdougall, editor, • D'Ancona, Mirella Levi (1977). Garden of the
Medieval Gardens, Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium 9) 1986,
Renaissance: Botanical Symbolism in Italian Paint-
traced the sudden development about 1400 of painted im-
ages of the Virgin Mary in a hortus conclusus.
ing. Firenze: Casa Editrice Leo S.Olschki. ISBN
9788822217899.
[4] Rob Aben and Saskia de Wit, The Enclosed Garden: His-
tory and Development of the Hortus Conclusus and its Re-
Introduction into the Present-Day Urban Landscape (Rot-
terdam) 1999. A typological catalogue of design features 6.8 External links
and a design manual.
• Hortus conclusus as one of a number of Devotional
[5] The whole text
Images
[6] Timothy Husband, reporting the exhibition and its cata-
logue in The Burlington Magazine, 125, No. 967 (October • The Garden of Eden, a hortus conclusus by the Mas-
1983:643). ter of the Upper Rhineland
[7] Clifford 1963, eo. loc.. • Early Delights, excellent piece by Jemima Montagu
[8] The site was that of a Roman imperial villa, as was the on the symbolism of the garden
site of Benedict's monastery at Subiaco, occupying Nero's
former villa.
[9] Masson, Italian Gardens (New York: Abrams) 1961:46.
[10] Wolfgang Lotz, “Bramante and the Quattrocento Clois-
ter”Gesta 12.1/2 (1973):111-121) p. 113.
[11] It was dismantled and re-erected in 1910 to make space
for Piazza Venezia.
[12] Hinc hortos dryadumque domos et amena vireta/ Porti-
cibus circum et niveis lustrata columnisLotz 1973 eo. loc.
and figs 10 and 11.
[13] History of the Farneses and the garden.
[14] Schiller, 54
[15] Russian example, Tretyakov Gallery Moscow.
[16]“Thy neck is like the tower of David built for an armoury,
whereon there hang a thousand bucklers, all shields of
mighty men.
[17]“Who is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the
moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with ban-
ners?"
[18] Schiller,pp 53-54
[19] G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,1971 (En-
glish trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, pp.
52-4 & figs 126-9, ISBN 0-85331-270-2, another image
[20] Exhibition catalogue, Marilyn Stokstad and Jerry Stan-
nard, Gardens of the Middle Ages, Dumbarton Oaks and
Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas (University
of Kansas) 1983.
[21] Husband 1983:644.
[22] An estrade tree was pruned into a series of diminish-
ing horizontal tiers like a sweetmeat stand, the French
estrade coming from Spanish estrado, denoting the car-
peted and raised section of a room (cf OED, s.v.“estrade”
, “estrado”).
[23] Husband, eo. loc..
[24]
Chapter 7
Botanical garden
This article is about a particular type of garden. For other Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other
uses, see Botanical garden (disambiguation). scientific research organizations, and often have associ-
A botanical garden or botanic garden* [nb 1] is a ated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxon-
omy or some other aspect of botanical science. In prin-
ciple, their role is to maintain documented collections of
living plants for the purposes of scientific research, con-
servation, display, and education, although this will de-
pend on the resources available and the special interests
pursued at each particular garden.
The origin of modern botanical gardens can be traced to
European medieval medicinal gardens known as physic
gardens, the first of these being founded during the Italian
Renaissance in the 16th century. This early concern with
medicinal plants changed in the 17th century to an in-
terest in the new plant imports from explorations outside
Europe as botany gradually established its independence
from medicine. In the 18th century, systems of nomen-
clature and classification were devised by botanists work-
ing in the herbaria and universities associated with the
gardens, these systems often being displayed in the gar-
dens as educational “order beds". With the rapid rise of
European imperialism in the late 18th century, botanic
gardens were established in the tropics, and economic
botany became a focus with the hub at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, near London.
Over the years, botanical gardens, as cultural and sci-
entific organisations, have responded to the interests of
botany and horticulture. Nowadays, most botanical gar-
Orto botanico di Pisa operated by the University of Pisa: The dens display a mix of the themes mentioned and more;
first botanic garden, established in 1544 under botanist Luca having a strong connection with the general public, there
Ghini, it was relocated in 1563 and again in 1591 is the opportunity to provide visitors with information re-
lating to the environmental issues being faced at the start
of the 21st century, especially those relating to plant con-
servation and sustainability.
garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation and dis-
play of a wide range of plants labelled with their botanical
names. It may contain specialist plant collections such
as cacti and succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from
particular parts of the world, and so on; there may be
7.1 Definitions
greenhouses, shadehouses, again with special collections
such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic The role of major botanical gardens worldwide has been
plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might in- considered so broadly similar as to fall within textbook
clude tours, educational displays, art exhibitions, book definitions. The following definition was produced by
rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium of Cornell
other entertainment. University in 1976. It covers in some detail the many
32
7.1. DEFINITIONS 33
The botanic garden maybe an independent Botanical garden at Ooty, a hill station in India
institution, a governmental operation, or affili-
ated to a college or university. If a department Worldwide, there are now about 1800 botanical gardens
of an educational institution, it may be related and arboreta in about 150 countries (mostly in temperate
34 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN
regions) of which about 550 are in Europe (150 of which 7.2.1 Precursors
are in Russia), 200 in North America,* [5] and an increas-
ing number in East Asia.* [6] These gardens attract about The idea of“scientific”gardens used specifically for the
150 million visitors a year, so it is hardly surprising that study of plants dates back to antiquity.* [14]
many people gained their first exciting introduction to the
wonders of the plant world in a botanical garden.* [2]
Historically, botanical gardens exchanged plants through
the publication of seed lists (these were called Latin: In-
Grand gardens of ancient history
dices Seminae in the 18th century). This was a means of
transferring both plants and information between botan-
ical gardens. This system continues today, although
the possibility of genetic piracy and the transmission of
invasive species has received greater attention in recent
times.* [7]
The International Association of Botanic Gardens* [8]
was formed in 1954 as a worldwide organisation affiliated
to the International Union of Biological Sciences. More
recently, coordination has also been provided by Botanic
Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which has
the mission “To mobilise botanic gardens and engage
partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of
people and the planet”.* [9] BGCI has over 700 members
– mostly botanic gardens – in 118 countries, and strongly
supports the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by
producing a range resources and publications, and by or- The Hanging Gardens of Babylon* [15] with the Tower of
ganizing international conferences and conservation pro- Babel in the background, a 16th-century hand-coloured
grams. engraving by Martin Heemskerck
Physic gardens
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the first plants were
Further information: Glasshouse and Conservatory
being imported to these major Western European gar-
dens from Eastern Europe and nearby Asia (which pro-
vided many bulbs), and these found a place in the new With the increase in maritime trade, ever more plants
gardens, where they could be conveniently studied by the were being brought back to Europe as trophies from dis-
plant experts of the day. For example, Asian introduc- tant lands, and these were triumphantly displayed in the
tions were described by Carolus Clusius (1526–1609), private estates of the wealthy, in commercial nurseries,
who was director, in turn, of the Botanical Garden of and in the public botanical gardens. Heated conservato-
the University of Vienna and Hortus Botanicus Leiden. ries called "orangeries", such as the one at Kew, became a
Many plants were being collected from the Near East, feature of many botanical gardens.* [34] Industrial expan-
especially bulbous plants from Turkey. Clusius laid the sion in Europe and North America resulted in new build-
foundations of Dutch tulip breeding and the bulb indus- ing skills, so plants sensitive to cold were kept over winter
try, and he helped create one of the earliest formal botani- in progressively elaborate and expensive heated conserva-
cal gardens of Europe at Leyden where his detailed plant- tories and glasshouses.* [nb 3]
ing lists have made it possible to recreate this garden near
its original site. The hortus medicus of Leyden in 1601
was a perfect square divided into quarters for the four The Cape, Dutch East Indies
continents, but by 1720, though, it was a rambling sys-
tem of beds, struggling to contain the novelties rushing The 18th century was marked by introductions from
in,* [31] and it became better known as the hortus aca- the Cape of South Africa – including ericas, geraniums,
demicus. His Exoticorum libri decem (1605) is an im- pelargoniums, succulents, and proteaceous plants – while
portant survey of exotic plants and animals that is still the Dutch trade with the Dutch East Indies resulted in a
consulted today.* [32] The inclusion of new plant intro- golden era for the Leiden and Amsterdam botanical gar-
ductions in botanic gardens meant their scientific role was dens and a boom in the construction of conservatories.
now widening, as botany gradually asserted its indepen-
dence from medicine. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
In the mid to late 17th century, the Paris Jardin des
Plantes was a centre of interest with the greatest number Main article: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
of new introductions to attract the public. In England, The Royal Gardens at Kew were founded in 1759, ini-
the Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 as the tially as part of the Royal Garden set aside as a physic gar-
“Garden of the Society of Apothecaries”. The Chelsea den. William Aiton (1741–1793), the first curator, was
garden had heated greenhouses, and in 1723 appointed taught by garden chronicler Philip Miller of the Chelsea
Philip Miller (1691–1771) as head gardener. He had a Physic Garden whose son Charles became first curator
wide influence on both botany and horticulture, as plants of the original Cambridge Botanic Garden (1762).* [35]
poured into it from around the world. The garden's golden In 1759, the “Physick Garden”was planted, and by
age came in the 18th century, when it became the world's 1767, it was claimed that “the Exotick Garden is by far
7.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 37
The large number of plants needing description were of- There are currently about 230 tropical botanical gar-
ten listed in garden catalogues; and at this time Carl dens with a concentration in southern and south-eastern
Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomencla- Asia.* [45] The first botanical garden founded in the
ture which greatly facilitated the listing process. Names tropics was the Pamplemousses Botanical Garden in
38 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN
New Zealand
The first botanical garden in the United States, Bartram's Ukraine has a well-respected collection at Nikitsky
Garden, was founded in 1730 near Philadelphia, and in Botanical Garden, Yalta, founded in 1812. M.M.
the same year, the Linnaean Botanic Garden at Philadel- Gryshko National Botanical Garden is a botanical garden
phia itself.* [53] President George Washington, Thomas of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine founded in 1936,
Jefferson and James Madison, all experienced farmers, is located in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine.
shared the dream of a national botanic garden for the col-
lection, preservation and study of plants from around the
world to contribute to the welfare of the American peo- 7.2.5 20th century
ple paving the way for establishing the US Botanic Gar-
den,* [54] right outside the nation's Capitol in Washington Civic and municipal botanical gardens
DC in 1820. In 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden
was founded at St Louis; it is now one of the worldʼs A large number of civic or municipal botanical gardens
leading gardens specializing in tropical plants.* [53] This were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These did
was one of several popular American gardens, including not develop scientific facilities or programmes, but the
Longwood Gardens (1798), Arnold Arboretum (1872), horticultural aspects were strong and the plants often la-
New York Botanical Garden (1891), Huntington Botan- belled. They were botanical gardens in the sense of build-
ical Gardens (1906), Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1910), ing up collections of plants and exchanging seeds with
International Peace Garden (1932), and Fairchild Tropi- other gardens around the world, although their collection
cal Botanic Garden (1938). policies were determined by those in day-to-day charge of
them. They tended to become little more than beautifully
maintained parks and were, indeed, often under general
parks administrations.* [55]
Russia
Community engagement
In the 1970s, gardens became focused on the plant con- 7.4 Future
servation. The Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat
was established by the IUCN, and the World Conser- Main article: Sustainability
vation Union in 1987 with the aim of coordinating the Botanical gardens are still being built, such as the first
plant conservation efforts of botanical gardens around the
world. It maintains a database of rare and endangered
species in botanical gardens' living collections. Many gar-
dens hold ex situ conservation collections that preserve
genetic variation. These may be held as: seeds dried and
stored at low temperature, or in tissue culture (such as the
Kew Millennium Seedbank); as living plants, including
those that are of special horticultural, historical or sci-
entific interest (such as those held by the NCCPG in the
United Kingdom); or by managing and preserving areas
of natural vegetation. Collections are often held and cul-
tivated with the intention of reintroduction to their orig-
inal habitats.* [57] The Center for Plant Conservation at
St Louis, Missouri coordinates the conservation of native
North American species.* [58]* [59]
The Eden Project, established in 2000 in Cornwall, England,
includes a modern botanical garden exploring the theme of
7.3 Role and functions sustainability.
Many of the functions of botanical gardens have already botanical garden in Oman, which will be one of the largest
been discussed in the sections above, which emphasise gardens in the world. Once completed, it will house the
the scientific underpinning of botanical gardens with their first large-scale cloud forest in a huge glasshouse.* [5] De-
focus on research, education and conservation. However, velopment of botanical gardens in China over recent years
as multifaceted organisations, all sites have their own spe- has been a remarkable, including the Hainan Botanical
cial interests. In a remarkable paper on the role of botan- Garden of Tropical Economic Plants* [62] South China
ical gardens, Ferdinand Mueller (1825–1896), the direc- Botanical Garden at Guangzhou, the Xishuangbanna
tor of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne (1852– Botanical Garden of Tropical Plants and the Xiamen
1873), stated, “in all cases the objects [of a botanical Botanic Garden,* [63] but in developed countries, many
garden] must be mainly scientific and predominantly in- have closed for lack of financial support, this being es-
structive”. He then detailed many of the objectives being pecially true of botanical gardens attached to universi-
pursued by the world's botanical gardens in the middle of ties.* [2]
the 19th century, when European gardens were at their Botanical gardens have always responded to the interests
height. Many of these are listed below to give a sense of
and values of the day. If a single function were to be
the scope of botanical gardens' activities at that time, and chosen from the early literature on botanical gardens, it
the ways in which they differed from parks or what he
would be their scientific endeavour and, flowing from this,
called “public pleasure gardens":* [60] their instructional value. In their formative years, botan-
Botanical gardens must find a compromise between the ical gardens were gardens for physicians and botanists,
need for peace and seclusion, while at the same time sat- but then they progressively became more associated with
isfying the public need for information and visitor ser- ornamental horticulture and the needs of the general pub-
vices that include restaurants, information centres and lic. The scientific reputation of a botanical garden is now
sales areas that bring with them rubbish, noise, and judged by the publications coming out of herbaria and
hyperactivity. Attractive landscaping and planting de- similar facilities, not by its living collections.* [64] The
sign sometimes compete with scientific interests ̶with interest in economic plants now has less relevance, and
science now often taking second place. Some gardens the concern with plant classification systems has all but
are now heritage landscapes that are subject to constant disappeared, while a fascination with the curious, beauti-
demand for new exhibits and exemplary environmental ful and new seems unlikely to diminish.
management.* [61] In recent times, the focus has been on creating an
Many gardens now have plant shops selling flowers, herbs, awareness of the threat to ecosystems from human
and vegetable seedlings suitable for transplanting; many, overpopulation and its consequent need for biological and
like the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant physical resources. Botanical gardens provide an excel-
Research and the Chicago Botanic Garden, have plant- lent medium for communication between the world of
breeding programs and introduce new plants to the horti- botanical science and the general public. Education pro-
cultural trade. grams can help the public develop greater environmental
7.7. FOOTNOTES 41
• List of botanical gardens in the United Kingdom [15] Dalley 1993, p. 113
• National Public Gardens Day [18] Toby Evans 2010, pp. 207–219
[21] Taylor 2006, p. 57 [56] Looker in Aitken & Looker 2002, pp. 99–100
[24] Sarton, George (1952). Ancient Science Through the [59] “North American Botanic Garden Strategy for Plant Con-
Golden Age of Greece. Dover classics of science and servation” (PDF). Botanic Gardens Conservation Inter-
mathematics. Dover Publications. p. 556. ISBN national. 2006. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
9780486274959. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
[60] Mueller 1871
[25] Hill 1915, p. 188 [61] “Environmental management”. Royal Botanic Gardens
[26] Holmes 1906, pp. 49–50 Melbourne. 8 June 2010. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
[27] Hyams & MacQuitty 1969, p. 16 [62] “Hainan Botanical Garden of Tropical Economic Plants”
. BGCI.org. Botanic Gardens Conservation International.
[28] Holmes 1906, p. 54 Retrieved 8 November 2011.
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1-904772-72-9.
• Minter, Sue (2000). The Apothecaries' Garden.
Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-
2449-8.
• Mueller, Ferdinand von (1871). The objects of a
botanic garden in relation to industries : a lecture de-
livered at the Industrial and Technological Museum.
Melbourne: Mason, Firth & McCutcheon.
• Ogilvie, Brian W. (2006). The Science of De-
scribing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-
0-226-62087-9.
• Rakow, Donald; Lee, Sharon, eds. (2013). Public
garden management. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN
9780470904596. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
• Simmons, John B. et al. (eds) (1976). Conservation
of Threatened Plants. London: Plenum Press. ISBN
0-306-32801-1.
• Taylor, Patrick (2006). The Oxford Companion
to the Garden. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-866255-6.
Chapter 8
Giardino all'italiana
44
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 45
ground floor level and the other at the level of the first
floor. From the reception rooms on the first floor, guests
could go out to the loggia and from there to the garden so 8.2.3 The Cortile del Belvedere in the Vat-
the loggia was a transition space connecting the interior ican Palace, Rome, (1504–1513)
with the exterior. Unlike later gardens, the Villa Medici
did not have a grand staircase or other feature to link the
two levels. In 1504 Pope Julius II commissioned the architect Donato
The garden was inherited by his nephew, Lorenzo de' Bramante to recreate a classical Roman pleasure gar-
Medici, who made it a meeting place for poets, artists, den in the space between the old papal Vatican palace in
writers and philosophers. In 1479, the poet Angelo Rome and the nearby Villa Belvedere. His model was the
Poliziano, tutor to the Medici children, described the gar- ancient sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina or
den in a letter: "..Seated between the sloping sides of the ancient Praeneste, and he used the classical ideals of pro-
mountains we have here water in abundance and being portion, symmetry and perspective in his design. He cre-
constantly refreshed with moderate winds find little in- ated a central axis to link the two buildings, and a series of
convenience from the glare of the sun. As you approach terraces connected by double ramps, modelled after those
the house it seems embosomed in the wood, but when you at Palestrina. The terraces were divided into squares and
reach it you find it commands a full prospect of the city.” rectangles by paths and flowerbeds, and served as an out-
*
[7] door setting for Pope Julius's extraordinary collection of
classical sculpture, which included the famous Laocoön
and the Apollo Belvedere. The heart of the garden was
8.2.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, a courtyard surrounded by a three-tiered loggia, which
Tuscany, (1459) served as a theater for entertainments. A central exedra
formed the dramatic conclusion of the long perspective
up the courtyard, ramps and terraces.* [10]
The Venetian Ambassador described the Cortile del
Belvedere in 1523: “One enters a very beautiful garden,
of which half is filled with growing grass and bays and
mulberries and cypresses, while the other half is paved
with squares of bricks laid upright, and in every square a
beautiful orange tree grows out of the pavement, of which
there are a great many, arranged in perfect order....On one
side of the garden is a most beautiful loggia, at one end of
which is a lovely fountain that irrigates the orange trees
and the rest of the garden by a little canal in the center of
the loggia.”* [11]
Unfortunately the construction of the Vatican Library in
the late sixteenth century across the centre of the cor-
Gardens of the Palazzo Piccolomini tile means that Bramante's design is now obscured but his
ideas of proportion, symmetry and dramatic perspectives
The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, was built by Enea Sil- were used in many of the great gardens of the Italian Re-
vio Piccolomini, who was Pope from 1458 to 1464, un- naissance.* [12]
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 47
Statue of January, Villa Castello Alley of one hundred fountains, Villa d'Este
conduits which could be turned on with a key to drench took over a former Franciscan convent, and for the gar-
unsuspecting guests. Another unusual feature was a tree- den he bought the adjoining steep hillside and the valley
house concealed in an ivy-covered oak tree, with a square below. His chosen architect was Pirro Ligorio, who had
dining room inside the tree.* [15] been carrying out excavations for Ippolito at the nearby
ruins of the ancient Villa Adriana, or Hadrian's Villa, the
At the far end of the garden and set against a wall, Tri- extensive country residence of the Emperor Hadrian that
bolo created an elaborate grotto, decorated with mosaics, had numerous elaborate water features.* [18]
pebbles, sea shells, imitation stalactites, and niches with
groups of statues of domestic and exotic animals and
birds, many with real horns, antlers and tusks. The ani-
mals symbolized the virtues and accomplishments of past
members of Medici family. Water flowed from the beaks,
wings and claws of the animals into marble basins below
each niche. A gate could close suddenly behind visitors,
and they would be soaked by hidden fountains.* [16]
Above the grotto, on the hillside, was small wood, or
bosco, with a pond in the center. In the pond is a bronze
statue of a shivering giant, with cold water running down
over his head, which represents either the month of Jan-
uary or the Apennine Mountains.
When the last of the Medicis died in 1737, the garden
began to be altered by its new owners, the House of
Lorraine; the labyrinth was demolished and the statue The Neptune Fountain (foreground) and Water Organ (back-
of Venus was moved to the Villa Petraia. But long be- ground) in the gardens at the Villa d'Este.
fore then, the garden had been described by many am-
bassadors and foreign visitors and had become famous Ligorio created the garden as a series of terraces descend-
throughout Europe. Its principles of perspective, propor- ing the steep hillside at the edge of the mountains over-
tion and symmetry, its geometric planting beds and rooms looking the plain of Latium. The terraces were connected
with walls of trees and hedges, were adapted in both the by gates and grand stairways starting from a terrace below
gardens of the French Renaissance and the garden à la the villa and traversing down to the Fountain of Dragons
française which followed.* [17] at the foot of the garden. The stairway was crossed by
five traversal alleys on the different levels, which were
divided into rooms by hedges and trellises covered with
8.2.6 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550–1572) vines. At the crossing points of the stairway and the al-
leys there were pavilions, fruit trees, and aromatic plants.
The Villa d'Este at Tivoli is one of the grandest and At the top, the promenade used by the Cardinal passed
best-preserved of the Italian Renaissance gardens. It was below the villa and led in one direction to the grotto of
created by Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, son of Alfonso I Diana, and in the other to the grotto of Aesclepius.
d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara, and Lucretia Borgia. He was The glory of the Villa d'Este was the system of fountains,
made a Cardinal at the age of twenty-nine and became fed by two aqueducts that Ligorio constructed from the
governor of Tivoli in 1550. To develop his residence, he River Aniene. In the center of the garden, the alley of one
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 49
hundred fountains (which actually had two hundred foun- 8.2.8 Sacro Bosco at Bomarzo, Lazio
tains), crossed the hillside, connecting the Oval Fountain (1552–1585)
with the Fountain of Rome, which was decorated with
models of the famous landmarks of Rome. On a lower
level, another alley passed by the Fountain of Dragons
and joined the fountain of Proserpine with the Fountain
of the Owl. Still lower, an alley of fishponds connected
the Fountain of the Organ to the site of a proposed Foun-
tain of Neptune.* [19]
Each fountain and path told a story, linking the d'Este
family to the legends of Hercules and Hippolytus or
Ippolito, the mythical son of Theseus and the Queen of
the Amazons. The central axis led to the Fountain of
Dragons, which illustrated one of the labors of Hercules,
and three other statues of Hercules were found in the gar-
den. The myth of Ippolito, the mythical namesake of the
owner, was illustrated by two grottos, that of Aesclepius
and Diana.* [20] Sacro Bosco, Mouth of Orcus.
The Fountain of the Owl used a series of bronze pipes
like flutes to make the sound of birds but the most fa- The Sacro Bosco or “Sacred Wood,”near the village
mous feature of the garden was the great Organ Fountain. of Bomarzo, is the most famous and extravagant of the
It was described by the French philosopher Montaigne, Manieristic gardens. It was created for Pier Francesco
who visited the garden in 1580: “The music of the Or- Orsini (1523–85). It was witty and irreverent, and vio-
gan Fountain is true music, naturally created...made by lated all the rules of Renaissance gardens; it has no sym-
water which falls with great violence into a cave, rounded metry, no order, and no focal point. An inscription in the
and vaulted, and agitates the air, which is forced to exit garden says:“You who have travelled the world in search
through the pipes of an organ. Other water, passing of great and stupendous marvels, come here, where there
through a wheel, strikes in a certain order the keyboard of are horrendous faces, elephants, lions, orcies and drag-
*
the organ. The organ also imitates the sound of trumpets, ons.” [23]
the sound of cannon, and the sound of muskets, made by The garden is filled with enormous statues, reached by
the sudden fall o water ...* [21] wandering paths. It included a mouth of Death, a house
The garden was substantially changed after the death of that seemed to be falling over, fantastic animals and fig-
the Cardinal and in the 17th century, and many statues ures, many of them carved of rough volcanic rock in place
were sold, but the basic features remain, and the Organ in the garden. Some of the scenes were taken from the ro-
fountain has recently been restored and plays music once mantic epic poem Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto,
again. others from works by Dante Alighieri and Francesco Pe-
trarch. As one inscription in the garden notes, the Sacro
Bosco “resembles only itself, and nothing else.”* [24]
The Villa della Torre, built for Giulio della Torre (1480–
1563), a law professor and humanist scholar in Verona,
was a parody of the classical rules of Vitruvius; the
peristyle of the building was in the perfectly harmonious
Vitruvius style, but some of the stones were rough-cut
and of different sizes and decorated with masks which
sprayed water, which jarred the classical harmony.“The
building was deformed: it seemed to be caught in a
strange, amorphous condition, somewhere crude rustic
simplicity and classical perfection.”.* [22] The fireplaces
inside were in the forms of the mouths of gigantic masks.
Outside, the garden was filled with disturbing architec-
tural elements, including a grotto whose entrance repre- Gardens of the Villa Lante
sented the mouth of hell, with eyes that showed fires burn-
ing inside. Villa Lante at Bagnaia near Viterbo, attributed to
50 CHAPTER 8. GIARDINO ALL'ITALIANA
Giardino Bardini
The garden plan is laid out on a central axis with sub- The garden, a typical example of the baroque extension
sidiary cross-axes of carefully varied character, refreshed of formal vistas, stretch for 120 ha, partly on hilly terrain.
by some five hundred jets in fountains, pools and water It is inspired by the park of Versailles, but it is commonly
troughs. The copious water is supplied by the Aniene, regarded as superior in beauty. The park starts from the
which is partly diverted through the town, a distance of back façade of the palace, flanking a long alley with arti-
a kilometer, and by the Rivellese spring, which supplies ficial fountains and cascades. There is an English garden
a cistern under the villa's courtyard. The garden is now in the upper part designed in the 1780s by Carlo Van-
part of the Grandi Giardini Italiani. vitelli and the London-trained plantsman-designer John
Graefer, recommended to Sir William Hamilton by Sir
The Villa's uppermost terrace ends in a balustraded bal-
cony at the left end, with a sweeping view over the plain Joseph Banks.* [27] It is an early Continental example of
an “English garden”in the svelte naturalistic taste of
below. Symmetrical double flights of stairs flanking the
central axis lead to the next garden terrace, with the Capability Brown.
Grotto of Diana, richly decorated with frescoes and peb- The fountains and cascades, each filling a vasca (“basin”
ble mosaic to one side and the central Fontana del Bic- ), with architecture and hydraulics by Luigi Vanvitelli at
chierone “Fountain
( of the Great Cup”) loosely attributed intervals along a wide straight canal that runs to the hori-
to Bernini, where water issues from a seemingly natural zon, rivalled those at Peterhof outside St. Petersburg.
rock into a scrolling shell-like cup. These include:
Villa Aldobrandini is a villa in Frascati, Italy, property • The Fountain of Venus and Adonis (1770–80);
of Aldobrandini family. Also known as Belvedere for
its charming location overlooking the whole valley up to • The Fountain of the Dolphins (1773–80);
Rome, it was built on the order of Cardinal Pietro Aldo- • The Fountain of Aeolus;
brandini, Pope Clement VIII's nephew over a pre-existing
edifice built by the Vatican prelate Alessandro Rufini in • The Fountain of Ceres.
1550.
The villa was rebuilt in the current form by Giacomo A large population of figures from classical Antiquity
della Porta from 1598 to 1602, and then completed by were modelled by Gaetano Salomone for the gardens of
Carlo Maderno and Giovanni Fontana. Particularly fa- the Reggia, and executed by large workshops.
mous is the Teatro delle Acqua (“Water Theater”), by
Carlo Maderno and Orazio Olivieri. Other noted villas
with water-play structure are the Villa d'Este in Tivoli and 8.2.16 Isola Bella (Lake Maggiore)
Villa Torlonia also in Frascati.
The Isola Bella (Lago Maggiore) is one of the Borromean
Islands of Lago Maggiore in north Italy. The island is sit-
8.2.15 Palace of Caserta uated in the Borromean Gulf 400 meters from the lake-
side town of Stresa. Isola Bella is 320 meters long by
400 meters wide and is entirely occupied by the Palazzo
Borromeo and its Italian garden
8.6 References
• Pona, Francesco (1622), Il Paradiso de' Fiori overo
Lo archetipo de' Giardini, Angelo Tamo in Verona
54
9.4. POWER AND MAGNIFICENCE - THE POLITICAL SYMBOLISM OF THE RENAISSANCE GARDEN 55
Renaissance and especially mannerist gardens, this Poliziano, tutor to the Medici children, described the gar-
section was filled with allegorical statues of animals, den in a letter: "..Seated between the sloping sides of the
giants and fantastic creatures. mountains we have here water in abundance and being
constantly refreshed with moderate winds find little in-
• Giardino Segreto. The Secret Garden. An en- convenience from the glare of the sun. As you approach
closed private garden within the garden, inspired by the house it seems embosomed in the wood, but when you
the cloisters of Medieval monasteries. A place for reach it you find it commands a full prospect of the city.”
reading, writing or quiet conversations. *
[11]
• Semplici.“Simples,”or medicinal plants and herbs.
9.6.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza,
Tuscany (1459)
9.6 Gardens of the Early Italian
Renaissance
design. He created a central axis to link the two buildings, apartment and a summer apartment. Passages led from
and a series of terraces connected by double ramps, mod- the courtyard to the great loggia from which views could
elled after those at Palestrina. The terraces were divided be gained of the garden and Rome. A round tower on the
into squares and rectangles by paths and flowerbeds, and east side was intended as garden room in winter, warmed
served as an outdoor setting for Pope Julius's extraordi- by the sun coming through glazed windows. The villa
nary collection of classical sculpture, which included the overlooked three terraces, one a square, one a circle, and
famous Laocoön and the Apollo Belvedere. The heart of one an oval. The top terrace was to be planted in chest-
the garden was a courtyard surrounded by a three-tiered nut trees and firs while the lower terrace was intended for
loggia, which served as a theater for entertainments. A plant beds.* [16]
central exedra formed the dramatic conclusion of the long Work on the Villa Madama stopped in 1520, after the
perspective up the courtyard, ramps and terraces.* [14]
death of Raphael, but was then continued by other artists
The Venetian Ambassador described the Cortile del until 1534. They finished one-half of the villa includ-
Belvedere in 1523: “One enters a very beautiful garden, ing half of the circular courtyard, and the northwest log-
of which half is filled with growing grass and bays and gia that was decorated with grotesque frescoes by Giulio
mulberries and cypresses, while the other half is paved Romano and stucco by Giovanni da Udine. Fine surviv-
with squares of bricks laid upright, and in every square a ing features include a fountain of the head of an elephant
beautiful orange tree grows out of the pavement, of which by Giovanni da Udine and two gigantic stucco figures
there are a great many, arranged in perfect order....On one by Baccio Bandinelli at the entrance of the giardino seg-
side of the garden is a most beautiful loggia, at one end of reto, the secret garden.* [17] The villa is now a state guest
which is a lovely fountain that irrigates the orange trees house for the Government of Italy.
and the rest of the garden by a little canal in the center of
the loggia.”* [14]
Unfortunately, the construction of the Vatican Library 9.7 Gardens of the High Renais-
in the late 16th century across the centre of the cortile sance
means that Bramante's design is now obscured but his
ideas of proportion, symmetry and dramatic perspectives
were used in many of the great gardens of the Italian Re-
naissance.* [15]
The Villa Madama, situated on the slopes of Monte Mario One niche inside the grotto of the Villa di Castello, Florence
and overlooking Rome, was begun by Pope Leo X and
continued by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (1478–1534). The middle of the 16th century saw the construction by
In 1516 Leo X gave the commission to Raphael who was the Medicis and other wealthy families and individuals,
at that time the most famous artist in Rome. Using the of a series of magnificent gardens that followed the prin-
ancient text of De Architectura by Vitruvius and the writ- ciples of Alberti and Bramante; they were usually sited on
ings of Pliny the Younger, Raphael imagined his own ver- a hilltop or slopes of a mountain; had a series of symmet-
sion of an ideal classical villa and garden. His villa had rical terraces, one above the other, along a central axis;
a great circular courtyard, and was divided into a winter the house looked over the garden and landscape beyond
58 CHAPTER 9. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN
Venus was moved to the Villa La Petraia. But long be- in the garden. The myth of Ippolito, the mythical name-
fore then, the garden had been described by many am- sake of the owner, was illustrated by two grottos, that of
bassadors and foreign visitors and had become famous Asclepius and Diana.* [24]
throughout Europe. Its principles of perspective, propor- The Fountain of the Owl used a series of bronze pipes
tion and symmetry, its geometric planting beds and rooms like flutes to make the sound of birds but the most fa-
with walls of trees and hedges, were adapted in both the mous feature of the garden was the great Organ Foun-
gardens of the French Renaissance and the garden à la tain. It was described by the French philosopher Michel
française which followed.* [21] de Montaigne, who visited the garden in 1580: “The
music of the Organ Fountain is true music, naturally cre-
ated...made by water which falls with great violence into
9.7.2 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550-1572) a cave, rounded and vaulted, and agitates the air, which is
forced to exit through the pipes of an organ. Other water,
The Villa d'Este at Tivoli is one of the grandest and passing through a wheel, strikes in a certain order the key-
best-preserved of the Italian Renaissance gardens. It was board of the organ. The organ also imitates the sound of
created by Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, son of Alfonso I trumpets, the sound of cannon, and the sound of muskets,
d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara, and Lucrezia Borgia. He made by the sudden fall of water ...* [25]
was made a Cardinal at the age of twenty-nine and be-
The garden was substantially changed after the death of
came governor of Tivoli in 1550. To develop his res-
the Cardinal and in the 17th century, and many statues
idence, he took over a former Franciscan convent, and
were sold, but the basic features remain, and the Organ
for the garden he bought the adjoining steep hillside and
Fountain has recently been restored and plays music once
the valley below. His chosen architect was Pirro Ligorio,
again.
who had been carrying out excavations for Ippolito at the
nearby ruins of the ancient Villa Adriana, or Hadrian's
Villa, the extensive country residence of the Roman Em-
peror, Hadrian, that had numerous elaborate water fea-
tures.* [22]
Ligorio created the garden as a series of terraces descend- 9.8 Mannerism and the gardens of
ing the steep hillside at the edge of the mountains over- the Late Renaissance
looking the plain of Latium. The terraces were connected
by gates and grand stairways starting from a terrace below
the villa and traversing down to the Fountain of Dragons Mannerism was a style which developed in painting in the
at the foot of the garden. The stairway was crossed by 1520s, which defied the traditional rules of Renaissance
five traversal alleys on the different levels, which were painting. “Mannerist paintings were intensely stylish,
divided into rooms by hedges and trellises covered with polished and complex, their composition bizarre, the sub-
vines. At the crossing points of the stairway and the al- ject matter fantastic.”* [26] This also describes other
leys there were pavilions, fruit trees, and aromatic plants. mannerist gardens which appeared beginning about 1560.
At the top, the promenade used by the Cardinal passed
below the villa and led in one direction to the grotto of
Diana, and in the other to the grotto of Asclepius.
The glory of the Villa d'Este was the system of fountains,
fed by two aqueducts that Ligorio constructed from the 9.8.1 Villa della Torre (1559)
River Aniene. In the centre of the garden, the alley of one
hundred fountains (which actually had two hundred foun- The Villa della Tore, built for Giulio della Torre (1480–
tains), crossed the hillside, connecting the Oval Fountain 1563), a law professor and humanist scholar in Verona,
with the Fountain of Rome, which was decorated with was a parody of the classical rules of Vitruvius; the
models of the famous landmarks of Rome. On a lower peristyle of the building was in the perfectly harmonious
level, another alley passed by the Fountain of Dragons Vitruvius style, but some of the stones were rough-cut
and joined the Fountain of Proserpina with the Fountain and of different sizes and decorated with masks which
of the Owl. Still lower, an alley of fishponds connected sprayed water, which jarred the classical harmony.“The
the Fountain of the Organ to the site of a proposed Foun- building was deformed: it seemed to be caught in a
tain of Neptune.* [23] strange, amorphous condition, somewhere crude rustic
Each fountain and path told a story, linking the d'Este simplicity and classical perfection.”* [27] The fireplaces
family to the legends of Hercules and Hippolytus or Ip- inside were in the forms of the mouths of gigantic masks.
polito, the mythical son of Theseus and Hippolyta, the Outside, the garden was filled with disturbing architec-
Queen of the Amazons. The central axis led to the Foun- tural elements, including a grotto whose entrance repre-
tain of Dragons, which illustrated one of the labours of sented the mouth of hell, with eyes that showed fires burn-
Hercules, and three other statues of Hercules were found ing inside.
60 CHAPTER 9. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN
9.13 Notes
The Botanical Gardens of Padua (1543), from a contemporary [1] Prevot, Philippe. Histoire des Jardins, Editions Sud-
engraving in the Basilica di Sant'Antonio. Ouest, Bordeaux, 2002
9.14. REFERENCES 61
[2] Attlee, Helen. Italian Gardens - A Cultural History, 2006: 9.14 References
10.
[3] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 13. • Attlee, Helena. Italian Gardens - A Cultural History,
Francis Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2006
[4] Allain and Christiany, L'Art des jardins en Europe, Paris,
2006: 132. • Impelluso,Lucia. Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes,
Editions Hazan, Paris, 2007
[5] Prevot, 2005
• Allain, Yves-Marie and Christiany, Janine L'art des
[6] Alberti, Leon Battista. Édifices destinés aux catégories
jardins en Europe, Citadelles and Mazenod, Paris,
particulières de citoyens, in L'art d'édifier, translated from
the Latin by Pierre Caye and Françoise Choay, Book I, 2006
Paris, 2004: 429.
[31] Attlee, 2006: 46. The University of Pisa claims that its
botanical garden was founded in 1543 and that of Padua,
the Orto botanico di Padova, was founded in 1545, giving
them the oldest garden, but according to Helena Attlee,
the claim of Padua is better documented in the archives
of the Republic of Venice
62
10.1. HISTORY 63
10.1.2 Vaux-le-Vicomte
Parterre of broderies (embroidery-like patterning) at Vaux-le-
Vicomte. The first important garden à la française was the Chateau
of Vaux-le-Vicomte, created by Nicolas Fouquet, the
superintendent of Finances to Louis XIV, beginning in
10.1.1 Renaissance Influence 1656. Fouquet commissioned Louis Le Vau to design the
chateau, Charles Le Brun to design statues for the gar-
Main article: Gardens of the French Renaissance den, and André Le Nôtre to create the gardens. For the
first time, that garden and the chateau were perfectly in-
The Garden à la française evolved from the French Re- tegrated. A grand perspective of 1500 meters extended
naissance garden, a style which was inspired by the Italian from the foot of the chateau to the statue of the Hercules
Renaissance garden at the beginning of the 16th century. of Farnese; and the space was filled with parterres of ever-
The Italian Renaissance garden, typified by the Boboli green shrubs in ornamental patterns, bordered by colored
Gardens in Florence and the Villa Medici in Fiesole, was sand, and the alleys were decorated at regular intervals
characterized by planting beds, or parterres, created in by statues, basins, fountains, and carefully sculpted topi-
geometric shapes, and laid out symmetrical patterns; the aries. “The symmetry attained at Vaux achieved a degee
64 CHAPTER 10. FRENCH FORMAL GARDEN
of perfection and unity rarely equalled in the art of classic elements of the gardens at Versailles, Choisy (Val-de-
gardens. The chateau is at the center of this strict spatial Marne), and Compiègne.
organization which symbolizes power and success.”* [6] Nonetheless, a few variations in the strict geometry of the
garden à la française began to appear. Elaborate parterres
of broderies, with their curves and counter-curves, were
10.1.3 Gardens of Versailles replaced by parterres of grass bordered with flowerbeds,
which were easier to maintain. Circles became ovals,
The Gardens of Versailles, created by André Le Nôtre called rotules, with alleys radiating outward in the shape
between 1662 and 1700, were the greatest achievement of an 'x', and irregular octagon shapes appeared. Gardens
of the Garden à la francaise. They were the largest gar- began to follow the natural landscape, rather than moving
dens in Europe - with an area of 15000 hectares, and were earth to shape the ground into artificial terraces.
laid out on an east-west axis followed the course of the
In the middle of the 18th century, the influence of the
sun: the sun rose over the Court of Honor, lit the Marble
new English garden created by British aristocrats and
Court, crossed the Chateau and lit the bedroom of the
landowners, and the popularity of the Chinese style,
King, and set at the end of the Grand Canal, reflected in
brought to France by Jesuit priests from the Court of the
the mirrors of the Hall of Mirrors.* [7] In contrast with
Emperor of China, a style which rejected symmetry in
the grand perspectives, reaching to the horizon, the gar-
favor of nature and rustic scenes, brought an end to the
den was full of surprises - fountains, small gardens fill
reign of the symmetrical garden à la française. In many
with statuary, which provided a more human scale and
French parks and estates, the garden closest to the house
intimate spaces.
was kept in the traditional à la française style, but the rest
of the park was transformed into the new style, called var-
iously jardin a l'anglaise (the English garden), “anglo-
chinois”, exotiques, or“pittoresques”. This marked the
end of the age of the garden à la française and the arrival
in France of the Jardin Paysager, or landscape garden,
which was inspired not by architecture but by painting,
literature and philosophy.* [10]
ropean gardens until the arrival of the English landscape • The residence serves as the central point of the gar-
park in the 18th century. den, and its central ornament. No trees are planted
Joseph-Antoine Dezallier d'Argenville (1680–1765) close to the house; rather, the house is set apart by
wrote Theorie et traite de jardinage, laid out the princi- low parterres and trimmed bushes.* [15]
ples of the Garden à la francaise, and included drawings • A central axis, or perspective, perpendicular to the
and designs of gardens and parterres. It was reprinted facade of the house, on the side opposite the front
many times, and was found in the libraries of aristocrats entrance. The axis extends either all the way to
across Europe. the horizon (Versailles) or to piece of statuary or
architecture (Vaux-le-Vicomte). The axis faces ei-
ther South (Vaux-le-Vicomte, Meudon) or east-west
10.3 Principles (Tuileries, Clagny, Trianon, Sceaux). The principal
axis is composed of a lawn, or a basin of water, bor-
dered by trees. The principal axis is crossed by one
or more perpendicular perspectives and alleys.
• The most elaborate parterres, or planting beds, in the
shape of squares, ovals, circles or scrolls, are placed
in a regular and geometric order close to the house,
to complement the architecture and to be seen from
above from the reception rooms of the house.
• The parterres near the residence are filled with
broderies, designs created with low boxwood to re-
semble the patterns of a carpet, and given a poly-
chrome effect by plantings of flowers, or by colored
brick, gravel or sand.
• Farther from the house, the broderies are replaced
with simpler parterres, filled with grass, and of-
ten containing fountains or basins of water. Be-
yond these, small carefully created groves of trees
(), serve as an intermediary between the formal gar-
den and the masses of trees of the park. “The per-
A French estate, 18th century fect place for a stroll, these spaces present alleys,
stars, circles, theaters of greenery, galleries, spaces
Jacques Boyceau de La Barauderie wrote in 1638 in his for balls and for festivities.”* [16]
Traite du jardinage selon les raisons de la nature et d'art
• Bodies of water (canals, basins) serve as mirrors,
that “the principal reason for the existence of a garden
doubling the size of the house or the trees.
is the esthetic pleasure which it gives to the spectator.”
*
[12] • The garden is animated with pieces of sculpture,
The form of the French garden was largely fixed by the usually on mythological themes, which either under-
middle of the 17th century. It had the following elements, line or punctuate the perspectives, and mark the in-
which became typical of the formal French garden: tersections of the axes, and by moving water in the
form of cascades and fountains.
• A terrace overlooking the garden, allowing the visi- Ornamental flowers were relatively rare in French gardens
in the 17th century, and there was a limited range of col-
tor to see all at once the entire garden. As the French
landscape architect Olivier de Serres wrote in 1600, ors; blue, pink, white and mauve. Brighter colors (yellow,
“It is desirable that the gardens should be seen from red, orange) would not arrive until about 1730, because
above, either from the walls, or from terraces raisedof botanical discoveries from around the world brought
above the parterres.* [13] to Europe. Bulbs of tulips and other exotic flowers came
from Turkey and the Netherlands.;* [17] An important or-
• All vegetation is constrained and directed, to namental feature in Versailles and other gardens was the
demonstrate the mastery of man over nature.* [14] topiary, a tree or bush carved into geometric or fantastic
Trees are planted in straight lines, and carefully shapes, which were placed in rows along the main axes of
trimmed, and their tops are trimmed at a set height. the garden, alternating with statues and vases.
66 CHAPTER 10. FRENCH FORMAL GARDEN
At Versailles flower beds were found only at the Grand nature according to the rules of geometry, optics and per-
Trianon and in parterres on the north side of the palace. spective. Gardens were designed like buildings, with a
Flowers were usually brought from Provence, kept in succession of rooms which a visitor could pass through
pots, and changed three or four times a year. Palace following an established route, hallways, and vestibules
records from 1686 show that the Palace used 20,050 with adjoining chambers. They used the language of ar-
jonquil bulbs, 23000 cyclamen, and 1700 lily plants.* [18] chitecture in their plans; the spaces were referred to as
Most of the trees at Versailles were taken from the for- salles, chambres and théâtres of greenery. The “walls”
est; they included hornbeam, elm, linden, and beech were composed of hedges, and “stairways”of water.
On the ground were tapis, or carpets, of grass, brodés,
trees. There were also chestnut trees from Turkey and
acacia trees. Large trees were dug up from the forests or embroidered, with plants, and the trees were formed
into rideaux, or curtains, along the alleys. Just as archi-
of Compiègne and Artois and transplanted to Versailles.
Many died in transplanting and had to be regularly re- tects installed systems of water into the chateux, they laid
out elaborate hydraulic systems to supply the fountains
placed.
and basins of the garden. Long basins full of water re-
The trees in the park were trimmed both horizontally and placed mirrors, and the water from fountains replaced
flattened at the top, giving them the desired geometric chandeliers. In the bosquet du Marais in the gardens of
form. Only in the 18th century were they allowed to grow Versailles, André Le Nôtre placed tables of white and
freely.* [19] red marble for serving meals. The flowing water in the
basins and fountains imitated water pouring into carafes
and crystal glasses.* [20] The dominant role of architec-
ture in the garden did not change until the 18th century,
when the English garden arrived in Europe, and the inspi-
ration for gardens began to come not from architecture
but from romantic painting.
10.5 Theatre
The Garden à la francaise was often used as a setting for
plays, spectacles, concerts, and displays of fireworks. In
1664, Louis XIV celebrated a six-day festival in the gar-
Belvedere Palace's Gardens in Vienna, designed by Dominique dens, with cavalcades, comedies, ballets, and fireworks.
Girard, pupil of André Le Nôtre
Gardens of Versailles included a theatre of water, dec-
orated with fountains and statues of the infancy of the
gods (destroyed between 1770 and 1780). Full-size ships
10.4 Architecture were constructed for sailing on the Grand Canal, and the
garden had an open-air ballroom, surrounded by trees; a
water organ, a labyrinth, and a grotto.* [21]
10.6 Perspective
The architects of the garden à la française did not stop
at applying the rules of geometry and perspective to their
work – in the first published treatises on gardens, in the
17th century, they devoted chapters to the subject of how
to correct or improve perspective, usually to create the il-
lusion of greater distance. This was often done by having
alleys become narrower, or having rows of trees that con-
verged, or were trimmed so that they became gradually
shorter, as they went farther away from the center of the
garden or from the house. This created the illusion that
Broderies in the gardens of the château de Villandry (Indre-et-
Loire) the perspective was longer and that the garden was larger
than it actually was.
The designers of the French garden saw their work as a Another trick used by French garden designers was the
branch of architecture, which simply extended the space Ha-ha (fr: saute-de loup). This was a method used to
of the building to the space outside the walls, and ordered conceal fences which crossed long alleys or perspectives.
10.8. LIST 67
A deep and wide trench with vertical wall of stone on one randole(centerpiece) candélabre (candelabra), and cor-
side was dug wherever a fence crossed a view, or a fence beille (bouquet), La Boule en l'air (Ball in the air), and
was placed in bottom of the trench, so that it was invisible L'Evantail (the fan). This art was closely associated with
to the viewer. the fireworks of the time, which tried to achieve similar
As gardens became more and more ambitious and elabo- effects with fire instead of water. Both the fountains and
rate through the 17th century, the garden no longer served fireworks were often accompanied by music, and were
as a decoration for the chateau; At Chantilly and at Saint- designed to show how nature (water and fire) could be
Germain, the chateau became a decorative element of the shaped by the will of man.* [24]
much larger garden. Another important development was in horticulture, in
the ability to raise plants from warmer climates in the
northern European climate by protecting them inside
buildings and bringing them outdoors in pots. The first
orangerie were built in France in the 16th century follow-
ing the introduction of the orange tree after the Italian
Wars. The orangerie at Versailles has walls five meters
thick, with a double wall that maintains temperatures in
winter between 5 and 8 degrees Celsius (41 and 46 °F).
Today it can shelter 1055 trees.
10.8 List
Garden à la française of the Branicki Palace in Białystok
10.8.1 Predecessors in the Renaissance
Style
• Vaux-le-Vicomte (1658–1661)
• Château de Meudon
• Château de Montmirail
• Château de Pontchartrain
• Jardin de la Magalone, Marseille, garden by Eduard • Karlsaue, Kassel, Germany (built until 1785)
Andre, 1891.
• Belvedere Palace, Vienna, Austria (designed by
• Nemours Mansion and Gardens - du Pont estate, Dominique Girard)
early 20th century.
• Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria (designed by
• Pavillon de Galon in Cucuron, created in 2004 Jean Trehet)
10.11. REFERENCES 69
Marie Antoinette's idyllic “hameau de la reine”at Versailles The French landscape garden was influenced first of all
by the new style of English landscape garden, particu-
The French landscape garden (French: jardin paysa- larly those of William Kent at Stowe (1730–1748) and
ger, jardin a l'anglaise, jardin pittoresque, jardin anglo- Rousham (1738–1741), and the garden by Henry Hoare
chinois) is a style of garden inspired by idealized ro- at Stourhead (begun in 1741), which were themselves
mantic landscapes and the paintings of Hubert Robert, inspired by trips to Italy and filled with recreations of
Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin, European ideas antique temples. A later influence was the gardens of
about Chinese gardens, and the philosophy of Jean- Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill (beginning 1750),
Jacques Rousseau. The style originated in England, as the where Gothic ruins replaced antique temples.* [4] Later,
"English landscape garden", in the early 18th century and the gardens of Capability Brown, who had studied with
spread to France, where, in the late 18th and early 19th William Kent, had an important influence in France,
century, it gradually replaced the symmetrical French for- particularly his work at Stowe (1748), Petworth (1752),
mal garden (jardin à la française).* [1]* [2] Chatsworth (1761), Bowood (1763) and Blenheim Palace
70
11.4. ROUSSEAU'S PHILOSOPHY OF THE LANDSCAPE GARDEN 71
(1769).* [5] gardens. The book was quickly translated into French.
Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to Chambers brought to Europe the Chinese idea that gar-
France by the Abbé LeçBlanc, who published accounts dens should be composed of a series of scenes which
of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise on the En- evoke different emotions, ranging from enchantment to
glish garden, Observations on Modern Gardening, written horror to laughter. Chambers wrote, “The enchanted or
by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770, romanesque scenes abound in the marvelous. They pro-
was translated into French in 1771. After the end of the voke a series of violent or opposing sensations; footpaths
Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able leading down to underground passages where mysterious
lights reveal strange groupings; winding roads which pass
to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves.
During the French Revolution, many French nobles went through beautiful forests leading to precipices or melan-
choly rivers lined with funerary monuments shaded by
into exile in England, and brought back with them the
new style of gardening.* [6] laurels and willows. The horrible scenes present hanging
rocks, cataracts, caverns, dead tree broken by the storm,
burnt or shattered by lightning, and buildings in ruins...
The scenes of horror are only one act in a theatrical pro-
11.3 The Chinese influence on the duction that usually ends in a soothing extended perspec-
French landscape garden tive, simple forms and beautiful colors. The laughing
scenes make one forget the enchantment and the horror
of the landscapes that one has passed through.”* [8]
Chambers became the creator of the first Chinese gar-
den in Europe, complete with a Chinese pagoda, at the
Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, in the southwest of Lon-
don. Chambers' book and the Chinese garden he created
at Kew Gardens brought Chinese gardens into fashion in
both England and France. Landscape gardens in France
began to include artificial hills, pagodas, and promenades
designed to provoke emotions ranging from melancholy
to sadness to joy.* [9]
let the viewer delight the scene from different angles and
light. Girardin described the purpose of his garden in a
book called De la composition des paysages (1777) (“On
the Composition of Landscapes":
The principles taken from Rousseau and transformed
into avenues and landscapes by Girardin and other gar-
den designers were copied in landscape gardens around
France.* [14]
Thomas Whateley and the Théorie des jardins of Jean- ité, to design a garden around a small house that he was
Marie Morel (1776). building to the northwest of Paris. Between 1773 and
Girardin created the garden at Ermenonville to be a se- 1778, he created the folie de Chartres (now Parc Mon-
ries of tableaux to be seen from various points at different ceau), one of the most famous French landscape gardens
times of day. The artist Hubert Robert contributed draw- of the time. It departed from the more natural English
ings for its design. The park occupied 100 hectares (250 landscape gardens of the time by presenting a series of
acres), lying in a valley along the River Launette. It took fantastic scenes designed“to unite in one garden all places
ten years to build the garden; ponds needed to be drained and all times."[3]. It included a series of fabriques, or
architectural structures, while it illustrated all the styles
and the river had to be diverted. The 17th-century man-
sion sat on an island in the middle; northwards was all known at the time: antiquity, exoticism, Chinese, Turk-
ish, ruins, tombs, and rustic landscapes, all created to sur-
farmland, and to the west, towards the village, was Le
Désert, a wildlife garden. Girardin filled the garden with prise and divert the visitor.
metaphors representing philosophical, Renaissance and
Mediaeval themes.
The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau spent the last 11.7.5 Désert de Retz, Yvelines (1774-
weeks of his life in a cottage in this garden, in a part that
1782)
had been inspired by his novel La Nouvelle Heloise (Julie,
or the New Heloise). On his death he was interred on an
The garden was created by François Racine de Monville
island in the river, the Île des Peupliers the neo-classical
(1734–1797), a French aristocrat, musician, architect and
tomb and its attendant grove of poplar trees were depicted
landscape designer. In 1774, de Monville bought a coun-
in several prints of the period - it became a place of pil-
grimage for his many admirers. On October 11th 1794 try estate at Saint-Jacques-de-Retz, which had a farm,
his body was removed and reinterred in the Pantheon in lands, and a formal jardin à la française. He resolved to
Paris near the remains of Voltaire. create a new garden in the new English style. He called
the garden le Désert de Retz,* [Note 4] and planted it
Because of its connection with Rousseau, the garden has with four thousand trees from the royal greenhouses, and
attracted many famous visitors, including Joseph II of rerouted a river and created several ponds.
Austria, King Gustave III, the future Czar, Paul I of
Russia, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Danton, The garden, completed in 1785, contained twenty-one
Robespierre, Chateaubriand, Queen Marie Antoinette fabriques, or architectural constructions, representing
and Napoleon Bonaparte.* [22] different periods of history and parts of the world; they
included an artificial rock, a temple of rest, a theater, a
Chinese house, a tomb, a ruined Gothic church, a ru-
11.7.3 The Chateau de Pompignan (works ined altar, an obelisk, a temple to the god Pan, a Siamese
1745-1780, garden mainly 1766- tent, and an ice-house in the form of a pyramid. The
1774) best-known feature was the ruined classical column, large
enough to hold a residence inside.* [23]
Main article: Chateau de Pompignan
This landscape garden with its follies was built by 11.7.6 The rustic village as garden feature
Jean-Jacques Lefranc de Pompignan, a friend of
Rousseau.* [Note 3] It featured picturesque structures and
(hameau)
mysterious ruins, and the walks and views took advantage
of the park's site on a hillside overlooking the Garonne Along with the development of the French landscape gar-
valley and, in the far distance, the chain of the Pyrenees, den, there was a parallel development in the 18th century
stretched out along the southern horizon. The chateau is of ornamental farms and picturesque “villages”. The
still inhabited, and although the parc has been neglected first such ornamental farm in France was the Moulin Joli,
for a very long time, vestiges of the works and walks are but there were similar rustic buildings at Ermenonville,
still to be seen. Parc Monceau, and the Domaine de Raincy. In 1774,
the Prince de Condé conceived an entire rustic village,
the Hameau de Chantilly, for his estate at the Château
11.7.4 Parc Monceau, Paris (1773-1778) de Chantilly. The little village was modeled on a farm in
Normandy, and had seven buildings with thatched roofs,
Parc Monceau was designed by Louis Carrogis Carmon- designed by architect Jean-François Leroy. The exteri-
telle (15 August 1717 – 26 December 1806), a French ors were rustic, but the interiors were extremely elegant,
dramatist, painter, architect, set designer and author. In and used for concerts, games, and dinners. They were
1773, he was asked by the Duc de Chartres, the son of used for a reception for members of the Russian imperial
Louis-Philippe d'Orleans and the future Philippe Egal- court in 1782.* [24]
11.8. SEE ALSO 75
• Hameau de la reine, Versailles (1783–1789) [4] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 280.
76 CHAPTER 11. FRENCH LANDSCAPE GARDEN
11.11 Bibliography
• Baltrušaitis, Jurgis (1978). Jardins en France 1760–
1820 (in French). Paris: Caisse National des Monu-
ments Historiques et des Sites. OCLC 174457405.
• Wenzler, Claude (2003). Architecture du Jardin (in
French). Rennes: Editions Ouest-France.
• Prévôt, Philippe (2006). Histoire des jardins (in
French). Editions Sud Ouest.
• Allain, Yves-Marie; Christiany, Janine (2006).
L'art des jardins en Europe (in French). Paris:
Citadelles.
• Racine, Michel, ed. (2001). "de la Renaissance au
debut du XIX siècle". Créateurs des jardins et de
paysages en France de la Renaissance au XXIe siè-
cle (“The landscape gardeners of the 21st century
French renaissance”) I. École Nationale Supérieure
du Paysage.
Chapter 12
77
78 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN
and slopes, and created a series of views and tableaus dec- of a Palladian villa; a Temple of Ancient Virtues (1737),
orated with allegorical statues of Apollo, a wounded glad- with statues of famous Greeks and Romans; a Temple
iator, a lion attacking a horse, and other subjects. He of British Worthies (1734–1735), with statues of British
placed “eye-catchers,”pieces of classical architecture, heroes; and a Temple of Modern Virtues, which was de-
to decorate the landscape, and made use of the "ha-ha", a liberately left in ruins, which contained a headless statue
concealed ditch that kept grazing animals out of the gar- of Robert Walpole, Cobham's political rival.* [9]
den while giving an uninterrupted vista from within. Fi- The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, in-
nally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden cluding Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It became the inspira-
of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement
tion for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Conti-
and drama.* [8] nent. (See French landscape garden.)
via Holland. In 1685, the English diplomat in The Hague 12.5 The English garden spreads to
and writer Sir William Temple wrote an essay Upon
the garden of Epicurus (published in 1690), which con-
the continent
trasted European theories of symmetrical gardens with
asymmetrical compositions from China, for which he in-
troduced the Japanese term sharawadgi.* [17]* [18]* [19]
Temple had never visited the Far East, but he was in
contact with the Dutch and their discourse on irregular-
ity in design, had spoken to a merchant who had been
in the Far East for a long time, and read the works of
European travellers there. He noted that Chinese gar-
dens avoided formal rows of trees and flower beds, and
instead placed trees, plants, and other garden features in
irregular ways to strike the eye and create beautiful com-
positions, with an understatement criticizing the formal
compositions of the gardens at the Palace of Versailles of
Louis XIV of France.* [20] His observations on the Chi-
nese garden were cited by the essayist Joseph Addison in The English Grounds of Wörlitz were one of the largest English
an essay in 1712, who used them to attack the English parks in 18th-century Europe.
gardeners who, instead of imitating nature, tried to make
their gardens in the French style, as far from nature as Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to
possible.* [21] France by the Abbé Le Blanc, who published accounts
The novelty and exoticism of Chinese art and architec- of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise on the En-
ture in Europe led in 1738 to the construction of the glish garden, Observations on Modern Gardening, written
first Chinese house in an English garden, in the garden by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770,
of Stowe House. The style became even more popular was translated into French in 1771. After the end of the
thanks to William Chambers (1723–1796), who lived in Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able
China from 1745 to 1747, and wrote a book, The Draw- to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves,
ings, buildings, furniture, habits, machines and utensils of and the style began to be adapted in French gardens. The
the Chinese, published in 1757. In 1761 he built a Chi- new style also had the advantage of requiring fewer gar-
nese pagoda, house and garden in Kew, London, as part of deners, and was easier to maintain, than the French gar-
Kew Gardens, a park with gardens and architecture sym- den.* [25]
bolizing all parts of the world and all architectural styles. One of the first English gardens on the continent was at
Thereafter Chinese pagodas began to appear in other En- Ermenonville, in France, built by marquis René Louis
glish gardens, then in France and elsewhere on the conti- de Girardin from 1763 to 1776 and based on the ide-
nent. French and other European observers coined the als of Jean Jacques Rousseau, who was buried within
term Jardin Anglo-Chinois (Anglo-Chinese garden) for the park. Rousseau and the garden's founder had visited
this style of garden.* [19]* [22] Stowe a few years earlier. Other early examples were the
Désert de Retz, Yvelines (1774–1782); the Gardens of
the Château de Bagatelle, in the Bois de Boulogne, west
of Paris (1777–1784); The Folie Saint James, in Neuilly-
sur-Seine, (1777–1780); and the Château de Méréville,
in the Essonne department, (1784–1786). Even at Ver-
sailles, the home of the most classical of all French gar-
12.4 The gothic revival influence on dens, a small English landscape park with a Roman tem-
English gardens ple was built by the Petit Trianon and a mock village, the
Hameau de la reine, Versailles (1783–1789), was created
for Marie Antoinette. (See the French landscape garden).
In the 1750s, classical architecture and Chinese architec-
The new style also spread to Germany. The central
ture were joined by gothic revival ruins in English gar- English Grounds of Wörlitz, in the Principality of Anhalt,
dens. This was largely the result of Horace Walpole, who was laid out between 1769 and 1773 by Prince Leopold
III, based on the models of Claremont, Stourhead and
introduced gothic revival features into his house and gar-
den at Strawberry Hill in Twickenham.* [23] Stowe Landscape Garden. Another notable example was
At Stowe, Capability Brown followed the new fashion be- The Englischer Garten in Munich, Germany, created in
tween 1740 and 1753 by adding a new section to the park, 1789 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814).
called Hawkwelle Hill or the gothic promenade, with a In the Netherlands the landscape-architect Lucas Pieters
gothic revival building.* [24] Roodbaard (1782-1851) designed several gardens and
82 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN
parks in this style. The style was introduced to Sweden and imitation ruins.
by Fredrik Magnus Piper. A second style of English garden, which became popular
The style also spread rapidly to Russia, where in 1774 during the 20th century in France and northern Europe,
Catherine the Great adapted the new style in the park of is the late 19th-century English cottage garden.* [27]
her palace at Tsarskoe Selo, complete with a mock Chi-
nese village and a Palladian bridge, modeled after that at
Wilton House. 12.7 Gallery
• Claremont Belvedere
12.6 Characteristics of the English
• Bowood House Gardens, by Capability Brown
garden
• Garden of Pavlovsk Palace near St. Petersburg
• Grotto at Bowood House, by Capability Brown
• Petworth House Garden, by Capability Brown
• The Monopteros in the Englischer Garten in Munich
• Ruins and a grotto in Dessau-Wörlitz
• The pond in Sheffield Park Garden
• The Chinese Tower in the Englischer Garten in
Munich
• Pavilion Shapel in Tsarskoe Selo, Russia
[18] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye: • Stuart, David C., Georgian Gardens. London, Hale.
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century 1979.
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 28. ISBN
978-0-8047-5945-8. • Jacques, David, Georgian Gardens. The Reign of
Nature. London, Batsford. 1983.
[19] Stepanova, Jekaterina (2010). Kraushaar, Frank, ed.
Eastwards: Western views on East Asian culture. Bern:
• The English Garden, Phaidon Press, London, 2008.
Peter Lang. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-3-0343-0040-7.
• Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'art des
jardins en Europe, Citadelle at Mazenot, Paris, 2006
[20] see Wybe Kuitert“Japanese Robes, Sharawadgi, and the
landscape discourse of Sir William Temple and Constan- • Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes',
tijn Huygens”Garden History, 41, 2: (2013) p.172
Mondatori Electra, Milan
[21] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jarininiers, Po- • Philippe Prévôt, Histoires des jardins, Éditions Sud
etes. Pg. 839-40. Ouest, Bordeaux 2008
[22] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye: • Michel Baridon, Les Jardins - Paysagistes. Jar-
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century diniers, Poetes. Editions Robert Laffont, Paris,
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 1998.
978-0-8047-5945-8.
• Laird, Mark (1999). The flowering of the landscape
[23] Allain and Christiany, pg. 280 garden: English pleasure grounds, 1720-1800. Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Press. Retrieved March 16,
[24] Allain and Christiany, pg. 307 2012. ISBN 081223457X
[25] Allain and Christiany, pg. 316-318. • Francis, Mark; Reimann, Andreas (1999). The
California landscape garden: ecology, culture, and
[26] The term gardenesque was introduced by John Claudius design. University of California Press. Retrieved
Loudon. March 16, 2012. ISBN 0520214501
[27] From Peasants to Monet - Triumph of English Cottage • Worpole, Ken & Orton, Jason, The New English
Gardens Landscape, Field Station, London, 2014.
84 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN
Mughal gardens
13.1 History
The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his
favourite type of garden as a charbagh. They use the term
bāgh, baug, bageecha or bagicha for garden. This word Mughal Emperor Babur supervising the creation of a garden
developed a new meaning in India, as Babur explains; In-
dia lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Cen-
tral Asian charbagh. The Agra garden, now known as the title Gardens of the Great Mughals (1913). Her husband
Ram Bagh, is thought to have been the first charbagh. In- was a Colonel in Britain's Indian army. This gave her a
dia, Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal good network of contacts and an opportunity to travel.
gardens which differ from their Central Asian predeces- During their residence at Pinjore Gardens, Mrs. Villiers-
sors with respect to “the highly disciplined geometry” Stuart also had an opportunity to direct the maintenance
. An early textual references about Mughal gardens are of an important Mughal garden. Her book makes refer-
found in the memoirs and biographies of the Mughal em- ence to the forthcoming design of a garden in the Gov-
perors, including those of Babur, Humayun and Akbar. ernment House at New Delhi (now known as Rashtrapati
Later references are found from “the accounts of India” Bhavan).* [2] She was consulted by Edwin Lutyens, and
written by various European travellers (Bernier for ex- this may have influenced his choice of Mughal style for
ample). The first serious historical study of Mughal gar- this project. Recent scholarly work on the history of
dens was written by Constance Villiers-Stuart, with the Mughal gardens has been carried out under the auspi-
85
86 CHAPTER 13. MUGHAL GARDENS
• Vernag
• Chashma Shahi
• Pari Mahal
• Achabal Gardens
13.3.3 Pakistan
Pinjore Gardens in Haryana
• Chauburji
• Lahore Fort
• Shahdara Bagh
• Hazuri Bagh
13.3.2 India
13.5 References
• Humayun's Tomb, Nizamuddin East, Delhi
[1] Penelope Hobhouse, Erica Hunningher, Jerry Harpur
• Taj Mahal, Agra (2004). Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 7–13.
• Ram Bagh, Agra [2] Villiers-Stuart, C. M. (1913). The Gardens of the Great
Mughals. Adam and Charles Black, London.
• Mehtab Bagh, Agra
[3] Jellicoe, Susan. “The Development of the Mughal Gar-
• Safdarjung's Tomb den”, MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard.
The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Har-
• Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar), Jammu and Kashmir vard University, Washington D.C. (1976). p109
• Nishat Gardens, Jammu and Kashmir [4] Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, James L.
Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conservation and
• Yadavindra Gardens, Pinjore Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996). p 207
• Khusro Bagh, Allahabad [5] Neeru Misra and Tanay Misra, Garden Tomb of Hu-
mayun: An Abode in Paradise, Aryan Books Interna-
• Roshanara Bagh tional, Delhi, 2003
88 CHAPTER 13. MUGHAL GARDENS
[6] Koch, Ebba. “The Char Bagh Conquers the Citadel: an 13.7 External links
Outline of the Development if the Mughal Palace Gar-
den,”Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, • Gardens of the Mughal Empire, Smithsonian Insti-
James L. Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conser-
tution
vation and Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996).
p. 55 • The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the
Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
[7] With his son Shah Jahan. Jellicoe, Susan “The Develop-
ment of the Mughal Garden”MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; • मुगल गॉर्डन: बसंत ऋतु में मानों धरती का स्वर्ग:
Ettinghausen, Richard. The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton
श्रवण शुक्ल की रिपोर्ट
Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C.
(1976). p 115
Chinese garden
“Chinese Garden”redirects here. For other uses, see Terrace, Pond and Park of the Spirit (Lingtai, Lingzhao
Chinese Garden (disambiguation). Lingyou) built by King Wenwang west of his capital city,
Yin. The park was described in the Shijing (Classic of
The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which Poetry) this way:
has evolved over three thousand years. It includes both
the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and members The Emperor makes his promenade in the Park
of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, of the Spirit,
and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, po-
The deer are kneeling on the grass, feeding
ets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants,
their fawns,
made for reflection and escape from the outside world.
They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is The deer are beautiful and resplendent.
meant to express the harmony that should exist between
The immaculate cranes have plumes of a bril-
man and nature.* [1]
liant white.
A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and in-
cludes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, The Emperor makes his promenade to the
and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the gar- Pond of the Spirit,
den, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By The water is full of fish, who wriggle.”- transla-
moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a se- tion in Jardins de Chine, ou la quête du paradis* [5]
ries of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll
of landscape paintings.* [2]
Another early royal garden was Shaqui, or the Dunes of
Sand, built by the last Shang ruler, King Zhou. (1075-
1046 BC). It was composed of an earth terrace, or tai,
14.1 History which served as an observation platform in the center of
a large square park. It was described in one of the early
14.1.1 Beginnings classics of Chinese literature, the Records of the Grand
Historian (Shiji).* [6]
The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in
According to the Shiji, one of the most famous features of
the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang Dy- this garden was the Wine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池⾁
nasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large en-
林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was
closed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of
or where fruit and vegetables were grown. polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool
Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed
shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, you, pu in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which
and yuan. You was a royal garden where birds and ani- had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches.
mals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their
the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), yuan became the char- boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the
acter for all gardens.* [3] The old character for yuan is a roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers
small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which and historians cited this garden as an example of deca-
can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent dence and bad taste.* [7]
the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in
a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate 535 BC, the Terrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated
tree.* [4] palaces, was built by King Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In
A famous royal garden of the late Shang dynasty was the 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the Terrace of
89
90 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a moun- bring back the elixir of immortal life, without success.
tain, and included a series of terraces connected by gal- At his palace near his capital, Xianyang, he created a gar-
leries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue den with a large lake called Lanchi gong or the Lake of
dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view ex- the Orchids. On an island in the lake he created a replica
tended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake.* [8] of Mount Penglai, symbolizing his search for paradise.
After his death, the Qin Empire fell in 206 BC and his
capital city and garden were completely destroyed, but
14.1.2 The Legend of the Isle of the Immor- the legend continued to inspire Chinese gardens. Many
tals gardens have a group of islands or a single island with
an artificial mountain representing the island of the Eight
Immortals.* [9]
province famous for its gardens was Suzhou, where many present-day Beijing, called Dadu, the Great Capital.
scholars, government officials and merchants built resi- The most famous garden of the Yuan dynasty was Kublai
dences with gardens. Some of these gardens still exist Khan's summer palace and garden at Xanadu. The
today, though most been much altered over the centuries. Venetian traveler Marco Polo is believed to have visited
The oldest Suzhou garden that can be seen today is the Xanadu in about 1275, and described the garden this way:
Blue Wave Pavilion, built in 1044 by the Song dynasty
poet Su Shunqing. (1008–1048). In the Song dynasty, “Round this Palace a wall is built, inclos-
it consisted of a hilltop viewing pavilion. Other lakeside ing a compass of 16 miles, and inside the Park
pavilions were added, including a reverence hall, a recita- there are fountains and rivers and brooks, and
tion hall, and a special pavilion for watching the fish. Over beautiful meadows, with all kinds of wild an-
the centuries it was much modified, but still keeps its es- imals (excluding such as are of ferocious na-
sential plan. ture), which the Emperor has procured and
Another Song dynasty garden still in existence is the placed there to supply food for his gerfalcons
Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou. It was created in and hawks, which he keeps there in mew. Of
1141 by Shi Zhengzhi, Deputy Civil Service Minister of these there are more than 200 gerfalcons alone,
the Southern Song government. It had his library, the without reckoning the other hawks. The Khan
Hall of Ten Thousand Volumes, and an adjacent garden himself goes every week to see his birds sitting
called the Fisherman's Retreat. It was extensively remod- in mew, and sometimes he rides through the
eled between 1736 and 1796, but it remains one of the park with a leopard behind him on his horse's
best example of a Song Dynasty Scholars Garden. [19] * croup; and then if he sees any animal that takes
his fancy, he slips his leopard at it, and the
In the city of Wuxi, on the edge of Lake Tai and at the game when taken is made over to
foot of two mountains, there were thirty four gardens feed the hawks in mew. This he does for
recorded by the Song dynasty historian Zhou Mi (1232– diversion.”* [21]
1308). The two most famous gardens, the Garden of the
North (Beiyuan) and the Garden of the South (Nanyuan), This brief description later inspired the poem Kubla Khan
both belonged to Shen Dehe, Grand Minister to Emperor by the English romantic poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Gaozong (1131–1162). The Garden of the South was a
classic mountain-and-lake (shanshui) garden; it had a lake When he established his new capital at Dadu, Kublai
with an Island of Immortality (Penglai dao), on which Khan enlarged the artificial lakes that had been created
were three great boulders from Taihu. The Garden of the a century earlier by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty, and built
South was a water garden, with five large lakes connected up the island of Oinghua, creating a striking contrast be-
to Lake Taihu. A terrace gave visitors a view of the lake tween curving banks of the lake and garden and the strict
and the mountains.* [20] geometry of what later became the Forbidden City of Bei-
jing. This contrast is still visible today.* [22]
Despite the Mongol invasion, the classical Chinese
14.1.7 Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) scholar's garden continued to flourish in other parts of
China. An excellent example was the Lion Grove Gar-
den in Suzhou. It was built in 1342, and took its name
from the collection of fantastic and grotesque assemblies
of rocks, taken from Lake Tai. Some of them were said
to look like the heads of lions. The Kangxi and Qianlong
emperors of the Qing dynasty each visited the garden sev-
eral times, and used it as model for their own summer
garden, the Garden of Perfect Splendor, at the Chengde
Mountain Resort.* [23]
In 1368, forces of the Ming dynasty, led by Zhu
Yuanzhang, captured Dadu from the Mongols and over-
threw the Yuan dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang ordered the
Yuan palaces in Dadu to be burned down.
The Lion Grove Garden in Suzhou (1342), known for its fantastic
and grotesque rocks 14.1.8 Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
In 1271, Kublai Khan established the Mongol-led Yuan The most famous existing garden from the Ming dynasty
dynasty in China. By 1279, he annihilated the last re- is the Humble Administrator's Garden in Suzhou. It was
sistance of the Song dynasty and unified China under built during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor (1506–
Mongol rule. He established a new capital on the site of 1521) by Wang Xianchen, a minor government adminis-
94 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
• The Old Summer Palace, eight kilometers north of art with which this irregularity is carried out. Everything
Beijing, was largely destroyed by an Anglo-French is in good taste, and so well arranged, that there is not a
expedition in 1860. single view from which all the beauty can be seen; you
have to see it piece by piece.”* [30]
• Remains of the Old Summer Palace garden
Chinese classical gardens varied greatly in size. The
• The Summer Palace in Beijing today largest garden in Suzhou, the Humble Administrator's
Garden, was a little over ten hectares in area, with one
• The Long Corridor at the Summer Palace (1750) fifth of the garden occupied by the pond.* [31] But they
is 728 meters long. It was built so the emperor did not have to be large. Ji Cheng built a garden for Wu
could walk through the garden protected from the Youyu, the Treasurer of Jinling, that was just under one
elements. hectare in size, and the tour of the garden was only four
hundred steps long from the entrance to the last viewing
• Gardens of the Chengde Mountain Resort, the im-
point, but Wu Youyu said it contained all the marvels of
perial villa in the mountains (1703–1792).
the province in a single place.* [32]
•“My Loveable Pavilion”from the Couple's Retreat The classical garden was surrounded by a wall, usually
Garden (1723–1736) painted white, which served as a pure backdrop for the
flowers and trees. A pond of water was usually located
• Keyuan garden in Guangdong Province, (1850)
in the center. Many structures, large and small, were ar-
• The He Garden in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, ranged around the pond. In the garden described by Ji
(1880), a classic private residence garden of the Cheng above, the structures occupied two-thirds of the
Qing dynasty. hectare, while the garden itself occupied the other third.
In a scholar garden the central building was usually a li-
brary or study, connected by galleries with other pavil-
14.2 Design of the classical garden ions which served as observation points of the garden fea-
tures. These structures also helped divide the garden into
individual scenes or landscapes. The other essential ele-
A Chinese garden was not meant to be seen all at once; ments of a scholar garden were plants, trees, and rocks,
the plan of a classical Chinese garden* [27] presented the all carefully composed into small perfect landscapes.
visitor with a series of perfectly composed and framed Scholar gardens also often used what was called “bor-
glimpses of scenery; a view of a pond, or of a rock, or a rowed”scenery (借景 jiejing) ; where unexpected views
grove of bamboo, a blossoming tree, or a view of a dis- of scenery outside the garden, such as mountain peaks,
tant mountain peak or a pagoda. The 16th-century Chi- seemed to be an extension of the garden itself.* [33]* [34]
nese writer and philosopher Ji Cheng instructed garden
builders to “hide the vulgar and the common as far as
the eye can see, and include the excellent and the splen- 14.2.1 Architecture
did.”* [28]
Some early Western visitors to the imperial Chinese gar- Chinese gardens are filled with architecture; halls, pavil-
dens felt they were chaotic, crowded with buildings in ions, temples, galleries, bridges, kiosks, and towers, oc-
different styles, without any seeming order.* [29] But cupying a large part of the space. The Humble Adminis-
the Jesuit priest Jean Denis Attiret, who lived in China trator's Garden in Suzhou has forty-eight structures, in-
from 1739 and was a court painter for the Qianlong Em- cluding a residence, several halls for family gatherings
peror, observed there was a “beautiful disorder, an anti- and entertainment, eighteen pavilions for viewing differ-
symmetry”in the Chinese garden. “One admires the ent features of the garden, and an assortment of towers,
96 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
A moon gate from the Couple's Retreat Garden in Suzhou • The pavilion of mandarin ducks (yuanyang ting).
This building is divided into two sections; one fac-
ing north used in yard of pine trees summer, facing
a lotus pond which provided cool air; and the south-
ern part used in winter, with a courtyard planted
with pine trees, which remained evergreen, and
plum trees, whose blossoms announced the arrival
of spring.* [36]
• The Mountain View Tower (Humble Administra- they have highly ornamental ceramic frames. The win-
tor's Garden) dow may carefully frame a branch of a pine tree, or a plum
tree in blossom, or another intimate garden scene.* [37]
• Pavilion of the Moon and Wind (Master of the Nets
Garden) Bridges are another common feature of the Chinese gar-
den. Like the galleries, they are rarely straight, but zigzag
• Pavilion in the Lotus Breeze (Humble Administra- or arch over the ponds, suggesting the bridges of rural
tor's Garden) China, and providing view points of the garden. Bridges
are often built from rough timber or stone-slab raised
• Listening to the Rain Pavilion (Humble Administra- pathways. Some gardens have brightly painted or lac-
tor's Garden) quered bridges, which give a lighthearted feeling to the
garden.* [38]
• Watching the Pines and Appreciating Paintings Hall
(Humble Administrator's Garden) Gardens also often include small, austere houses for soli-
tude and meditation, sometimes in the form of rustic fish-
• Spot of Return for Reading (Lingering Garden) ing huts, and isolated buildings which serve as libraries or
studios (shufang).* [39]
• Between the Mountains and the Water Pavilion (The
Couple's Retreat Garden)
• A three bay hall with full gable roofline and flat eves
• Pavilion Leaning on the Jade (Humble Administra- in the Retreat & Reflection Garden (1885)
tor's Garden)
• The Flying Rainbow Bridge in the Humble Ad-
• Soft Rain Brings Coolness Terrace (Retreat & Re- ministrator's Garden. It was designed to create a
flection Garden) rainbow-shaped reflection in the pond.
• Lasting Spring and Moon Viewing Tower (Retreat • The Main Hall of the Retreat & Reflection Garden
& Reflection Garden) • A pavilion with a fan-shaped viewing window in
the pond of the Humble Administrator's Garden in
Gardens also often feature two-story towers (lou or ge), Suzhou
usually at the edge of the garden, with a lower story made
of stone and a whitewashed upper story, two-thirds the • A pavilion in Keyuan Garden
height of the ground floor, which provided a view from • Long gallery for viewing the lotus pond at the Prince
above of certain parts of the garden or the distant scenery. Gong Mansion in Beijing
Some gardens have a picturesque stone pavilion in the
• Garden gate of the Prince Gong Mansion in Beijing
form of a boat, located in the pond. (called an xie, fang,
or shifang). These generally had three parts; a kiosk with
winged gables at the front, a more intimate hall in the 14.2.2 Artificial mountains and rock gar-
center, and a two story structure with a panoramic view
dens
of the pond at the rear.
or the government official. During the Tang dynasty, But, as Ji Cheng wrote, it could also be“the immaculate
those who passed the imperial examination were re- ribbon of a stream, animals, birds, fish, or other natural
warded with the banquet in the garden of the apricot trees, elements (rain, wind, snow), or something less tangible,
or Xingyuan. such as a moonbeam, a reflection in a lake, morning mist,
The fruit of the pomegranate tree was offered to young or the red sky of a sunset.”It could also be a sound; he rec-
couples so they would have male children and numerous ommended locating a pavilion near a temple, so that the
descendants. The willow tree represented the friendship chanted prayers could be heard; planting fragrant flowers
and the pleasures of life. Guests were offered willow next to paths and pavilions, so visitors would appreciate
their aromas; that bird perches be created to encourage
branches as a symbol of friendship.* [48]
birds to come to sing in the garden, that streams be de-
Of the flowers in the Chinese garden, the most appre- signed to make pleasant sounds, and that banana trees be
ciated were the orchid, peony, and lotus (Nelumbo nu- planted in courtyards so the rain would patter on their
cifera). During the Tang dynasty, the peony, the symbol leaves.“A judicious 'borrowing' does not have a reason.”
of opulence and a flower with a delicate fragance, was Ji Cheng wrote. “It is born simply of feeling created by
the most celebrated flower in the garden. The poet Zhou the beauty of a scene.”* [50]
Dunyi wrote a famous elegy to the lotus, comparing it to
a junzi, a man who possessed integrity and balance. The The season and the time of day were also important el-
orchid was the symbol of nobility, and of impossible love, ements. Garden designers took into account the scenes
as in the Chinese expression“a faraway orchid in a lonely of the garden that would look best in winter, summer,
valley.”The lotus was admired for its purity, and its ef- spring and autumn, and those best viewed at night, in the
forts to reach out of the water to flower in the air made it a morning or afternoon. Ji Cheng wrote: “In the heart of
symbol of the search for knowledge. The chrysanthemum the tumult of the city, you should choose visions that are
was elegized the poet Tao Yuanming, who surrounded his serene and refined: from a raised clearing, you look to the
hermit's hut with the flower, and wrote a famous verse: distant horizon, surrounded by mountains like a screen;
in an open pavilion, a gentle and light breeze invades the
room; from the front door, the running water of spring
“At the feet of the Eastern fence, I pick a
flows toward the marsh.”* [51]
chrysanthemum, In the distance, detached and
serene, I see the Mountains of the South.”* [46] Actually borrowing scenery is the conclusive, last chapter
of Yuanye that explains borrowing scenery as a holistic
The creators of the Chinese garden were careful to pre- understanding of the essence of landscape design in its
serve the natural appearance of the landscape. Trimming entirety. The ever-changing moods and appearances of
and root pruning, if done at all, tried to preserve the nat- nature in a given landscape in full action are understood
ural form. Dwarf trees that were gnarled and ancient- by the author as an independent function that becomes an
looking were particularly prized in the miniature land- agent for garden making. It is nature including the garden
scapes of Chinese gardens.* [49]* [49] maker that creates.* [52]
“The Spring Evening Banquet in the Peach and Pear Blossom “The spring breeze is gently stroking the
Garden, by Leng Mei (1677–1742) illustrates a famous garden balustrade
poem by Li Bai. and the peony is wet with dew.”* [58]
The social and cultural importance of the garden is illus- sures and corruption of court life in the capital. They
trated in the classical novel Dream of the Red Chamber chose to pursue the Taoist ideals of disengagement from
by Cao Xueqin which unfolds almost exclusively in a gar- worldly concerns.* [66]
den.* [61] For followers of Taoism, enlightenment could be
reached by contemplation of the unity of creation, in
which order and harmony are inherent to the natural
14.4 Philosophy world.* [33]* [63]* [67]
The gardens were intended to evoke the idyllic feeling of
wandering through a natural landscape, to feel closer to
the ancient way of life, and to appreciate the harmony
between man and nature.* [65]* [68]
In Taoism, rocks and water were opposites, yin and
yang, but they complemented and completed one another.
Rocks were solid but water could wear away rock. The
deeply eroded rocks from Lake Tai used in the classical
garden illustrated this principle.
Borrowing scenery is a most fundamental idea in Ming
period garden making theory (see above).
The winding paths and zig-zag galleries bridges that led
visitors from one garden scene to another also had a mes-
sage. They illustrated a Chinese proverb, “By detours,
access to secrets”.* [69]
According to the landcape historian and architect Che
Bing Chiu, every garden was “a quest for paradise. of
a lost world, of a utopian universe. The scholar's garden
participated in this quest; on the one hand the quest for
the home of the Immortals, on the other hand the search
for the world of the golden age so dear to the heart of the
scholar.”* [70]
A more recent view of the philosophy of the garden was
expressed by Zhou Ganzhi, the President of the Chi-
The zig-zag bridge in the Humble Administrator's Garden illus- nese Society of Landscape Architecture, and Academi-
trates the proverb, “By detours, access to secrets.” cian at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese
Academy of Engineering, in 2007: “Chinese classical
Even though everything [in the garden] is the work of gardens are a perfect integration of nature and work by
man, it must appear to have been created by heaven... man. They are an imitation of nature, and fully manifest
“ the beauty of nature. They can also be seen as an im-
” provement on nature; one from which the light of human
artistic genius shines.”* [71]
a canal is wide, sometimes narrow. Here they nature, tried to make their gardens in the French style, as
twist, there they curve, as if they were really far from nature as possible.* [84]
created by the hills and rocks. The edges are The English landscape garden was already well-
planted with flowers in rock gardens, which established in England in the first part of the 18th
seem to have been created by nature. Each century, influenced by the travel to Italy by the British
season has its own flowers. Aside from the upper class and their desire to have a new style of garden
canals, everywhere there are paths paved with to match the Palladian style of architecture they chose
small stones, which lead from one valley to the for their country houses, and by the romantic landscapes
other. These paths also twist and turn, some-
of Claude Lorraine and other painters, but the novelty
times coming close to the canals, sometimes far and exoticism of Chinese art and architecture in Europe
away.”* [80]
led in 1738 to the construction of the first Chinese house
in an English garden, at Stowe House, alongside Roman
Attiret wrote: temples, Gothic ruins and other architectural styles.
On the first view of the coast of China the stranger con-
“Everything is truly great and beautiful, both as
cludes that the inhabitants are a nation of gardeners.
to the design and the execution: and [the gar-
dens] struck me the more, because I had never “
seen any thing that bore any manner of resem- ”
blance to them, in any part of the world that I
had been before.”* [81] – James Main, 1827* [85]
14.6 See also [20] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 41.
[21] http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_
• Classical Gardens of Suzhou Polo/Book_1/Chapter_61 The Travels of Marco Polo,
• Ji Cheng Book 1/Chapter 61, Of the City of Chandu, and the
Kaan's Palace There. from Wikisource, translated by
• List of Chinese gardens Henry Yule.
[15] Chen, Gang (2010). Planting design illustrated (2nd ed.). [35] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 30
Outskirts Press, Inc. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4327-4197-6.
[36] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 124.
[16] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 22
[37] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 135
[17] Tzu-Hsui, Record of Hua Yang Palace, quoted by Michel
Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 352 [38] Harte, Sunniva (1999). Zen gardening. New York: Stew-
art, Tabori & Chang. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-55670-929-6.
[18] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 36.
[39] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 128.
[19] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical gardens of Suzhou. New
World Press, 2007. [40] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 114.
106 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
[41] Tsu, Frances Ya-sing (1988). Landscape design in Chinese [67] Thacker, Christopher (1985). The history of gardens.
gardens. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 28. ISBN 978-0- Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN
07-065339-9. 978-0-520-05629-9.
[42] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 116. [68] Wong, Young-tsu (2001). A paradise lost: The imperial
garden Yuanming Yuan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
[43] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de- Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8248-2328-3.
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 145. ISBN
978-0-9843741-9-9. [69] This proverb is quoted in the 18th century classic novel
Dream of the Red Chamber, when a family is looking for a
[44] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 118. motto for a garden pavilion. Michel Baridon, Les Jardins,
p. 443.
[45] Jean-Denis Attiret,“Lettre a M. d'Assaut, 1re Novembre
1743. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des Missions [70] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 186. Translated from
étrangères par quelques missionaires de la Compagne de French by D.R. Siefkin.
Jésus,”Paris, Fr. Guerin, 1749, volume XXVII, v-1. p.
[71] cited in Feng Chaioxiong The Classical Gardens of
1–61. Trans, by David Siefkin.
Suzhou, Preface.
[46] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 137 [72] Michel Barridon, Les Jardins, p. 464
[47] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 141 [73] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de-
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 150. ISBN
[48] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 142
978-0-9843741-9-9.
[49] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de-
[74] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 470
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 185. ISBN
978-0-9843741-9-9. [75] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 469
[50] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 396. [76] Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Christabel, Kubla Khan, and
the Pains of Sleep, 2nd edition, William Bulmer, London,
[51] cited in MIchel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 411 1816.
[52] Wybe Kuitert (2015) Borrowing scenery and the land- [77] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 387.
scape that lends - the final chapter of Yuanye, Journal of
Landscape Architecture, 10:2, 32-43, [78] Louis le Comte, Nouveaux memoires sur l'etat present de
la Chine, vol. I, p. 336.
[53] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, pg. 205
[79] O. Impey, Chinoiseries, London, Oxford University Press,
[54] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 425. 1977.
[55] Quoted in Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 411 [80] Joseph Spence [alias Sir Harry Beaumont] (1752). A par-
ticular account of the Emperor of China's gardens near
[56] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 389. Pekin. London. pp. 6–10. Translated from: Jean De-
nis Attiret (1743, published in 1749), Lettres edifiantes et
[57] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 14 curieuses, vol. XII, p. 403.
[58] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou [81] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
[59] Che Bing Chiu, cited in Jardins de Chine, p. 19
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 23. ISBN
[60] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine. Pg. 19. 978-0-8047-5945-8.
[61] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. “The Garden as a Site of So- [82] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 348.
cial Activity”. University of Washington. Retrieved 5 [83] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
October 2011. Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 28. ISBN
[62] Cited in Michel Attiret, Les Jardins, Editions Robert La-
978-0-8047-5945-8.
font, Paris, 1998 pg. 402
[84] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jarininiers, Po-
[63] Smith, Kim (2009). Oh garden of fresh possibilities!. etes. pp. 839–40.
Boston: David R. Godine, Publisher. p. 34. ISBN 978-
1-56792-330-8. [85] Main, James. Gardener's Magazine, 1827, Volume II, p.
135. Cited in: Kilpatrick, Jane (2007). Gifts from the gar-
[64] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 193 dens of China. London: Frances Lincoln. p. 130. ISBN
978-0-7112-2630-2.
[65] “Chinese gardens and collectors' rocks”. Department of
Asian Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [86] Chambers, William (1772). Dissertation on Oriental Gar-
Retrieved 6 September 2011. dening
[66] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. “Origins of Garden Design”. [87] Alexander Orloff and Dmitri Chvidkovski, Saint-
University of Washington. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Petersbourg, l'architecture des tsars, Paris, 1995
14.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 107
14.8 Bibliography
• Chaoxiong, Feng (2007). The Classical Gardens of
Suzhou., New World Press, Beijing (ISBN 978-7-
80228-508-8)
Japanese garden
15.1.1 Origins
108
15.1. HISTORY 109
which were marked with cords of rice fiber (shimenawa), of Japanese poetry.
and surrounded with white stones or pebbles, a symbol of It appears from the small amount of literary and arche-
purity.* [5] The white gravel courtyard became a distinc- ological evidence available that the Japanese gardens of
tive feature of Shinto shrines, Imperial Palaces, Buddhist this time were modest versions of the Imperial gardens of
temples, and zen gardens.* [6] the Tang Dynasty, with large lakes scattered with artificial
Japanese gardens also were strongly influenced by the islands and artificial mountains. Pond edges were con-
Chinese philosophy of Daoism, and Amida Buddhism, structed with heavy rocks as embankment. While these
imported from China in or around 552 AD. Daoist leg- gardens had some Buddhist and Daoist symbolism, they
ends spoke of five mountainous islands inhabited by the were meant to be pleasure gardens, and places for festi-
Eight Immortals, who lived in perfect harmony with na- vals and celebrations.
ture. Each Immortal flew from his mountain home on the
back of a crane. The islands themselves were located on
the back of an enormous sea turtle. In Japan, the five 15.1.3 Gardens of the Nara period (710-
islands of the Chinese legend became one island, called 794)
Horai-zen, or Mount Horai. Replicas of this legendary
mountain, the symbol of a perfect world, are a common The Nara Period is named after its capital city Nara. The
feature of Japanese gardens, as are rocks representing tur- first authentically Japanese gardens were built in this city
tles and cranes.* [7] at the end of the eighth century. Shorelines and stone
settings were naturalistic, different from the heavier, ear-
lier continental mode of constructing pond edges. Two of
15.1.2 In antiquity such gardens have been found at excavations, both were
used for poetry-writing festivities.* [9]
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the pleasure
gardens of the Japanese Emperors and nobles. They are 15.1.4 Gardens of the Heian period (794–
mentioned in several brief passages of Nihon Shoki, the
first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 AD.
1185)
In the spring of the year 74 AD, the chronicle recorded:
“The Emperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and re-
joiced to see them morning and evening”. The following
year,“The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the
pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial
concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together”. And
in 486, “The Emperor Kenzō went into the garden and
feasted at the edge of a winding stream”.* [8]
The Chinese garden had a very strong influence on the
early Japanese gardens. In or around 552 AD Buddhism
was officially installed from China, via Korea, into Japan.
Between 600 and 612, the Japanese Emperor sent four
legations to the Court of the Chinese Sui Dynasty. Be-
tween 630 and 838, the Japanese court sent fifteen more Phoenix Hall in the garden of Byōdō-in, Kyoto, is a temple of the
legations to the court of the Tang Dynasty. These lega- Amitābha or school of Pure Land Buddhism (1053)
tions, with more than five hundred members each, in-
cluded diplomats, scholars, students, Buddhist monks, In 794, at the beginning of the Heian Period, the Japanese
and translators. They brought back Chinese writing, art court moved its capital to Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto).
objects, and detailed descriptions of Chinese gardens. During this period, there were three different kinds of
In 612, the Empress Suiko had garden built with an gardens; palace gardens and the gardens of nobles in the
artificial mountain, representing Shumi-Sen, or Mount capital; the gardens of villas at the edge of the city; and
Sumeru, reputed in Hindu and Buddhist legends to be lo- the gardens of temples.
cated at the center of the world. During the reign of the The architecture of the palaces, residences and gardens
same Empress, one of her ministers, Soga no Umako, had in the Heian period followed Chinese practice. Houses
a garden built at his palace featuring a lake with several and gardens were aligned on a north-south axis, with the
small islands, representing the islands of the Eight Im- residence to the north and the ceremonial buildings and
mortals famous in Chinese legends and the Daoist philos- main garden to the south, there were two long wings to
ophy. This Palace became the property of the Japanese the south, like the arms of an armchair, with the garden
Emperors, was named“The Palace of the Isles”, and was between them. The gardens featured one or more lakes
mentioned several times in the Man'yōshū, the “Collec- connected by bridges and winding streams. The south
tion of Countless Leaves”, the oldest known collection garden of the imperial residences had a specially Japanese
110 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
feature; a large empty area of white sand or gravel. The created with landscape and architecture, and a prototype
Emperor was the chief priest of Japan, and the white sand for future Japanese gardens.* [13]
represented purity, and was a place where the gods could Notable existing or recreated Heian gardens include:
be invited to visit. The area was used for religious cere-
monies, and dances for the welcoming of the gods.* [10]
• Daikaku-ji
The layout of the garden itself was strictly deter-
mined according to the principles of traditional Chinese • Byōdō-in
geomancy, or Feng Shui. The first known book on the art
• Kyoto Imperial Palace
of the Japanese garden, the Sakuteiki (Records of Garden
Keeping), written in the 11th century, said: • Jōruri-ji
“It is a good omen to make the stream arrive from the
east, to enter the garden, pass under the house, and then • Osawa lake in Kyoto was part of the old imperial
leave from the southeast. In this way, the water of the gardens of the Emperor Saga (809-823 AD).
blue dragon will carry away all the bad spirits from the
• Model of a residence and garden at Heian-kyō (Ky-
house toward the white tiger.”* [11]
oto), around 1000 AD.
The Imperial gardens of the Heian Period were water
gardens, where visitors promenaded in elegant lacquered • A 19th-century scaled-down reconstruction of the
boats, listening to music, viewing the distant moun- Heian-jingū, the first Kyoto Imperial Palace Garden,
tains, singing, reading poetry, painting, and admiring the as it was in 794 AD.
scenery of the garden. The social life in the gardens was • Stepping stones in the garden of the first Kyoto Im-
memorably described in the classic Japanese novel, the perial Palace. These stones were originally part of
Tales of Genji, written in about 1005 by Murasaki Shik- a 16th-century bridge over the Kamo River, which
ibu, a lady-in-waiting to the Empress. The traces of one was destroyed by an earthquake.* [1]
such artificial lake, Osawa no ike, near the Daikaku-ji
Temple in Kyoto, still can be seen. It was built by the • Recreated garden of the old Kyoto Imperial Palace
Emperor Saga, who ruled from 809 to 823, and was said
to be inspired by Dongting Lake in China.* [12] A scaled- 1. ^ Daniele Eilisseeff, Jardins Japonais, pg. 20
down replica of the Kyoto Imperial Palace of 794 AD,
the Heian-jingū, was built in Kyoto in 1895 to celebrate
the 1100th birthday of the city. The south garden is fa- 15.1.5 Kamakura and Muromachi Periods
mous for its cherry blossoms in spring, and for azaleas (1185–1573)
in the early summer. The west garden is known for the
irises in June, and the large east garden lake recalls the
leisurely boating parties of the 8th century.* [12] Near the
end of the Heian period a new garden architecture style
appeared, created by the followers of Pure Land Bud-
dhism. These were called “Paradise Gardens,”built to
represent the legendary Paradise of the West, where the
Amida Buddha ruled. These were built by noblemen who
wanted to assert their power and independence from the
Imperial household, which was growing weaker.
The best surviving example of a Paradise Garden is
Byōdō-in in Uji, near Kyoto. It was originally the villa
of Fujiwara Michinaga, (966-1028), who married his
daughters to the sons of the Emperor. After his death,
his son transformed the villa into a temple, and in 1053 Kinkaku-ji, the Golden Pavilion (1398)
built the Hall of Phoenix, which still stands. The Hall is
built in the traditional style of a Chinese Song Dynasty The weakness of the Emperors and the rivalry of feu-
temple, on an island in the lake. It houses a gilded statue dal warlords resulted in two civil wars (1156 and 1159),
of the Amithaba Buddha, looking to the west. In the lake which destroyed most of Kyoto and its gardens. The cap-
in front of the temple is a small island of white stones, ital moved to Kamakura, Kanagawa, and then in 1336
representing Mount Horai, the home of the Eight Immor- back to the Muromachi quarter of Kyoto. The Emperors
tals of the Daoists, connected to the temple by a bridge, ruled in name only; real power was held by a military gov-
which symbolized the way to paradise. It was designed ernor, the shogun. During this period, the Government
for mediation and contemplation, not as a pleasure gar- reopened relations with China, which had been broken
den. It was a lesson in Daoist and Buddhist philosophy off almost three hundred years earlier. Japanese monks
went again to study in China, and Chinese monks came to
15.1. HISTORY 111
• Nanzen-ji
• Tenryū-ji
• Daisen-in
The zen rock garden of Ryōan-ji (late 15th century)
• Ginkaku-ji, or the Silver Pavilion, in Kyoto, was
(and is) a Zen Buddhist temple. (1482).
Japan, fleeing the Mongol invasions. The monks brought • The zen rock garden of Ginkaku-ji features a minia-
with them a new form of Buddhism, called simply Zen, or ture mountain shaped like Mount Fuji.
“meditation”. The first zen garden in Japan was built by a
Chinese priest in 1251 in Kamakura.* [14] Japan enjoyed • The garden of Daisen-in Kyoto. (1513)
a renaissance in religion, in the arts, and particularly in
• Nanzen-ji garden, Kyoto, built by Musō Soseki. Not
gardens.* [15]
all zen gardens were made of rock and sand; monks
Many famous temple gardens were built early in this pe- here contemplated a forest scene.
riod, including Kinkaku-ji, The Golden Pavilion, built in
1398, and Ginkaku-ji, The Silver Pavilion, built in 1482. • Tenryū-ji garden in Kyoto. The Sogen pond, created
In some ways they followed Zen principles of spontane- by Musō Soseki, is one of the few surviving features
ity, extreme simplicity and moderation, but in other ways of the original garden.
they were traditional Chinese Song-Dynasty Temples; the
upper floors of the Golden Pavilion were covered with
gold leaf, and they were surrounded by traditional water 15.1.6 The Momoyama Period (1568–
gardens. 1600)
The most notable garden style invented in this period was
the zen garden, or Japanese rock garden. One of the finest
examples, and one of the best-known of all Japanese gar-
dens is Ryōan-ji in Kyoto. This garden is just 9 meters
wide and 24 meters long. It is composed of white sand
carefully raked to suggest water, and fifteen rocks care-
fully arranged, like small islands. It is meant to be seen
from a seated position on the porch of the residence the
abbot of the monastery. There have been many debates
about what the rocks are supposed to represent, but, as
garden historian Gunter Nitschke wrote, “The garden at
Ryōan-ji does not symbolize. It does not have the value
of representing any natural beauty that can be found in
the world, real or mythical. I consider it as an abstract
composition of “natural”objects in space, a composi- The garden at Tokushima Castle (1592) on the island of Shikoku
features water and enormous rocks. It was meant to be seen from
tion whose function is to incite mediation.”* [16]
above, from a viewing pavilion.
Several of the famous zen gardens of Kyoto were the
work of one man; Musō Soseki (1275–1351). He was The Momoyama period was short, just 32 years, and was
a monk, a ninth-generation descendant of the Emperor largely occupied with the wars between the daimyo, the
Uda. He was also a formidable court politician, writer and leaders of the feudal Japanese clans. The new centers
organizer, who armed and financed ships to open trade of power and culture in Japan were the fortified castles
with China, and founded an organization called the Five of the daimyo, around which new cities and gardens ap-
Mountains, made up of the most powerful Zen monaster- peared. The characteristic garden of the period featured
ies in Kyoto. He was responsible for the building of the one or more ponds or lakes next to the main residence,
zen gardens of Nanzen-ji; Saihō-ji (The Moss Garden); or shoin, not far from the castle. These gardens were
and Tenryū-ji. meant to be seen from above, from the castle or residence.
112 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
The daimyos had developed the skills of cutting and lift- guests rinsed their hands and mouths before entering the
ing large rocks to build their castles, and they had armies tea room through a small, square door called nijiri-guchi,
of soldiers to move them. The artificial lakes were sur- or “crawling-in entrance”, which requires bending low
rounded by beaches of small stones and decorated with to pass through. Sen no Rikyū decreed that the garden
arrangements of boulders, with natural stone bridges and should be left unswept for several hours before the cere-
stepping stones. The gardens of this period combined ele- mony, so that leaves would be scattered in a natural way
ments of a promenade garden, meant to be seen from the on the path.* [19]
winding garden paths, with elements of the zen garden, Notable gardens of the period include:
such as artificial mountains, meant to be contemplated
from a distance.* [17]
• Tokushima Castle garden on the island of Shikoku.
The most famous garden of this kind, built in 1592, is sit-
uated near the Tokushima castle on the island of Shikoku. • Tai-an tea house at Myōki-an Temple in Kyoto, built
Its notable features include a bridge 10.5 meters long in 1582 by Sen no Rikyū.
made of two natural stones.
• Sanbō-in at Daigo-ji, in Kyoto Prefecture (1598)
Another notable garden of the period still existing is
Sanbō-in, rebuilt by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598 to cel-
ebrate the festival of the cherry blossom, and to recreate • Garden at the Tokushima Castle, dominated by
the splendor of an ancient garden. Three hundred garden- rocks
builders worked on the project, digging the lakes and in-
stalling seven hundred boulders in a space of 540 square • The garden at Daigo-ji (1598) is famous for its
meters. The garden was designed to be seen from the ve- cherry blossoms.
randa of the main pavilion, or from the“Hall of the Pure
View”, located on a higher elevation in the garden.
15.1.7 Edo Period (1615–1867)
In the east of the garden, on a peninsula, is an arrange-
ment of stones designed to represent the mythical Mount
Horai. A wooden bridge leads to an island representing a
crane, and a stone bridge connects this island to another
representing a tortoise. which is connected by an earth-
covered bridge back to the peninsula. The garden also
includes a waterfall at the foot of a wooded hill. One
characteristic of the Momoyama period garden visible at
Sanbō-in is the close proximity of the buildings to the wa-
ter.* [17]
The Momoyama Period also saw the development of the
chanoyu (tea ceremony), the chashitsu (teahouse), and the
roji (tea garden). Tea had been introduced to Japan from
China by Buddhist monks, who used it as a stimulant to
keep awake during long periods of meditation. The first
great tea master, Sen no Rikyū (1522–1591), defined in
the most minute detail the appearance and rules of the tea The garden of Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto (1641-1662), the
prototype for the promenade, or stroll garden
house and tea garden, following the principle of wabi (侘
び) “sober refinement and calm”.* [18]
Following Sen no Rikyū's rules, the teahouse was sup-
posed to suggest the cottage of a hermit-monk. It was
a small and very plain wooden structure, often with a
thatched roof, with just enough room inside for two
tatami mats. The only decoration allowed inside a scroll
with an inscription and a branch of a tree. It did not have
a view of the garden.
The garden was also small, and constantly watered to be
damp and green. It usually had a cherry tree or elm to
bring color in the spring, but otherwise did not have bright
flowers or exotic plants that would distract the attention
of the visitor. A path led to the entrance of the tea house.
Along the path was waiting bench for guests and a privy, The interior of the Geppa Pavilion of the Katsura Imperial Villa,
and a stone water-basin near the tea house, where the perfectly integrated into the garden
15.1. HISTORY 113
During the Edo Period, power was won and consolidated • Ritsurin Garden (Takamatsu)
by the Tokugawa clan, who became the Shoguns, and
moved the capital to Edo, which became Tokyo. Dur- • Koishikawa Kōraku-en (Tokyo), (1629)
ing this time, Japan, except for the port of Nagasaki, was
virtually closed to foreigners, and Japanese were not al- • Ninna-ji, Kyoto
lowed to travel to any country except China or the Nether-
lands. The Emperor remained in Kyoto as a figurehead • Emman-in, Otsu
leader, with authority only over cultural and religious af-
fairs. While the political center of Japan was now Tokyo, • Sanzen-in, north of Kyoto
Kyoto remained the cultural capital, the center for reli-
gion and art. The Shoguns provided the Emperors with • Chishaku-in, southeast of Kyoto
little power, but with generous subsidies for building gar-
• Jōju-in, in the temple of Kiyomizu, southeast of Ky-
dens.* [20]
oto. (1688–1703)
The Edo period saw the widespread use of a new kind
of Japanese architecture, called Sukiya-zukuri, which • Manshu-in, northeast of Kyoto (1656)
means literally “building according to chosen taste”.
The term first appeared at the end of the 16th century re- • Nanzen-ji, east of Kyoto. (1688–1703)
ferring to isolated tea houses. It originally applied to the
simple country houses of samurai warriors and Buddhist • The hermitage garden of the poet and scholar
monks, but in the Edo period it was used in every kind of Ishikawa Jozan at Shisen-dō, built in 1641. It later
building, from houses to palaces. became a temple.
The Sukiya style was used in the most famous garden
of the period, the Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto. The • The north garden at Ninna-ji in Kyoto, a classic
buildings were built in a very simple, undecorated style, a promenade garden
prototype for future Japanese architecture. They opened
up onto the garden, so that the garden seemed entirely • The south garden at Ninna-ji, a zen rock garden
part of the building. Whether the visitor was inside or
outside of the building, he always had a feeling he was • Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden in Tokyo, begun in
in the center of nature. The garden buildings were ar- 1629, is now surrounded by office buildings.
ranged so that were always seen from a diagonal, rather
than straight on. This arrangement had the poetic name • The most famous view of Suizen-ji is miniature
ganko, which meant literally “a formation of wild geese mountain resembling Mount Fuji
in flight.”* [21]
Most of the gardens of the Edo Period were either prom- 15.1.8 Meiji Period (1868–1912)
enade gardens or dry rock zen gardens, and they were
usually much larger than earlier gardens. The promenade The Meiji period saw the modernization of Japan, and the
gardens of the period made extensive use of borrowing re-opening of Japan to the west. Many of the old private
of scenery (“shakkei”). Vistas of distant mountains gardens had been abandoned and left to ruin. In 1871, a
are integrated in the design of the garden; or, even bet- new law transformed many gardens from the Momoyama
ter, building the garden on the side of a mountain and and Edo periods into public parks, preserving them. One
using the different elevations to attain views over land- of the well-known architects of that time was Ogawa Jihei
scapes outside the garden. Edo promenade gardens were VII, also known as Ueji.
often composed of a series of meisho, or“famous views”,
similar to postcards. These could be imitations of famous Notable gardens of this period include:
natural landscapes, like Mount Fuji, or scenes from Taoist
or Buddhist legends, or landscapes illustrating verses of • Kenroku-en, 18th and 19th centuries, finished in
poetry. Unlike zen gardens, they were designed to portray 1874.
nature as it appeared, not the internal rules of nature.* [22]
• Chinzan-so in Tokyo in 1877.
• Shugakuin Imperial Villa
• Murin-an in Kyoto, finished 1898.
• Shisen-dō, (1641)
15.1.9 Modern Japanese gardens (1912 to have always been conceived as a representation of a natu-
present) ral setting. The Japanese have always had a spiritual con-
nection with their land and the spirits that are one with
During the Showa period (1926–1988), many traditional nature, which explains why they prefer to incorporate nat-
gardens were built by businessmen and politicians. After ural materials in their gardens. Traditional Japanese gar-
World War II, the principal builders of gardens were no dens can be categorized into three types: tsukiyama (hill
longer private individuals, but banks, hotels, universities gardens), karesansui (dry gardens) and chaniwa gardens
and government agencies. The Japanese garden became (tea gardens). The main purpose of a Japanese garden is
an extension of the architecture of the building. New gar- to attempt to be a space that captures the natural beauties
dens were designed by architecture school graduates, and of nature.
often used modern building materials, such as concrete. The small space given to create these gardens usually
Some modern Japanese gardens, such as Tōfuku-ji, de- poses a challenge for the gardeners. Due to the absolute
signed by Mirei Shigemori, were inspired by classical importance of the arrangement of natural rocks and trees,
models. Other modern gardens have taken a much more finding the right material becomes highly selective. The
radical approach to the traditions. One example is Awaji serenity of a Japanese landscape and the simple but de-
Yumebutai, a garden on the island of Awaji, in the Seto liberate structures of the Japanese gardens are what truly
Inland Sea of Japan, designed by Tadao Ando. It was built make the gardens unique. “The two main principles in-
as part of a resort and conference center on a steep slope, corporated in a Japanese garden are scaled reduction and
where land had been stripped away to make an island for symbolization.”* [24]
an airport.
tract good fortune. The rules for the placement of water • An island of weathered rocks and a single pine
were laid out in the first manual of Japanese gardens, the tree in Rikugi-en garden in Tokyo represents Mount
Sakuteiki, or“The Creation of Gardens”, in the 11th cen- Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals.
tury (see“Literature”below). According to the Sakuteiki,
the water should enter the garden from the east or south- • An island in Koraku-en gardens, Tokyo
east and flow toward the west because the east is the home • Cascade at Keitaku-en garden near Osaka
of the Green Dragon (seiryu) an ancient Chinese divinity
adapted in Japan, and the west is the home of the White
Tiger, the divinity of the east. Water flowing from east 15.2.2 Rocks and sand
to west will carry away evil, and the owner of the gar-
den will be healthy and have a long life. According to the Rock, sand and gravel are an essential feature of the
Sakuteiki, another favorable arrangement is for the water Japanese garden. A vertical rock may represent Mount
to flow from north, which represents water in Buddhist Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals, or
cosmology, to the south, which represents fire, which are Mount Sumeru of Buddhist teaching, or a carp jumping
opposites (yin and yang) and therefore will bring good from the water. A flat rock might represent the earth.
luck.* [25] Sand or gravel can represent a beach, or a flowing river.
The Sakuteiki recommends several possible miniature Rocks and water also symbolize yin and yang, (in and yō
landscapes using lakes and streams: the “ocean style” in Japanese) in Buddhist philosophy; the hard rock and
, which features rocks that appear to have been eroded by soft water complement each other, and water, though soft,
waves, a sandy beach, and pine trees; the “broad river can wear away rock.
style”, recreating the course of a large river, winding Rough volcanic rocks (kasei-gan) are usually used to rep-
like a serpent; the “marsh pond”style, a large still pond resent mountains or as stepping stones. Smooth and
with aquatic plants; the “mountain torrent style”, with round sedimentary rocks (suisei-gan) are used around
many rocks and cascades; and the “rose letters”style, lakes or as stepping stones. Hard metamorphic rocks are
an austere landscape with small, low plants, gentle relief usually placed by waterfalls or streams. Rocks are tra-
and many scattered flat rocks. ditionally classified as tall vertical, low vertical, arching,
Traditional Japanese gardens have small islands in the reclining, or flat. Rocks should vary in size and color
lakes. In sacred temple gardens, there is usually an island but from each other, but not have bright colors, which
which represents Mount Penglai or Mount Horai, the tra- would lack subtlety. Rocks with strata or veins should
ditional home of the Eight Immortals. have the veins all going in the same direction, and the
rocks should all be firmly planted in the earth, giving an
The Sakuteiki describes different kinds of artificial island appearance of firmness and permanence. Rocks are ar-
which can be created in lakes, including the “mountain- ranged in careful compositions of two, three, five or seven
ous island”, made up of jagged vertical rocks mixed with rocks, with three being the most common. In a three-
pine trees, surrounded by a sandy beach; the “rocky is- arrangement, a tallest rock usually represents heaven, the
land”, composed of “tormented”rocks appearing to shortest rock is the earth, and the medium-sized rock is
have been battered by sea waves, along with small, an- humanity, the bridge between heaven and earth. Some-
cient pine trees with unusual shapes; the “cloud island” times one or more rocks, called suteishi, (“nameless”or
, made of white sand in the rounded white forms of a cu- “discarded”) are placed in seemingly random locations
mulus cloud; and the “misty island”, a low island of in the garden, to suggest spontaneity, though their place-
sand, without rocks or trees. ment is carefully chosen.* [27]
A cascade or waterfall is an important element in In ancient Japan, sand (suna) and gravel (jari) were used
Japanese gardens, a miniature version of the waterfalls around Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Later it
of Japanese mountain streams. The Sakuteiki described was used in the Japanese rock garden or Zen Buddhist
seven kinds of cascades. It notes that if possible a cascade gardens to represent water or clouds. White sand rep-
should face toward the moon and should be designed to resented purity, but sand could also be gray, brown or
capture the moon's reflection in the water.* [26] bluish-black.* [28]
• Lotus pond at Enjo-ji, a Heian period paradise gar- • Rocks in the Garden of the Blissful Mountain at
den (12th century) Daitoku-ji
• A winding stream at Mōtsū-ji garden in Hiraisumi • Sand in checkerboard pattern at Tōfuku-ji, in Kyoto
• The spring-fed pond at Suizen-ji Jōju-en garden, • Tōfuku-ji garden in Kyoto
(1636) whose water was reputed to be excellent for
making tea • Myōshin-ji garden
• Youkoukan Garden in Fukui Prefecture recreates a • Shitenno-ji garden. Note the three-rock composi-
miniature beach and a mountain tion in the center.
116 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
• Ankokuji garden in Hiroshima features rocks of dif- Such attention to detail can be seen at places such as Mi-
ferent but harmonious sizes and colors dori Falls in Kenroku-en Garden in Kanazawa, Ishikowa
Prefecture, as the rocks at the waterfall's base were
• Rock composition at Tōfuku-ji (1934) changed at various times by six different daimyo.
• A large flat rock on an island in Korakuen garden in
Tokyo, which represents a turtle's head.
15.2.3 Garden architecture
• Carefully positioned stones around the pond in
Ritsurin Garden. In Heian Period Japanese gardens, built in the Chinese
• Combination of checkerboard pattern and watter model, buildings occupied as much or more space than
patterns at the Negoro-Temple (Negoro-ji), Prefec- the garden. The garden was designed to be seen from the
ture Wakayama. main building and its verandas, or from small pavilions
built for that purpose. In later gardens, the buildings were
Selection and subsequent placement of rocks was and still less visible. Rustic teahouses were hidden in their own lit-
is a central concept in creating an aesthetically pleasing tle gardens, and small benches and open pavilions along
garden by the Japanese. During the Heian era, the con- the garden paths provided places for rest and contempla-
cept of placing stones as symbolic representations of is- tion. In later garden architecture, walls of houses and
lands – whether physically existent or nonexistent – began teahouses could be opened to provide carefully framed
to take hold, and can be seen in the Japanese word shima, views of the garden. The garden and the house became
*
which is of “particular importance …because the word one. [32]
contained the meaningʻislandʼ”Furthermore, the prin-
ciple of kowan ni shitagau, or“obeying (or following) the • The symmetrical and highly ornamental architec-
request of an object”, was, and still is, a guiding princi- ture of the Phoenix Hall in Byōdō-in Garden, Kyoto,
ple of Japanese rock design that suggests “the arrange- (1052 AD) was inspired by Chinese Song Dynasty
ment of rocks be dictated by their innate characteristics.” architecture.
The specific placement of stones in Japanese gardens to
symbolically represent islands (and later to include moun- • A chashitsu or teahouse in Jo-an garden in Inuyama,
tains), is found to be an aesthetically pleasing property of from 1618. The simple and unadorned zen teahouse
traditional Japanese gardens. Here are some of the aes- style began to be used on all Japanese buildings,
thetic principles, as stated by Thoams Heyd: from garden pavilions to palaces. This teahouse was
declared a National Treasure of Japan in 1951.
Stones, which constitute a fundamental part
of Japanese gardens, are carefully selected for • The architecture of the main house of the Katsura
their weathering and are placed in such a way Imperial Villa (1619-1662) was inspired by the sim-
that they give viewers the sense that theyʻnat- plicity of the tea house.
urallyʼbelong where they are, and in combi-
nations in which the viewers [sic] find them.
As such, this form of gardening attempts to 15.2.4 Garden bridges
emblematically represent (or present) the pro-
cesses and spaces found in wild nature, away Bridges first appeared in the Japanese garden during the
from city and practical concerns of human Heian period. At Byōdō-in garden in Kyoto, a wooden
life* [29] bridge connects the Phoenix pavilion with a small island
of stones, representing the Mount Penglai or Mount Ho-
Rock placement is a general“aim to portray nature in its rai, the island home of the Eight Immortals of Daoist
essential characteristics”* [30] - the essential goal of all teaching, The bridge symbolized the path to paradise and
Japanese gardens. Furthermore, immortality.* [33]
while the cult of stones is also central to Bridges could be made of stone (ishibashi), or of wood,
Japanese gardening …as stones were part of an or made of logs with earth on top, covered with moss
aesthetic design and had to be placed so that (dobashi); they could be either arched (soribashi) or flat
their positions appeared natural and their re- (hirabashi). Sometimes if they were part of a temple gar-
lationships harmonious. The concentration of den, they were painted red, following the Chinese tradi-
the interest on such detail as the shape of a rock tion, but for the most part they were unpainted.* [34]
or the moss on a stone lantern led at times to an During the Edo period, when large promenade gardens
overemphatic picturesqueness and accumula- became popular, streams and winding paths were con-
tion of minor features that, to Western eyes ac- structed, with a series of bridges, usually in a rustic stone
customed to a more general survey, may seem or wood style, to take visitors on a tour of the scenic views
cluttered and restless.* [31] of the garden.
15.2. GARDEN ELEMENTS 117
• The bridge at Byōdō-in temple (1052) represented • Water basin at Ryoan-ji, Kyoto
the way to the island of the immortals, and paradise
• Stone water basin in Kenroku-en garden.
• A bridge at Tokushima castle made of two stones
resting on a third stone (1592). • Stone water basin in Sakamotu, Otsu, Shiga
• Water basin at Tenryu-ji Temple in Kyoto
• Wood and stone bridge at Suizen-ji garden. The gar-
den was begun in 1636. • Snow lanterns, like this one in Kenroku-en garden,
have wide brims which catch the snow, to create pic-
• Wooden bridge in Ritsurin Garden, (Between 1642
turesque scenes.
and 1745)
• Stone bridge in Koishikawa Kōrakuen • The exterior wall of Katsura Imperial Villa, de-
signed, like all the garden, for purity and simplicity
• Rustic bridge at Tensha-en garden in Uwajima
(1866) • Gate of the Urakuen tea garden, seen from inside
• A wooden bridge covered with earth and moss • The traditional garden gate of the Adachi Museum
(dobashi) at Sorakuen of Art
• a rare covered bridge from the Sankeien Garden in • A shishiodoshi is garden device, made of bamboo
Yokohama and wood, designed to scare away birds. As the
bamboo tube fills with water, it clacks against a
stone, empties, then fills with water again.
15.2.5 Stone lanterns and water basins
For complete article see Tōrō 15.2.7 Trees and flowers
Japanese stone lanterns (台灯籠 dai-dōrō, lit. platform
lamp) date back to the Nara Period and the Heian Pe-
riod. Originally they were located only at Buddhist tem-
ples, where they lined the paths and approaches to the
temple, but in the Heian period they began to be used at
Shinto shrines as well. According to tradition, during the
Momoyama Period they were introduced to the tea gar-
den by the first great tea masters, and in later gardens they
were used purely for decoration.
In its complete and original form, a dai-doro, like the
pagoda, represents the five elements of Buddhist cosmol-
ogy. The piece touching the ground represents chi, the
earth; the next section represents sui, or water; ka or fire,
is represented by the section encasing the lantern's light Momiji in the temple of Ginkaku-ji, Kyoto
or flame, while fū (air) and kū (void or spirit) are rep-
resented by the last two sections, top-most and pointing Nothing in a Japanese garden is natural or left to chance;
towards the sky. The segments express the idea that after each plant is chosen according to aesthetic principles, ei-
death our physical bodies will go back to their original, ther to hide undesirable sights, to serve as a backdrop to
elemental form.* [35] certain garden features, or to create a picturesque scene,
like a landscape painting or postcard. Trees are carefully
Stone water basins, (tsukubai) were originally placed in
chosen and arranged for their autumn colors. Moss is of-
gardens for visitors to wash their hands and mouth before
ten used to suggest that the garden is ancient. Flowers are
the tea ceremony. The water is provided to the basin by
also carefully chosen by their season of flowering. Formal
a bamboo pipe, or kakei, and they usually have a wooden
flowerbeds are rare in older gardens, but more common
ladle for drinking the water. In tea gardens, the basin was
in modern gardens. Some plants are chosen for their re-
placed low to the ground, so the drinker had to bend over
ligious symbolism, such as the lotus, sacred in Buddhist
to get his water.* [36]
teachings, or the pine, which represents longevity.
• Lantern in Shukkei-en garden in Hiroshima. The trees are carefully trimmed to provide attractive
scenes, and to prevent them from blocking other views of
• Lantern in Koraku-en garden the garden. Their growth is also controlled, in a technique
118 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
called Niwaki, to give them more picturesque shapes, and Dynasty (960 – 1279), yellow, orange, white and red-and-
to make them look more ancient. They are sometimes white colorations had been developed. Goldfish were in-
constrained to bend, in order to provide shadows or bet- troduced to Japan in the 16th century. Koi were devel-
ter reflections in the water. Very old pine trees are often oped from common carp in Japan in the 1820s. Koi are
supported by wooden crutches, or their branches are held domesticated common carp (Cyprinus carpio) that are se-
by cords, to keep them from breaking under the weight lected or culled for color; they are not a different species,
of snow. and will revert to the original coloration within a few gen-
* *
In the late 16th century, a new art was developed in the erations if allowed to breed freely. [39] [40]
Japanese garden; that of ōkarikomi (⼤刈込), the tech-
• Nishiki-goi,
nique of trimming bushes into balls or rounded shapes
Kept of Amaterasu in the Ise Grand Shrine 2005.
which imitate waves. According to tradition this art was
developed by Kobori Enshū (1579–1647), and it was • Nishiki-goi,
most frequently practiced on azalea bushes. It was sim- or brocaded (colored) carp, a decorative fish bred for
ilar to the topiary gardens made in Europe at the same gardens
time, except that European topiary gardens tried to make
• Koi in Himeji Koko-en Garden
trees look like geometric solid objects, while ōkarkikomi
sought to make bushes look as if they were almost liquid, • A large carp in the garden of Suizen-ji
or in flowing natural shapes. It created an artistic play of
light on the surface of the bush, and, according to garden
historian Michel Baridon, “it also brought into play the 15.3 Aesthetic principles
sense of 'touching things' which even today succeeds so
well in Japanese design.”* [37]* [38]
The early Japanese gardens largely followed the Chinese
The most common trees and plants found in Japanese model, but gradually Japanese gardens developed their
gardens are the azalea (tsutsuji), the camellia (tsubaki), own principles and aesthetics. These were spelled out by
the oak (kashiwa), the Japanese apricot (ume), cherry a series of landscape gardening manuals, beginning with
(sakura), maple (momiji), the willow (yanagi), the ginkgo Sakuteiki (Notes on Gardening) in the Heian Period (794-
(ichō), the Japanese cypress (hinoki), the Japanese cedar 1185).* [41] The principles of sacred gardens, such as the
(sugi), pine (matsu), and bamboo (take). gardens of Zen Buddhist temples, were different from
those of pleasure or promenade gardens; for example,
• The style of topiary plant sculpture known as o- Zen Buddhist gardens were designed to be seen, while
karikomi in Chionin Garden. seated, from a platform with a view of the whole garden,
without entering it, while promenade gardens were meant
• O-karikomi sculpted trees and bushes at Chiran to be seen by walking through the garden and stopping at
Samurai Residence. a series of view points. However, they often contain com-
mon elements and used the same techniques. Some basic
• Azaleas at Soraku-en Garden principles are:
Miniaturization. The Japanese garden is a miniature
• Bamboo and Japanese maple combined at Tenryū-ji and idealized view of nature. Rocks can represent moun-
Garden in Kyoto. tains, and ponds can represent seas. The garden is some-
times made to appear larger by placing larger rocks and
• Pine trees at Kenroku-en garden supported by braces
trees in the foreground, and smaller ones in the back-
to support the weight of snow without breaking
ground.
• Some ancient pine trees at Kenroku-en supported by Concealment. (miegakure, literally 'hide and reveal.')
cords in winter to keep their limbs from breaking The Zen Buddhist garden is meant to be seen all at once,
but the promenade garden is meant to be seen one land-
• Landscape in Ritsurin Garden scape at a time, like a scroll of painted landscapes un-
rolling. Features are hidden behind hills, trees groves or
• O-karikomi; trimmed bushes in Ritsurin Garden bamboo, walls or structures, to be discovered when the
visitor follows the winding path.
from a diagonal, and are carefully composed into scenes 15.5.1 Chisen-shoyū-teien or pond garden
that contrast right angles, such as buildings with natural
features, and vertical features, such as rocks, bamboo or The chisen-shoyū-teien, literally“lake-spring-boat excur-
trees, with horizontal features, such as water.* [42] sion garden”, was imported from China during the Heian
Period (794-1185). It is also called the shinden-zukuri
According to garden historians David and Michigo
style, after the architectural style of the main building.
Young, at the heart of the Japanese garden is the prin-
It featured a large, ornate residence with two long wings
ciple that a garden is a work of art. “Though inspired by
reaching south to a large lake and garden. Each wing
nature, it is an interpretation rather than a copy; it should
* ended in a pavilion from which guests could enjoy the
appear to be natural, but it is not wild.”. [43]
views of the lake. Visitors made tours of the lake in small
Landscape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto wrote that the boats. These gardens had large lakes with small islands,
Japanese generate “the best of nature's handiwork in a where musicians played during festivals and ceremonies
limited space.”* [44] worshippers could look across the water at the Buddha.
No original gardens of this period remain, but reconstruc-
tions can be seen at Heian-jingū and Daikaku-ji Temple
in Kyoto.
15.4 Differences between Japanese
and Chinese gardens • Heian-jingū is a recreation of the old imperial pond
garden of Kyoto.
Japanese gardens during the Heian Period were modeled
upon Chinese gardens, but by the Edo Period there were 15.5.2 The Paradise Garden
distinct differences.
Architecture. Chinese gardens have buildings in the cen- The Paradise Garden appeared in the late Heian Period,
ter of the garden, occupying a large part of the garden created by nobles belonging to the Amida Buddhism sect.
space. The buildings are placed next to or over the central They were meant to symbolize Paradise or the Pure Land
body of water. The garden buildings are very elaborate, (Jōdo), where the Buddha sat on a platform contemplat-
with much architectural decoration. In later Japanese ing a lotus pond. These gardens featured a lake island
gardens, the buildings are well apart from the body of called Nakajima, where the Buddha hall was located,
water, and the buildings are simple, with very little orna- connected to the shore by an arching bridge. The most
ment. The architecture in a Japanese garden is largely or famous surviving example is the garden of the Phoenix
partly concealed. Hall of Byōdō-in Temple, built in 1053, in Uji, near Ky-
oto. Other examples are Jōruri-ji temple in Kyoto, Enro-
Viewpoint. Chinese gardens are designed to be seen
ji Temple in Nara Prefecture, the Hokongoin in Kyoto,
from the inside, from the buildings, galleries and pavil-
Mōtsū-ji Temple in Hiraizumi, and Shiramizu Amidado
ions in the center of the garden. Japanese gardens are de-
Garden in Iwaki City.* [47]
signed to be seen from the outside, as in the Japanese rock
garden or zen garden; or from a path winding through the
garden. • Byōdō-in Temple in Uji, near Kyoto.
Use of Rocks. In a Chinese garden, particularly in the • Enjō-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture is a good exam-
Ming Dynasty, rocks were selected for their extraordi- ple of a paradise garden of the late Heian Period.
nary shapes or resemblance to animals or mountains, and
used for dramatic effect. They were often the stars and • Jōruri-ji, a paradise garden in Kyoto. The pond was
centerpieces of the garden. In later Japanese gardens, dug by monks in 1150.
rocks were smaller and placed in more natural arrange-
ments. integrated into the garden.* [45]
15.5.3 Karesansui dry rock gardens
Marine Landscapes. Chinese gardens were inspired by
Chinese inland landscapes, particularly Chinese lakes and Karesansui gardens (枯⼭⽔) or Japanese rock gardens,
mountains, while Japanese gardens often use miniatur- became popular in Japan in the 14th century thanks to
ized scenery from the Japanese coast. Japanese gardens the work of a Buddhist monk, Musō Soseki (1275–1351)
frequently include white sand or pebble beaches and rocks who built zen gardens at the five major monasteries in
which seem to have been worn by the waves and tide, Kyoto. These gardens have white sand or raked gravel in
which rarely appear in Chinese gardens.* [46] place of water, carefully arranged rocks, and sometimes
rocks and sand covered with moss. Their purpose is to fa-
cilitate meditation, and they are meant to be viewed while
seated on the porch of the residence of the hōjō, the abbot
15.5 Garden styles of the monastery. The most famous example is Ryōan-ji
Temple in Kyoto.
120 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
Gardens were often the subject of poems during the However, usually the lessons are contained in the arrange-
Heian period. A poem in one anthology from the period, ments of the rocks, the water and the plants. For example,
the Kokin-Shu, described the Kiku-shima, or island of the lotus flower has a particular message; Its roots are in
chrystanthemums, found in the Osawa pond in the great the mud at the bottom of the pond, symbolizing the mis-
garden of the period called Saga-in. ery of the human condition, but its flower is pure white,
symbolizing the purity of spirit that can be achieved by
I had thought that here following the teachings of the Buddha. * [57]
only one chrysanthmum can grow. The Japanese rock gardens were intended to be intellec-
tual puzzles for the monks who lived next to them to
Who therefore has planted
study and solve. They followed the same principles as the
the other in the depths suiboku-ga, the black-and-white Japanese inks paintings
of the pond of Osawa? of the same period, which, according to Zen Buddhist
principles, tried to achieve the maximum effect using the
Another poem of the Heian period, in the Hyakunin isshu, minimum essential elements.* [58]
described a cascade of rocks, which simulated a waterfall,
in the same garden:
15.7.1 In Japan
• Kantō region
• Chūbu region
• Matsue Vogel Park (Matsue) Samuel Newsom's Japanese Garden Construction (1939)
• Shūraku-en, (Tsuyama) offered Japanese aesthetic as a corrective in the construc-
tion of rock gardens, which owed their quite separate ori-
• Shikoku Region gins in the West to the mid-19th century desire to grow
alpines in an approximation of Alpine scree.
• Ritsurin Garden (Takamatsu, Kagawa) According to the Garden History Society, Japanese land-
• Nakatsu Banshoen (Marugame, Kagawa) scape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto was involved in the
development of around 200 gardens in the UK. In 1937
• Tensha-en (Uwajima, Ehime)
he exhibited a rock garden at the Chelsea Flower Show,
• Kyushu Region and worked on the Burngreave Estate at Bognor Regis,
and also on a Japanese garden at Cottered in Hertford-
• Suizen-ji Jōju-en (Kumamoto, Kumamoto) shire. The lush courtyards at Du Cane Court̶an art deco
block of flats in Balham, London, built between 1935
• Sengoku-en (Kagoshima, Kagoshima)
and 1938̶were designed by Kusumoto. All four court-
• Ryūkyū Islands yards there may have originally contained ponds. Only
one survives, and this is stocked with koi. There are
• Shikina-en (Naha, Okinawa) also several stone lanterns, which are meant to symbol-
ise the illumination of one's path through life; similarly,
the paths through the gardens are not straight. Japanese
However, the Education Minister is not eligible to have
maple, Japanese anemone, cherry trees, evergreens, and
jurisdiction over any imperial property. These two gar-
bamboo are other typical features of Du Cane Court's
dens, administered by Imperial Household Agency, are
gardens.* [44]
also considered to be great masterpieces.
According to David A. Slawson, many of the Japanese
gardens that are recreated in the US are of “museum-
• Katsura Imperial Villa* [62]
piece quality”. He also writes, however, that as the gar-
• Shugaku-in Imperial Villa [63]
* dens have been introduced into the Western world, they
have become more Americanized, decreasing their natu-
ral beauty.* [66]
15.7.2 In English-speaking nations
Australia
• Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, Hobart • Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, Belfast
• University of Southern Queensland Japanese Gar- • Fujiyama Japanese Garden
den, “Ju Raku En”,* [67] Toowomba, Queensland
Scotland
Canada
• • Lauriston Castle, Edinburgh ̶garden opened
2002* [69]
Ireland
• Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden, Lethbridge, Alberta • The Japanese Gardens at the Irish National Stud,
• The Japanese Garden and Pavilion, Montreal Botan- Kildare, Co. Kildare* [69]
ical Garden, Quebec
Singapore
• Kariya Park, Mississauga, Ontario
• Japanese Garden - a garden island located in Jurong
United Kingdom Lake
• Compton Acres, Dorset* [68] • Serene Gardens (Grand Island, New York)
• Dartington Hall, Devon* [69] • Anderson Japanese Gardens (Rockford, Illinois)
• Hall Park, Leeds* [70] • Brooklyn Botanic Garden (Brooklyn, New York)
• Holland Park, London* [69] • Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden (California State
University, Long Beach)
• St Mawgan in Pydar, Cornwall* [72]
• Lotusland Japanese Garden at Ganna Walska Lotus-
• Tatton Park, Cheshire* [69] land (Santa Barbara, California)
126 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
• Portland Japanese Garden (Portland, Oregon) • The Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens, of the
Fundación Cultural Argentino Japonesa
• Seattle Japanese Garden at the Washington Park Ar- • Jardín Japonés de Belén de Escobar.
boretum, Kubota Garden (Seattle, Washington)
• Austria:
• The Japanese Garden (Los Angeles, California)
• Setagayapark, Ecke Gallmeyergasse,1190 Vi-
• Mizumoto Japanese Stroll Garden (Springfield, Mis- enna - opened 1992 (garden designer Ken
souri) Nakajima)
• Seiwa-en at the Missouri Botanical Garden (St. • The Japanese Garden in Schlosspark Schön-
Louis, Missouri) brunn, Vienna - revitalized 1999
15.8. SEE ALSO 127
15.9 Sources and citations [25] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 492.
[54] The Illustrations, nevertheless, are translated and anno- [77] See the official web site ; and see Wybe Kuitert“Discourse
tated in David A. Slawson, Secret Teachings in the Art of and Creation: Two Japanese Gardens to contemplate in
Japanese Gardens (New York/Tokyo: Kodansha 1987) Paris”Shakkei, 2008, 15/1, pp.18-29 pdf
[55] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 485. [78] Japonaiserie in London and The Hague, A history of the
Japanese gardens at Shepherd's Bush (1910) and Clingen-
[56] Nitschke, Le Jardin Japonais, pg. 42. Excerpts translated dael (c. 1915) Journal of the Garden History Society 30,
from French by DR Siefkin. 2: 221-238
[57] Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins Japonais, pg. 39. [79] Constructed in the Leiden University Botanical
Hortus Garden http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
[58] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 183. 7VBoQbBJ9eE
[59] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 197
[76] See the official web site . For the contemporary Japanese • Kato, E. (2004), The Tea Ceremony and Womenʼ
Garden see: Wybe Kuitert“Discourse and Creation: Two s Empowerment in Modern Japan, RoutledgeCur-
Japanese Gardens to contemplate in Paris”Shakkei, 2008, zon, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://www.
15/1, pp.18-29 pdf netlibrary.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/Reader/
130 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
16.1 History
131
132 CHAPTER 16. JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN
palaces. In zen gardens, it represents water, or, like the and a dry waterfall of rocks looking like a Chinese land-
white space in Japanese paintings, emptiness and dis- scape. Saihō-ji and Tenryū-ji show the transition from
tance. They are places of meditation. the Heian style garden toward a more abstract and styl-
ized view of nature.* [7]
The gardens of Ginkaku-ji, also known as the Silver
16.1.2 Zen Buddhism and the Muromachi Pavilion, are also attributed to Muso Kokushi. This tem-
Period (1336-1573) ple garden included a traditional pond garden, but it had
a new feature for a Japanese garden; an area of raked
The Muromachi Period in Japan, which took place at white gravel with a perfectly shaped mountain of white
roughly the same time as the Renaissance in Europe, was gravel, resembling Mount Fuji, in the center. The scene
characterized by political rivalries which frequently led to was called ginshanada, literally“sand of silver and open
wars, but also by an extraordinary flourishing of Japanese sea”. This garden feature became known as kogetsudai,
culture. It saw the beginning of Noh theater, the Japanese or small mountain facing the moon,”and similar small
tea ceremony, the shoin style of Japanese architecture, Mount Fujis made of sand or earth covered with grass ap-
and the zen garden.* [5] peared in Japanese gardens for centuries afterwards.* [8]
Zen Buddhism was introduced into Japan at the end of The most famous of all zen gardens in Kyoto is Ryōan-
the 12th century, and quickly achieved a wide following, ji, built in the late 15th century where for the first time
particularly among the Samurai class and war lords, who the zen garden became purely abstract. The garden is a
admired its doctrine of self-discipline. The gardens of rectangle of 340 square meters.* [9] Placed within it are
the early zen temples in Japan resembled Chinese gar- fifteen stones of different sizes, carefully composed in
dens of the time, with lakes and islands. But in Kyoto five groups; one group of five stones, two groups of three,
in the 14th and 15th century, a new kind of garden ap- and two groups of two stones. The stones are surrounded
peared at the important zen temples. These zen gardens by white gravel, which is carefully raked each day by the
were designed to stimulate meditation. “Nature, if you monks. The only vegetation in the garden is some moss
made it expressive by reducing it to its abstract forms, around the stones. The garden is meant to be viewed from
could transmit the most profound thoughts by its simple a seated position on the veranda of the hōjō, the residence
presence”, Michel Baridon wrote.“The compositions of of the abbot of the monastery.* [10]
stone, already common China, became in Japan, veritable
The garden at Daisen-in (1509-1513) took a more literary
petrified landscapes, which seemed suspended in time, as
approach than Ryōan-ji. There a“river”of white gravel
in a certain moments of Noh theater, which dates to the
represents a metaphorical journey through life; beginning
same period.”* [6]
with a dry waterfall in the mountains, passing through
The first garden to begin the transition to the new style is rapids and rocks, and ending in a tranquil sea of white
considered by many experts to be Saihō-ji, “The Tem- gravel, with two gravel mountains.
ple of the Perfumes of the West,”popularly known as
The invention of the zen garden was closely connected
Koke-dera, the Moss Garden, in the western part of Ky-
with developments in Japanese ink landscape paintings.
oto. The Buddhist monk and zen master Musō Kokushi
Japanese painters such as Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) and
transformed a Buddhist temple into a zen monastery in
Soami (died 1525) greatly simplified their views of na-
1334, and built the gardens. The lower garden of Saihō-
ture, showing only the most essential aspects of nature,
ji is in the traditional Heian Period style; a pond with
leaving great areas of white around the black and gray
several rock compositions representing islands. The up-
drawings. Soami is said to have been personally involved
per garden is a dry rock garden which features three rock
in the design of two of the most famous zen gardens in
“islands.”The first, called Kameshima, the island of the
Kyoto, Ryōan-ji and Daisen-in, though his involvement
turtle, resembles a turtle swimming in a“lake”of moss.
has never been documented with certainty.
The second, Zazen-seki, is a flat“meditation rock,”which
is believed to radiate calm and silence; and the third is the Michel Baridon wrote, “The famous zen gardens of the
kare-taki, a dry“waterfall”composed of a stairway of flat Muromachi Period showed that Japan had carried the art
granite rocks. The moss which now surrounds the rocks of gardens to the highest degree of intellectual refinement
and represents water, was not part of the original garden that it was possible to attain.”* [11]
plan; it grew several centuries later when the garden was
left untended, but now is the most famous feature of the
• Saihō-ji, or the Moss Garden, an early zen garden
garden.* [7]
from the mid-14th century. The moss arrived much
Muso Kokushi built another temple garden at Tenryū-ji, later, when the garden was not tended.
the “Temple of the Celestial Dragon”. This garden ap-
pears to have been strongly influenced by Chinese land- • The garden of Ginkaku-ji features a replica of
scape painting of the Song Dynasty which feature moun- Mount Fuji made of gravel, in a gravel sea. it was the
tains rising in the mist, and a suggestion of great depth and model for similar miniature mountains in Japanese
height. The garden at Tenryū-ji has a real pond with water gardens for centuries.
16.2. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF ROCKS 133
• Part of the garden at Ryōan-ji (late 15th century), • Shitennō-ji Honbō garden
the most abstract of all Japanese zen gardens
• A small garden in the Japanese Tea Garden of
• Classic triad rock composition at Ryōan-ji. Golden Gate Park, in San Francisco
• In the garden of Daisen-in, a river of gravel takes • Sand and stone garden located in the Portland
visitors on a metaphorical journey through life Japanese Gardens.
• The white gravel“ocean”of the garden of Daisen-ji, • An'yō-in Garden of Taisan-ji in Kobe, Hyogo,
to which the gravel river flows. Japan.
• The Garden of the Blissful Mountain at Zuiho-in, a • Rosan-ji garden
sub-temple of Daitoku-ji.
• Shitennō-ji in Osaka
• In Zuiho-in garden, - some of the rocks are said to
form a cross. The garden was built by the daimyo • Adachi Museum of Art
Ōtomo Sōrin, who was a convert to Christianity.
• Taizō-in, Myōshin-ji, in Kyoto
•
• Kōmyōzen-ji
•
• Jissō-in, in Kyoto (Iwakura)
•
• Japanese Garden at Hamilton Gardens, Waikato,
•
New Zealand
• Daisen-in [14] Young and Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden. pg.
22.
• Jishoji
[15] JAANUS, "samon 砂紋"
• Jisso-in
[16] Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 492.
• Myoshinji
[17] Nitschke, Le jardin Japonais,”pg. 92. Translation of this
• Rozanji citation from French by D.R. Siefkin.
136 CHAPTER 16. JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN
[18] van Tonder, Gert; Lyons, Michael J. (September 2005). nearly 1000 years ago, making it the oldest work on Japanese
“Visual Perception in Japanese Rock Garden Design” gardening. It is assumed that this was written in the 11th century
(PDF). Axiomathes (Springer) 15 (3): 353–371(19). by a noble man named Tachibana no Tichitsuna. In this text lies
doi:10.1007/s10516-004-5448-8. Retrieved 2007-01-08. the first mention of the karesansui in literature. Only recently
[19] Wybe Kuitert, Themes, Scenes, and Taste in the His- we saw an English modern translation of this gardening classic.
tory of Japanese Garden Art, p.150-160, Japonica Neer-
landica Volume 3, Gieben Publishers, Amsterdam ISBN
90-5063-021-9 http://edepot.wur.nl/206169 16.10 External links
[20] Review Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis, Journal of Japanese
Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 429-432 • Zen Gardens: images and meaning
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25064424
• Photo Gallery of Japanese Zen Gardens
[21] Yamada Shoji, (Earl Hartman transl.) Shots in the Dark,
Japan, Zen, and the West, The University of Chicago • Virtual tour of the Zen Gardens in and around Kyoto
Press, 2009
• Geometrical concepts of Japanese rock garden
[22] Christian Tagsold Spaces of Translation: Japanese Gar-
dens in the West, Habilitationsschrift, HHU Dusseldorf • Stanford University article on the history and mean-
ing of some Japanese gardens PDF (180 KB)
[23] Kuitert, Wybe (March 2013). “Composition of Scenery
in Japanese Pre-Modern Gardens and the Three Distances • Tsubo-en - A virtual tour of the karesansui garden in
of Guo Xi”. Studies in the History of Gardens & De- The Netherlands
signed Landscapes (Taylor and Francis) 33 (1): 1–15.
doi:10.1080/02666286.2012.753189. • Study into the karesansui gardens of the Edo era
- karesansui gardens of Traditional Samurai Resi-
dences
16.9 Bibliography • Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen garden (Re-
quires subscription)
• Wybe Kuitert (1988). Themes, Scenes, and Taste in
the History of Japanese Garden Art. Gieben Ams- Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen
terdam. ISBN 90-5063-021-9. garden (Mirror)
• Wybe Kuitert (2002). Themes in the History of • Criticisms of the term“Zen Garden”- in Japanese
Japanese Garden Art. Hawaii University Press. Garden Journal
ISBN 0-8248-2312-5.
16.9.1 Note
*The Sakuteiki is a garden book with notes on garden making
that dates back to the late seventeenth century. Its oldest title is
Senzai Hishõ, “Secret Extracts on Gardens”, and was written
Chapter 17
Roof garden
137
138 CHAPTER 17. ROOF GARDEN
Infinity edge pool at Sands Sky Park, Marina Bay Sands Hotel, Palais de Tokyo, Paris
Singapore
“In an accessible rooftop garden, space becomes available
for localized small-scale urban agriculture, a source of
buildings in the city and the storage of this heat in the local food production. An urban garden can supplement
building material and its subsequent re-radiation. Plant the diets of the community it feeds with fresh produce and
surfaces however, as a result of transpiration, do not rise provide a tangible tie to food production.”* [10] At Trent
more than 4–5 °C above the ambient and are sometimes University, there is currently a working rooftop garden
cooler.”* [7] This then translates into a cooling of the which provides food to the student café and local citizens.
environment between 3.6 and 11.3 degrees Celsius (6.5
and 20.3 °F), depending on the area on earth (in hotter ar- Available gardening areas in cities are often seriously
eas, the environmental temperature will cool more). The lacking, which is likely the key impetus for many roof gar-
study was performed by the University of Cardiff.* [8] dens. The garden may be on the roof of an autonomous
building which takes care of its own water and waste.
A study at the National Research Council of Canada Hydroponics and other alternative methods can expand
showed the differences between roofs with gardens and the possibilities of roof top gardening by reducing, for ex-
roofs without gardens against temperature. The study ample, the need for soil or its tremendous weight. Plant-
shows temperature effects on different layers of each roof ings in containers are used extensively in roof top gardens.
at different times of the day. Roof gardens are obvi- Planting in containers prevents added stress to the roof's
ously very beneficial in reducing the effects of temper- waterproofing. One high-profile example of a building
ature against roofs without gardens. “If widely adopted, with a roof garden is Chicago City Hall.
rooftop gardens could reduce the urban heat island, which
would decrease smog episodes, problems associated with For those who live in small apartments with little space,
heat stress and further lower energy consumption.”* [9] square foot gardening, or (when even less space is avail-
able) green walls (vertical gardening) can be a solution.
• These use much less space than traditional gardening
(square foot gardening uses 20% of the space of con-
• ventional rows; ten times more produce can be generated
from vertical gardens). These also encourage environ-
Aside from rooftop gardens providing resistance to ther- mentally responsible practices, eliminating tilling, reduc-
17.6. SCIENCE OF GARDENING 139
ing or eliminating pesticides, and weeding, and encour- outdoor living space for the building's residents. It may
aging the recycling of wastes through composting. include planters, plants, dining and lounging furniture,
outdoor structures such as pergolas and sheds, and au-
tomated irrigation and lighting systems.
17.4 Importance to urban planning Although they may provide aesthetic and recreational
benefits a green roof is not necessarily designed for this
purpose. A green roof may not provide any recreational
space and be constructed with an emphasis towards im-
proving the insulation or improving the overall energy ef-
ficiency and reducing the cooling and heating costs within
a building.
Green roofs may be extensive or intensive (refer http://
www.elmich.com.au/greenroofsystems/about.php). The
terms are used to describe the type of planting required.
The panels that comprise a green roof are generally no
more than a few inches up to a foot in depth, since weight
is an important factor when covering an entire roof sur-
face. The plants that go into a green roof are usually
sedum or other shallow-rooted plants that will tolerate the
hot, dry, windy conditions that prevail on most rooftop
gardens. With a green roof, “the plants layer can shield
off as much as 87% of solar radiation while a bare roof
receives 100% direct exposure”.* [12]
The planters on a roof garden may be designed for a va-
riety of functions and vary greatly in depth to satisfy aes-
thetic and recreational purposes. These planters can hold
a range of ornamental plants: anything from trees, shrubs,
vines, or an assortment of flowers. As aesthetics and
recreation are the priority they may not provide the en-
Seelbach Hotel advertising its roof garden, ca. 1910 vironmental and energy benefits of a green roof.Planting
on roof tops can make urban living more self-sufficient
Becoming green is a high priority for urban planners. and make fresh vegetables more accessible to urban peo-
The environmental and aesthetic benefits to cities is the ple.
prime motivation. It was calculated that the temperature
in Tokyo could be lowered by 0.11–0.84 °C if 50% of all
available rooftop space were planted with greenery. This 17.6 Science of gardening
would lead to a savings of approximately 100 million yen
*
[11] The related idea of a living machine is based on the most
Singapore is very active in green urban development. basic cycle of gardening: using wastes (organic waste
“Roof gardens present possibilities for carrying the no- and sewage), appropriately broken down, usually in some
tions of nature and open space further in tall building specialized container, on the soil, and harvesting food
development.”* [11] When surveyed, 80% of Singapore which, when processed, generates biodegradable waste,
residents voted for more roof gardens to be implemented and when eaten, generates sewage. In most of the world,
in the city's plans. Recreational reasons, such as leisure this kind of very tight closed loop gardening is used, de-
and relaxation, beautifying the environment, and green- spite certain health risks if necessary precautions are not
ery and nature, received the most amount of votes. Plant- taken. Composting human or pet waste should achieve
ing roof gardens on tops of building is a great way to make thermophilic conditions and age for at least a year before
city more efficient.* [11] being used.
• ACROS Fukuoka [5] p. 219, Byzantine garden culture, Antony Robert Little-
wood, Henry Maguire, and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn,
• Herb garden of National Museum of Nature and Dumbarton Oaks, 2002, ISBN 0-88402-280-3.
Science Tokyo
[6] Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992), Islamic Architecture in
• A small Zen roof garden Cairo, Brill Publishers, p. 6, ISBN 90-04-09626-4
17.9 See also [9] Liu, K. “Energy efficiency and environmental benefits
of rooftop gardens” (PDF). National Research Council
Canada. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
• Building-integrated agriculture
[10] Trent University (October 30, 2009).“Rooftop Gardens”
• Composting toilet (PDF). Retrieved March 12, 2014.
• Cool roof [11] Yuen, B, & Wong, N. (2005). Resident perceptions and
expectations of rooftop gardens in Singapore. Landscape
• Green roof and Urban Planning, 73 (4). Retrieved June 19, 2009,
from ScienceDirect database.
• Hanging Gardens of Babylon
[12] Wong, N, Tay, S, Wong, R, Ong, C, & Sia, A. (2003).
• Kensington Roof Gardens Life cycle cost analysis of rooftop gardens in Singapore.
Building and Environment, 38 (3). Retrieved June 19,
• List of gardening topics 2009, from ScienceDirect database.
• Low-flow irrigation systems
• Roof deck • The New York Times article about rooftop garden in
Manhattan
• Skyrise greenery
• Terrace garden
• Urban agriculture
• Wildlife corridor
Chapter 18
Public space
“In public”redirects here. For the song by Kelis featur- 18.1 Use of public spaces
ing Nas, see In Public. For the film, see In Public (film).
A public space is a social space that is generally
18.1.1 Right to common passage
141
142 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE
18.1.4 Controversy regarding restrictions racy, employing Henri Lefebvre's notion of the right to
on use the city in articulating his argument.* [6] While democ-
racy and public space don't entirely coincide, it is the po-
tential of their intersection that becomes politically im-
portant. Other geographers like Gill Valentine have fo-
cused on performativity and visibility in public spaces,
which brings a theatrical component or 'space of appear-
ance' that is central to the functioning of a democratic
space.* [7]
18.1.6 Privatization
Main article: Privately owned public space
begging, advertising, photography, propaganda, riding ern society has withdrawn from public life that used to
rollerskates, skateboards, a Segway, etc. inform city centres. Political and social needs, and fo-
rums for expression, can now be accessed from the home.
This sentiment is reflected in Michael Sorkin's and Mike
18.2 Public space in design theory Davis' declaration of “the end of public space”and* the
“destruction of any truly democratic urban spaces.” [15]
Another side of the debate, however, argues that it is peo-
Public space, as a term and as a concept in design, is
ple who apply meaning to public space, wherever it may
volatile. There is much conversation around what con-
be. It has been suggested that the concepts of public,
stitutes public space, what role it plays, and how design
space, democracy, and citizenship are being redefined by
should approach and deal with it.
people through lived experience.* [16] Discussion has sur-
faced around the idea that, historically, public space has
18.2.1 Historical shift been inherently contradictory in the way that it has always
been exclusive in who has been able to participate. This
Historically, public space in the west has been limited has caused *
the“counterpublics”, as identified by Nancy
to town centres, plazas, church squares, i.e. nearly al- Fraser, [17] to establish their own public spaces to re-
ways engineered around a central monument, which in- spond to their own concerns. These spaces are in constant
forms the program of the space. These spaces acted as the flux, and in response, its users restructure and reinterpret
'commons' of the people; a political, social and cultural physical space. An example of this is in the African-
arena. Of the thirteen colonies that became the United American neighbourhood, Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles.
States, three were comprehensively planned with inte- Here, a parking lot has evolved into a scene of intense
grated physical, social, and economic elements. These commercial and social activity. Locals gather here to
planned colonies of Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Geor- meet and socialise, sell and consume goods. The exam-
gia each placed emphasis on public space, in particular ple has been used to illustrate that the historical ideal of
the public square. The plan for Georgia, known as the fixed public space around a monument is not viable for a
Oglethorpe Plan created a unique design in which a public contemporary diverse social range as “no single physi-
square was created for every ward of forty residential lots cal space can represent
*
a completely inclusive 'space of
and four civic or commercial lots. The design has been democracy'.” [16]
preserved in the Savannah historic district.* [9]* [10]* [11]
Jürgen Habermas' concept of the public sphere links its
emergence with the development of democracy.* [12] A
good example of this is the New Deal projects. The New
Deal was a brief period in the US under Franklin De-
lano Roosevelt's government that produced a huge num- 18.2.3 Art in public space
ber of public works in an economic effort to boost em-
ployment during the depression. The result, however, was Main article: Public art
more than this. They constituted a legacy of what has
been called the cultural infrastructure underlying Ameri-
can public space.* [13] The New Deal projects have been This sense of flux and change, informs how contempo-
rary public art has evolved. Temporal art in public spaces
credited with significantly contributing to the quality of
American life and encouraging unity between all aspects has been a long established practice. But the presence of
of the community. It has been recently argued, however, public art has become increasingly prevalent and impor-
that the democratic ideal of public life through the usetant within our contemporary cities. Temporal public art
is so important because of its ability to respond to, reflect,
of public space has deteriorated. As our cities accelerate
and explore the context which it inhabits. Patricia Phillips
towards segregation (social, economic, cultural, ethnic),
describes the “social desire for an art that is contempo-
the opportunity for public interaction is on the decline.
John Chase writes, “The importance of voluntary and rary and timely, that responds to and reflects its temporal
and circumstantial context.”* [18] Public art is an arena
obligatory participation in civic life has been usurped by
for investigation, exploration and articulation of the dense
the consciousness of the arbitrary nature of assigned cul-
and diverse public landscape. Public art asks its audience
tural meanings and by the increasingly important role that
consumption of goods and services plays in the formationto re-imagine, re-experience, re-view and re-live. In the
of individual identity.”* [14] design field, a heavy focus has been turned onto the city
as needing to discover new and inspired ways to re-use,
re-establish and re-invent the city, in step with an invigo-
18.2.2 Modern critique rated interest in re-juvinating our cities for a sustainable
future. Contemporary design has become obsessed with
Modern architectural critics have lamented on the 'nar- the need to save the modern city from an industrialised,
rative of loss' within the public sphere. That is, mod- commercialised, urban pit of a death bed.
144 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE
18.2.4 Approaching urban design [11] Rivers, William J. A Sketch of the History of South Car-
olina. Charleston: McCarter and Co., 1856. See pp. 358-
Contemporary perception of public space has now 394 for design details; Carolina thus far has received less
branched and grown into a multitude of non-traditional attention in the urban design literature than Pennsylvania
sites with a variety of programs in mind. It is for this rea- or Georgia
son that the way in which design deals with public space [12] Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the
as a discipline, has become such a diverse and indefinable Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois
field. Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989)
Iris Aravot puts forward an interesting approach to the ur- [13] Robert D. Leighninger, Jr., 1996, 'Cultural Infrastructure:
ban design process, with the idea of the 'narrative-myth'. The Legacy of New Deal Public Space', Journal of Ar-
Aravot argues that “conventional analysis and problem chitectural Education, Vol. 49, No. 4 (May, 1996), pp.
solving methods result in fragmentation...of the authentic 226-236
experience of a city...[and] something of the liveliness of
[14] John Chase, “The Garret, the Boardroom, and the
the city as a singular entity is lost.”* [19] The process
Amusement Park,”JAE 47/2 (Nov. 1993)
of developing a narrative-myth in urban design involves
analysing and understanding the unique aspects of the lo- [15] Michael Sorkin, “Introduction”, and Mike Davis,
cal culture based on Cassirer's five distinctive“symbolic “Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban
forms”.* [20] They are myth and religion, art, language, Space,”in Michael Sorkin, ed. Variations on a Theme
history and science; aspects often disregarded by profes- Park: The New American City and the End of Public
sional practice. Aravot suggests that the narrative-myth Space (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992)
“imposes meaning specifically on what is still inexplica- [16] Margaret Crawford. 1995,“Contesting the Public Realm:
ble”, i.e. the essence of a city. Struggles over Public Space in Los Angeles”, Journal of
Architectural Education, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Sep, 1995) pp.
4-9
18.3 Notes and references [17] Nancy Fraser,“Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contri-
bution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,”
[1] Petersen, Klaus & Allan C. Hutchinson. “Interpreting in Bruce Robbins, ed., The Phantom Public Sphere (Min-
Censorship in Canada”, University of Toronto Press, neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993)
1999. [18] Patricie C. Philips, 1989, “Temporality and Public Art”
, Art Journal, Vol. 48, No. 4, Critical Issues in Public Art
[2] First Amendment to the United States Constitution (Winter, 1989), pp. 331-335
• Public land
• Speakers' Corner
• Street photography
• Village green
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ativelandscaping, Topiaryone, Tomyun, Hafspajen, Metalrog, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Sun Creator, Aarondunn, Muro Bot, Johnuniq,
Darkicebot, Stoick, Addbot, JoinTheMadVender, Ginosbot, Ehrenkater, Аимаина хикари, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Bufo-
MarinusHughes, Coleridgenut, Kingpin13, Westerness, Capricorn42, FrescoBot, Remotelysensed, Thayts, Karesansui, Patings, LittleWink,
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Tholme, R.Michael2000, Northamerica1000, CitationCleanerBot, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Scandinavii-kamikaze, StilNovo and Anony-
mous: 75
• Persian gardens Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_gardens?oldid=704098134 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Smack, Charles
Matthews, Justin Bacon, Nv8200pa, Wetman, Mayooranathan, Mirv, OldakQuill, Quadell, Florian Blaschke, Mani1, Bender235, Art
LaPella, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, Jonsafari, Wiki-uk, Zereshk, Woohookitty, Nemonoman, Amir85, Yamamoto Ichiro, Khirad, Russ-
Bot, Shinmawa, Tajik, Arad, SmackBot, Reedy, Grantb, Verne Equinox, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Aksi great, ParthianShot, Willow4, Dreadstar,
NickPenguin, Databot, SilkTork, Lue3378, Pejman47, Gil Gamesh, Bruinfan12, CmdrObot, Gregbard, Ntsimp, Verdy p, Barticus88, So-
breira, Bobblehead, BehnamFarid, Nick Number, WinBot, Alite, Tokyo tintin, Mardavich, Magioladitis, CommonsDelinker, Johnbod, Lor-
dAnubisBOT, Chiswick Chap, Redtigerxyz, Aparhizi, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, Falcon8765, JukoFF, GoLnAr, Wschroedter, Tinglepal,
Prof saxx, Martarius, Keeper76, Ivansevil, DragonBot, PixelBot, Cenarium, Jotterbot, SchreiberBike, Taranet, Thingg, Lx 121, ברוקולי,
MystBot, Addbot, Aacugna, Lightbot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, AnomieBOT, Srahat, Sendelbach, Gilo1969, Mcgrathmg, Moodi999,
Louperibot, محک, Rain drop 45, EmausBot, Look2See1, مانفی, Koresdcine, ChuispastonBot, Dr. Persi, PaleCloudedWhite, Rezabot,
Northamerica1000, Maahmaah, Makecat-bot, Rahelehwiki, HistoryofIran, Husraw, C.M. Tom, Bladesmulti, HajjiBaba, Shab2012 and
Anonymous: 27
• Hortus conclusus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_conclusus?oldid=700164330 Contributors: Bogdangiusca, Wetman, Tom
harrison, LLarson, Andycjp, Rich Farmbrough, Ynhockey, Koavf, TBHecht, FlaBot, SmackBot, Rune X2, Sbharris, Egsan Bacon, Cyber-
cobra, Andrewplatham, SilkTork, Makyen, PaulGS, Kapohogrrl, RCS, Drinibot, Cydebot, Goldfritha, Thijs!bot, MarshBot, Amadalvarez,
CommonsDelinker, Lilac Soul, Ian.thomson, Johnbod, John Carter, StAnselm, Hafspajen, SchreiberBike, Sjouker, MystBot, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Flizzz, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, NicoScPo, HyperGaruda, Pierpao, EmausBot, Look2See1, EleferenBot, Jaco-
bisq, Gilderien, Abercius, ClaireFrancesClaire, MagicatthemovieS, Boyinra and Anonymous: 5
• Botanical garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden?oldid=705717931 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Zundark,
Christian List, DavidLevinson, Sfdan, Blueshade, Andrel, Haakon, Stan Shebs, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Aarchiba, Dysprosia, Marsh-
man, Shizhao, Raul654, Wetman, Pollinator, Donarreiskoffer, Romanm, Cecropia, Alan Liefting, Mintleaf~enwiki, Yak, Curps, Dick
Bos, Andycjp, MisfitToys, Eranb, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Paul August, DS1953, Bobo192, Jumbuck, AnnaP, Velella, Evil Mon-
key, Tony Sidaway, Cmapm, Drbreznjev, Stemonitis, Nuno Tavares, Isnow, Tetraminoe, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ricardo Carneiro Pires,
FlaBot, Oliver Chettle, CalJW, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL, Wongm, Giac, CJLL Wright, Stefan29, YurikBot, Wavelength, Phantom-
steve, RussBot, Chroniclev, Mikewmiller, WayneRay, Chensiyuan, NawlinWiki, Stephen Burnett, Semolo75, Grafen, Welsh, Pyrotec,
Aaron Brenneman, FargomeD~enwiki, Gadget850, Zzuuzz, Airodyssey, Johndodd, Vanka5, SmackBot, David Kernow, Greedo, Steam5,
Shadware, Hmains, Skizzik, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dreg743, LaggedOnUser, Zinneke, Esculapio, Nixeagle, WikiCats, Cybercobra,
Jiddisch~enwiki, Acdx, Risssa, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Rklawton, John, 1mtc, SilkTork, NongBot~enwiki, A. Parrot, Makyen, MTS-
bot~enwiki, Treeboy2001, OnBeyondZebrax, KlaudiuMihaila, CmdrObot, Page Up, WeggeBot, Miguel303xm~enwiki, Fordmadoxfraud,
Reywas92, Pauliefred, Christian75, Thijs!bot, J Bar, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, KP Botany, Edokter, JAnDbot, MER-C, Plantsurfer,
PhilKnight, Stubbleboy, J.P.Lon, Michael Goodyear, KConWiki, Xlboy~enwiki, Peter coxhead, Wassupwestcoast, Kostisl, Commons-
Delinker, Botsad, Fconaway, J.delanoy, DrKay, Numbo3, Eliz81, Keizers, Bonadea, Andy Marchbanks, DASonnenfeld, VolkovBot,
Miguelzinho, Umalee, TXiKiBoT, Sherip23, Rei-bot, Aymatth2, Kleiner stern, Rituido, L.vivian.richard, Roland zh, Dominican1000,
Pdfpdf, Bfpage, SieBot, Whiteghost.ink, BlueAzure, SimonTrew, Rosiestep, Linkboyz, Suburban shaman, Beniboza, Martarius, ClueBot,
Bob1960evens, FieldMarine, Estirabot, Nosteb~enwiki, Kakofonous, SoxBot III, Camboxer, A.zstephens, Thatguyflint, Kembangraps,
Addbot, Betterusername, Granitethighs, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Kenraiz, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Botanicalgardenland-
marksocietygov, RIBEYE special, AnomieBOT, Kepper66, Cossde, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Gigemag76, GrouchoBot, Shadowjams, SchnitzelMannGreek, A.amitkumar, Photnart, Originalwana, Boldpotato,
148 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE
ClickRick, Citation bot 1, Flyingsalamanders, ARGMGM, Sam Malone, IceTi, Angenhariaus, Floramarina, Jonkerz, Vrenator, Utopia-
park, Theo10011, TjBot, The Stick Man, Slon02, Nihola, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tococa, WikitanvirBot, Racerx11, Bettymnz4,
ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, SwinSvinoza, Nanodance, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, DavidAnstiss, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99, MKar, Rl-
hindle, Northamerica1000, Tangerinehistry, TejasDiscipulus2, Alexpostfacto, JYBot, 114rider, Martin F. Smit, Jamesx12345, Jonnmann,
Barsxxx, Rekowo, AkhilKumarPal, Bungutebungute, L Manju, Karlostachys, Scotthi1960, KasparBot, Sweepy, DirtyRotten, Karlfonza
and Anonymous: 108
• Giardino all'italiana Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giardino_all'italiana?oldid=690513566 Contributors: The Anome, Top-
banana, Joy, Wetman, PBS, Wiki-uk, Wavelength, Grafen, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Egsan Bacon, Carnby, Ian Spackman, TheTito,
JAnDbot, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, M-le-mot-dit, Biglovinb, Carlomorino, JO 24, Addbot, Drpickem, Yobot, Victoriaearle, KamikazeBot,
Kibi78704, Stalwart111, Seurope, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1, مانفی, BanWisco, Justlettersandnumbers, Khazar2, Hmains-
bot1, N0n3up, KasparBot and Anonymous: 7
• Italian Renaissance garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_garden?oldid=664951434 Contributors: Wetman,
Wiki-uk, StephanCom, CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Attilios, SmackBot, Mangoe, Chris the speller, -Marcus-, Ian Spackman, Doug
Coldwell, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, Funandtrvl, SiefkinDR, Sun Creator, Iohannes Animosus, Vejvančický, Yobot, Witza, Xqbot, Bru-
taldeluxe, FrescoBot, Theologiae, PetroniusArb, Thekingofwrong, Look2See1, 02Wahyudi, Eyadhamid, SporkBot, Concord113, Darth-
Haterz, Rococo1700, Gial Ackbar, Mogism, Radarm and Anonymous: 10
• French formal garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_formal_garden?oldid=697604486 Contributors: Olivier, Hadal, Var-
laam, Alansohn, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, Angusmclellan, Str1977, Fnorp, Grafen, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris,
JHunterJ, Saltlakejohn, Cydebot, JAnDbot, The Anomebot2, EagleFan, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Funandtrvl, Cnilep, SiefkinDR, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Martim33, David FLXD, Aucassin, Addbot, The Sage of Stamford, Annielogue, SamatBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Aeortiz, Lil-
Helpa, Xqbot, Sionk, Locobot, DrilBot, RedBot, Kibi78704, Elekhh, Lotje, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1, Wikipelli, Midas02,
ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, MKar, John0919, Mogism, Radarm, KasparBot and Anonymous: 19
• French landscape garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_landscape_garden?oldid=682948284 Contributors: William Av-
ery, Menchi, Topbanana, Pascal666, Macrakis, Smalljim, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, Mandarax, BD2412, Gaius Cornelius, Hmains, Chris the
speller, JustAGal, The Anomebot2, Peter coxhead, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Squids and Chips, Funandtrvl, SimonTrew, SiefkinDR,
Chaley67, WikHead, Debresser, Ben Ben, Yobot, Gensanders, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Look2See1, Fabien555, ClueBot
NG, Concord113, Widr, MKar, Khazar2, Radarm, Priam4 and Anonymous: 8
• English landscape garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_landscape_garden?oldid=695124235 Contributors: Olivier,
Menchi, Haakon, Tobias Conradi, Wetman, Michael Glass, David Edgar, DocWatson42, Andycjp, Richardelainechambers, Bender235,
Marcok, Smalljim, Cwolfsheep, Grutness, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Kotasik, Inge-Lyubov, Ghirlandajo, Woohookitty, ScottDavis,
MZMcBride, CalJW, Gurch, Str1977, YurikBot, Fnorp, Danlaycock, Emersoni, Aranymalinko~enwiki, Petri Krohn, Mais oui!, DVD R
W, Edward Waverley, Jfg284, Xavier35, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Mona, Mike hayes, Intelligent Mr Toad, Rrburke, Flyguy649, John, Silk-
Tork, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Deepak D'Souza, Chicheley, Teratornis, Varlet16, Modernist, JAnDbot, Ericoides, D.h, R'n'B, DrKay,
Reedy Bot, DarwinPeacock, Balthazarduju, Inwind, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Dormskirk, Mikebach, PeterHuntington, Frania Wisniewska,
Shakko, SiefkinDR, Martarius, ClueBot, Sevilledade, Cordwangler, Richerman, Dean oreillt, N p holmes, BOTarate, Anual, Surtsicna,
Addbot, Lemonade100, Tassedethe, Wholetone, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Agnosticaphid, MinorProphet, AnomieBOT,
Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Erud, GrouchoBot, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, Purpleturple, Jiří Janíček, IceTi, Wosne, Moonraker,
RjwilmsiBot, Rwood128, John of Reading, Look2See1, SwinSvinoza, Eyadhamid, GrindtXX, Erianna, Concord113, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Regulov, BG19bot, MKar, Northamerica1000, ISTB351, HIDECCHI001, Cold Season, Posterio, Khazar2, Spetsnaz1991, Hmainsbot1,
Danny Sprinkle, Yakikaki, Courage respect, Argovian, Hyeonjin Kim, Yggdrasil sampo, KasparBot and Anonymous: 43
• Mughal gardens Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_gardens?oldid=692575262 Contributors: Tom Radulovich, OldakQuill,
Grutness, Wiki-uk, Salilb, Grenavitar, Woohookitty, Nemonoman, Cbdorsett, Dialectric, Malekhanif, Tajik, SmackBot, Bobet, Mairibot,
Amatulic, SeanWillard, Willow4, Bahauddeen, Shyamsunder, Green Giant, Randhirreddy, Mcginnly, AshLin, Emilio Juanatey, Haphar,
Mattisse, Burg Hambler, Mr pand, Seaphoto, The Anomebot2, Dharmadhyaksha, Daemonic Kangaroo, Fconaway, Johnbod, Barastert,
Redtigerxyz, TXiKiBoT, The Thing That Should Not Be, Keeper76, Synthiac, Ihrishikesh, SchreiberBike, KawalSingh, XLinkBot, Roxy
the dog, WikHead, Addbot, Jan eissfeldt, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ciphers, Asamudra, Mahabharat fan, Anujkhandelwal, Mightymrt away,
Leverett.lisa, Look2See1, East of Borschov, Alpha Quadrant (alt), ClueBot NG, Dr. Persi, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, MKar, Kash-
miriGuide, PTJoshua, Ali15uk, Mughal Lohar, Neeru Misra, ThanMore, Isavecina, Isarra (HG), SFK2, Ugog Nizdast, NottNott,
and Anonymous: 56
• Chinese garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_garden?oldid=701671206 Contributors: Olivier, Edward, Llywrch, Aho-
erstemeier, Judzillah, Topbanana, Sunray, Davidcannon, Enochlau, Jeremykemp, Chris j wood, Xezbeth, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Nickj,
Grutness, Raintaster, Ctande, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Bathrobe, Fat pig73, Sudasana, Immanuel Giel, RyanGerbil10, Mindmatrix, Tabletop,
Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Daderot, Pfctdayelise, Benjwong, Jonathan Stanley, Mhartl, Clam0p, Caerwine, Eeksypeeksy, Wai
Hong, SmackBot, Reedy, Lds, Gaff, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Snori, TheLeopard, SROSET, Stepho-wrs, Nakon, Dreadstar, Gurdjieff,
Khazar, SilkTork, Kkong, JHunterJ, Hvn0413, Intranetusa, JoeBot, Jackp, Casper Gutman, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Requestion, Nick
Number, Haha169, Taurion, TheBlueFox, SiobhanHansa, ArchStanton69, Szilas, Paul Gard, Tenor9200, Genghiskhanviet, Keith D, R'n'B,
CommonsDelinker, Meilanfang, Unkx80, LordAnubisBOT, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, DASonnenfeld, Squids and Chips, Funandtrvl,
Ng556, Chineseman02, Michaeldsuarez, Roland zh, PericlesofAthens, Alawa, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Kasey cole, Lightmouse, Gomey-
ing, SiefkinDR, Msrasnw, Dcattell, JoeenNc, ClueBot, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Meiguoren, Alexbot, Stepheng3, Versus22, Balmacaan,
DumZiBoT, Black Knight takes White Queen, Angeloncloud, XLinkBot, Addbot, Ucla90024, Chzz, Elan26, Ws227, Luckas Blade, Szalax,
Arbitrarily0, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, Timtag5674, Asoer, Ulric1313, LilHelpa, Gardenhistory, Shadowjams, Asoucek, FrescoBot, Mean-
ing of Lif, Louperibot, AstaBOTh15, Kibi78704, Dustynyfeathers, Updatehelper, Puchiwonga, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1,
燈⽕闌珊處, 02Wahyudi, Fabien555, ChuispastonBot, Crown Prince, ClueBot NG, JesseW900, Outlawmonkeys, Helpful Pixie Bot,
MKar, Cold Season, DPL bot, FragrantHill, Khazar2, Dexbot, Xochiztli, Josepha Richard, Metadox, אביהו, Hyeonjin Kim, Anddme,
Ptanaka and Anonymous: 85
• Japanese garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_garden?oldid=702339513 Contributors: Ixfd64, Haakon, Bueller 007,
Habj, Lukobe, Jnc, Raul654, Wetman, Nnh, Francs2000, Chris 73, Ianb, Barbara Shack, Ich, Jdavidb, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Avala, Andy-
cjp, Fuzzy Logic, Craig Fryer, MisfitToys, Kusunose, Neutrality, Fg2, Klemen Kocjancic, Discospinster, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Bendono,
Bobo192, Kappa, Ardric47, Jjron, Mareino, Melah Hashamaim, Wiki-uk, CJ, Evil Monkey, Skycycle, BDD, SAUNDERS, Woohookitty,
18.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 149
Squidley, Talskiddy, Male1979, Okc~enwiki, Matilda, BD2412, Gryffindor, Salix alba, Vegaswikian, Daderot, SchuminWeb, CalJW, Dan-
nyWilde, Cherubino, Gareth E. Kegg, Visor, Bgwhite, Kummi, Wavelength, Gaius Cornelius, Loyola~enwiki, Howcheng, DAJF, Jp-
bowen, Gmatsuda, Mkill, CDA, Jamesluckard, Ms2ger, BazookaJoe, Closedmouth, MaNeMeBasat, GraemeL, ArielGold, Cgb~enwiki,
Katieh5584, DVD R W, Neier, Nihonjoe, Impaciente, FloNight, Axd, Unyoyega, Mike Nishimuta, Donama, Bluebot, OrangeDog, Xx236,
Nbarth, Tsca.bot, Midori, Huon, Nakon, Underbar dk, Dreadstar, DMacks, Dogears, Will Beback, Kkong, Breno, RomanSpa, Gbutler77,
A. Parrot, Dekkappai, Intranetusa, Ryulong, Hgrobe, Casper Gutman, InvisibleK, Lograph, Myasuda, Cydebot, Atelier kado, 663high-
land, Urashimataro, Nol888, Thijs!bot, Cool Blue, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Escarbot, Pootentate, WinBot, Whats up skip, Aranho, In-
golfson, Kariteh, JAnDbot, MER-C, Avaya1, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, GerardK, JNW, Jllm06, Stagophile, Cpl Syx, Kateshortforbob,
Adolfont, Botsad, Iwanafish, J.delanoy, Lilstudy94, Meilanfang, Peter Clarke, ラハール, Thepitch, Johnbod, Starnestommy, Naniwako,
Balthazarduju, Bricology, Funandtrvl, Mjknight50, Deor, VolkovBot, Barneca, Mercurywoodrose, Ann Stouter, Broadbot, DaDonski,
OhMyDeer, AlleborgoBot, IndulgentReader, Enkyo2, Fredrikbroman, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83, Tubs uk, SiefkinDR, Dcattell, Myger-
ardromance, Jonipoon, Gantuya eng, Martarius, ClueBot, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Fadesga, Parkjunwung, Mild Bill Hiccup, Bone-
yard90, Excirial, Takethiswaltz, Timsdad, Ngebendi, SchreiberBike, Onozeki, Thingg, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, DocGizmo,
XLinkBot, Stickee, WikHead, PL290, Collegekdr, Addbot, Gonza777, MadMatt7, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Terrillja, Zorrobot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, Themfromspace, Bunnyhop11, Sherlock4000, Kanjo Kotr, KamikazeBot, Eric-Wester, Andrey
Korzun, Mayba, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, DemocraticLuntz, Tryptofish, Rangasyd, Gc9580, Kingpin13, Carolina wren, Materialsci-
entist, E2eamon, SLIMHANNYA, Sahara110, Gmihail, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, Abce2, RibotBOT, MOTOI
Kenkichi, Ec17a05, Joaquin008, FrescoBot, Karesansui, I.Sáček, senior, Patings, Seibun, ProfReader, AddiKtiV, IceTi, Phrase1, Serols,
Phoenix7777, W Michel, Full-date unlinking bot, Kibi78704, TobeBot, Bit2spam, Ripchip Bot, Whis4ey, Puchiwonga, Kandrews1967,
John of Reading, Look2See1, Solarra, Winner 42, ZéroBot, Koresdcine, Wayne Slam, Hujber Tünde, L Kensington, Muehsam, Clue-
Bot NG, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99, Gkvxyz, BG19bot, MKar, Northamerica1000, FactController, Cold Season, DPL bot,
Yuichi ozawa, Foltiere, Fraulein451, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Delotrooladoo, OCTAPOR, LPS.1, Lamar2, Ansei,
FrigidNinja, Amyhallstrom, Kkgtokyo, Maxkdavis, ReconditeRodent, The Old Bolsheviks, Tang99, Wandaiu, 太⽥さく, Hyeonjin Kim,
WikUzytkownik, Monkbot, Lamedumal, Amortias, JakeTuyl, Bcraig805, Glory of Space, CAPTAIN RAJU, Ptanaka and Anonymous:
219
• Japanese rock garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_rock_garden?oldid=701981240 Contributors: Sfdan, Olivier,
Ubiquity, Llywrch, Habj, Palfrey, Dysprosia, Mackensen, Raul654, Wetman, Finlay McWalter, RedWolf, Flauto Dolce, Robinh, Kent
Wang, Muke, Ds13, Leonard G., Eequor, Andycjp, Fuzzy Logic, Quadell, Antandrus, Kusunose, ShakataGaNai, Karl-Henner, Joyous!,
Avihu, Fg2, Generica, Arcuras, Discospinster, Cacycle, Pmsyyz, Pedant, Shanes, Viriditas, Sam Korn, Dmanning, Wiki-uk, Roncero, Pippu
d'Angelo, InShaneee, Immanuel Giel, LordAmeth, Nightstallion, Saxifrage, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, BD2412, Vegaswikian, CalJW,
DannyWilde, Yhelothur, Diza, Chobot, Marbot, Bgwhite, Ahpook, Gwernol, Kummi, YurikBot, Wavelength, WAvegetarian, Hede2000,
Ugur Basak, Xenoploid, Howcheng, Mkill, BOT-Superzerocool, Doncram, Wknight94, Fulup, Closedmouth, SadaraX, SmackBot, Dweller,
Nihonjoe, Gribeco, Kopaka649, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Seann, Persian Poet Gal, Sadads, Nbarth, A Max J, Addshore, Nakon, TedE, Dave-
Reaves, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, SilkTork, 16@r, Ryulong, Violncello, Zephyr su, Courcelles, CmdrObot, Furitora, Old Guard, Cydebot,
663highland, Urashimataro, Epbr123, Timothyjoelwright, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Glennwells, Ekabhishek, Endlessdan, Maias, VoABot
II, Jackfiftytwo, Jllm06, Arjun01, Rettetast, J.delanoy, Meilanfang, Cans, Mind meal, Johnbod, KCinDC, Landlaw, DASonnenfeld, Anton
Rakitskiy, Deor, Camster, Rei-bot, Ann Stouter, Martin451, PDFbot, BotKung, Scarian, Highfive2434, SiefkinDR, Elassint, ClueBot,
Dakinijones, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hafspajen, Quiescen, Boneyard90, Excirial, Alexbot, Telekenesis, Onozeki, Taranet, Ad-
dbot, The Sage of Stamford, DOI bot, Morning277, Numbo3-bot, Kanjo Kotr, Daniel 1992, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, Asamudra, Jim1138,
Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, Xqbot, Capricorn42, RibotBOT, MrHardworking, Karesansui, Patings, Seibun, Mariahelen8a,
DrilBot, I dream of horses, Trelawnie, Phoenix7777, W Michel, MelissaDortch, Look2See1, GoingBatty, Werieth, Josve05a, Wiooiw,
Elke Kubo~enwiki, ChuispastonBot, Emerald22, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Panfsergey, PaleCloudedWhite, Wdchk, Widr, Alexandra3214,
Zzyxzaa26, MKar, Walkingdistance, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Cwobeel, Ansei, C5st4wr6ch, Scow10, 太⽥さく, Hyeonjin Kim, Monkbot,
Adem1010, GLG GLG, Arianatownsend, Young Demosthenes, KasparBot, ISantak, Ptanaka and Anonymous: 168
• Roof garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_garden?oldid=703385346 Contributors: William Avery, Anthere, Sfdan, Ted-
ernst, Infrogmation, Stan Shebs, Cimon Avaro, Pollinator, Shantavira, Alan Liefting, Wolfkeeper, CryptoDerk, Neutrality, Sonett72, Wipe,
Jpallan, Grutness, Wiki-uk, DavidHoag, Velella, Guthrie, Gene Nygaard, Mindmatrix, Tabletop, FreplySpang, DirkvdM, CalJW, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Spacepotato, Charly Steinbeisser, Stainless steel, Thomas Blomberg, SmackBot, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Setanta747 (locked),
KVDP, Gilliam, Fluri, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, TenPoundHammer, SilkTork, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Samcapasso, CmdrObot,
Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Adonoman, Goldenlane, Mattisse, Blathnaid, Goldenrowley, Barek, RadioKAOS, ForestAngel, Sustainableyes, Jörg
Breuning, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, AlphaEta, Hu Totya, Svetovid, TamCaP, DASonnenfeld, Mastrchf91, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Gup-
pinchen, Mylands, Marcosaedro, Rmaul, Andy Dingley, Red58bill, SieBot, Meathead1962, Wmpearl, Agiglio, Hafspajen, BOTarate,
XLinkBot, Mbf000, AntoninoGiglio, Addbot, MrOllie, Tassedethe, Erutuon, Tangopaso, AnomieBOT, Koskim, AMuseo, Materialscien-
tist, Geraldblank, Anna Frodesiak, Gunart, Chevymontecarlo, D'ohBot, Katiepie14, Kibi78704, Hornlitz, Mam78, EmausBot, Ashton 29,
Pierreuk, Look2See1, GoingBatty, Slightsmile, Gray eyes, Rhallare, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Northamerica1000,
Eliseobradsh820, Dark Silver Crow, Regensturm23, Lugia2453, Epicgenius, Tentinator, Silver gasman, Gothamgardener, Urban Roof
Gardens, LazyReader, Andy Sherman, ME TOO AND YOU, KasparBot, Sardeis and Anonymous: 62
• Public space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_space?oldid=704961771 Contributors: The Anome, Montrealais, Patrick,
Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Karada, Scott, Timwi, Viajero, Maximus Rex, Francs2000, Stewartadcock, Honta, Jpo, Noone~enwiki,
Ot, Mormegil, Brianhe, Jordancpeterson, CanisRufus, Maurreen, Perklund, Man vyi, La goutte de pluie, Jjron, Espoo, Sherurcij, Mi-
mosinnet, Woohookitty, LoopZilla, GeorgeTSLC, Cbustapeck, SDC, Jon Harald Søby, Gaf.arq, Descendall, Rjwilmsi, Vgedris, Caek,
Mark83, RexNL, YurikBot, Chanlyn, RussBot, Jtgibson, Andnat, Wknight94, MCB, Pb30, Petri Krohn, LeonardoRob0t, Curpsbot-
unicodify, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Paxse, Stevegallery, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Oatmeal batman, Neo139, Cookie90,
Wossi, Dandelion1, Lapaz, Mfk91, Darci p, Mishatx, Wikidwitch, CmdrObot, Smably, Publicy, NaBUru38, Argon233, CJBot, Ricardo-
greene, PKT, AgentPeppermint, Heroeswithmetaphors, AntiVandalBot, Ingolfson, Barek, Banzai!, Theroadislong, Cooper-42, SnapSnap,
Emelian1977, Axlq, Centpacrr, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Word2line, Acalamari, FrummerThanThou, Bigminh, Cisnottrans, Bonadea,
Davehi1, Broadbot, Qworty, - tSR - Nth Man, SieBot, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, Da Joe, Eyedubya, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Lord Beck-
man, BradMajors, WordyGirl90, Kai-Hendrik, Eric Wester, Cambrasa, Gtstricky, Tjrowlan22, ProfDEH, Salam32, Alexius08, Addbot,
Freepenguin, Cantaloupe2, Fluffernutter, Pietrow, Не А, Luckas-bot, Yobot, YngNorman, Adeliine, Unara, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Lil-
Helpa, MakeBelieveMonster, Gumruch, GrouchoBot, Pinethicket, JordanSeiler, Sherdonna, Crusoe8181, Elekhh, Oahfapgah, Lpsickle,
Psyouboo, Copistopplayer, J'88, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, NoloCantata, ZéroBot, Cogiati, Gistya, Jacobisq, RayneVanDunem, ASNelson,
Yclept:Berr, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Guthrun, BG19bot, Brooklyn-NY, Twilson088, Caitlin.esk, Mang55, SFK2, Graphium, Trace-
dInAir, Plunkersiniapes, Je.est.un.autre, Konshowed ur btch and Anonymous: 82
150 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE
18.7.2 Images
• File:"_Green_Pig"_-_geograph.org.uk_-_245244.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/%22_Green_
Pig%22_-_geograph.org.uk_-_245244.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Bill Cresswell
• File:07._Japanese_Garden_Pano,_Cowra,_NSW,_22.09.2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/
07._Japanese_Garden_Pano%2C_Cowra%2C_NSW%2C_22.09.2006.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original
artist: John O'Neill
• File:15th-century_unknown_painters_-_Madonna_on_a_Crescent_Moon_in_Hortus_Conclusus_-_WGA23736.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/15th-century_unknown_painters_-_Madonna_on_a_Crescent_
Moon_in_Hortus_Conclusus_-_WGA23736.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/art/m/master/zunk_ge/zunk_ge2/10madonn.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' src-
set='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/m/master/zunk_ge/zunk_ge2/10madonn.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-
width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Unknown Master, German (active 1450s in Cologne)
• File:2004_0927-Suzhou_MasterOfNetGarden_PaintedMap.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/
2004_0927-Suzhou_MasterOfNetGarden_PaintedMap.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Self-photographed (Original text: Photo
taken by Kanga35) Original artist: Kanga35
• File:20090510_Shanghai_Yuyan_6689.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/20090510_Shanghai_
Yuyan_6689.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:20090905_Suzhou_Couple'{}s_Retreat_Garden_4442.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
20090905_Suzhou_Couple%27s_Retreat_Garden_4442.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:20090905_Suzhou_Lion_Grove_Garden_4502.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/20090905_
Suzhou_Lion_Grove_Garden_4502.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:30_Rockefeller_Center_rooftop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/30_Rockefeller_Center_
rooftop.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jwilly77
• File:40sotoon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/40sotoon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:A_French_estate_18th_century_park_view.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/
A_French_estate_18th_century_park_view.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bonhams Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:AbbasAbad-e-Ashref_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/AbbasAbad-e-Ashref_1.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: محک
• File:Adachi_Museum_of_Art01st3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Adachi_Museum_of_
Art01st3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland
• File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
• File:Ambrogiana_utens.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Ambrogiana_utens.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/museum_firenze-com-era.html# Original artist: ?
• File:Appennino2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Appennino2.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: Hari Seldon from Firenze, Italia
• File:Baburnama_1.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Baburnama_1.jpeg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://cybermuse.gallery.ca Original artist: Unknown (Indian, Imperial Mughal )
• File:Baghe_Eram_Shiraz_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Baghe_Eram_Shiraz_edit.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Arad.
• File:Bassin_Apollon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Bassin_Apollon.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Eric Pouhier
• File:Beckley_Park_topiary_garden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Beckley_Park_topiary_
garden.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vivian Garrido
• File:Beijing_Botanical_Garden_-_Oct_09_-_IMG_1161.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Beijing_Botanical_Garden_-_Oct_09_-_IMG_1161.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daderot
• File:Belvedere_Palace'{}s_Gardens.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Belvedere_Palace%27s_
Gardens.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 at Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian.lifa
• File:Blenheim_PalaceDE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Blenheim_PalaceDE.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.digitalengravings.com/ Original artist: F.O.Morris
• File:BoboliEntrance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/BoboliEntrance.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
18.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 151