NSTP 101

Ecosystem Management
This learning module will discuss the importance of ecosystem
management. It will describe the process proper ecological
conservation and restoration of natural resources which will help to
meet the world’s socioeconomic, political and cultural needs and
protect the environment for the future generation.

Topic 7

What is Ecosystem Management?

1. Nature of the learning process.

It is a process that aims to conserve major ecological services and

restore natural resources while meeting the socioeconomic, political
and cultural and needs of current and future generations. The principal
objective of ecosystem management is the efficient maintenance and
ethical use of natural resources. It is a multifaceted and holistic
approach which requires a significant change in how the natural and
human environments are identified.

Ecosystem Management 1
X.X Ecosystem Management

Principles in Ecosystem Management

1. Ecosystem management reflects a stage in the continuing evolution

of social values and priorities; it is neither a beginning nor an end;
2. Ecosystem management is place-based and the boundaries of the
place must be clearly and formally defined;
3. Ecosystem management should maintain ecosystems in the
appropriate condition to achieve desired social benefits;

2
NSTP 101

4. Ecosystem management should take advantage of the ability of

ecosystems to respond to a variety of stressors, natural and man-
made, but all ecosystems have limited ability to accommodate
stressors and maintain a desired state;
5. Ecosystem management may or may not result in emphasis on
biological diversity;
6. The term sustainability, if used at all in ecosystem management,
should be clearly defined—specifically, the time frame of concern,
the benefits and costs of concern, and the relative priority of the
benefits and costs; and
7. Scientific information is important for effective ecosystem
management, but is only one element in a decision-making process
that is fundamentally one of public and.

Who are involve in Ecosystem Management

Every one is affected by environmental decisions and actions, but we

have also the power to influence the outcome of environmental
decisions relating to our ecosystem and planet. The complex nature of
decisions made in ecosystem management, from local to international
scales, requires stakeholder participation from a diversity of
knowledge, perceptions and values of nature. Stakeholders will often
have different interests in ecosystem services. This means effective
management of ecosystems requires a negotiation process that
develops mutual trust in issues of common interest with the objective
of creating mutually beneficial partnerships.

Ecosystem Management 3
X.X Ecosystem Management

What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a place/area that includes all of the living things

(plants, animals and organism) in a given area, interacting with each
other, and also with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun,
soil, climate, atmosphere)

Scales of Ecosystems

Ecosystems vary in size. It can exist in a small area such as underneath

a rock, decaying tree-trunk, or pond in your village or it can exist in

4
NSTP 101

large forms such as an entire rain forest. Here’s a fact Earth is huge
ecosystem.

Classification of Ecosystem

• Micro. A small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree

trunk, under a rock etc.
• Messo. A medium scale ecosystem such as a forest or a large
lake
• Biome. A very large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems
with similar biotic and abiotic factors. This category can be
classified as aquatic and terrestrial biome.

Different types of Biomes

• Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth’s surface,

with fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their
environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such
as climate, relief, geology, soils and vegetation.
• Desert Biome. It has very high temperature, little vegetative
cover, less cloud cover, low atmospheric moisture and the
land’s exposure to the sun. humidity is very low, with a few
events of very little rain
• Aquatic Biome. This includes all water bodies on earth’s
surface. Aquatic biomes are grouped into two, Freshwater and
Marine biomes. These biomes make up about 73% of the total
earth’s surface.
• Forest Biome. This biome makes up about 30% of the total
land cover on earth, and are of incredible value to life on earth.
They are storage of carbon and play a very important role in

Ecosystem Management 5
X.X Ecosystem Management

climate control. They have a watershed role, and are a source

of many raw materials that humans depend on. It is believed
that forests have the most bio-diversity. A small portion of the
rainforest, for example may be home to millions of insects,
birds, animals and plants. There are three biomes that make up
forest biomes. These are the tropical rainforest, temperature
and boreal forests.
• Grassland Biome. As the name suggest, these are massive areas
dominated by one or few species of grass with sparsely
distributed trees. There are two main types of grassland
biomes: the savanna grassland and the temperate grasslands.
One of the major savanna is located in Africa, and takes up
more than a third of the continents land area. Others can be
found in India, South America and Australia. Temperate
grassland can be found in South Africa, Argentina, and some
plains in Central North America.
• Tundra Biome. This is known to be the coldest of all the
terrestrial (land) biomes, with the least bio-diversity capacity.
Tundra got its name from ‘Tunturia’ a Finnish word that means
‘barren land’. This biome has very little rain and extremely
freezing temperatures, and covers about a fifth of the earth’s
land surface. There are two major tundra biomes: The Artic
and the Alpine Tundra. The Artic tundra is around the north-
pole in the northern hemisphere. This biome has temperature of
about 2-3 Celsius in the summer and about -35 Celsius in the
winter. Bogs and ponds are common as a result of constantly
frozen surface moisture and melted permafrost.

Different types of Biomes

1. A clean environment is essential for healthy living. If we don’t

take care of our environment, the more it will become polluted
with contaminants and toxins that have a harmful impact on our
health.
2. Earth is Warming. Global warming is causing climate patterns to
change. Yes, climate change is real and we are largely responsible
because our activities have released large amount of carbon
dioxide and other green house gases into the atmosphere.
3. It is for the future generations. We should conserve our ecosystem
for the benefit of our great great great grand children.
4. Biodiversity is important. Biodiversity pertains to the totality of
plants and animals living in our planet. We need food from various
species and plants to eat, water to drink, air to breath and materials
to provide shelter and other necessities.

6
NSTP 101

5. It is our responsibility. Nature gives us many things for free: clean

air, clean water, beautiful landscapes and breathtaking views. We
take so much in nature, but what do we give on return?
6. This is our home. It is where we live, so we better take care of it!

Types of Ecosystem Management

• Adaptive Management. Adaptive management is based on the

concept that predicting future influences/disturbance to an
ecosystem is limited and unclear. Therefore, the goal of
adaptive management is to manage the ecosystem so it
maintains the greatest amount of ecological integrity, but also
to utilize management practices that have the ability to change
based on new experience and insights.
• Natural Resource Management. The term natural resource
management is frequently used when dealing with a particular
resource for human use rather than managing the whole
ecosystem. A main objective of natural resources management
is the sustainability for future generations, which appoints
ecosystem managers to balance natural resources exploitation
and conservation over long-term timeframe. The balanced
relationship of each resource in an ecosystem is subject to
change at different spatial and temporal scales. Dimensions
such as, watersheds, soils, flora and fauna, need to be
considered individually and on a landscape level. A variety of
natural resources are utilized for food, medicine, energy and
shelter.
• Strategic Management. Strategic management encourages the
establishment of goals that will benefit the ecosystem while
keeping socioeconomic and politically relevant issues in mind.
Strategic management differs from other types of ecosystem
management because it keeps stakeholders involved and relies
on their input to develop the best management strategy for an
ecosystem. Similarly, to other modes of ecosystem
management, this method places a high level of importance on
evaluating and reviewing any changes, progress or negative
impacts and prioritizes flexibility in adapting management
protocols as a result of new information.
• Landscape level control/Conservation. Landscape level
conservation is a method that considers wildlife needs at a
broader landscape level scale when implementing conservation
initiatives. This approach to ecosystem management involves
the consideration of broad scale interconnected ecological
systems that acknowledges the whole scope of an

Ecosystem Management 7
X.X Ecosystem Management

environmental problem. In a human–dominated world,

weighing the landscape requirements of wildlife versus the
needs of humans is a complicated matter.
• Command and control management. Command and control
management utilizes a linear problem solving approach where
a perceived problem is solved through controlling devices such
as laws, threats, contracts and/or agreements. This top-down
approach is used across many disciplines and works best with
problems that are relatively simple, well-defined and work in
terms of cause and effect. The application of command and
control management has often attempted to control nature in
order to improve product extractions, establish predictability
and reduce threats. Some obvious examples of command and
control management actions include: the use of herbicides and
pesticides to safeguard crops in order to harvest more products;
the culling of predators in order to obtain larger, more reliable
game species; and the safeguarding of timber supply, by
suppressing forest fires.

Environmental Situation in the Philippines

The Philippines is prone to natural disasters, particularly typhoons,

floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, lying
as it does astride the typhoon belt, in the active volcanic region known
as the “Pacific Ring of Fire,” and in the geologically unstable region
between the Pacific and Eurasian tectonic plates.

The Philippines also suffers…

major human-caused environmental degradation aggravated by a high

annual population growth rate,
including loss of agricultural lands, deforestation, soil erosion, air and
water pollution, improper

8
NSTP 101

disposal of solid and toxic wastes, loss of coral reefs, mismanagement

and abuse of coastal resources,
and over fishing.

According to Greenpeace SouthEast Asia…

the Philippines major historical river, the Pasig River is now

biologically dead due to negligence and industrialization.

Currently, DENR…

has been busy tracking down illegal loggers and been

spearheading projects to preserve the quality of many
remaining rivers that are not yet polluted.

Environmental Situation in the Philippines

1. Climate Change and the Philippines

• Recent scientific studies reveal that human activities
have contributed significantly to the increase of

Ecosystem Management 9
X.X Ecosystem Management

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that causes climate

change.
• The Philippines is a hotspot for climate change...
• Prone to disasters particularly the risk of agriculture and
food security due to extreme El Nino and sever tropical
cyclones

• Prone to diseases such as: dengue fever, malaria,

cholera have increased throughout the years.
• Climate change impacts on coastal zones and marine
ecosystem caused massive coral bleaching especially in
1998 due to elevated sea temperature and fish kills and
red tides like the one that occurred in 1992 which was
an El Nino period.

• Scientist warned the Philippines. It could experience

famine by 2020, as the adverse impact of global
warming takes its tall on natural resources.

2. Decline of Natural Resources and Biodiversity

• The Philippine is suffering from degradation of the
natural environment.
• It has fifty major rivers now polluted due to abuse and
neglect
• Approximately two-thirds of the country’s original
mangroves have been lost.

A hundred years ago…

• The Philippines had close to 22 million hectares of old
growth forest. At the start of 2000, we had less than

10
NSTP 101

600, 000 hectares of old-growth forest left. In one

century, we had cut down close to 97 percent of our
original forest.

Because of the loss of forest…

• We have less water since most of our fresh water comes
from watershed found in forests. Therefore, loss of
forests means loss of food.

More than 400 plant and animal species…

• Found in Philippines are currently threatened with
extinction, including the Philippine eagle, the tamaraw,
and the dugong.
• Endangered species in the Philippines include the
monkey-eating eagle, Philippine tarsier, tamaraw, four
species of turtle (green sea, hawksbill, olive ridley, and
leatherback), Philippines crocodile, sinarapan, and two
species of butterflies. The Cebu warty pig, Panay flying
fox, and Chapmans’s fruit bat have become extinct.

3. Alarming Waste Problem in the Philippines

• The Philippines is looming with garbage problems
despite the passage of Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of RA 9003.
• 2007 first quarter data shows that there are: 677 open
dumpsites, 343 controlled dumps, and 21 landfills in the
country
• About 215 additional landfills are being proposed to be
set up nationwide.
• About 1, 000 open and controlled dump sites exist in
the country.
• Prominent dumps all over the country can be found in
Antipolo and Montalban in Rizal; Baguio City;
Calapan, Mindoro Oriental; Carmen, Cagayan de Oro;
Mandurriao. Iloilo City; Obando, Bulacan; and San
Pedro, Laguna.
• Environmentalist stress that Republic Act 9003 calls for
the adoption of the best environmental practices in
ecological waste management and explicitly excludes
waste incineration as an ecological option.
• These polluting disposal facilities are major sources of
greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere which adds
to global warming.

Ecosystem Management 11
X.X Ecosystem Management

People’s Behavior Toward Waste

2002 study on household waste management systems and the attitudes

and behavior of the communities in two barangays in Metro Manila
showed that:
1. Waste management is still perceived by many as the
responsibility of government.
2. Public participation in waste management, especially in
segregation at source, remains limited.
3. More extensive awareness- raising activities and training on
ecological waste management are needed, together with stricter
enforcement of the Law and local ordinances must be
observed.
4. There is lack of community empowerment and political will to
resolve the problem.

Recognizing the importance...

• Of the environment’s immediate recovery and effects of
improper waste management to the Philippines, there is a need
for understanding and reformation of attitudes and concern
towards the protection of environment.

The impending garbage crisis can be prevented...

• If we only practice waste segregation at source, recycling, and
composting as what the law requires. An intensive social
marketing program has to be established on a long-term scale
within a barangay – the smallest

Philippines: Strategy for Sustainable Development

Recognizing the need to tackle the environment issues as well as the

need to sustain development and growth, the Philippines came up with
the Sustainable Development Strategy.

The idea for the Sustainable Development Strategy includes…

• Assimilating environmental considerations in administration
• Apposite pricing of natural resources
• Conservation of biodiversity
• Rehabilitation of ecosystems
• Control of population growth and human resources
development
• Inducing growth in rural areas
• Promotion of environmental education

12
NSTP 101

• Strengthening citizens’ participation

• Promoting small to medium sized enterprises
• Sustainable agricultural and forestry practices.
• One of the initiatives signed in part of the strategy was the
1992 Earth Summit.
• The government of Philippines has been constantly looking
• Into many different initiatives to improve the environmental
aspects of the country.

How to Make a Compost Pit

• Composting is an effective and environmentally friendly

solution for turning yard waste and kitchen scraps into a
beneficial soil material.
• The traditional method of composting calls for the creation of a
large compost pile located outdoors.

Compost Pit

• This underground method of composting, sometimes also

called "trench composting," is a compact and tidy way to help
your organic waste decompose and enrich your soil.
1. Dig the hole for your compost pit. Your compost hole
should be about 1 foot (30 cm) deep. The area of the
hole will be determined by the amount of organic
matter you want to add.
2. Chop your composting materials finely. Underground
composting proceeds more slowly than aboveground
setups, and maximizing the surface area of your scraps
is key to speeding the process.
3. Add the organic materials to the compost pit. Pile your
food scraps and yard waste into the hole you dug to a
depth of about 4 inches (10 cm). Make sure your
carbon-rich materials (such as paper and dried leaves)
are mixed thoroughly with your nitrogen-rich materials
(like vegetable scraps and fresh grass clippings), as you
will not be turning the underground pile.

Ecosystem Management 13
X.X Ecosystem Management

4. Place a board over the hole if you plan to add more

scraps. If you want to be able to continually add scraps
to the compost pit, cover the compost with a thin layer
of soil.Then place a wooden board over the hole to
prevent anyone from tripping into it.
5. Cover your compost with soil. Once you have finished
adding your organic scraps to the compost pit, you can
backfill it with the soil you removed. Add the soil on
top of the compost, filling the pit until it is again level
with the surrounding soil.
6. Keep the compost pit wet while it is decomposing.
Underground compost decomposes slowly, because it
doesn't have access to as much fresh oxygen as
aboveground piles. To speed the process, ensure the
area stays fairly wet. During dry weather, soak the
ground above the compost pit with a garden hose.
7. Sow plants above the compost after it has decomposed.
A major benefit of underground composting is that you
don't have to perform any extra steps to harvest the
compost and amend your soil. The work is done for
you, as the decomposed scraps will work themselves
into the soil naturally. The best way to take advantage
of this benefit is to plant your plants directly over the
area where you composted your scraps. In fact, each
season you can cycle the locations where you grow
plants and compost; this will ensure your plants' soil is
always freshly amended with organic matter.

The Philippines takes pride...

• in being one of many countries around the world that is an
active party to international commitments for the environment -
- be it for biodiversity, coastal and marine resources, or to
combat the effects of global warming and climate change.
• To step up its efforts in the enforcement of environmental laws,
the Supreme Court has even designated 117 “environmental
courts,” and lately, has promulgated the rules for the “Writ of
Kalikasan,” the first of its kind in the world.
• The country has several environmental laws in existence
consistent with the Constitutional principle of providing every
Filipino the right to a balanced and healthful ecology. These
include laws on forestry, land management, mining, solid
waste management, clean water, and clean air.

Republic Act 8749, or the Clean Air Act of 1999

14
NSTP 101

• Goes beyond “making the polluter pay.” It focuses primarily on

pollution prevention rather than on control by encouraging
cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries.
• It also enforces a system of accountability for adverse
environmental impacts to heighten compliance to government
environmental regulations.

The Clean Air Act is primarily implemented

• By the Departments of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), Transportation and Communication (DOTC), Trade
and Industry (DTI), Energy (DOE), and local government
units.

The Clean Air Act is primarily implemented

• And its being an archipelago keeps the country’s air generally
“clean” as ocean winds keep pollution at bay, but not in highly-
urbanized areas where air pollution is largely caused by
vehicular and industry emissions.

What, then, has the country done so far to improve air quality?
• To check air pollution from motor vehicles, the Clean Air Act
requires smoke emission tests prior to renewal of registration.
• LGUs and partners from the private sector have been
aggressive in initiating programs to combat air pollution caused
by vehicular emissions.
• No less than five city governments in MM are involved in anti-
smoke belching operations to make the 34-kilometer stretch of
EDSA smoke-free!
• Even President Aquino himself has acted as an anti-smoke
belching agent, demonstrating an initiative to report a smoke-
belching bus to the LTO via text messaging. As for industrial
pollution
• The Clean Air Act requires businesses to undergo compliance
testing prior to operation of establishments. Many companies
have also resorted to the use of alternative sources of energy
that result in less emission.
• The DOH reports that the use of cleaner fuels has resulted in a
significant decrease in the number of children with elevated
levels of lead in their blood, which can lead to disabilities and
even death.

What, then, has the country done so far to improve air quality?

Ecosystem Management 15
X.X Ecosystem Management

• One of the marching orders of President Aquino for the DENR

is to clean the air not only in Metro Manila but in all other
urban centers in the country.
• 60%-70% of medicines sold in the market are for bronchitis,
asthma and other respiratory illnesses, we could say that air
pollution is already taking its toll on our people.
• Every Filipino is a partner for clean air. The air quality
principles embodied in the Clean Air Act says it all: “a clean
and healthy environment is for the good of all and should
therefore be a concern of all.”

References
Web links to further enhance knowledge about the topic:

http://www.unep.org/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_management
http://www.snre.umich.edu/ecomgt/emapproach/whatisem.htm
http://www.emi-nm.com/

16