Overview of

Introduction to
Linguistics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p2
mdGA2WnSM
Process Questions

1. How did
language evolve?

2. What then is
Linguistics?
Linguistics It is the scientific study of language.

Scholars who systematically study language

usually refer to themselves as linguists.

Compare the following definitions from the

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English:
lin-guist /lirjg w ist/ noun

1 a person who knows several foreign languages

well: She’s an excellent linguist.
I’m afraid I’m no linguist (= I find foreign languages
difficult).

2 a person who studies languages or linguistics

Linguistics tries:

• first, to observe languages and to

describe them accurately,
• then, to find generalizations within what
has been described,
• finally, to draw conclusions about the
general nature of human language.
Applied linguistics attempts to make
practical use of the knowledge derived
from general linguistic research
– in order, for example, to:

• improve the ways in which a student’s

native language is taught
• help people learn foreign language
more efficiently
• write better dictionaries
• improve therapy for people with
language problems
• search the Internet more efficiently and
successfully
 Language
It is a complex
human phenomenon
as all attempts to
define it has proved
inadequate. In brief,
we can say, language is
an ‘original noise’ used
in actual social
situations by human
beings.
https://englishfinders.com/definition-of-language-by-
scholars/
 Language
It is basically a system
of conventional,
spoken or written
symbols utilizing
which human beings
are used to
communicate with
each other.

https://englishfinders.com/definition-of-language-by-
scholars/
Definition of Language by Different Scholars
Aristotle
Speech is the representation
of the experience of the mind.

Language is a speech sound

produced by human beings
to express their ideas,
emotions, thoughts, desires
and feelings.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars
Saussure
Language is an arbitrary system of
signs constituted of the signifier and
signified. In other words, language is
first a system based on no logic or
reason.
Secondly, the system covers both
objects and expressions used for
objects.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Saussure
Thirdly objects and expressions are
arbitrarily linked. And finally,
expressions include sounds and
graphemes used by humans for
generating speech and writing
respectively for communication.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Sapir
Language is a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating
ideas, emotions, and desires through a
system of voluntarily produced sounds.
Language is mainly concerned with
only human beings and constituted a
system of sounds produced by them
for communication.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars
Bloomfield
The totality of the utterances that can
be made in a speech community is the
language of that speech community.

Language focuses on the utterances

produced by all the people of a
community, and hence overlooks
writing. Besides, he stresses form, not
meaning, as the basis of language
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Noam Chomsky

Language is the inherent capability of

the native speakers to understand and
form grammatical sentences. A
language is a set of (finite or infinite)
sentences, each finite length and
constructed out of a finite set of
elements.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Noam Chomsky
(cont.)

This definition of language considers

sentences as the basis of a language.
Sentences may be limited or unlimited
in number, and are made up of only
limited components.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Derbyshire

Language is undoubtedly a kind of

means of communication among
human beings. It consists primarily of
vocal sounds. It is articulatory,
systematic, symbolic and arbitrary.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Language is the best source of

communication. It also portrays how
human language is formed and what
are the fundamental principles of
language.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars
Lyons
Languages are the principal systems of
communication used by particular groups
of human beings within the particular
society of which they are members.

Especially Lyons points out that,

language is the best communicative
system of human beings by particular
social groups.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Wardhaugh

A language is a system of arbitrary vocal

sounds used for human communication.

This definition of language by

Wardhaugh mainly insists on
arbitrariness, vocal sounds, humans and
communication.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Patanjali- Indian linguist

Language is that human expression that
is produced by different speech organs of
human beings.

Through speech organs, humans

produced several expressions which are
converted to language.
 Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Encyclopedia Britannica
Language is a system of conventional or
written symbols through which human
beings as members of social groups and
participants in its culture, communicate.

In other words, it says the language is a

system of communication through which
human beings express themselves.
 Macro
Skills in
Learning
Oral Skills
1. Listening
2. Speaking
Listening
● Listening is the ability to accurately receive
and interpret messages in communication
process.
● There are three modes of listening competitive
passive and active
Speaking
● Speaking is done through the vocalization of human
communication.
● Speaking depends on the context wherein
communication will take place.
● Speaking can be formal and informal.
Literary skills
● Reading
● Writing
Reading
● Reading comprehension involves decoding
symbols with intentions of deriving meaning
from text.
● This can be used for sharing knowledge for
self development or simply for relaxation.
Writing
 Writing is the process of using symbols to
communicate thoughts ideas in readable form.
 Writing allows meaningful and in depth
transmission of ideas compared to speaking
 Follow the writing process: 1.prewriting 2.
drafting 3.revising 4. proofreading 5. publishing
Significance
 To effectively communicate
 To understand subtext
 To solve future problems or
successfully achieve objectives which
essentially derived from effective
communication.
 Views and Overview on
Theories in Language Study
https://edgy.app/theories-of-language-development
 Chomsky’s Nativist Linguistic
Theory: Universal Grammar
● He thinks language is innate.

What is grammar?
● It is “The whole system and structure of a language or of
languages in general, usually taken
as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections)
and sometimes also phonology and semantics.”
● The nativist linguistic theory postulates that every human being
is born with innate language ability. Pioneered by Chomsky, this
theory suggests that a human baby’s brain comes to the world
pre-equipped with language-learning systems.
 Chomsky’s Nativist Linguistic
Theory: Universal Grammar
● A child comes to the world with the prerequisites for
language learning. Namely, a built-in tool Chomsky
calls the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

● This brain device allows the child to acquire linguistic

abilities rapidly. Worth noting, Chomsky’s LAD is a
hypothetical concept. There’s no brain region
recognized as such by neuroscientists.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7
Cgpfw4z8cw
 B.F. Skinner Behaviorist Theory
● It’s American behaviorist and psychologist B.F.
Skinner who developed the behaviorist theory of
language acquisition
● This theory suggests that learning a language is
much like learning any new skill through observation,
imitation, repetition, errors, rewards, and
punishments. Or what Skinner calls Operant
Conditioning.
 B.F. Skinner Behaviorist Theory
● This theory suggests that learning a language is
much like learning any new skill through observation,
imitation, repetition, errors, rewards, and
punishments. Or what Skinner calls Operant
Conditioning.
● Behavior theorists posit that language development
is a learned behavior. When babies first speak, they
are trying to imitate the behavior of their parents and
adults around them.
 B.F. Skinner Behaviorist Theory

● A language would develop as responses to stimuli

from the environment. Hugging the baby for his or
her first word is a reward that pushes them further on
the learning curve.
● Kids in school could get either rewarded or punished
for their language learning acquisition process.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
OqeV45lKHdM
Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist Theory

● The social interactionist theory is based on

the work of Soviet psychologist Lev
Vygotsky.
● The basic notion of this theory is that
language has a social origin. In that regard, it
has some similarities with Everett’s model.
Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist Theory
● This concept suggests that the child, from
birth, is continually engaging in social
interactions, which allows him to develop
higher cognitive functions, namely language,
and thought.
● According to Vygotsky’s social development
model, socio-cultural interactions come first,
then cognition and language development.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?tim
e_ continue=2&v=zAcNO14HnEE&fe
ature=emb_ logo
 Piaget’s Constructivist Theory
● For Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist,
language is not only due to genetic
predisposition or imitation
● Piaget’s constructivist theory argues that
language is constructed by following
cognitive development. In other words,
people develop their language skills and
construct overall knowledge based on their
own experience.
 Piaget’s Constructivist Theory
● Beyond just language development, Piaget’s
theory focuses on understanding the nature
of intelligence itself. He defines four
stages that cognitive development goes
through:
● Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
● Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
● Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
● Formal operational stage: 12 and up
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r
NuPVHIbjP0&t=3s
 What is the Maturation Theory of
Language Development?

● An American pediatrician, Dr. Arnold Gesell,

introduced the Maturation Theory of Child
Development in 1925. His theory focuses on how
genetics influences development and other behavior.
● Gesell believed that human skills — adaptive, motor,
and language — develop and unfold naturally based
on our biological makeup.
 What is the Maturation Theory of
Language Development?

● Be that as it may, he didn’t disregard environmental

factors’ influences on a child’s development.
However, the clinical psychologist was convinced
that they were less influential than genetics.
● So, Gesell focused his investigation on children’s
physiological development — which he
called maturation.
 What is the Maturation Theory of
Language Development?
● According to the pediatrician, the rate at which
children develop depends primarily on
their nervous system’s growth. And that includes
the brain, spinal cord, and a complicated web
of nerve fibers.
● Gesell’s language acquisition theories about
maturation propose that language development
milestones occur between ages 40 weeks and five
years.
 What is the Maturation Theory of
Language Development?
● 0-50 weeks: A child produces meaningful sounds.
● 1 – 2 old: The child uses longer phrases and
straightforward sentences.
● 2 – 3 old: The child begins to communicate in
complete sentences.
● 3 – 4 old: The child uses language as a tool to
expand their knowledge of the world.
● 4 – 5 old: The child has a basic mastery of the
language.
How are the Theories of Language
Development Similar and
Different?
● For example, BF Skinner’s behaviorist theory focuses
on how the environment influences language
acquisition. Similarly, Vygotsky’s social interactionist
theory highlights the impact of nurture on language
development.
 How are the Theories of Language
Development Similar and Different?
● The psychological theories of language
development have one thing in common. And that’s
the focus on how genetics and the environment may
have influenced language development. Indeed,
researchers believe that language acquisition is
partly inborn and partially learned through
interaction. However, each language development
theory places a varying degree of importance on
nature and nurture.
Communicative competence
a. Definition
b. Dell Hymes
c. Components
A. Communicative Competence
● The ability to function in truly
communicative setting
● Not limited to linguistic forms
● Social rules and context
● Coined by Dell Hymes
He says……….
A normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not
only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she
acquire competence as to when to speak , when not and as to
what to talk about with whom, when , where , in what manner.
In short a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of
speech acts. And to evaluate their accomplishment by others
(Hymes 1972, 277)
5 Components
LINGUISTIC/GRAMMATICAL
COMPETENCE
Knowledge of language code
o PHONETICS is the study of speech sounds
PHONOLOGY is the study of sound system of languages.
MORPHOLOGY is the study of word formation from
smaller units called morphemes
SYNTAX are rules that govern the formation of sentences
from words
SEMANTICS is the study of language meaning
PRAGMATICS is the study of meaning in context
Sociolinguistic Competence

● Knowledge of socio-cultural use of language

Cultural Competence
Awareness and sensitivity to others culture
and tradition
1. Setting
2. Topic
3. Taboos
Discourse Competence
Knowledge of producing , comprehending , combining
oral and written language.
o Organizing words

o Phrases

o Sentences
Strategic Competence
Ability to recognize , adjust and repair verbal and
non verbal communication errors :
o Paraphrasing

o Shifting

o Avoidance
 World Englishes and related
paradigms: Implications for ELT
in the Phils
From the presentation of
SHIRLEY N. DITA, Ph.D.
De La Salle University – Manila
September 3, 2020
World Map of English (Strevens,1980)

0
MacArthur (1987)

@Sh 0
Standard English?
Two schools of thought:
1) Traditional School
• Sir Randolph Quirk
• Monolithic view of English
• Preserve the hierarchical structure of English
2) Progressive School
• Braj Kachru
• Pluricentric view of English
• focus on respective cultural and political needs
The Quirk-Kachru debate

• Sir RANDOLPH QUIRK

• Well-known British linguist born in 1920
• Founded the Survey of English Usage in 1959
(basis of CGEL)
• A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language (CGEL)
• Author of widely used reference grammar
using descriptive approach
 The Quirk-Kachru debate
• BRAJ KACHRU
• Born in 1932 in Kashmir, India
• Ph.D. from Edinburgh University
• Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University
of Illinois
• the President of the American Association of
Applied Linguistics (1984)
• Initiated, shaped, and defined the field of
World Englishes which describes the spread of
English across the globe
The Quirk-Kachru debate:
Monocentric vs pluricentric
English
• Quirk (1988, JALT Conference):
• Standard English should be prescribed in
the British educational system
• Nonnative Englishes are inadequately learned
versions of ‘correct’ native English
• Nonnative Englishes are not valid as teaching
models
• ESL speakers must be discouraged from using the
variety they hear spoken around them, because
“[it] is neither liberal nor liberating to permit
learners to settle for lower standards than the best”
• Quirk, R. (1990). Language varieties and standard language. English Today,
6, pp 3-10 doi:10.1017/S0266078400004454
The Quirk-Kachru debate:
Monocentric vs pluricentric English
• Kachru (1990, English Today 21):
• Criticizes Quirk’s deficit linguistics
position
• “English is no longer the sole possession
of the countries of the Inner Circle”
• Views Quirk’s proposal as an
outright attack on the “recognition
of pluricentricity and multi-
identities of English”
• Kachru, B. (1991). Liberation linguistics and the Quirk Concern. English
Today, 7, pp 3-13 doi:10.1017/S026607840000523X
 1) Standard English (SE) is a variety or a dialect which has
no territorial base.

2) The defining language features are grammar, lexicon,

and orthography. Pronunciation is not part of the SE
definition.
Characteristics 3). SE is the variety with the highest social prestige. Adult
of Standard members of the speech community usually value SE and
want their children to be educated in this variety.
English (Crystal,
4) SE is understood, though not necessarily spoken and
1994) written, by most members of the community, and it is
used by administrators, in universities, and in courts of
law.

5) Only a minority of the population speak SE as their

mother tongue. Most people speak regional dialects.
10
From the legend:

“a totally uniform,
regionally neutral, and
unarguably prestigious
variety does not yet exist
worldwide”
- (Crystal, 1994, p. 24)
Sept 3,
2020
World Englishes
The Three Circles Model (Kachru, 1984)

The post-colonial era

(1960 onwards):
The ‘Inner Circle’
• ENL
• norm-providing
The ‘Outer Circle’
• ESL
• norm-developing
The ‘Expanding Circle’
• EFL
• norm-dependent
 Three ‘modified’
Concentric Circles
The overlapping bubbles model
(Kachru, 1992)
 The nativized variety of
English incorporates
innovations in vocabulary,
grammar, and discourse.

Braj Kachru
(1986): New items of vocabulary and
different patterns for speech
Concentric events are developed when English
is transplanted to a new culture;
Circle model
English is no longer an exclusive
possession of users in the Inner
Circle --
 “of “the
English is no longer the possession

● British, or even the British and the Americans, but an

international language which increasing numbers of
people adopt for at least some of their purposes”

(Halliday, McIntosh & Strevens, 1964)

”
World Englishes
 World English(es)
OED, 2010, 2013

• An international variety of English regarded as standard

or acceptable wherever it is spoken in the world [...]
Cf. Standard English.
• English as spoken around the world and regarded as
comprising numerous differing regional varieties (usually
excluding those of Britain and the United States).
• As a count noun; any of the national regional varieties of
English (but usually excluding those of Britain and the
United States).
World Englishes

The term ‘English’ does

“The result of this
not capture this
The plural form is spread is that, formally
sociolinguistic reality;
advocated by Kachru and functionally, English
the term ‘Englishes’
(1992: 357): now has multicultural
does.”
identities.
World Englishes
• “The expression ‘world Englishes’ is capable of
a range of meanings and interpretations.” (p.
240, Bolton, 2006):

• “…an umbrella label referring to a wide range

of differing approaches to the description and
analysis of English(es) worldwide.”

• “…the ‘new Englishes’ found in the Caribbean and

in West African and East African societies…and
to…Asian Englishes…”
Another way of classifying Englishes
(Kandiah, 1998)
“ Your (Philippine) English is as valid and as
legitimate as Singaporean English, or
Australian English, or British English, or any
variety of English out there. No variety is more
superior to, or more inferior from, other
varieties!
”
English Lingua Franca defined
• At its simplest, ELF is a way of referring to
communication in English between speakers who have
different first languages.
• ELF interaction can include native English speakers,
but in most cases, it is a contact language between
people who share neither a common native tongue
nor a common national culture, and for whom
English is an additional language.
• Conceptually, it is very different from EFL
EFL vs ELF (Jenkins, 2006)

EFL ELF
• Part of modern foreign language • Part of World Englishes
• Deficit perspective • Difference perspective
• Metaphors of transfer/ • Metaphors of contact/
interference/fossilization evolution
• Code-mixing and code-switching • Code-mixing and code-
are seen as interference errors switching are bilingual
resources
Works on ELF

• Phonology (Jenkins 2000)

• Pragmatics (Meierkod, 1996)
• Lexicogrammar (Seidlhofer, 2004)
• ELF corpora
• Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of
English (VOICE) (Seidlhofer, 2004)
• English as a Lingua Franca in Academic
settings (ELFA) (Mauranen, 2003)
 The Lingua Franca Core (LFC)
(Jenkins, 2000)
CORE Features: NON-CORE Features:
•All consonants, except /θ/, /ð/ •The consonants /θ/, /ð/ and [ɫ]
and [ɫ]
•Final consonant clusters
•Vowel length distinctions
•Individual vowel quality (apart
•Initial consonant clusters from NURSE)
•The mid-central NURSE vowel •Reduced vowels or weak forms
•Nuclear stress •Lexical stress
•Intonational tones
•Stress-based rhythm
Lexicogrammar features of ELF

• Uncountable nouns to countable

• Zero marking of 3rd person singular
• Merging of who and which
• New use of morphemes
• communication: communicate; examination: examinate
• asses: assessment; increase: increasement
• improve: improvement; approve: approvement
• expect : expectation; respect: respectation
• watch: watched; catch: catched
ELF trends (see Fang, 2020)
• ELF communication (early 2000s), e.g. accommodation
skills and negotiation of meaning;
• Research focus: the processes underlying ELF speakers’
variable use of forms, and that the concept of
Communities of Practice;
• ELF is not regarded ‘as consisting of bounded varieties,
but as English that transcends boundaries, and that is
therefore beyond description’ (Jenkins, 2015a, p. 55).
• ELF in the paradigm of multilingualism – EMF
(English as a Multilingua Franca)
 Used in general interchangeably with
ELF but with a focus on English
language teaching

‘paradigms or perspectives’ (McKay 2002;

Sharifian 2009)
English as an
International ‘the functions or uses of English in
international contexts’ (Matsuda & Friedrich
2010)

Language
a variety of English’ (Tomlinson 2003;
Widdowson 1997)

a paradigm for thinking, research, and

practice” (Sharifian 2009, p. 2)
Marlina (2014): EIL
• a linguistic and epistemological lens for researchers,
scholars, and educators to ‘put on’ in order to critically:
• revisit and reconsider their ways of conceptualizing
English,
• re-assess their analytical tools and the approaches they
adopt in the sociolinguistics of English and TESOL
disciplines, and
• revise their pedagogical strategies for English language
education in the light of the tremendous changes that
English has undergone as a result of its global
expansion in recent decades.
EIL as a paradigm
• acknowledges the diversification of English as a result of
the global spread of the language,
• recognizes Kachruvian World Englishes, and emphasizes
the relevance of world Englishes in the teaching,
learning, and thinking about English today (Matsuda 2002,
2009; Matsuda and Friedrich 2010; Sharifian 2009)
• embraces/recognizes all varieties of English at national,
regional, social, and idiolectal levels in all circles as
equal (Marlina, 2014)
 What is an ‘International’ language?

• Smith (1976): IL is one which is used by people of

different nations to communicate with one another”
(p.17).
• learners of an international language do not need to
internalize the cultural norms of native speakers of
that language;
• the ownership of an international language becomes
“de- nationalized”; and
• the educational goal of learning an international
language is to enable learners to communicate their
ideas and culture to others.
• When English becomes international in character, it
cannot be bound to any one culture;
• Ex: A Thai doesn’t need to sound like an American in an ASEAN
meeting …
• English is used to express the speaker’s intention to
communicate
– whether about a business policy, government
position, or political conviction, and so on …
• It is the means of expression of the speaker’s
culture and NOT an imitation of the culture of
the native English- speaking country

English as an international language

 EIL: no room for linguistic
chauvinism
• The spread of English is NOT a homogenizing factor
which causes differences to disappear, but the use
of English offers a medium
• Native speakers must realize that there are many
valid varieties of English and that non-native
speakers need not sound like any group of native
speakers in order to be effective English users;
• Native speakers need as much help as non-natives
when using English to interact internationally
Global Englishes
(Galloway & Rose, 2015, p. 224)

is a paradigm that includes concepts of WE, ELF, and EIL.

examines the global consequences of English’s use as a world language.

Extends the lens of WE, ELF, and EIL to incorporate many peripheral issues associated
with the global use of English, such as globalization, linguistic imperialism, education,
language policy, and planning.
@ShirleyDita 2020 Sept 3, 2020
 WE, ELF, EIL

believe in and Differences in English they are recognized as

emphasize the
importance of
are NEITHER viewed “sociolinguistically
as fossil-ridden normal, necessary, and
recognizing the intrinsic to language
pluricentricity of examples of
interlanguages nor varieties”
English and the equal
treatment given to all inferior examples of (Tollefson 2007, p. 30).
varieties of English and incorrect speech or
its speakers. ‘half-baked quackery’
 Implications for ELT
The Global Englishes paradigm (modified)
(Galloway, 2017)
Global Englishes Language Teaching
• Revisit the ownership of English
• Raise awareness about the target
interlocutors
• Challenge NE speakers’ norm
• Introduce a variety of Englishes
• Treat diverse Englishes with respect

- Prabjandee (2020):
ELT situation in the Phils
• Unlike many EFL countries in Asia, Phils does NOT
have, so far, issues on:
• Whiteness/American-ness/nativeness – power
issue
• Whiteness/nativeness in teacher hiring practices
• Monolingual policy and maximum exposure fallacy
(Phillipson, 1992)
• Exclusive use of English in conducting
classroom instruction (Kubota, 2018).
• Early start fallacy (we have MTBMLE in K-3)
ELT in the Philippines
• My own observations …
• COLONIAL mentality (excessive fascination to those with
twang)
• The mindset of society, parents,
administrators, teachers, students (in that
order)
• Lack of awareness of the trends in ELT, in the English
language itself
• Resistance to change, to paradigm shifts, to innovative
ideas…
ELT in the Philippines: what is
needed
• In teaching English, a necessity is a pedagogic model that
is WE- inspired, WE-based, and WE-adherent Jenkins
(2006, p. 178).
• “teachers and their learners…need to learn not (a
variety of) English, but about Englishes…” (Holliday
1994)
• what is needed is an instructional backbone that is WE-

moved, bec WE promotes inclusivity, a pedagogic model

that highlights the homegrown varieties of English, that is
localized, indigenized and contextualized …
Bernardo
(forthcoming):
• And now that PhE is at the dawn of
endonormative stabilization (Borlongan,
2016)
• and that it has come of age (Bernardo, 2017),
• it may be formally nominated as a pedagogic
norm in the Philippine ESL classrooms
(Bernardo & Madrunio, 2015).
Stages of Procedure (Bernardo & Madrunio, 2015)

Stage 1: Notice - Students are made to notice the

distinctive features of PhE. Teachers direct students’
attention to grammatical, lexical or phonological items
that significantly differ from American English or British
English.
Stage 2: Compare - Teachers lead the students to compare
and contrast idiosyncratic PhE phonological, syntactic, or
lexical features with American English or British English
highlighting that the differences are acceptable and not
strange.
Stages of Procedure (Bernardo & Madrunio, 2015)
• Stage 3: Comment - The teacher comments that the
distinctive features are not errors and abnormalities rather
they are innovations that are allowed and permissible in
formal and informal discourses.
• Stage 4: Encourage - Teachers encourage learners to use the
local variety both in formal and informal discourses without
uncertainties or hesitations or fear of being penalized or
laughed or frowned at.
• Stage 5: Familiarize: Teachers encourage students to be
familiar with other established varieties of English and train
them to shuttle from one variety to another to effect more
successful communication.
 ELF
English as a EIL (Seidlhofer
global (Jenkins, 2000 2001)
language
(Crystal 2003;
Gnutzmann, 1999
EMF
(Jenkins 2015)

Global
Englishes Translanguaging
WE Galloway & Rose, 2015
(Kachru, 1986,1992) EFL

English as a
World Language ESL
World English (Mair 2003)
(Brutt-Griffler 2002)
 NESTS VS
NON-NESTS
Who are better English teachers?
why are L1 users so often preferred to
L2 users?
● According to George Braine (1999), native speakers speak
more fluently and intuitively correct than their non-native
colleagues. NESTs have sociolinguistic competence, which
means they know how to speak appropriately in different
contexts, due to their knowledge of the speech community’s
cultural background and communication rules and strategies.
Vivian Cook (1999) mentions especially the native speaker’s
creativity in language use and knowledge of standard and non-
standard forms of English as a big advantage over non-native
English speakers.
why are L1 users so often preferred to
L2 users?
Furthermore, Cook says that it is important for learners of a language to
experience native speaker language use to get an idea of how to use the
target language correctly and appropriately. Gill and Rebrova found out
in their study (2001) that the NEST’s language is much more authentic,
living and perfect than the non-NEST’s language. That means that the
native’s language is more correct and up to date than the nonnative’s
language as the non-NEST might use an outdated, too formal or
“bookish” style of the language. Lastly, Péter Medgyes (1999) lists the
native speaker’s pronunciation, vocabulary and intonation as an
advantage for native speakers and calls them the “perfect language
model” for learners.
PROBLEMS OF NATIVE SPEAKER
TEACHERS
One major problem mentioned by Braine (1999) is that native
speakers often are hired as teachers simply because they are
native speakers and not because of their teaching competences.
This can result in having a teacher with good language skills, but
little or no teaching skills. But language knowledge is not enough
to be a successful teacher, as a teacher also has to know
teaching methods and strategies and has to understand his or
her students, their problems and their cultural backgrounds.
PROBLEMS OF NATIVE SPEAKER
TEACHERS
Native speakers might also have problems to
understand their students’ mistakes and problems
with the language or the learning process, as they
often are not able to speak or understand their
students’ L1 and thus can neither understand the
problems occurring through negative transfer from the
native language nor make use of the students’ L1 in
the teaching context to explain certain concepts or
problems (Gill and Rebrova, 2001).
PROBLEMS OF NATIVE SPEAKER
TEACHERS
A further disadvantage is that the native speaker ideal
is almost an unattainable goal for learners, and the
perfect use of the language might overwhelm or even
intimidate students, as they feel that they do not make
enough progress and will never reach the goal of a
perfect language user (Cook, 1999).
PROBLEMS OF NATIVE SPEAKER
TEACHERS
Additionally, Gill and Rebrova (2001) have found out
that many native speakers are not strict enough as
teachers and do not correct their students’ mistakes
as often as non-native speakers would. This might
lead to the fossilisation of wrong structures by the
students as they do not get enough or appropriate
feedback
PROBLEMS OF NATIVE SPEAKER
TEACHERS
Moreover, native speakers might not always be
conscious of the language rules and structures of the
language they teach, as they use those innately and
not as conscious as a teacher who himself has
learned the language as a second language (Cook,
1999).
 What can you say with the
standardized language exam to teach
foreign student or to study abroad?
● The TOEIC tests workplace communication
● The TOEFL tests English used in the
classroom
● IELTS tests academic and general language
skills
Reflections paper on Linguistic Study
• How clear is communicative competence for both teachers and
students?
• How relevant are our lessons in the classrooms to what’s going on with
today’s communication?
• How much do we know, as teachers, of the ‘English’, the ‘englishes’,
and the ‘englishing’ of our students, of the (linguistic) community
they belong to, of the ‘world’ they are going?
• Where are we in this whole cline of communication? of ELT debate?
• What are we doing? What should be done?
• What is its implication to teaching and learning, and benefits to
community and society
Rubric
● Personal Reflection - 40 points
● Organization - 20 points
● Discussion of Linguistic Concepts - 40 points