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ru

Oxford EAP
A course in English for Academic Purposes
\

INTERMEDIATE / Bl+

Edward de ChazaL & Louis Rogers

OXFORD
U N IV E R S IT Y PRESS
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Contents
LISTENING SPEAKING
KNOWLEDGE Page 007 Short presentations Short presentations
Understanding main ideas in a Talking about experiences using the past
Academic focus:
presentation simple and present perfect
Understanding and presenting information
Identifying word class to assist note- Structuring and signposting a short
taking presentation
Recognizing signposting in a presentation Presenting information about your
Using word class to identify main ideas academic experience and aims
Using the past simple and present perfect
to talk about experiences

ORGANIZATION Page 021 Lectures (1) Seminar discussions (1)

Understanding and taking notes on key Identifying perspective and stance in
Academic focus:
information a discussion
Perspective and stance
Understanding the language of Using perspective to inform stance
perspective Expressing and responding to stance in
Identifying perspectives in a lecture a discussion
Talking about perspectives: using Expressing stance (1); Useful phrases
contextualizing language

MOTIVATION Page 035 Lectures (2) Seminar discussions (2)

Listening for the main points Understanding written and spoken
Academic focus:
Recognizing signposting language definitions
Definition and explanation
Taking detailed notes on explanations and Asking for and giving definitions and short
examples explanations
Signposting language (1): Giving an Participating in a seminar discussion
overview, sequencing Spoken definitions

NATURE Page 049 Seminars (1) Presentations

Preparing to listen to a seminar Identifying main points and descriptive
Academic focus:
Identifying context language
Description
Using noun phrases in descriptions Referring to numerical information
Noun phrases (1): Adjective + noun, Giving a short presentation and providing
adverb + adjective + noun peer feedback
Numbers: Large numbers, percentages,
fractions, decimals

POWER Page 063 Lectures (3) Seminar discussions (3)

Identifying different positions in a lecture Taking notes on a student presentation
Academic focus:
Reporting and summarizing Identifying supporting arguments Using reporting verbs to refer to points in
Using present and past tenses to report a presentation
findings Participating in a seminar discussion
Present and past tenses: Referring to Reporting verbs: Referring to points in
research findings a presentation

GROWTH Page 077 Lectures (4) Seminar discussions (4)

Completing notes on the main points of Referring to the main ideas in a text
Academic focus:
a lecture Forming a stance based on a reading
Using sources
Identifying and discussing stance in Offering and responding to opinions
source material Referring and responding to points of
Summarizing stance and perspective of view
source material

002 CONTENTS
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READING WRITING VOCABULARY

"eabooks (1) Simple and compound sentences Academic vocabulary
la r .n g an overview of an academic Expanding notes into sentences Identifying and using general, academic,
В Г Correcting and evaluating sentences and technical vocabulary
o s rrfy in g topics and main ideas W riting simple and compound sentences
■ u ib n g word families Writing compound sentences using
coordinators

Textbooks (2) Paragraphs (1) Expressing stance

-■ce'Standing main ideas in paragraphs Analysing paragraph structure Identifying common academic nouns
зле coger texts Recognizing cohesion in a paragraph Understanding stance
ing perspective and stance in Writing topic sentences and concluding
гтэ с sentences
^ssoontiing critically to stance in a te xt Cohesion (1): Pronouns and determiners
E cre ssin g stance (2): Adverbials

"ertbooks (3) Definitions Adjectives

- d i c i n g the purpose of a te xt Writing definitions using prepositional Understanding and using evaluative
.naerstanding main ideas phrases adjectives
e rizin g cohesive language Writing definitions using relative clauses Understanding and using classifying
^5-— e - zing definitions, explanations, Writing a paragraph that includes adjectives
зге examples definition
Ijie s io n (2): Introducing key The structure of definitions (1): Noun +
■riomation prepositional phrase
"Dons, explanations, The structure of definitions (2): Noun +
anc sxamples relative clauses

"■sxtbooks (4) Paragraphs (2) Adverbials

" d c r n g the content of a te xt Analysing, planning, and using notes to Identifying adverbial meanings
o s r t f y in g the main ideas build up a paragraph Using adverbials for cohesion
□ Ert^yin g and evaluating supporting Using adverbials to add context and
алзе лсе supporting information to a sentence
=&-rsr=ssive forms: Referring to Writing a descriptive paragraph
■fteree in progress Cohesion (3): Using adverbials to introduce
supporting information

"sxtbooks (5) Note-taking and summarizing Affixes

O E rrfyin g the main ideas and key Analysing and using active note-taking Using suffixes to recognize word families
"^ r-ra tio n in a te xt strategies Building word families using affixes
a e rify in g key features of a summary Identifying and using summarizing words
Us i g noun phrases to summarize ideas and phrases
E*auating summaries of a te xt Writing a summary of a short academic
Mo l t phrases (2): Summarizing ideas te xt
_sn g noun phrase patterns Noun phrases (3): Summarizing ideas
using key nouns and determiners
Noun phrases (4): Paraphrasing longer
structures

"extbooks (6) Using sources Reporting structures

oentrfying and evaluating sources for Analysing the use of sources in a te xt Identifying form in reported structures
a r essay Understanding and using ways of referring Using reporting structures
c e rtify in g author stance on main ideas to sources
c e rtify in g details and examples from Selecting and synthesizing sources to use
sources to support an argument in a paragraph
re p o sitio n s (1): Referring to time and Referring to sources (1): Using reporting
verbs and verb structures

C O N TE N TS 003
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LISTENING SPEAKING
NETWORKS Page 091 Lectures (5) Seminar discussions (5)
Using abbreviations and symbols to take Discussing and evaluating learning and
Academic focus:
notes assessment methods
Contextualizing
Identifying support for a position Listening for and comparing specific
Identifying examples and explanations context
Identifying explaining and rephrasing
language
Explaining and rephrasing

INNOVATION Роде 105 Lectures (6) Seminar discussions (6)

Using visuals to assist with note-taking in Using a te xt to support an opinion
Academic focus:
lectures Using language for managing a discussion
Referencing
Using notes to write a summary Referring to other people's ideas
Understanding and using references to Managing a discussion
visual information
Referring to visual information: Using
prepositions and directions

CONSUMPTION Page 119 Lectures (7) Seminar discussions (7)

Using Venn diagrams to take and organize Comparing and contrasting different
Academic focus:
notes pieces of research
Comparison and contrast
Analysing descriptions of similarity and Preparing for, participating in, and
difference evaluating a seminar discussion
Recognizing and using comparative
adjectives
Comparison and contrast (1): Adjectives

CRIME Page 133 Debate extracts Seminar discussions (8)

Examining evidence to prepare for a Evaluating a case study and identifying
Academic focus:
debate options
Argument and evidence
Identifying main arguments and Identifying and using hedging language
supporting evidence Presenting arguments for and against
Identifying and analysing maximizing and Hedging: Forms for expressing caution
minimizing language
Maximizing and minimizing language:
Modal verbs, verbs, and adverbs

ENERGY Page 147 Lectures (8) Presentations (2)

Identifying and using the language of Selecting and synthesizing information
Academic focus:
problems and solutions Using w h - structures to signal and focus
Problem and solution
Reviewing notes to identify the need for key points
further research Researching and preparing a group
Understanding evaluation in a lecture presentation
Problems and solutions Signposting and focusing: Using w h -
dauses

PROGRESS Page 161 Lectures (9) Seminar discussions (9)

Recognizing and noting down cause and Identifying related ideas
Academic focus:
effect relations in a lecture Evaluating cause and effect relationships
Cause and effect
Understanding key cause and effect Using cautious language
language Expressing caution: Giving and responding
Categorizing causes, effects, and to opinions
evaluation
Recognizing key cause and effect
language

Glossary of grammatical and Language reference p a g e i7 6 Additional reference material page 186
academic terms p a g e i7 5

00 4 C O N TE N T S
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READING WRITING VOCABULARY

Textbooks (7) Introductions Essay verbs
Evaluating different sources Analysing essay titles Identifying essay focus
Taking notes on detailed information Identifying the features of an introduction Using essay verbs
Using notes to write a summary Evaluating thesis statements
Identifying and referencing source Writing an introduction
material Stating aims and purpose
Noun phrases (5): Expressing key
information using complex noun phrases

Textbooks (8) Referencing Cohesive language

Recognizing objectivity in a te xt Identifying and analysing types of citation Selecting and using linking expressions
Identifying and understanding in context Using cohesive language in texts
references in a te xt Paraphrasing ideas from a source
Using source texts in writing Planning and writing an accurately-
The passive (1): Understanding the use referenced paragraph
of active and passive forms The passive (2): Using active and passive
forms to change the focus of a sentence

Textbooks (9) Comparison essays Comparing and contrasting

Analysing models and theories in a te xt Introduction to essay writing Identifying comparing and contrasting
Understanding comparison in te xt Writing an effective conclusion language
Identifying and evaluating authorial Planning and organizing comparison Using comparative and contrasting
stance essays structures
Comparison and contrast (2): Comparison and contrast (3): Referring to
Understanding longer phrases or similarity and difference
structures

Textbooks (10) Argument Essays Argument

Identifying main arguments Planning, organizing, and writing an Presenting and assessing views
Understanding and using evaluative argument essay Noticing and interpreting arguments
language Incorporating evidence in an essay
Evaluating premise and conclusion in Making a te xt more cohesive by varying
an argument vocabulary
Evaluative language: Adjectives Cohesion (4): Using synonyms and other
cohesive language in a written te xt

Textbooks (11) Problem-solution essays The language of problems and

Identifying supporting detail and Effectively evaluating solutions solutions
evidence in a te xt Planning and organizing problem-solution Recognizing problems
Identifying problems, solutions, and essays Introducing and responding to problems
evaluation in a te xt Evaluating your own work
Understanding how meanings are Evaluative language: It and There
expressed through prepositional structures
phrases
Prepositions (2): Expressing meaning
using complex prepositions

Textbooks (12) Cause and effect essays Cause and effect

Identifying cause and effect Planning and structuring a cause and Identifying cause and effect language
relationships in a te xt effect essay Identifying causes in a te xt and revising
Identifying stance in cause and effect Stating cause and effect connections
relationships through appropriate language
Noticing and using prepositional verbs Writing and evaluating a cause and
Prepositional verbs effect essay
Cause and effect language

Writing: Sample answers page 189 Additional material from units page 195 Video and audio transcripts page г о е
List of sources for texts page ггз

CONTENTS
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Introduction
W elcom e to O xford English fo r A ca d em ic Purposes - a w ill do a short listen ing or readin g task to in trod uce
co m p lete cou rse for an yon e prep arin g to stu d y in the context and presen t exam ples o f usefu l language,
E nglish at u n iversity level. A t the en d o f the m o d u le there is n orm ally an
o p p ortu n ity to thin k a b ou t and evaluate yo u r ow n
p erfo rm an ce in the d iscu ssion or presentation task.
What is Oxford EAP?
Reading uses extracts from au th en tic aca d em ic
O xford E A P is d esign ed to im prove y ou r ability to
textbooks. It u su ally starts w ith a short task to get you
stu d y effectively in English, w h eth er y o u are p lan n in g
th in kin g abou t the topic, or to pred ict the conten t
to study on an u n dergrad u ate or postgrad u ate
o f the text. Further tasks w ill h elp y o u to identify
program m e. W h atever y o u r a ca d em ic backgrou nd ,
im portan t features o f the text, su ch as the m ain ideas
and w h atever you r ch o sen subject, Oxford E A P w ill
or sp ecific lan guage, and dem on strate h o w y o u can
h elp y o u d evelop y ou r k n ow led g e and skills in all o f
read and u n derstan d an a ca d em ic text even if you
the follow in g areas:
d o n ’t u n derstan d every w ord . This m o d u le often end
• readin g and u n d erstan d in g au th en tic aca d em ic w ith a task w h ere y o u resp o n d critically to w h at you
texts have read.
• listen ing to lectu res and presentations
Writing focu ses on som e o f the m ost im portant
• w riting sen tences, paragraphs, and different
asp ects o f a ca d em ic w ritin g in the first four units,
essay types
su ch as w riting sen ten ces, d escrip tion s and sim ple
• p articip atin g in sem in ar and group discu ssion s paragraphs. Later in the b o o k y o u m ove o n to analyse
• prep arin g an d giving sim ple presentations p aragraph structure, learn h o w to w rite sum m aries
• im provin g y ou r study skills su ch as note-taking, and citations, and introd u ction s and co n clu sio n s to
critical thinking, and w orkin g in d ep en d en tly essays. In the last four units, y o u w ill lo o k at different
types o f essay (e.g. argum ent, prob lem -solu tion , caus
• reco gn izin g an d usin g a ca d em ic gram m ar and
and effect), look in g at key aspects o f organization,
vocab u lary.
style, and u se o f lan gu age. You w ill also b e h e lp e d to
ch e c k and evalu ate yo u r w riting.
What is in a unit? Vocabulary look s at k ey asp ects o f a ca d em ic
O xford E A P h as tw elve units. E ach un it starts w ith a vo ca b u la ry u sin g the con ten t o f ea ch unit, an d covers
preview p age w h ich show s the learn in g ob jectives u sefu l vo ca b u la ry-lea rn in g strategies.
for that unit, plu s a short d iscu ssion task to get y o u
thin kin g abou t the un it them e.
The academic focus o f ea ch un it covers an im portant
What else is included?
asp ect o f a ca d em ic stu d y relevan t to all su b ject E ach un it includes:
areas - for exam ple, defin ition and explanation, • Academic language (gram m ar, vo cab u lary, and
d escrip tion , u sin g sources, com p ariso n an d contrast, u sefu l phrases) related to the a ca d em ic focu s o f
argu m en t and evid en ce, an d cau se and effect. This the unit, w ith exam ples taken from the texts or
focu s is m ain tain ed th rou gh ou t the unit. vid e o / au d io transcripts. W here n ecessary, there is
The units are d ivid ed into fou r m ain m o d u les - a cross-referen ce to the L an guage referen ce at the
Listening, Speaking, Reading, and W riting - plus a b a ck o f the b ook.
on e-p age V o cab u lary m od u le. E ach m o d u le starts • Critical thinking tasks en co u ra ge y o u to thin k
w ith a rationale (a short text exp lainin g w h a t h a p p en s a b ou t the con ten t o f ea ch m od u le, and a b ou t y ou r
in the m od u le), and in clu d es a n u m b er o f carefully ow n p erfo rm an ce in w ritin g and sp eakin g tasks.
seq u en ced tasks w h ich h elp y o u to m ee t the learn in g
• In d ep en d en t study tips suggesting h o w to transfer
ob jectives for that m od u le. *
th e skills from the cou rse to yo u r ow n studies.
Listening focu ses m ain ly on listen in g to lectures At the b ack o f the b o o k there is:
and presentations. It uses short vid eo extracts from • Glossary o f gram m atical an d a ca d em ic term s u sed
lectu res to h elp y o u u n d erstan d key inform ation and in this b o o k
language, as w ell as h o w the lectu rer’s m aterial is
• Language reference w ith m ore detailed
organized . N ote-taking is a k ey part o f m ost m odules,
inform ation on the lan gu a g e covered in the units
and the m o d u le u su ally en ds w ith a critical thin kin g
task w h ich asks y o u to resp o n d to som e question s • Additional reference material w ith inform ation
ab ou t the con ten t o f the lectu re or presentation. o f plagiarism , citation, and p roofread ing and
self-editing
Speaking in clu d es p articip atin g in sem in ars and • Sample essays and exam ples o f a ca d em ic w riting
discussion s, and giving presentations. It covers
• Video and audio transcripts.
co m m u n ica tio n strategies for th ese situations, and
presents and practises u sefu l lan gu age. U su ally yo u

0 06 INTRODUCTION
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UNIT 1 Knowledge
ACADEMIC FOCUS: UNDERSTANDING AND PRESENTING INFORMATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

This unit covers:
1 Think about how knowledge is transferred and how you
Listening learn things. Put the following sources in order from 1 (most
Understanding main ideas in a presentation important) to 5 (least important).
Identifying word class to assist note-taking the internet in lectures textbooks
Recognizing signposting in a presentation the m edia (e.g. television, newspapers) other students
Speaking
2 Work in groups and explain why you chose your particular
Talking about experiences using the past simple order.
and present perfect
Exam ple: The internet is very important because you can
Structuring and signposting a short presentation
search fo r a wide variety o f information, but you
Presenting information about your academic can't believe everything you read...
experience and aims
3 Discuss how you use the sources in 1 in your own area of
Reading
study. Which are the most useful? Give reasons.
Gaining an overview of an academic text
Exam ple: I read the relevant part o f the textbook, and make
Identifying topics and main ideas
* brief notes on the most important points. I revise
Building word families
from these notes later, which helps me to remember
Writing the information in the longer term.
Expanding notes into sentences
4 Briefly present your group's ideas to the whole class.
Correcting and evaluating sentences Use the following phrases to help you.
Writing simple and compound sentences
We discussed...
Vocabulary Our group think th a t...
Identifying and using general, academic, and
technical vocabulary

007
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Listening Short presentations

D uring yo u r course, you may have to listen to presentations by other students, by professional
people, or by exp erts from yo u r area of study. Presentations usually contain language
th a t tells you how the inform ation in the talk is organized - in other words, it signposts
th e structure of the talk. You can use th is signposting language to help you fo llo w a
presentation and to take notes.

This module covers:

• Understanding main ideas in a presentation
• Id e n tifyin g word class to assist n ote-takin g
• Recognizing signposting in a presentation

TASK 1 Thinking about listening

1 Read questions 1-4 and think about your own answers. Give reasons and examples.
1 What do you listen to in English?
2 How often do you do this in a typical week?
3 What do you find most difficult about listening to English?
4 How can you improve your listening skills?

2 Discuss your answers with a partner.

TASK 2 Previewing the topic

1 You are going to watch three people presenting their experiences of educational
courses. Work in pairs and discuss the main differences between courses 1-3.
1 A pre-sessional course (a language course before university study)
2 A Bachelor’s degree (an undergraduate course)
3 A M aster’s degree (a postgraduate course)

2 What are some of the reasons for taking each of these courses?

TASK 3 Understanding the introduction to a presentation

1 0 1 . 1 Watch Extract 1 and complete the table.
Student Course Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3
i 3
1 Mohammed My experience
✓

2Academic

4
2 Julia Bachelor's degree (BSc) Work experience
in Business Studies
3 Luke 6 Academic and 7

professional skills

2 0 1 .1 Watch Extract 1 again and complete sentences 1-5.

1 OK. My name's M ohammed. I’m
2 So, firstly, my experience of the course itself and then
how the co u rse...
3 I’m here today
4 I’ve three main parts ...
5 Just to overview ...

008 U N IT 1 A LISTEN IN G
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TASK 4 Understanding the main ideas in a presentation (1)

1 0 1 . 2 Watch Extract 2 and take notes on topics 1 and 2.
Presentation 1 (M oham m ed)
1 Academic reading - differences 2 Useful things learnt

2 Which words helped you to identify the presenter’s main ideas?

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE _________________________ ►Language reference page 185 45

Word class U sin g w o rd class to id e n tify m ain ideas

When you are listening or reading it is important to identify the main ideas. This helps you to take notes on the most
important information. The words that carry most of this information are often nouns, verbs, and adjectives. For example:
To give you an idea of what I mean, in academic situations you are always reading for a reason, for example, to write
an essay, to give a presentation, to prepare for a test.
You also need to understand the writer's opinion, so you can use it to support your argument.

TASK 5 Identifying word class

1 Underline the words in sentences 1-4 that express the main idea.
Exam ple: In academic situations you are always reading for a reason, for example, to
write an essay, give a presentation or prepare for a test.
1 It can be difficult to decide what you need to read and what makes a good source.
2 So you have to learn to challenge ideas and not just accept everything you read ...
3 Your dissertation is a real test of your academ ic abilities and it will probably decide the
degree classification you get.
4 Another 30% of you probably com e from different education systems.

2 Look back at the words you underlined. Identify the word class for each word.

TASK 6 Understanding the main ideas in a presentation (2)

1 0 1 . 3 , 1 . 4 Watch Extracts 3 and 4 and take notes on topics 3-7 for both presentations.
3 Getting good marks 6 Professional and academ ic skills -
4 Work experience - im portance importance
5 Dissertation 7 Students’ backgrounds

2 What actual words did you note down? Which word class are they?

TASK 7 Recognizing phrases for signposting a presentation

1 Match each phrase 1-5 to functions a -e.
INDEPENDENT
1 To give you an idea of what I mean a to return to an im portant point
STUD Y
2 To go back to what I was saying earlier b to summarize the m ain idea
The classroom provides
3 OK, let's move on and talk about с to change the subject only some of your
opportunities for learning.
4 As you all know d to give an example You need to practise
5 So, to sum up e to refer to the audience’s knowledge listening outside the
classroom t o o -f o r
2 0 1 . 5 Watch the five short clips and check your answers to 1. example, by watching
online lectures or
presentations.

TASK 8 Responding to a presentation ►N ext tim e yo u have

the chance to listen
to English outside the
1 Look back at your notes from Tasks 4 and 6. Work in pairs and discuss these questions. classroom, note dow n
1 Is getting work experience im portant to your future success? Why / Why not? w hat, and how much,
you understood.
2 What skills can your area of study give you that will help in your future career?

UNIT 1A LISTENING 009

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Speaking Short presentations

Presentation skills are important in many academic contexts, You may have to give a short
presentation in a seminar, or a more formal presentation to a particular audience. You need
to think about what to say, and what language to use. This module helps you to prepare a
short presentation about yourself, your experiences, and your aims or ambitions. It also
reviews language for talking about past and recent experiences.

This module covers:

• Talking about experiences using the past simple and present perfect
• Structuring and signposting a short presentation
• Presenting information about your academic experience and aims

TASK 1 Preparing personal information

1 Make brief notes on the following points. Then answer questions ] and 2 for each point.
• Your education experience in the last 1-2 years: for example, where you studied, the
main subjects you studied, any inspiring teachers.
• Your recent experience: for example, work experience, places you have travelled to,
new skills you have learnt.
1 What did you learn from the experience?
2 What difficulties did you have? How did you overcome these difficulties?

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE ____________________________ ►La n gu a ge referen ce page 184 4 i

Tense and aspect Talking about experiences

Past simple
Use the past simple to talk about what you did in the past, especially with a time reference
(e.g. last year / in 2012 / when I was at school)'.
Last year I studied English and Business.
Also use the past simple to talk about a sequence of events:
On the course I learnt how to give a presentation; then I focused on research skills.
Present perfect
Use the present perfect to talk about things that were completed in the past but are also
relevant now, especially experiences and achievements:
The course has helped me to develop core academic skills. I've researched and written
three long essays. It has also given me greater confidence.
Questions
In a conversation, follow-up questions are often in the past simple:
Did you learn anything new? How did it help you do this?

TASK 2 Using questions to discuss experiences

1 Complete questions 1-5 below using question words (how, what, when, why) and/or did.
1 is the m ost useful thing you learnt? How you learn it?
2 you decide to go there?
3 you spend most of your free time when you were studying?
4 you ever think about studying som ething different?
5 this experience help you?

2 Discuss your own experiences with another student. Ask and answer follow-up
questions.
Exam ple: So you 've been to Russia. Why did you decide to go there?

010 UNIT I B SPEAKING

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TASK 3 Understanding a short presentation

1 0 1 . 6 Watch a short presentation by a Japanese student and complete the notes.
Exam ple: Focus of presentation: educational experience and aims
1 Aim of presentation: 4 Ryo’s chosen department:
2 Ryo’s first m ain aim: 5 Ryo’s second main aim:
3 Ryo’s university:............................... 6 Ryo’s m ain m essage:..................................................

2 0 1 . 6 Watch the presentation again and notice the language Ryo uses to organize his
ideas. Tick the phrases in each column (A, B, or C) that you hear.
A B C
Today I' d like to talk to you a b ou t... OK, so first let me tell you a b o u t... My first main aim was t o ...
What I want to talk about today is ... The next stage of my presentation i s ... I plan / hope / aim / want to...
The focus of this presentation is ... And this brings me on to my second main point. What I would really like to do i s ...
I'd like to finish my presentation b y ... My main aim / ambition is t o ...

3 Match headings 1-3 with the appropriate column A-С in 2.

1 Talking about plans, aims, and ambitions
2 Introducing the topic of your presentation
3 Moving on to the next point

TASK 4 Evaluating a presentation INDEPENDENT\

STUDY
1 0 1 . 6 Watch the presentation again, and evaluate it using the checklist on page 195.
Other students' input
can be very useful
2 Compare your evaluation with another student.
in developing your
presentation style.
►N ext tim e yo u give a
TASK 5 Preparing and giving a personal presentation presentation, ask other
students to evaluate
1 Prepare a short presentation of about two minutes, talking about your own experience it, then agree at least
of education or work. Use guidelines 1-4 to plan your ideas. tw o things yo u could
im prove on.
1 Decide on a maximum of three points that you want to make. Note them down in
order. For example: your recent experience; your present situation; your future plans,
aims, and ambitions (academ ic / other).
2 Think of a way of introducing yourself and your presentation.
Today I want to talk about...
In this presentation I'd like to tell you about...
3 Think about the language you will use to:
• talk about your experiences in the past
• move from one point to the next
• talk about your future plans, aims, and ambitions.
4 Think of a phrase to end your presentation. For example:
I’d like tofinish my presentation by saying...
The main thing I learntfrom this experience was...
\
2 Work in pairs and practise your presentation. Aim to speak clearly and not too fast.
Give each other feedback and suggest improvements.

3 Work in groups and take turns to give your presentations.

1 Aim to speak for about two minutes, and respond to any questions at the end.
2 While you listen, note down any main points and key information, as in Task 3.1.
3 Think of a question to ask after each presentation.
4 Give feedback to the other presenters in your group using the checklist on page 195.

4 Evaluate your own presentation, using the checklist on page 195. Note down two things
you would like to improve.

UNIT IB SPEAKING O il
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Reading Textbooks (1)

Understanding textbooks can be difficult, because they often express complex concepts or
ideas, and use specialized vocabulary. This module shows that by developing some simple
reading strategies, you can get the information you need even from a difficult text. When you
read academic texts, you will need to skim, scan, or close read. Skimming means reading quickly
for the general meaning, or gist. This is useful when you have large amounts of text. Scanning
is reading for specific information or details. Close reading is when you read line by line, and
every word. This is useful when concentrating on a short specific piece of text.

This module covers:

• Gaining an overview of an academic text
• Identifying topics and main ideas
• Building word families

TA5K1 Thinking about reading

1 Note down short answers to questions 1-4 about your own reading.
1 Do you enjoy reading texts in English?
2 What sorts of texts have you read in English recently?
3 Where do you find the texts that you read?
4 What do you find difficult about reading texts in English?

2 Compare your answers. Discuss what you can do to be a better reader in English.

TASK 2 Preparing to read

1 Work in pairs. Explain an idea related to your area of study to your partner.
Exam ple: Aerobic exercise is moderate exercise which you do over a long period of time,
like jogging or swimming. It increases the amount of oxygen your body takes in.

2 How easy or difficult was it to (a) give your explanation, and (b) understand your
partner’s explanation?

3 Read the two definitions from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

p s y c h o l o g y /sai'kDl3d3i/ noun '[U] the scientific study o f the mind and how it influences behaviour
c o g n i t i v e /'kogn ativ / adj connected w ith m ental processes o f understanding

1 What do you know about psychology? Have you ever studied it?
2 What do you think cognitive psychology is?

TASK 3 Understanding a text: topic, purpose, and main idea

INDEPENDENT
1 When you read part of a textbook, you need to understand the topic, the purpose of the
STUDY
text, and the main idea or ideas. Match terms 1-3 with the best description a -c .
When approaching a new
1 topic a the m ost im portant thing that the author wants to com m unicate academic text, it is useful
to gain an overview by
2 purpose b what the text is about
quickly looking at key parts
3 main idea с the reason for writing of the text, starting with
the title and any headings
2 Look at Text 1 from a psychology textbook, paying attention to the title and any words and words highlighted in
that are highlighted in bold. Select the best answer to Question 1. bold or italics,
►Find a te xtb o ok extract
Question 1: What is the text about? from yo u r ow n area of
1 people’s experiences stu d y and look at it in
this way.
2 cognitive processing and psychology

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3 Read Text 1 quickly and select the best answer to Question 2. Use the glossary to
help you.
Question 2: W hat is the purpose o f the text?
1 To introduce the concept of cognition and some of the ideas related to it.
2 To explain how and why people behave as they do.

4 Read Text 1 again and decide which of the following two statements best expresses the
main idea.
Question 3: W hat is the m ain idea?
1 People process inform ation about the world in different ways, and this has an effect on
how they think about things.
2 People need to understand cognitive psychology in order to understand the world.

5 Compare your answers to Questions 1-3 with another student.

Principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

When people are thinking about how best to s o l v e ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
a mathematical problem, trying to remember the
title of a book, observing a beautiful sunset, telling
a joke they have heard, or thinking about what
to do tomorrow, they are involved in cognitive
processing. Cognitive psychology is concerned
with the structure and functions of the mind.
Cognitive psychologists are involved in finding
out how the human mind comes to know things
about the world and how it uses this knowledge.
Cognitive neuroscience combines knowledge
about the brain with knowledge about cognitive
processes. GLOSSARY
The mind can be seen as a set of mental analysis (n) the detailed
processes that are carried out by the brain. study or examination of sth
Cognitive processes include perception, thinking, in order to understand more
about it
problem-solving, memory, language, and attention.
The concept of cognition refers to such processes. cognition (n) the process
by which knowledge and
Cognition is based on a person's mental representations of the world, such as images, words, understanding is developed in
and concepts. People have different experiences and therefore they have different mental the mind
representations - for example, of what is right or wrong, or about what boys and girls can or cannot influence (v) to have an
do. This will influence the way they think about the world. effect on the way that sb
behaves or thinks
s o u rc e Crane, J. & Hannibal, J. (2009). p.67. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. mental representation (n) an
image or idea in the memory

TASK 4 Reading in detail to understand key information

1 Read Text 1 carefully and find the key terms or concepts 1-6 related to the word
cognitive. Complete the notes for items 2-5.
1 Cognitive processing: involves problem-solving, remembering something, thinking
2 Cognitive psychology: is concerned with

3 Cognitive psychologists: are interested in finding out

4 Cognitive neuroscience: concerns knowledge o f ........................................................................

5 Cognitive processes: include

6 Cognition, i.e. cognitive processes: are based on how the human mind represents the
world (e.g. images, words, concepts)

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TASK 5 Explaining key terms

1 Work in pairs. Use the words / phrases below to explain or give more information
about key terms or concepts from your own area of study.
are based on involves is concerned with

Exam ples: Civil engineering involves building bridges, roads, canals, and other structures.
Plate tectonics is concerned with the movement o f the earth's surface.

2 How might cognitive psychology be useful in your area of study? Give examples.

TASK 6 Predicting the content of a text

1 You are going to read another extract from the same textbook. Read the title and
decide which/оиг of items a -e you would expect the text to include.
a An explanation of what schemas are.
b An example to show what schema theory is.
с Information about how schema theory is used.
d Information about how psychologists define schema theory.
e A com parison of schema theory and other academ ic theories.

2 Read Text 2 quickly and check which of your predictions in 1 were correct.

3 Match one item from 1 to each paragraph of Text 2. There is one item you do not need
to use.

A theory of cognitive process: schema theory

1 When an expert football player kicks the ball directly into the goal for a penalty, it may look like
any other goal. However, this particular kick is the result of many hours of practice, combined with
an adjustment to the challenges of the particular situation. The player needs to think about the
position of the goalkeeper and predict the goalkeeper's possible reattions, as well as determining
how he should kick the ball. This is done based on his previous experience, which is stored in
his memory as knowledge - but there is more to it than this. The most successful players have
learnt this behaviour to perfection, but they need to modify it to fit the particular situation.
The player must respond to visual information about the goalkeeper's position and movement,
and its possible consequences. This is based on the recognition of patterns. This 'how-to-score
knowledge' will help a player decide what aspects of the situation he needs to pay attention to
in order to place the ball accurately between the goalposts. Specialists in a certain field have
expert knowledge that comes from hours of practice. This means that to some extent they can do
the right things at the right time more or less automatically, but they always need to be able to
analyse each individual situation. GLOSSARY
2 Cognitive psychologists would call this 'how-to-score knowledge' a schema, and schema determine (v) to calculate sth
theory is a cognitive theory about information processing. A cognitive schema can be defined exactly
as networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world. integrate (v) to combine tw o
3 Schemas can describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in a person's memory so that or more things so that they
* 1 it can be accessed and used when it is needed - as in the example of the expert footballer. It is not work together
possible to see a schema inside someone's head, but *sing concepts like schemas help psychologists interpret (v) to explain the
- and all of us - to understand, and discuss, what it would otherwise not be possible to do. meaning of sth; to decide that
sth has a particular meaning
4 Schema theory suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information
and to understand it in this
processing. This idea is based on the belief that humans are active processors of information. w ay
People do not passively respond to information, They interpret and integrate it to make sense modify (v) to change sth
of their experiences, but they are not always aware of it. If information is missing, the brain fills slightly
in the blanks based on existing schemas, or it simply invents something that seems to fit in. outcome (n) the result or
Obviously this can result in mistakes - called distortions. effect of an action or event
recognition (n) the act of
s o u rc e : Crane, J. 8 Hannibal, J. (2009). pp.70-1. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. remembering or identifying
what sth is

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TASK 7 Identifying the topic and main idea in a paragraph

1 Each paragraph of an academic text typically has a topic and a main idea. Look at
paragraph 3 of Text 2 below and match items a-d to parts 1-4.
a an example с information about schemas and how they are used
b the topic I d an explanation of what schemas do

Schemas гсап describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in a person's memory so that
it can be accessed and used when it is needed - 3as in the example of the expert footballer. 4lt is not
possible to see a schema inside someone's head, but using concepts like schemas help psychologists
- and ail of us - to understand, and discuss, what it would otherwise not be possible to do.

2 Which part of paragraph 3 includes the main idea?

3 Read paragraphs 1,2, and 4 of Text 2 again and identify the topics and the main ideas.
Write the number of each paragraph next to the notes in the table.
Paragraph Topic Main idea
3 Schemas Schemas help us understand and discuss knowledge.
Schema theory In cognitive psychology, schema theory explains how we
do things.
‘How-to' knowledge Experts and specialists use their experience, 'how-to'
knowledge, and analysis to do difficult things.
Human information How schema theory explains how people process
processing information using experience and knowledge.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE_______________ ►La n gu a ge reference page 185 45 / page 177 4

Academic vocabulary (1) Building w ord fam ilies

By learning word families, you will greatly increase your vocabulary. Word families are groups of
words based on the same root word, but with different forms, for example:
Noun Adjective Adverb Verb .*
theory theoretical theoretically theorize
Some words within a word fam ily may be more common than others - for example, the noun
theory is more frequent and more useful than the verb theorize. Not all forms of the word are
found in all word families.

Suffixes
Suffixes are a group of letters added to the end of a word to change the form of that word.
For example:
Noun suffixes include: -tion, -ity, -ism, -ness (cognition, reality, criticism, happiness)'
Adjective suffixes include: -ai, able, -iye, -ful {critical, memorable, informative, successful)
Adverbs typically take the suffix -ly. (critically, successfully)
The verb suffix -fee is very frequent: ( criticize, theorize)

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TASK 8 Choosing the right word form

1 Complete the table with the correct forms of the words from Texts 1 and 2. Use your
dictionary to help you.
Noun Adjective Adverb Verb
theory theoretical theoretically theorize
base (on)
cognitive -
information
- involve
knowledge
memory
possible -
- - process
representation

2 Complete the sentences with the correct form of the word in brackets.
1 The theory is that people choose how they behave, (base)
2 This latest piece of research a significant achievement, (representation)
3 There seem s to be no that the research can be successfully completed.
(possible)
4 In a presentation it’s im portant to speak about your subject, (knowledge)
5 In order to learn new information, try representing it as a picture, and then
it. (memory)
6 It's difficult to com plete a group assignment without the of the whole team.
(involve)

3 Look at how words from the table in 1 are used in Texts 1 and 2 on pages 013 and 014.
Select three or more words from the table and use them to write your own sentences.

TASK 9 Reflecting on your learning

1 Look back at Task 1.1, question 4 on what you find difficult about reading in English.
Think of at least one way that this module has helped you.
Exam ple: The technical terms in the texts looked difficult, but I now realize that they
are explained in the text with examples. In this kind o f text, if I focus on the
explanations, I should be able to understand the concepts.

2 Note down two or three aims for improving your reading. Think of strategies for
achieving these aims.
Exam ple: Aim: By the end o f the academic year I want to be able to read textbooks in my
subject and understand the main points.
Strategies: I can do this by setting myself short tasks, such as reading two pages
from a textbook, with deadlines. Then I can increase the difficulty by adding
another page, and taking less time. »

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Writing Simple & compound sentences

From a simple summary to a dissertation, your academic writing needs to express your ideas
clearly. It is important be able to write simple sentences in English, containing a single idea.
From simple sentences you can build longer, compound sentences that contain more than
one closely related idea. This module gives you practice in writing and evaluating simple and
compound sentences.

This module covers:

• Expanding notes into sentences
• Correcting and evaluating sentences
• Writing simple and compound sentences

ASK1 Thinking about your writing

1 Look at the statements about writing. Rate your ability for each aspect of writing.
Very Very
strong Strong OK Weak weak
1 I can use a wide range of vocabulary.
2 I can use a variety of grammatical structures accurately.
3 I can structure a paragraph and an essay well.
4 I can understand and answer a variety of essay questions.

2 Compare your answers with a partner. Discuss why you think you have these strengths
and weaknesses.

~ASK Z Understanding simple sentence structure

1 Work in pairs and discuss questions 1-3.
1 What do you know about how sentences are structured in English?
2 Do you know what a subject, verb, and object are in a sentence?
3 Identify the subject, verb, and object of the sentence below.
Motivated learners make fast progress.

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE _____________________________> La n gu a ge reference page 183 35

Sentence structure (1) W riting simple sentences

Simple sentences in English must have a subject (s) and a verb (v). Most sentences also include
an object (o). The subject is a noun or noun phrase, and tells you what or who the sentence is
about. The verb tells you what the subject is or does. The object is also a noun or noun phrase,
and is affected by the action of the verb.
Psychologists study human behaviour.
s V 0
People have different experiences of studying.
S V о
Cognitive processes include thinking and problem-solving.
S V 0

2 Identify the subject, verb, and object in sentences 1-5.

1 Researchers use a variety of methods.
2 The hum an mind understands many different ideas.
3 A specialist has expert knowledge in a particular field.
4 Different kinds of motivation affect people’s performance.
5 A M aster’s degree improves your career prospects.

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TASK 3 Expanding notes into complete sentences

1 Notes often include key words instead of com plete sen ten ces. Look at notes 1 -5 and
decide w hich o f the following they include: a su bject, a verb, and an object.
1 have different experiences of education
2 some students not motivated by languages
3 contribute billions of dollars to the global econom y
4 Dubai an example of a knowledge econom y
5 awards degrees in four classifications

2 Expand the notes in 1 into sen ten ces by using su bjects and verbs from the list.
Com pare your answ ers with a partner.
People The university is International students are

Exam ple: People have different experiences o f education.

3 Notes often m iss out other 'n o n -essen tial' words such as d eterm iners (the, a I an,
many), prepositions (for, in), and adverbs (very). Com pare notes and sen ten ces 1-6.
W hich words are m issing from the notes in each case?
Exam ple: Notes: Psychologists - see m ind as complex machine.
Sentence: Psychologists see the m ind as a complex machine.
1 English: subject-verb-object sentence 4 Work experience important getting job
structure Work experience is im portant for
English follows a subject, verb, object getting a job.
sentence structure. 5 Korea: students study hard
2 People study - different reasons In Korea students study hard.
People study for many different reasons. 6 university - excellent business school
3 Feedback students learn The university has an excellent Business
Feedback helps students to learn. School.

Expand notes 1-6 into com plete sentences.

1 office open 9.00 to 5.00 4 students take m aximum six modules
2 UK: international students pay higher 5 good presentation skills - important (!)
fees in workplace
3 tests main m ethod of assessm ent 6 dissertation - 30% final mark - this
degree programme

TASK 4 Correcting run-on sentences

1 R un-on sen ten ces are a com m on m istake in writing. They happen w hen two sim ple
senten ces are jo in ed together without the co rrect punctuation. Read ru n -on sen ten ces
1 -4 and identify the two sim ple sentences.
Exam ple: People do not passively respond to information, they interpret and integrate it INDEPENDENT
to make sense o f their experiences. STUDY
Checking your work for
1 The long-term memory is like a big store of in f^ m a tio n , this store has no size limit.
mistakes is an important
2 There are many different ways of doing market research, the use of questionnaires and part of the w ritin g process,
holding focus groups are two examples. Run-on sentences are a
common error, but each
3 The world’s oceans contain hundreds of thousands of life forms with many not yet student makes different
discovered, there could be millions of life forms according to scientists. kinds of mistakes, so it is
important to pay attention
4 There are two main types of exercise, many people prefer aerobic exercise (e.g. to teacher feedback,
jogging, swimming) to anaerobic exercise (e.g. lifting weights, running fast over short ►Next time you receive
distances). teacher feedback on
your writing, look for
2 Rewrite the ru n-on sen ten ces in 1 as two sim ple sentences. the language errors
they highlight and try
Exam ple: People do not passively respond to information. They interpret and integrate it
to correct them.
to make sense o f their experiences.

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ACADEM IC LANGUAGE

Sentence structure (2) W riting compound sentences using coordinators

Two closely related simple sentences can be joined together to make a compound sentence.
Three of the most common words (or coordinators) for joining simple sentences together are
and, but, and or. Each simple sentence then becomes an independent part (or clause) of a
compound sentence. For example:
Cognitive psychologists call 'how-to-score knowledge' a schema, and schema theory is a
theory about how we process information.
Science is continually exploring how memory is organized in the human brain, but it is still
not possible to say how memory works.
Research findings can change original models, or a model can be rejected because of the
evidence.
Run-on sentences can also be corrected by adding a coordinator such as and, but, and or.

TASK 5 Writing compound sentences

1 Match each coordinator 1-3 to its function a -c.
1 and a to introduce a contrast or different idea
2 or b to add information
3 but с to connect different possibilities / alternatives

2 Match the beginning of sentences 1 -6 with the correct ending a-f.

1 It is not possible to see a schema inside a but they are not always aware they
someone’s head, are doing it.
2 People interpret information to make b or create situations similar to real life
sense of their experiences, in a laboratory.
3 This model is based on the idea of с but using concepts like schemas helps
information processing, psychologists.
4 Psychologists observe real life, d and only a very small part of this
5 The short-term memory is limited to information will stay in the long-term
around seven items, memory.

6 Research data supports existing e or it may create new models.

theories and models, f and it is one of the most important
models in use.

3 Join the two simple sentences together with the correct coordinator, and, but, or or.
1 The human mind contains many ideas which are stored in the memory. These ideas
are organized in categories.
2 Science explores the way the human brain organizes memory. There are still many
questions to answer about the biological origins of memory.
3 People can choose to remember information. They can choose to forget it.
4 Some people use automatic processing to help them remember things. Some use
different techniques. ■'
5 Pickering and Gathercole (2001) used the Test for Children. They found an
improvement in the working memory of the children they tested.
6 The material is not an exact copy of events or facts. It is stored in outline form.

4 Write at least two simple sentences for each of the following topics.
1 Previous courses you have studied
2 Your strengths and weaknesses in English
3 Some interesting things you know about your school/college/university
4 Information connected to your area of study

5 Connect your simple sentences from 4 to make compound sentences.

6 Compare your sentences with another student and ask follow-up questions.

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Vocabulary Academic vocabulary

Academic te xts in English use a large number of words to present information and express meaning.
Such te xts typically contain about 80% general vocabulary. The remaining 20% is divided into
academic and technical vocabulary, less frequent words, and proper nouns (e.g. Oxford). Academic
vocabulary items can be found in te xts from all subjects: result in, concept, and significantly. Technical
vocabulary is specific to one or more disciplines, e.g. schema in Psychology. It is useful to be able to
identify whether a word is general, academic, or technical, in order to use it in the appropriate context.

TASK 1 Identifying general, academic, and technical vocabulary

1 Read the descriptions of types of words a-f. Decide if they are examples of general, academic,
or technical vocabulary.
a grammatical words: determiners (e.g. the), pronouns (e.g. it) and prepositions (e.g. as)
b adjectives and nouns relating to subjects and perspectives, e.g. psychology
с adjectives expressing familiar qualities / characteristics / time, e.g. possible
d names of familiar concepts, e.g. information
e descriptions of specific concepts, e.g. top-down, cognitive
f adverbs used to show sequence, e.g. finally

2 Read the text, which illustrates the use of general, academic, and technical vocabulary. Check
your answers to 1 and find one further example for categories a -f in 1.

One of the most fundamental principles of cognitive psychology is that human beings are information processors
and that mental processes guide behaviour. One goal of cognitive research is to discover possible principles
underlying cognitive processes. Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine - rather like an intelligent,
information-processing machine using hardware (the brain) and software (mental images or representations).
According to this line of thinking, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up processing - that is
from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored
information in the memory. Finally, there is some output in the form of behaviour.-

s o u r c E: Crane, J. 8 Hannibal, J. (2009), pp.67-8. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

3 Decide on the word class (e.g. noun, verb) for each academic word 1-5. Then match the words
with definitions a-e .
1 fundamental a series of things that are done in order to achieve a particular result
2 process b a law, a rule, or a theory that sth is based on
3 principle с a careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or
4 research information about it

5 complex d serious; affecting the most central and important parts of sth
e difficult to understand

TASK 2 Selecting and using academic vocabulary

1 Complete the text with the most apprdpriate words / phrases from the list.
models demonstrated deal with challenges complexity theories
»

Psychologists recognize the importance of cognition in understanding the 1 of human

behaviour. Cognitive ■'.......................... and 3............................ are applied to real-world scenarios.
Health and sports psychologists have 4 that there is a subtle relationship between
how people think about themselves and how they behave - for example, how they manage to
5 ’ 6

source: Crane, J. a Hannibal, J, (2009). p.68. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2 Select at least five of the academic words from the texts in this module, and write sentences
containing the words. If possible, relate the sentences to your own area of study.
Example: The theory that supply affects prices is a fundamental principle o f economics.

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UNIT 2 Organization
ACADEMIC FOCUS: PERSPECTIVE AND STANCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

This unit covers:
i Read the definitions.
Listening
A perspective is a way of looking at or thinking about an idea,
• Understanding and taking-notes on key fact, or situation. You can look at the same thing from different
information perspectives - for example, political, economic, ethical.
• Understanding the language of perspective
Your stance is the position you take on an idea, issue, or
• Identifying perspectives in a lecture situation. It is essentially a more personal view which is
Speaking influenced by different information and evidence.
• Identifying perspective and stance in a discussion 2 Read the situation below and match statements 1 -4 to
• Using perspective to inform stance perspectives a-d.
• Expressing and responding to stance in a Situation: A company is deciding w hether to move its
discussion manufacturing base from the UK to India.
Reading 1 ‘We are unlikely to locate to India as it's too far away from
• Understanding main ideas in paragraphs and our main markets.’
longer texts 2 ‘We might move to India because the labour costs are lower.'
• Identifying perspective and stance in a text 3 ‘We might need to work in a different way to be successful
• Responding critically to stance in a text in India.’
Writing 4 ‘It could be a good idea because manufacturing methods
• Analysing paragraph structure are very advanced in India.’
• Recognizing cohesion in a paragraph a econom ic b geographical с technological d cultural
• Writing topic sentences and concluding sentences
3 Underline the words in each statement that show the
Vocabulary speaker's stance.
• Identifying common academic nouns
4 Work in pairs. Discuss the issue of deciding where to study
• Understanding stance
abroad from each of perspectives a-d in 2.

5 Using the perspectives you discussed in 4, discuss your

stance on studying in an English-speaking country like
the UK.
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Я Listening Lectures (1)

Lectures are an important part of many academic courses. T h ey provide an opportunity to gain
a large amount of key information for your own area of study. Sometimes the transcript of a
lecture will be made available online to help you understand the content. The lecturer may give
information on a topic from different perspectives. This module helps you to focus on key
information about the topic, and to understand the language for referring to different perspectives.

This module covers:

• Understanding and taking notes on key inform ation
• Understanding th e language of perspective
• Id e n tifyin g perspectives in a lecture

TASK 1 Understanding the introduction to a lecture

1 You are going to watch the introduction to a lecture about the United
Nations. Discuss what you know about the United Nations - for
example, its purpose and its activities around the world.

2 0 2 . 1 Watch Extract 1 and note down (a) the aim of the lecture, and
(b) the three things the lecturer will talk about.
I

TASK 2 Taking notes on key information 1№

1 Work in groups. Look at these four main organs of the UN and discuss
what you think is the role of each one.
1 the Security Council 3 the Secretariat
2 the General Assembly 4 the Economic and Social Council

2 E 2 . 2 Watch Extract 2 and note down two pieces of information for each of the four
UN organs in 1.
Exam ple: Security Council: five perm anent members; main responsibility - to maintain
international peace & security

3 Compare your notes with another student, and check your predictions in 1. Help each
other complete any missing information.

TASK 3 Understanding the language of perspective

1 Use a dictionary to find the noun and adverb forms of the adjectives in column 1 and
add them to the table.
1 Adjective 2 Adverb 3 Noun 4 Collocation
historical
geographical -
international —
♦
military military power, military law
political
legal
economic economic power, economic institution
social
ethical
financial

2 Match the nouns below to an adjective in column 1 to make collocations like those in
column 4. Some words can be used more than once.
court institution law power society work

3 Check your answers against the transcript on page 207.

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TASK 4 Identifying perspectives in a lecture extract (1)

1 Which perspectives in Task 3 were discussed in the introduction to the lecture?

2 0 2 . 1 Watch Extract 1 again. Listen for any words from the table in Task 3.1 and note
down the perspectives that the lecturer mentions.

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE

Talking about perspectives: using contextualizing language

To talk about perspectives, you can use phrases based on an adjective, adverb, or noun. For
example:
From a political perspective, the UN is arguably not very powerful, (adjective)
Politically speaking, these institutions are independent, (adverb)
As far as geography is concerned, the UN Security Council appears to cover a lot of the
globe, (noun)

TASK 5 Using language to talk about perspectives INDEPENDENT

STUDY
1 Complete sentences 1-5 using phrases from Academic Language, and the perspective
Speakers can introduce
in brackets. perspectives explicitly by
1 The proposal is a good one, but , it's not affordable, (financial) using the word itself e.g.
financially, or implicitly,
2 , this sum is equivalent to ten new fighter planes, (military) e.g. by using a phrase like
What will this cost us?
3 , the UN has more influence in the northern hemisphere,
►When you listen to
(geographical)
presentations, note
4 Military action is permitted, but , it’s not advisable, (ethical) down the perspectives
mentioned explicitly
5 , the council needs the support of all members before acting, and implicitly, and
(political) the language used to
express them.

TASK 6 Identifying perspectives in a lecture extract (2)

1 S 2.3 Watch Extract 3. Tick the perspectives that are mentioned.
historical military political ethical legal financial geographical

2 E 2.3 Watch Extract 3 again and note down any information about the UN that you
used to identify the perspectives in 1.
Exam ple: H istorical perspective: UN established 24 Oct 1945 / historically - replaced
League o f Nations / aim - ensure future wars impossible

3 Use the information you noted in 2 to write one sentence on each perspective
mentioned. Refer to the transcript on page 207 if necessary.
Exam ple: The UN was established on 24 October 1945 to replace the League o f Nations -
its aim was to ensure thatfuture wars were impossible.
t

TASK 7 Critical thinking - evaluating the content of a lecture

1 Work in groups. Discuss questions 1-3.
1 What did you learn about the UN from the lecture?
2 What was the most interesting thing you heard?
3 What are the most positive things about the UN? What are the negative things?

TASK 8 Evaluating listening strategies

1 Evaluate the strategies for listening to a lecture, using the checklist on page 195.

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Speaking Seminar discussions (1)

In seminars, you w ill have th e o p p o rtu n ity to discuss a va riety of theories and ideas. You may
be asked to give exam ples using real-life events and scenarios. When you make or support a
point during a discussion, you may need to consider different perspectives on th e topic you
are discussing. Th in kin g about differen t perspectives can also help to make yo u r own stance,
or supported opinion, more academic.

T h is m od u le c o v e rs :
Id e n tifyin g perspective and stance in a discussion
Using perspective to inform stance
Expressing and responding to stance in a discussion

TASK 1 Preparing for a discussion

1 Discuss the following statement. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons.
'It is the government's jo b to m anage pollution, not the job o f individuals or companies.’

2 Ц 2.4 You are going to listen to two students discussing the statement in 1. Listen to
Extract 1 and decide:
1 who agrees with the statement
2 what reason(s) each person has for their opinion.

TASK 2 Identifying different perspectives in a discussion

1 You are going to listen to two other students discussing different perspectives on the
statement in Task 1.1. Predict which perspectives below they might discuss.
commercial environmental geographical historical political social

2 Select two perspectives and add more details.

Example: Environmental - people who cause pollution should have to manage their impact

3 Цo)2.5 Listen to Extract 2 and check your predictions in 1.

TASK В Listening for more detail

1 Ц >)2.5 Listen to Extract 2 again and make notes on the different perspectives.

2 Compare your notes with another student and help each other complete any missing
information.

3 How is this discussion better than the one you listened to in Task 1? Give examples.

TASK 4 Discussing different perspectives

1 You are going to discuss the following statement. Think abouPthe different
perspectives that could be used and add one more perspective of your own to the table.
‘University education should be provided fo r free by governments.’
Moral Economic Political
All people are equal and this
is a policy of equality.

2 Work in groups. Discuss the statement and make notes on the different perspectives.

3 Report your discussion to the class. Use some of the phrases below.
From an economic perspective,... If we look at this from a social perspective,...
Politically speaking,... As fa r as politics are co n cern ed ,...

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TASK 5 Using perspectives to inform your stance INDEPENDENT\

STUDY
1 Use your notes from Task 4.1 to write a sentence showing your own stance on the
It is important that your
statement about university education. stance is informed by a
Example: I think university education should be free because an educated workforce number of perspectives
as this will make your
benefits the whole o f society, and that's good from an economic perspective. thinking more academic.

2 Explain your stance to other students in the group. ►Next time you take
part in a seminar or
discussion, try to
consider different
TASK 6 Identifying stance in a discussion perspectives on the
issue before you give
1 * 2.6 Listen to two students in a seminar discussing the statement in Task 4.1. Are your opinion.
theyfo r or against the statement? Note down each student’s stance.

2 Ц 2.6 Listen again and complete extracts 1-7.

1 So come on, then, Dan. ? I mean, should university education be
provided for free by the government?
2 E r... well, y eah ......................................... , it should be.
3 I m ean ... ?
4 it shouldn’t be free ... if you want to go to
university you should be, well, you know ,... prepared to pay for it.
5 OK, , but in most countries people pay their taxes ...
6 M m ... ... I don’t know, I’m not sure that’s the case.
7 if they have to pay, that means only people with money will get to
go to university.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Expressing stance (1) Useful phrases
To take part in a seminar effectively, you need to be able to say what you think, ask other
people what they think, and respond appropriately.
Giving an opinion Asking for an opinion Responding
I think (that) ■What do you think? I can see what you're saying
In my view What are your views o n ...? I see what you mean
From my point of view But surely...

ASK 7 Taking part in a discussion

1 You are going to take part in a discussion on the following statem ent. Think about
questions 1-3 to prepare for the discussion.
‘School should not be compulsory because not everyone needs an education.’
1 What different perspectives can you think of on this statement?
2 What is your own stance on the statement?
3 What different stances might people take and how could ydu respond to them?

- Work in groups and discuss the statement in 1. Make sure you give your opinion, and
listen and respond to other people.

3 Evaluate your contribution to the discussion. Think about how well you did the
following things.
• Give your opinion
• Use different perspectives to inform your opinion
• Listen and respond to other people

-4 Select one thing to improve next time you take p art in a discussion.

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Reading Textbooks (2)

Academ ic te xts usually consist of paragraphs containing one or more main ideas. As shown in
U n it 1, w hen you read a te x t it is im portant to focus on th e main idea or ideas before you look
at the detail, It is also useful to tr y to id e n tify the w rite r's stance, which is usually inform ed by
differen t perspectives - fo r exam ple, political, economic, or cultural perspectives.

This module covers:

• Understanding main ideas in paragraphs and longer te xts
• Id e n tifyin g perspective and stance in a te x t
• Responding critically to stance in a te x t

TASK 1 Preparing to read

1 Discuss who controls each of these things in your country. Is it the government, private
business, or both?
1 Education (schools, universities) 4 The supply of goods (food, consumer
2 Health care (hospitals) products, etc.)
3 Energy supplies (electricity, gas, oil) 5 Transportation (roads, railways, etc.)

2 The items in 1 are part of a country’s infrastructure. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of government or private business controlling the infrastructure?

TASK 2 Understanding the main idea in a paragraph

1 You are going to read an extract from an economics textbook. Read Text 1 and
match statements 1-4 to each type of economy - a planned economy and a free
market economy.
1 All decisions are made by one organization.
2 There is a lot of competition between organizations.
3 Prices and wages tend to be fixed.
4 Prices vary depending on how much people need or want a product.

TEXT 1
Planned economies In a planned economy, sometimes called a centrally planned economy or a
command economy, decisions about what to produce, how to produce, and who to produce for, are
made by a central body, the government. All resources are collectively owned. Government bodies
arrange all production, set wages and set prices through central planning. Decisions are made by the
government on behalf of the people and, in theory, in their best interests.
I

Free market economies In a free market economy, sometimes called a private enterprise economy
or capitalism, prices are used to ration goods or services. All production is in private hands and
demand and supply are allowed to set wages and prices in the economy. The economy should work
relatively efficiently and there should be few cases of surplus and shortages.

source Blink,). & Dorton, I. (2006). pp.9-10. IB Economics companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2 Which of these statements best describes the author’s stance on planned economies?
1 In a planned economy, government decisions are always for the benefit of people.
2 In a planned economy, government decisions may be for the benefit of the
government.

3 Which of these statements best describes the author’s stance on free market economies?
1 Free market economies always have a steady supply of goods.
2 Free market economies normally have a steady supply of goods, but not always.

4 Which words or phrases in each paragraph helped you answer 2 and 3?

5 Do you think the author believes one system is better than the other? Give reasons.

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TASK 3 Understanding the main ideas in a longer text

1 You are going to read a longer text about the free market approach. Discuss the
following questions.
1 The USA and the UK are examples of developed countries. Think of some examples of
developing countries.
2 What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a free market economy for
developing countries?

2 Read the first paragraph of Text 2 and identify the main idea, a or b.
a A free-market economy is best for both developed and developing countries.
Ideas about the best ways to achieve econom ic growth have changed over time.

3 Read the rest of Text 2 and match paragraphs 2-8 to ideas a-g.
a Developing countries need governments to help in areas such as transportation,
energy supply, and health care.
3 A free market econom y can cause problems for the poorest people.
с A free market economy can cause different problems in cities than in rural areas,
d A combination of planned and free market policies is the most effective approach,
e It is difficult for developing countries to compete with developed countries.
Other countries may not invest in a developing country for political reasons,
g Government intervention has helped some countries to be successful.

4 Identify the key words that helped you match each idea to a paragraph.

TEXT 2
1 In the 1980s, there was a movement towards more free market, supply-side-oriented governments
in developed countries such as the USA and the UK, which saw a shift of emphasis in government
policy. This resulted in a change in direction in thinking on the best way to achieve growth and
development in developing countries. However, as we have moved into the new century, a number
of concerns have been raised about the value of adopting a pure market-led approach.
2 Infrastructure is unlikely to be created through a market-based approach and developing
countries simply do not have sufficient infrastructure to adopt a free market approach. Thus, this
requires planning for the future and government intervention.
3 Although the more developed countries promote trade liberalization, they themselves do
not liberalize all their trade. Protectionism in developed countries makes it very difficult for the
developing countries to compete on a fair basis. In recent years, led by the larger developing
countries such as Brazil and India, developing countries have been cooperating with each other to
have more influence in trade negotiations.
4 The success of the export-led Asian Tigers did not happen without government intervention.
The governments in question were very interventionist in specific areas, especially in product
markets that needed help and protection before they were able to export. They also were able to
place great emphasis upon education and healthcare.
5 Although a more free market approach may lead to economic growth in the long term, there are GLOSSARY
without doubt short-term costs to the poorest people. In the short term, unemployment rises, as
IMF (n) the International
do the prices of essential products, and the provision of public services also falls. This will hit the Monetary Fund
poorest sector of the population more than anyone else, causiryg greater income inequality. interventionism (n) a policy
6 The adoption of free market strategies tends to concentrate attention arid activities on the urban where the government
sectors of an economy. This tends to increase the divide betweeri rural and urban areas, increasing the influences the economy
levels of poverty in rural areas and also leading to migration from rural to urban areas. This has created protectionism (n) protecting
large areas of slums on the edge of many major cities in developing countries. your country's businesses and
economy
7 Governments may adopt the concept of liberalized flows of capital, but a lack of political stability
means that many countries are not in a position to attract the foreign investment necessary to slums (n) areas where poor
people live
achieve growth.
supply-side oriented
8 In the end, it is clear that solutions will lie in a combination of the different approaches and that
policy (n) policies that try
' the combination will need to be tailored to suit the needs of each individual country. Adopting a to increase efficiency and
'one size fits ail' policy will not be effective, as the IMF discovered in the 1980s. competition
trade liberalization (n)
source: Blink, J. & Dorton, I. (2006). pp.401-4. IB Economics companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. buying and selling w ith very
few rules

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TASK 4 Identifying perspective and stance in a text (1)

1 Read paragraph 2 of Text 2 again. What is the topic of the paragraph?
2 Look at the words or phrases that are circled and underlined in paragraph 2 below.
1 Which words / phrases are related to a perspective?
2 Which words / phrases indicate the author’s stance, or opinion?

Infrastructure is unlikely to be created through a <fiarket-based approach and developing countries

simply do not have sufficient infrastructure to adopt a^ceg market approach Thus, this requires
planning for the future and government intervention.

3 Which of the following perspectives are referred to by the author in Text 2?

political environmental social economic

4 Complete the sentence to summarize the author's stance on the topic.

Developing countries governments to develop an infrastructure - a free market
approach work.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ___________________►La n gu a ge R eference page 183 36

Expressing stance (2) Adverbials and verbs

Stance is the personal position that an author takes on a particular topic. It is often based on a
number of perspectives. Authors use a variety of language to show what th ey think about an
issue, rather than just presenting the facts.
To express certainty or add emphasis:
Developing countries simply do not have sufficient infrastructure to adopt a free market
approach.
(the author is emphasizing a statement)
There are without doubt short-term costs to the poorest people.
(the author is expressing certainty about this)
To express uncertainty or reduce emphasis:
Decisions are made, in theory, in the people's best interests.
(the author is not sure that this really happens)
Infrastructure is unlikely to be created through a market-based approach.
(the author does not think this will work)

TASK 5 Using adverbials to express stance

1 Complete the sentences using an appropriate adverbial from the list.
apparently clearly generally in theory without doubt
1 the company is in a difficult situation - the share price has dropped by 50%
in the last month. *
2 the country is in recession, but a large num ber of people feel positive about
their financial situation.
3 There are signs of improvement in the labour market, as unemployment
figures decline.
4 While it may be true that urbanization brings problems, it is not always
the case.
5 The policies were made, , to support greater economic growth.

2 Compare your ideas with a partner.

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TASK 6 Identifying perspective and stance in a text (2)

1 Read paragraphs 3-8 of Text 2 again and com plete the table.
Main perspective Vocabulary related to perspective Phrases for expressing stance
2 Political, economic market-based approach, free market approach, government unlikely, simply do not have, sufficient,
intervention requires

2 Complete the sentences to summarize the author's stance in paragraphs 3, 5, and 7.

1 Developed countries create rules that they follow, making it for
developing countries, (paragraph 3)
2 Free markets create social and economic divides, and are not always
for the poorest sector of a society, (paragraph 5) INDEPENDENT
3 Without political stability, it is more for governments to attract investment, STUDY
(paragraph 7) Being able to identify a
writer's stance will help
3 Write three sentences to summarize the author's stance in paragraphs 4, 6, and 8. you to understand a te xt
more easily.
4 Read statements 1-3. Which one best summarizes the author’s overall stance in Text 2? ►Find a text or texts
related to your area
1 Free market economies are superior. of study and, as you
2 Planned economies are superior. read, try to identify the
writer's stance.
3 Economies need to adapt to their own needs.

~ASK 7 Critical thinking - responding to the content of a text

1 Work in groups and discuss the following questions. Give reasons or examples where
possible.
1 Do you think governments should be responsible for developing a country's
infrastructure?
2 Is inequality between individuals norm al in any society? Is it a cause for concern?
3 Do you think the benefits of economic growth outweigh the negatives (e.g. poverty,
poor health conditions, pollution)?

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A paragraph is a key part of m ost academic essays. Each paragraph in an essay norm ally
develops a single topic, or idea. Usually, you start a paragraph w ith a topic sentence which
states th e topic or main point. You can end your paragraph w ith a concluding sentence, which
refers back to the topic and states th e main point again. You also need to make sure your
paragraph has cohesion - in other words, th a t all the parts are connected and fit togeth er well.

This module covers:

• A n a lysin g paragraph structure
• Recognizing cohesion in a paragraph
• W ritin g topic sentences and concluding sentences

TASK 1 Understanding and analysing a paragraph

1 Read the paragraph from an essay - the first sentence is missing. Decide which of the
following items is the topic of the paragraph.
universities pharmaceutical and agricultural companies research

1.........................................., ‘Universities do research in all academic subject areas, such as

medicine, and companies carry out research into a wide range of products and services,
from new models of cars to what people buy in supermarkets. 3For example, research by
pharmaceutical companies leads to the development of new medicines, and agricultural
companies research new varieties of vegetables and grains to provide better quality food for
our tables. 4However, universities are essential for research, because they are where students
learn research methods. 5These examples show that research is a widespread and essential
activity in universities and in the business world.

2 Read the paragraph again and select the best topic sentence from 1-3. Say why you
selected this sentence.
1 Fast-changing markets m ean that companies have to respond to new demand.
2 Research today is carried out by both universities and companies.
3 Today’s companies are heavily involved in research.

3 Match features a-d to sentences 1-5 in the paragraph.

a rationale: to explain why the topic is im portant
b concluding sentence: to restate the main point and evaluate briefly
с development: to develop the main point with examples and explanation
d topic sentence: to introduce the topic of the paragraph •
Sentences: 1 .................. 2 3 and 1.................. 5

TASK Z Writing a topic sentence

1 Read the paragraph and identify the topic. Sentence 1, the topic sentence, is missing.

1 . 2lt is important because it allows the assessor to see the employee

working and interacting with other employees, and to decide how effective th ey are at
carrying out their duties and responsibilities. 3Unlike other methods of assessment, such
as psychometric tests and interviews, observation is simple and direct. Psychologically,
observation is less threatening, and in terms of cost, it is also likely to be cheaper than other
methods. 5For these reasons, observation is a very practical and effective assessment method
for people at work.

2 Match sentences 2-5 to features a-d.

a development b rationale с concluding sentence d perspectives

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3 Write a topic sentence to start the paragraph in 1. Include the topic and a related idea,
for example, where the topic takes place or why it is important.
Example: Research today is carried out by both universities and companies.
(topic) (related idea)

4 Work in pairs. Compare and evaluate your topic sentences using questions 1-3.
1 Does the sentence introduce the topic of the paragraph?
2 Does it also m ention a related idea?
3 Is the language in the sentence accurate?

TASK 3 Recognizing cohesion in a paragraph

1 Read the paragraph below and work out what the words in bold refer to.
Example: Universities do research in all academic subject areas such as medicine, and
companies carry it out - 'it' refers back to 'research!

Universities do research in all academic subject areas, such as medicine, and companies carry
it out into a wide range of products and services, from new models of cars to what people
buy in supermarkets. For example, it can legd to the development of new medicines, and they
also research new varieties of vegetables and grains to provide better quality foods for them
to eat. This is very important.

2 Work in pairs. For each word in bold, decide if the word it refers to (its referent ) is clear
and certain.

3 Read the paragraph below. Underline the words and phrases which match the words
in bold in the paragraph in 1. The first is done as an example.

Universities do research in all academic subject areas, such as medicine, and companies carry,
out research into a wide range of products and services, from new models of cars to what
people buy in supermarkets. For example, research can lead to the development of new
medicines, and agricultural companies also research new varieties of vegetables and grains to
provide better quality foods for people to eat. This type of research is very important.

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE ►Language Reference page 180 24.1

Cohesion (1) Pronouns and determiners

Cohesion is how parts of a text are connected through meaning and language. One way you
can make your writing cohesive is by using pronouns [it, they) and determiners (this problem,
the research). For example:
However, universities are essential for research, because th ey are where students learn
research methods, (the pronoun they refers back to universities)
These examples show that research is a widespread and essential activity, (these examples
refers back to information in earlier sentences)
You need to make the referent of a pronoun dear to your readfers. For example, if you write
This is important, your readers will ask the question 'What is important?', so they need to know
exactly what this refers to.

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TASK 4 Cohesion - using pronouns and determiners

1 Look again at the paragraph from Task 2.1. Decide what each word in bold refers to.

Observation is an important way for employers to assess their workforce. 2lt is important
because it allows the assessor to see the employee working and interacting with
other employees, and to decide how effective they are at carrying out their duties and
responsibilities. 3Unlike other methods of assessment, such as psychometric tests and
interviews, observation is simple and direct. 4Psychologically, observation is less threatening,
and in terms of cost, it is also likely to be cheaper than other methods. 5For these reasons,
observation is a very practical and effective assessment method for people at work.

2 Complete the paragraph using the words in the list. You need to use some words more
than once.
they their them this some it who

One of the major health challenges facing developed countries today is that increasing numbers
of people are doing little or no exercise. Recent research indicates a growth in the number of
people1.....................appear to spend most of their day sitting down. As a result,г......................
are becoming more at risk of serious illness, including heart disease.3.....................people report
th a t4.....................long working hours do not a llo w 5.................... enough time for exercise,
while others admit th a t6.....................prefer to do sedentary activities like watching television.
The problem is serious from a number of perspectives. It has been estimated to cost national
health services up to 10% o f 7 entire budgets in related treatment. For the people
concerned,0.....................lack of exercise is likely to have a negative effect o n 9.....................
overall quality of life. Exercise is also a social activity, so a lack o f 10 can result in
fewer opportunities for social interaction. The lack of exercise among certain groups of people is
a very serious problem today with significant health, financial, and social impacts.

TASK 5 Linking topic sentences and concluding sentences

1 Read topic sentences 1-3. Decide which concluding sentence, a or b, is m ore likely to
end the paragraph.
Example: Organized tourism is becoming more personalized with the growth of
individual trip advisers.
a In short, the development of trip advisers meets the needs of individual
tourists who want a specific holiday which can only be delivered on an
individual basis,
b Mass-market tourism has developed rapidly since the 1960s.
Sentence a refers back to the paragraph topic o f individual trip advisers, and
seems to state the main point. Sentence b does not seem relevant to the topic.
1 Continuing professional development, or CPD, is becoming more important in the
workplace.
a These examples show that CPD is increasing in importance in both public and
private companies.
b Workplace environments vary greatly across different cultures and countries.
2 Recent research suggests that smart phones are being used by children at younger
ages, even at pre-primary school age.
a This research shows that smart phone technology has been developing rapidly for
several years, and has greatly helped people of all ages,
b The increasing use of smart phones among very young children is not risk-free, and
can lead to children using dangerous websites.
3 Another cause of unemployment is poor personal organization.
a This discussion shows the importance of personal organization in finding a job.
b Therefore, unemployment has at least three main causes, including poor government
planning, economic uncertainty, and poor organization by individual people.

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2 Work in pairs. Discuss your answers and give reasons.

INDEPENDENT
3 Look again at the topic sentences and concluding sentences in 1. Note down words and STUDY
phrases from each sentence that you can use in your own writing on any topic. Good w riters clearly signal
the start of each paragraph
E x a m p le s : 1 [topic] is becoming more im portant in [place], by stating the topic, and
a These examples show that [topic] is developing in importance in [place]. end the paragraph with
a brief conclusion of the
main point.
TASK 6 Analysing concluding sentences ►Find at least three
paragraphs in different
Read the guidelines below. Evaluate the concluding sentences from the paragraphs in textbooks related to
your area of study,
Tasks 1.1 and 4.1. using guidelines 1-3. identify and evaluate
Guidelines - a concluding sentence should: the topic sentences and
concluding sentences.
1 restate the topic and main point of the paragraph
2 summarize the information in the body of the paragraph
3 give a brief evaluation of the main point.

These examples show that research is a widespread and essential activity in universities and in
the business world. (Task 1,1)

For these reasons, observation is a very practical and effective assessment method for people
at work. (Task 4.1)

2 Read the paragraph in Task 1.1 again. Decide if each sentence 1-3 below could replace
the concluding sentence in the paragraph. Use the guidelines in 1.
1 A further key point about research is that it can be extremely expensive.
2 These examples show that research takes place in a range of educational and
commercial settings.
3 Universities, however, focus not only on research but also teaching.

TASK 7 Writing a concluding sentence

1 Read the paragraph below from another essay and write a concluding sentence.

□ My computer
C om puter files can be organized in a number of different ways. 2The first choice for the u ser.
is to decide how many folders to have. 3Most users choose between organizing data into
; ►[""* ] Project 1
either a very small number of folders, each containing a large number of files, or a very large
number of folders, each containing very few files. “Other choices include how many folders to
о Folder 1
present at the highest level of the 'tree', and the number of levels. 5This means that the user
either has to navigate a large number of folders at the start, or work their w ay down through
> □ Folder 2
a 'deep' number of levels.6................................ ..................................................................................... .....

□ Project 2

2 Evaluate your concluding sentence using the guidelines in *Task 6.1. Compare your
sentence with a partner, and evaluate each other's sentences.

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Vocabulary Expressing stance

In Academic English te xts there are a number of key nouns that can be used to describe a
range of academic concepts, e.g. theory and approach. These often appear in frequent word
combinations known as collocations. Authors often indicate their stance on concepts by
collocating them w ith a modifying adjective. The adjective-noun collocations highlight stance
by showing the position authors take, and the strength of their opinion.

TASK 1 Identifying common academic nouns

1 Match academic nouns 1-8 to meanings a-h.
1 strategy a an idea or a principle that is connected with something abstract
2 approach b an opinion on or an attitude towards a particular subject
3 concept с a plan that is intended to achieve a particular purpose
4 solution d the general way in which a person or thing develops
5 position e a way of solving a problem or dealing with a difficult situation
6 policy f a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something happens or exists
7 direction g a way of thinking about a problem or task
8 theory h a plan of action agreed or chosen by a political party, a business, etc.

TASK 2 Understanding stance

1 Look at the collocations in italics and decide what stance the author is taking.
1 Reducing interest rates becam e a central strategy in stabilizing the economy,
a The strategy is im portant b The strategy is unim portant
2 The government was accused of lacking transparent policies on immigration.
a The policies were easily understood b The policies were not easily understood
3 It is considered one of the major theories in the development of the field.
a The theory is the m ost im portant b The theory is the least im portant
4 The likely approach to success is a mixture of both a planned and controlled economy,
a The approach is probable b The approach is improbable
5 It is a basic concept, but plays a key role in the understanding of the subject,
a It is a simple idea b It is a complex idea
6 Practical solutions averted catastrophe in the recent recession,
a The solutions are sensible, and easily manageable
b The solutions are risky, and hard to im plement
7 Their influential position within the organization gave them significant control,
a Their position was weak b Their position was powerful
8 The leadership took the organization in an unsuitable direction that diminished its power,
a The direction was right b The direction was not right

2 Complete the paragraph with the collocations in the list.

central strategy practical solutions jbasic concept influential position
transparent policies unlikely approach suitable direction
While government control is a 1 in stabilizing economics, political
parties have to accept that big business now has a n 2 when it comes
to guiding economic growth in a 3 .4 , such as
the m inim um wage, have been supported by companies wanting to give workers a fairer
deal. This, a n d 5 to reducing working hours, have had major impacts
on the way we work and spend. However, recent market turmoil has shown that following
business completely is a n 6 to economic success. Perhaps a better
solution is for governments to align the best of business ideas w ith 7
for growth.
3 Use collocations from 2 to write three sentences about key concepts in your own
area of study.

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ACADEMIC FOCUS: DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

This unit covers:
1 Work in pairs. Look at the following careers and discuss
Listening questions 1-3. Give reasons and examples where possible.
Listening for the main points teacher or professor professional footballer
Recognizing signposting language business person health worker
Taking detailed notes on explanations and
1 What motivates people in these careers? Note down at least
examples
three different ideas.
Speaking 2 Which of the following items are the most im portant
Understanding written and spoken definitions motivating factors for each career? •
Asking for and giving definitions and short achieving success in your field making money
explanations becoming famous having power making changes
Participating in a seminar discussion helping people
Reading 3 Which of the items above are im portant motivating factors
Predicting the purpose of a text for other careers? Why?
Understanding main ideas
2 Note down your answers to the following questions.
Recognizing cohesive language
Recognizing definitions, explanations, and 1 • Are successful people always motivated?
examples 2 How can people motivate themselves to do something they
don’t want to do?
Writing
3 What motivates you personally? Is it an idea not listed in 1.2?
Writing definitions using prepositional phrases
Writing definitions using relative clauses 3 Work in groups and discuss your answers in 2. Then present
Writing a paragraph that includes definition them to the class. Use the following phrases to help you.
Vocabulary We discussed...
Understanding and using evaluative adjectives Our group think th a t...
Understanding and using classifying adjectives We came to the conclusion th a t...

035
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Listening Lectures (2)

W hen listening to a lecture, you need to be able to recognize the main points and supporting
details. It is also im portant to understand how inform ation and ideas are organized. Lecturers
may use signp ostin g expressions to show how th eir lecture w ill be organized - recognizing
these expressions w ill help you understand w h at you are goin g to hear and th e order in which
you w ill hear it. Lectures also often include definitions and explanations o f key term s and
ideas. It is im portant to recognize these in order to take effective notes.

This module covers:

• Listening fo r th e main points
• Recognizing signposting language
• ' Taking detailed notes on explanations and exam ples

TASK 1 Using your knowledge to prepare for a lecture

1 Work in pairs. Discuss how the following factors are linked to motivation at work.
praise from your boss earning a lot of money your job title
being creative having power doing challenging work
respect from colleagues a good pension a sense of achievement

2 Which factors in 1 do you think are the most motivating?

TASK 2 Understanding the main points of a lecture

1 You are going to listen to extracts from a lecture about motivation at work. Look at
slides A-С from the start of the lecture and decide which order they will appear in.

2 0 3 .1 Watch Extract 1 and check your prediction in 1. Make brief notes on the main
points the lecture will cover.
3 Work in pairs. Use your notes to tell each other what you understood from Extract 1.
f
TASK 3 Understanding the organization of a lecture 1 W hat motivates
people?
1 0 3 .1 Watch Extract 1 again and complete the expressions in sentences 1-5 that show
how the lecture will be organized. 2 How have theories
developed?
1 I’d like to look at a num ber of theories related to m otivation...
3 How have they
2 , we’ll look at Taylor’s idea that money is the influenced each other?
key motivator in the workplace.
3 Then, we’ll look at one of the most famous theories of motivation, Slide A

which is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Theories of
4 , we’re how Maslow’s ideas influenced the motivation
work of Douglas M cGregor... • Taylor
5 And . I want to at a slightly different view of • Maslow
motivation developed by McClelland and B urnham ... • M cGregor
• McClelland & Burnham

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE
Slide В

Signposting language (1) Giving an overview, sequencing

The history of
Lecturers often use different expressions to show the organization of the lecture. For example: motivational
Giving an overview Sequencing points theories at work
As we'll see from today's lecture... First, we'll look in more detail a t ...
Dr David Hughes
In today's lecture I'd like to look a t ... Then, we'll move on to look a t ...
Institute of P sychology
In this lecture, I'll be focusing o n ... After that, we're going to se e ...
And then finally, I want to take...
Slide С

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TASK 4 Taking notes on key information

1 Э 3 . 2 W atch Extract 2 and label the tim eline with the people b ehind th e theories
of m otivation.
1 McClelland and Burnham 2 Taylor 3 Maslow 4 McGregor

2 E 3 .2 W atch Extract 2 again and com plete the notes.

1 Taylor: motivates everyone
2 Maslow: motivation = main areas
3 McGregor: m anagem ent styles = groups: and
4 McClelland and Burnham: studied main motivator =

ASK 5 Taking detailed notes on explanations and examples

1 0 3 . 3 W atch Extract 3 o f the lecture. Com plete the notes on each level o f Maslow's

Explanation Example related to work

7 8
S e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n

6
Este e m Status - being accepted and respected
4
4 5
B e lo n g in g

S e c u rity 2
Job security a n d 3

P h y s io lo g ic a l Basic survival nee d s-fo od , water, etc. i

2 Э 3.3 W atch the last part o f E xtract 3 again and answ er questions 1-4.
1 Which need is fulfilled first?
2 Can you move from security needs straight to esteem needs?
3 What happens when one need is met?
4 Does everyone have to reach the top of the pyramid to be satisfied?

3 Com pare your answ ers in 1 and 2 with anoth er student. Help each other to com plete
any m issing inform ation.

TASK 6 Recognizing phrases for signposting a lecture

1 M atch the following phrases the lectu rer uses with functions a -c.
As I said So for example this can be understood as In other words
An obvious example of this is How that works is As we've already seen

a giving an example b giving an explanation с referriftg to something said earlier

2 3 ) 3 .3 W atch Extract 3 again and check your answers.

INDEPENDENT Л
STUDY
TASK 7 Critical thinking - responding to the content of a lecture Lecturers o ften use
diagrams or images in the ir
slides, and you can use
I Look back at your notes from Tasks 4 and 5. Work in groups and discuss questions 1-3.
them as a sta rtin g point
If possible, give reasons for your answers. fo r fu rth e r research.
1 Think of a jo b you have done, or a jo b you would like to have. W here on Maslow's ►N ext time you are
hierarchy would you place that job? given a handout with
diagrams, try to find the
2 Would you need to reach the level of self-actualization to be satisfied in your work? original source for the
3 Do you agree that everyone is motivated by m oney (Taylor), and managers are diagram and note down
any key information.
motivated by power (McClelland and Burnham )?

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Speaking Seminar discussions (2)

In a seminar, you w ill often be asked to discuss a particular topic, te xt, or question. To prepare
for the seminar, you w ill norm ally have to do some specific reading. You may have to evaluate
th e material and discuss it w ith other students. You may also have to give definitions and
explanations of key term s and concepts. During th e seminar, it is im portant to contribute your
ow n ideas, to listen to other students, and respond to w h a t th e y say.

This module covers:

• U nderstanding w ritte n and spoken definitions
• A skin g for and g iv in g definitions and short explanations
• Participating in a seminar discussion

TASK 1 Reading to prepare for a discussion

1 Read the text and decide if items 1-4 are examples of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

In trin s ic motivation occurs when someone gets satisfaction from an activity itself without threats
or rewards from outside. People are more likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
• can see that their success is a result of something they have done - if they have put in more work
they will achieve more positive outcomes
• have some control over their results - they are giOen a degree of freedom
• are interested in what they are doing.
Rewards are e xtrin s ic motivators - motivators that come from outside the individual. In the workplace,
pay is an obvious example. Extrinsic motivators provide satisfaction that the job itself may not provide
and may compensate workers for the 'pain' or dissatisfaction that they may experience at work.

Clark, P., Golden, P., O'Dea, M„ Weiner, J„ Woolrich, P. (2009). p.124. IB Diploma Programme - Business and
s o u rc e :
Management Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1 a bonus (extra money) paid by a company to employees for good performance

2 an invitation for the best students to meet senior university professors at a party
3 wanting to write a bestselling book
4 asking for extra time to study for a qualification in first aid
2 Work in pairs. Compare your answers and explain your decision.

TASK 2 Thinking about learning

1 What are the most important qualities you need to be a good language learner? Put
qualities a-f in order from 1 (most important) to 6 (least important).
a enthusiasm, resulting in full attendance с an analytical mind
in all classes <j a strong interest in learning languages
b being open to new technologies and t e good organizational skills
methodologies r f i * i
° f a clear tocus on the learning tasks
2 Work in pairs. Compare your answers and explain your selection. Are there any other
qualities you would add?

TASK 3 Listening to a seminar discussion

1 Ц 3.4 Listen to an extract from a seminar discussion and complete notes 1-4.
1 topic of discussion:
2 two qualities of a language learner:
3 definition given for the first quality:
4 definitions given for the second quality:

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2 Ц 3.4 Listen again and com plete sentences 1-8.

1 Well, yes. I think I’m concerned, it’s about focus.
2 Focus have a clear idea what you want to achieve, and why.
3 I see. And so that focus is the most im portant thing?
4 And what about you, Carina? What makes a good language learner?
5 Well, motivation.
6 Can you explain by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
7 intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from inside you.
8 Look, to put it , if you’re intrinsically motivated, then you'll do it
because you really want to do it.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Spoken definitions
Taking part in a seminar discussion may involve asking for and giving definitions of key terms.
You may need to give more explanation if people don't understand your first definition.

Asking for a definition / explanation

Can you explain what you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Introducing a definition / explanation
Focus is when you have a clear idea what you want to achieve.
What I mean by intrinsic motivation is ...
Defining a term using a relative clause with that or which
Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from inside you.
Motivation can also be extrinsic, which means it comes from outside.

TASK 4 Preparing and presenting definitions

1 Select at least two of the following nouns. For each noun, write a definition and a short
explanation using a relative clause.
achievement focus goals motivation results success
E x a m p le : Motivation is the reason why someone does something, (d e fin itio n )
It can involve hard work, and may be extrinsic, which means comingfrom
outside, or intrinsic, which means comingfrom inside, (explanation)

2 Work in groups. Take turns to ask for and give your definitions and explanations.

TASK 5 Taking part in a seminar discussion INDEPENDENT \

STUDY
1 Work in groups. You are going to take part in a seminar discussion on what makes a
The topic of a seminar is
good language learner. Make sure you: normally given in advance.
• ask for and give definitions based on the topic ►Ask your tutor for a •
list of useful texts on
• listen actively to what other students say t
the topic before your
• respond to what other students say and ask for more information if necessary. seminar. Read some of
these and note down
2 Evaluate your contribution to the discussion. Think about how well you did the ideas to contribute.
following things.
• asked for definitions or explanations
• defined or explained your key terms
• listened and responded to other people

3 Select one thing to improve next time you take part in a discussion.

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Reading Textbooks (3)

Reading an academic te x t involves understanding different kinds o f inform ation, including
th e main ideas, definitions of key term s, explanations, and examples. Taking notes on this
inform ation w ill help you to remember it and to use it later, in discussions or in your w ritin g.
Recognizing how key inform ation and ideas are introduced and organized w ill help you to
understand. You also need to be able to recognize language in te xts fo r defining, explaining,
and g ivin g exam ples of key term s and ideas,

This module covers:

• Predicting the purpose of a te x t
• Understanding main ideas
• Recognizing cohesive language
• Recognizing definitions, explanations, and exam ples

TASK 1 Discussing the theme of a text

1 Work in groups. Select three scenarios from 1-5 and discuss how you motivate yourself.
Example: When I take part in a sporting event, I imagine myself at the end with everyone
cheering. This helps me to get up early to go training.
1 Training for a sporting event 4 Giving a presentation
2 Preparing for an im portant examination 5 Writing a long essay (e.g. 1,000-2,000
3 Practising for a musical perform ance words)

2 Discuss some possible goals you can set yourself, which can help with motivation for
the scenarios in 1. For examplfe:
• to improve your time for a 10-kilometre run
• to get a better grade in your next essay.
' 3 Present your ideas to the class. Use the phrases below to help you.
Our group discussed... An example of a goal you can set yourself
One way of motivating yourself is'to... ls
\

TASK 2 Predicting the main purpose of a text INDEPENDENT \

STUDY
1 You are going to read an extract about motivation from a psychology textbook. Look at You can improve the
Text 1 on page 041, paying attention to the title, the photo, and the words highlighted effectiveness of your
in bold. Is the writer’s purpose: reading if you try to
predict the content of the
1 to discuss how motivation varies across different cultures? text.
2 to explain how setting goals can help motivation? ►Next time you are
given a reading text,
3 to argue that some people are more motivated than others?
use the title, headings,
and any visuals such as
2 Work in pairs. Compare your predictions. How did you decide on your answer?
pictures and diagrams
to help you predict the
content.
TASK 3 Understanding the main ideas in a text
1 Read Text 1 and check your prediction in Task 2.1.

2 Use information from the text to complete the table.

Type of goal Main focus Example
Outcome goal the competitive results of
the game
Performance goal setting a better time for a 1 Okm run

Process goal

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TEXT 1
Goal setting
1 Every year, more than 50,000 people run in the London Marathon. Host of them have no
expectation of winning the race. The same can be said for any marathon. It is clear that the
runners must have different goals for the same event, although this does not seem to influence
their motivation to participate,
2 Psychologists identify three types of goals. Outcome goals focus on the competitive results
of the game. If your goal is to win the bowling tournament, you may bowl your best night ever,
and still not win - and thus not reach your goal. As it is competitive, you do not have total control,
since your success is based on your opponent's ability. Performance goals focus on achieving
objectives independent of other competitors. Setting a better time for a 10km run, or improving
the percentage of successful tennis serves from 50 per cent to 70 per cent are performance
goals. Process goals focus on the actions one must take to be successful in a sport and improve
performance - for example, a basketball player releasing the ball at the peak of his or her jump.
Studies have shown that using a combination of these three types of goals produces better
performance than focusing on just one. GLOSSARY
3 Much of today's research on goal setting is based on the original theory of goal setting expectation (n) a belief that
sth will happen because it is
established by Locke and Latham (1981). They argue that performance is regulated by the
likely
conscious goals that individuals attempt to achieve on a task.
handicap (n)(m golf) an
4 To be effective, goals should be specific, measurable, and related to behaviour. An ineffective advantage given to a weaker
goal is 'to improve my golf game'. An effective (and achievable) goal is ‘to lower my golf handicap player so that competition is
from 14 to 11 by improving the accuracy of my approach shots to the green'. more equal when they play
against a stronger player
sour ce: Crane, J. & Hannibal, J. (2009). pp.302-3. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. regulate (v) to control sth by
means of rules or laws

3 Read sentences 1-3 from the text. Select the option, a or b, which is most similar in
meaning to each sentence.
Example: The same can be said for any marathon, (paragraph 1)
a All m arathons have runners who have different goals for the same event,
b In other m arathons most people have no expectation of winning the race.
Option b is most similar in meaning, because the expression 'the sam e can
be said’ refers back to the sentence before. The authors are saying that in any
marathon most people know they won't win the race, but they still take part.
1 It is clear that the runners must have different goals for the same event, although this
does not seem to influence their motivation to participate, (paragraph 1)
a Competitors take part in a race for different reasons, but this does not affect their
motivation.
b Different levels of motivation m ean that competitors in an event have different goals.
2 Studies have shown that using a combination of these three types of goals produces
better performance than focusing on just one. (paragraph 2)
a Research shows that people achieve better results when they follow outcome,
performance, and process goals,
b It is not clear which type of goal - outcome, performance, or process - is the most
effective for competitors.
3 They argue that performance is regulated by the conscious goals that individuals
attem pt to achieve on a task, (paragraph 3) t
a Locke and Latham (1981) say that successful performance is achieved by strong
individuals.
b The research by Locke and Latham (1981) shows that there is a link between
performance and setting goals.

4 The sentences in 3 all express main ideas. Answer questions 1-3.

1 What is the position of the sentences in each paragraph?
2 Why are the sentences in this position?
3 How do the sentences relate to the rest of the paragraph? Select one option,
a they introduce the topic of the paragraph
b they refer back to the rest of the paragraph
с they express the writers’ stance

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ACADEM IC LANGUAGE

Cohesion (2) Introducing key inform ation

Authors use cohesive language to show how information in a te xt is connected, and introduce
key information. In the examples, the phrase focus on tells the reader that key information
about outcome goals comes next. The phrase is repeated for other types of goal.
Outcome goals focus on the competitive results of the game.
To report key information about other people's research, the writers use the following phrases:
Studies have shown that using a combination of these three types of goals produces...
Much of today's research on goal setting is based on the original theory of goal setting
established by Locke and Latham (1981). They argue that performance is regulated b y ...

TASK 4 Identifying and using cohesive language in sentences

1 Identify the phrases for introducing key information in 1 and 2.
1 Many of today’s ideas about sports psychology are based on the work of Rainer
Martens (1979). Martens argued that researchers needed to study sports people in the
field, rather than the laboratory.
2 The practice of visualization focuses on the idea that athletes and sports people can
improve their performance by imagining themselves achieving their goals. Studies
show that visualization can improve performance in many different sporting situations.

2 Complete the text with the phrases in the list.

They argue that focuses on (x2) is based on

Motivation can be divided into two types. Extrinsic motivation 1

outside factors such as rewards. Intrinsic motivation 2 internal
factors which com e from inside the individual, such as the enjoym ent of doing-
something. Recent research on m otivation3 the im portant work
done by Taylor et al. (1 9 7 9 ).4 a com bination of both types of
motivation is likely to work m ost effectively.

TASK 5 Identifying definitions, explanations, and examples

M o tiv a tio n is defined as the direction and intensity of one's effort (Saee 1977), The direction
of one's effort refers to whether an individual seeks out or is attracted to certain activities. The
intensity of one's effort refers to how much effort a person puts into a task or situation. 2Goine to
the gvm three times a week is not enough: one actually has to put in some effort to undertake a
regime of exercise. Do you seek the lowest amount of exercise so that you can simply say, 'I go to the GLOSSARY
gym? Or do you work with a trainer and then follow the regime closely? Or do you push yourself too
adversity (n) a difficult or
hard, often resulting in fatigue and personal injury? Intensity also includes one's persistence in the unpleasant situation
face of failure or adversity. intense (ad]) very strong
One way of looking at motivation is to discuss intrinsic versus extrinsic motives, in trin s ic intensity (n) the state or
m o tive s are those that come from within the individual. This could be the fun of being with the quality of being intense
tearrUhe satisfaction of a faster finishing time in a 100m race, enjoying the competition, or improved persistence (n) the fact of
well-being after an hour in the gym. Intrinsic motivation depends on the individual's own attitudes continuing to try to do sth
and perceptions, and it involves thinking carefully about situations. Intrinsic motivation does not despite difficulties, especially
have to be provided by others, and serves as a continuous drive towards satisfying individual needs. when other people are
against you
4Thismeans that intrinsic motivation can be very persistent.
regime (n) a set of rules
sE x trin s ic m o tive s are the external rewards that we can gain from taking part in sport or exercise.
about food, exercise or
6This could be'pralse from your coach, the chance to be with vour friends, a major contract with a medical treatment that you
professional sports team, or the status that follows from being famous. follow in order to stay healthy
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motives are important in sport and exercise. Psychologists can target status (n) the social or
both intrinsic and extrinsic motives to improve the performance of the individual. professional position of sb /
sth in relation to others
sour ce: Crane, J. 8 Hannibal, J. (2009). pp.304-5. IB Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. well-being (n) general health
and happiness

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1 Read Text 2 quickly and find:

1 a definition of motivation 3 two examples of extrinsic motives.
2 two examples of intrinsic motives

2 Read Text 2 again. Decide whether each underlined sentence 1-6 is:
1 a definition 2 an explanation or example.

3 Identify the phrases in sentences 1-6 of Text 2 that introduce a definition, an example,
or an explanation.

ACADEM IC LANGUAGE ________________________________ ►Language R eference page 178 14

D efinitions Definitions, explanations, and examples

Authors of academic texts often use certain typical phrases for giving definitions, explanations,
and examples - especially when they are linked.
Definitions
Motivation is defined as the direction and intensity of one's effort.
Intrinsic motives are those that come from within the individual.
The intensity of one's effort' refers to how much effort a person puts into a task.
Success can be defined as achieving your goals.
Explanations
This means that intrinsic motivation can be very persistent.
Intrinsic motivation depends on the individual's own attitudes and perceptions.
Examples
This could be the fun of being with the team...
An example of extrinsic motivation could be praise from your coach.

rASK6 Writing definitions

1 Read the example and write similar definitions for terms 1-3.
Example: goal / an objective you set for yourself
A goal can he defined as an objective you setfo r yourself.
' 1 exercise psychology / the study of psychological theories related to exercise IN D E P E N D E N T
2 the term ‘goal setting’ / the process of planning ways to achieve better results ST U D Y
Recognizing language
3 team cohesion / the way a group sticks together while working towards its objectives used for defining and
explaining key terms or
2 Select three of the following terms. Write a sentence which defines the term, and adds ideas will help improve
an explanation or example. Use phrases from Academic Language. the effectiveness of your
reading.
Example: Success is whenyou have achieved something. An example o f success could be
►Find a text related
winning a race or meeting your personal fitness goal.
to your own area
success failure attitude performance praise adversity status of stuSy and try to
identify definitions,
3 Think of some key terms from your own area of study. Write a definition for each one, explanations, and
examples of key terms.
with an explanation or examples. Compare your definitions with other students.

ASK 7 Critical thinking - responding to the ideas in a text

1 Work in groups. Read the main points from Texts 1 and 2 below and discuss whether
you agree. Give reasons and examples. ,
1 To be effective, goals should be specific, measurable, and related to behaviour. (Text 1)
2 Both intrinsic and extrinsic motives are important in sport and exercise. (Text 2)

2 Discuss what you think are the best ways to achieve (a) success in sport, and (b)
academic success.

3 Think of a future event in your life. Discuss how you can improve your own motivation
in order to achieve a better result.

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Writing Definitions
W riting clear definitions is an im portant part of academic w ritin g and w ill show yo u r tu to r
that you understand key term s and ideas related to your subject. U sing different structures
to w rite definitions is also im portant, especially w hen there are different possible definitions
of a term. This w ill show yo u r tu tor how you are interpreting a particular idea or concept in
your w riting.

This m odule covers:

• W ritin g definitions using prepositional phrases
• W ritin g definitions using relative clauses
• W ritin g a paragraph that includes definition

TASK 1 Defining key terms

1 Read essay titles 1-3. U nderline any words that are im portant to define in each essay.
Example: Compare and evaluate two theories o f m otivation in the workplace.
1 Identify three factors which affect motivation. Explain the reasons for your choice.
2 To what extent does motivation have an impact on performance in sport?
3 ‘Instrumental motivation has a more positive effect on language learning than
integrative motivation.' Discuss.

2 Com pare your answers with another student and give reasons for your selection.

3 Com plete definitions 1-3 w ith key term s you underlined in 1.

Example: Instrumental m otivation is the m otivation f o r achieving concrete goals such as
getting a job.
1 . is the motivation that comes from wanting to be part o f a
community.
2 is a measure o f how someone or something is doing a task.
3 is the need or reason for doing something.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►Language Reference page 181 24.3

The structure of definitions (1) Noun + prepositional phrase

One of the most common ways to define something in academic w riting is to use a
prepositional phrase. For example:
A meeting is an event for making decisions.
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind.
The sentences can be divided into four main parts.
Term being defined verb determiner / adj + head noun prepositional phrase to
show specific feature
A meeting is an event for making decisions,
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind.

INDEPENDENT
STUDY
TASK 2 Recognizing the structure of definitions Some ideas / concepts
are clearly definable but
1 Read sentences 1-5 and identify: others may have many
different definitions
a the term being defined b the head noun с the prepositional phrase. depending on the context,
or your point of view.
A wrench is a metal tool for holding and turning objects.
►Next time you have a
2 Persistence is the state o f continuing to try to do something despite difficulties. concept in your writing
that could have varied
3 A pension is a financial product for saving and investing m oney for old age.
definitions, think about
4 Physiology is the scientific study o f the normal function o f living things. how you can clearly
define it in this context.
5 Efficiency is the quality o f doing something well with no waste o f time or money.

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TASK 3 Writing definitions with a prepositional phrase

1 Match 1-5 with a-e to complete the definitions of the words in bold.
1 A marathon is a long race a of doing something,
2 A regime is a m ethod or system b for operating a computer,
3 Enthusiasm is a strong feeling с of excitement and interest,
4 Software is the program d of related steps to deal with a specific problem,
5 A procedure is a series e of about 42 kilometres or 26 miles.
2 Write definitions for terms'1-4.
1 biology
2 a conference
3 a salary
4 ambition

3 Think of at least two terms from your area of study. Write a similar definition for each one.

^ASK 4 Identifying definitions using relative clauses

1 Read this extract from an essay about motivation and answer questions 1-3.

There is strong evidence from many fields, such as business and sport, that motivation
is a key factor in achieving success. In business, studies have shown that managers who
understand what motivates their employees usually have a better success rate. Companies
whose managers are not aware of employee motivation are less likely to be successful. Also
companies that use money as a sole means to motivate their staff may find it difficult to keep
them. Similarly, high levels of motivation are essential to success in sport. Teams which use a .
sports psychologist often have a more positive mental attitude. Athletes that set achievable
goals typically enhance their performance. The situation is similar in education. For example,
people who are motivated to learn are often the most successful language learners.

1 What kinds of companies are likely to be (a) more successful, and (b) less successful?
2 What kinds of sports team s often have a more positive attitude?
3 Who are often the m ost successful language learners?

2 Compare your answers with another student. Identify the phrases that helped you
answer the questions in 1.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE __________________________ ►La n gu a ge R eference page 181 Z 4 .4

The structure of definitions (2) Noun + relative clause

In academic writing, relative clauses are often used in definitions. The relative pronoun {who,
whose, which, that) can change depending on what you are defining.
For people, use who or that:
People who are motivated to learn are often the most successful language learners.
Athletes that set achievable goals typically enhance their performance.
For most things or ideas, use that or which:
Also companies that use money as a sole means to motivate their staff may find it difficult
to keep them.
Teams which use a sports psychologist often have a more positive mental attitude.
For people and certain things, use whose (possessive):
Companies whose managers are not aware of employee motivation are less likely to be
successful.

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TASK 5 Writing definitions using relative clauses

1 Read sentences 1-6 and identify the relative clause.
Example: Students who read a lot often increase their vocabulary quickly.
1 A psychologist is a scientist who studies and is trained in psychology.
2 A hierarchy is a system which organizes people into different levels of importance from
highest to lowest.
3 M anagement that is effective includes everyone in the decision-making process.
4 Learners who are not motivated are likely to progress more slowly.
5 An opponent that is weaker than you is unlikely to motivate you to win.
6 A goal is something which you hope to achieve.

2 Match 1-5 with a-e to make a sentence including a relative clause.

1 I need to borrow the book about motivation
2 An employee
3 Strangely, a m em ber of staff
4 Sports psychology is a topic area
5 The learner
a whose job is under threat is unlikely to work harder,
b who has both intrinsic an d extrinsic motivation is more likely to succeed,
с which involves analysis of how the m ind affects performance,
d that our tutor recommended.
e who feels no motivation to do well will usually underperform.
3 Think of an example for options 1-3. Write a definition for each using a,relative clause.
Example: A lecturer is someone who teaches and researches in a university.
1 A person (e.g. an athlete, a lecturer)

2 An academic subject (e.g. psychology)

3 A place (e.g. a university)

4 Compare your sentences with another student. Evaluate each other's sentences and
rewrite them if necessary.

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TASK 6 Recognizing definitions in paragraphs

1 Read paragraph 1 and match items a-с to sentences 1-3.
a an example b a definition с an explanation

Paragraph 1
Herzberg (1957) developed a tw o-factor theory of motivation based on hygiene needs and
motivational needs, h y g ie n e needs are those factors which create dissatisfaction at work
if they are not attended to. 2A t school you will probably be demotivated if the classrooms are
not clean, or if the heating is not working properly. If these things are satisfactory, however, it
is unlikely to lead to motivation. 3Hygiene factors are the things that are necessary for you to
get started, but they don't motivate you to succeed.

2 Read paragraph 2 and m atch item s a-d to sentences 1-4.

a an example с a definition
b development including explanation d topic sentence

Paragraph 2
^ h e difference between job enrichment and job enlargement is the difference between
quality and quantity. 2Job enrichment is a way to give employees opportunities for using
the different skills they have, while job enlargement means simply increasing the range
of tasks a worker has to do. 3So, for instance, job enlargement could involve replacing an
assembly line w ith modular work where an employee (or group of employees) carries out
a job from start to finish, 4An enriched job differs from an enlarged job in that it involves
a range of tasks and challenges of varying difficulty, as well as a complete unit of work, so
that an employee has a sense of achievement. On top of this, a manager will offer feedback,
encouragement, and support.

TASK 7 Writing a paragraph with a definition

1 Read the following essay title. Answer questions 1 and 2.

TITLE: Describe a theory of motivation that you know about, and show how the theory can be
applied to work, or a sport.

1 Underline words or term s you might need to define.

2 Think of examples, further details, or specific information to include.

- Write a paragraph of about 100 words, including at least three sentences. Use
paragraphs 1 and 2 in Task 6 to help you. Make sure your paragraph includes:
a topic sentence
a definition of the key term or terms
an example
an explanation

3 Exchange your paragraph with another student and evaluate each other’s paragraph
using questions 1 and 2.
1 Does the paragraph contain:
• a topic sentence?
• a definition of the key term or terms?
• an example?
• an explanation? Sam ple answer
2 Is the definition clear? What language is used to write the definition? page 189

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Vocabulary Adjectives
A djectives are w id e ly used in academic te xts w hen describing, classifying, and evaluating
concepts. C lassifyin g adjectives are generally objective, e.g. individual and behavioural, and
are used to classify, categorize, or lim it th e meaning of a noun. For exam ple behavioural
psychology is lim ited to th e stu dy of people's behaviour, rather than th eir th oughts or beliefs. In
contrast, evaluative adjectives are subjective, e.g. achievable. Choice of evaluative adjectives
depends on how you perceive som ething, e.g. a specific goal m ay be achievable, or challenging.

TASK 1 Understanding and using evaluative adjectives

1 Decide which evaluative adjective in lines 1-4 has a different m eaning from the others.
1 im portant significant intense major
2 successful effective positive unbelievable
3 specific achievable feasible attainable
4 accurate original correct precise
2 Select the two evaluative adjectives w hich best collocate w ith each noun.
Adjectives: rewarding, major, achievable, satisfying, influential
Nouns: experience, goal, theory

3 Complete the examples from the Oxford A dvan ced Learner's D ictionary with
adjectives from 1.
1 Large or im portant enough to have an effect or to be noticed: a highly discovery
a significant b major
2 Directed at dealing with sth or producing a successful result: It will require action.
a effective b positive
3 That is possible and likely to be achieved: a target
a specific b feasible
4 Correct and true in every detail: a n description / account / calculation
a accurate b original
4 W rite three sentences using a selection of nouns and adjectives from 2.

TASK 2 Understanding and using classifying adjectives

1 Complete sentences 1-4 with the correct adjective from each pair.
1 Learning outcomes and objectives can be expressed in either , or
terms, i.e. what a student needs to do, or think, (cognitive / behavioural)
2 W hen formulating a personal action plan, goals should be as as possible.
Goals that are too are harder to define, or achieve, (general / specific)
3 Examples of motivation include praise from tutors and coaches, and rewards
for success. motivation includes the ‘love of learning; (extrinsic / intrinsic) -
4 approaches are best understood by stating.....* examples.
(practical / theoretical)
2 Complete the text using appropriate classifying and evaluative adjectives.
attainable individual personal unrealistic
Burton (1989) argues that goal setting has a psychological effect in that setting goals may
affect cognitive processes. This is known as the indirect thought process view. This
argues that failing1 goals leads to changes in psychological factors that can
influence perform ance.2 outcome goals can raise anxiety and harm
performance, w hereas3 performance goals can lower anxiety and boost
confidence. Setting4 goals is useful, but these must be done carefully.
3 Write a short paragraph describing and evaluating an aspect of your own area of study.
Include som e of the adjectives from this m odule.

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UNIT 4 Nature
ACADEMIC FOCUS: DESCRIPTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

Th is unit covers:
1 Work in groups. Take turns to describe an area of natural
Listening interest in your country - for example, an area with mountains
Preparing to listen to a seminar presentation or lakes, or a part of the coast. Answer questions 1-4.
d en tifyin g context 1 Where exactly is the area situated?
Js in g noun phrases in descriptions
2 Is it typical, or unusual, within your country?
Speaking 3 Has it changed in the last fifty years? If so, how?
d en tifyin g main points and descriptive language 4 Are there any threats to it? If so, what?
Referring to numerical inform ation
G iving a sh ort presentation and providing
2 Select an area from 1 and analyse it from at least three of
peer feedback
these perspectives:
commercial, cultural, ecological, environmental,
Reading
geographical, historical, political, technological.
Predicting th e content of a te x t
d en tifyin g th e main ideas 3 Note down any themes, such-as changes created by human
d en tifyin g and evaluating supporting evidence activity. Compare your themes with the other students in
your group. Is there anything that you found particularly
U sing progressive form s to refer to change
interesting or surprising?
Writing
4 Briefly describe the area to the class.
A nalysin g, planning, and using notes to build up a
oaragraph Example: The Lake District is situated in the north-west of
Using adverbials to add con text and supporting England. There are lakes in other areas o f England,
ifo rm a tio n to a sentence but in the Lake District there are many lakes close
together, so it's quite an unusual part of the country
W riting a descriptive paragraph
(geographical). The area is a national park, so it's
Vocabulary protected by the government (political). Any forestry
d e n tifyin g adverbial meanings work is sustainable - meaning it's well managed to
Using adverbials fo r cohesion protect the environment - and the region's safefrom
development (environmental / ecological).

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Listening Seminars (1)

A common a c tiv ity in seminars is to present inform ation you have read about or researched.
This is a w a y of sharing inform ation about the seminar topic. As w ell as preparing w h at you
w ill say, you need to listen carefully to other students' presentations. As you listen, tr y to
id e n tify (1) contextualizing information, such as w here som ething is and w h at it looks like,
and (2) the speaker's main points. You may have an o p p o rtu n ity to ask questions, but it is also
useful to make brief notes on this inform ation so th at you can refer to them later.

This module covers:

Preparing to listen to a seminar presentation
• Id e n tifyin g context
• U sing noun phrases in descriptions

TASK 1 Preparing to listen to a seminar ргеБётайоп

1 You are going to watch extracts from a seminar where two students give
presentations on the topic of eco-cities. Decide which definition a-с best
defines an eco-city.
a a city which has very little industry and does not allow the use of cars
b a city which is planned to have low energy use and low emissions
с a city which has lots of green, open spaces and plenty of trees

2 Which perspectives (e.g. political) are likely to be discussed in the seminar?

TASK 2 Understanding the context

1 0 4 .1 Watch Extract 1 and complete the notes.
Seminar topic: Eco-cities
Definition:.....................................................................................................................................
Contextualizing questions:
a What is an eco-city?................................... d W hy..........................................................
b W here......................................................... e How..........................................................
с W h e n .......................................................... f Evaluation:..............................................

2 Compare the definition you noted down with your selection in Task 1.1.

TASK 3 Identifying context and description

1 S 4 .2 Watch Extract 2 where Tianjin eco-city is described. Complete column A of the Masdar
table with the speaker’s main points.
A Presentation 1: main points В Presentation 1: signalling phrases С Presentation 2: main points
What a modern, environmentally-friendly city So, what is Tianjin eco-city?

Where 4

When

Why

How

Evaluation

2 0 4 . 2 Watch Extract 2 again and complete column В with the phrase the speaker uses
to signal each main point.

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3 Watch Extract 3 where the speaker describes a different eco-city, Masdar.

0 4 .3
Complete column С in the table in Task 3.1 with the speaker’s main points.

4 0 4 . 3 Watch Extract 3 again and complete sentences 1-5 with the descriptive phrases
the speaker uses.
1 Basically, Masdar is a
2 It’s been described as an
3 They’re based around clean technology like ........
4 So, as I said, Masdar is this new development for
5 It uses solar energy, and

5 Compare your answers with another student. Help each other complete any missing
information.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE _______________________________ ►Language R eference page 181

Noun phrases (1) Adjective + noun, adverb + adjective + noun
In a description, you can add detail to a noun by putting an adjective before the noun, for
example: an old city, a new project, a low impact.
You can extend the simple adjective + noun phrase by adding another adjective or an adverb.
First of all, it has high-level political support, (adjective 1 + adjective Z + noun)
This has been a really important factor in getting the project off the ground, (adverb +
adjective + noun)'
You can add more detail by joining tw o or more adjectives, or adverb + adjective combinations,
with a conjunction (and, but, or).
... to discuss the building of a new sustainable but efficient city.
... and today it's an increasingly important and fast growing city.

TASK 4 Using noun phrases in descriptions

1 Rewrite expressions 1-6 as more concise noun phrases, making any necessary
changes in word class.
Example: an achievement which is significant in political terms
a p o litic a lly sign ificant achievement
1 a country whose importance is increasing
2 a company that is expanding rapidly
3 an organization which is international but little known
4 a building that is modern, and that is environmentally friendly
5 a solution that is practical and has a low impact on the environment
6 a city which is developing rapidly and whose influence is increasing
INDEPENDENT\
2 Describe three items related to your area of study, using similar noun phrases. STUDY
You can listen more
effectively to seminar
~ASK 5 Critical thinking - evaluating presentations presentations if you
have the contextualizing
questions in mind.
1 Work in pairs. Using your notes in the table in Task 3.1, discuss questions 1-3.
►Next time you listen
1 Do you agree with the speakers that eco-cities like Tianjin and Masdar City are always to a presentation of
a good thing? Give reasons. information in a seminar
or lecture, listen
2 The speakers say that the reason for creating eco-cities is to benefit the environment. carefully for the main
What other reasons could there be for creating them? point connected to each
question.
3 What possible problems might be associated with eco-cities?

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Speaking Presentations
G iving a presentation in a seminar may involve presenting factual and numerical inform ation,
as w ell as different perspectives on an issue. O ften the perspectives you choose w ill
influence th e w a y your presentation is organized. When a presentation includes numbers, it
is im portant to be able to say these clearly and correctly. W hen g ivin g each other feedback
on a presentation, try to be as constructive as possible and make specific suggestions
for improvement.

This module covers:

• Id e n tifyin g main points and descriptive language
• Referring to numerical inform ation
• G iving a short presentation and providing peer feedback

TASK 1 Previewing the topic of a presentation

1 Work in groups and discuss questions 1-4.
1 Do most people in your country live in rural or urban areas?
2 Has the num ber of people living in rural and urban areas changed in recent years?
3 What causes people to move from rural to urban areas?
4 List at least three advantages and disadvantages of living in (a) a rural area, and (b) an
urban area.

2 Briefly explain your answers to the class.

TASK 2 Taking notes on the main points of a presentation

1 0 4 . 4 You are going to watch a short presentation on urbanization - the growth of
towns and cities and the movement of people from rural to urban areas. Watch the
presentation and note down key information under headings 1-4.
1 Urbanization since 1900
2 Urbanization in the newly industrialized countries
3 The economic impacts of urbanization
4 The environmental impact of urbanization
2 Work in pairs and discuss questions 1 and 2.
1 Which perspectives did the speaker mainly use to organize her presentation?
2 What do you think is the speaker’s stance on urbanization? Does she think it is mainly
positive or negative?

TASK 3 Taking notes on numerical information

1 Щ 4.5 Watch an extract from the presentation again and complete the table.
World's urban population Urbanization in China and the US
1900: million or per cent 1978: Urban population China
Urban population USA
1950: million or per cent 2011: Urban population China
Urban population USA
2005: billion or per cent 2030: an extra million urban
residents in China

2 Compare your answers with another student. Help each other complete any missing
information.

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE __________ >L a n g u a g e R e fe re n c e page 181 25

Numbers Large numbers, percentages, fractions, decimals

When presenting numerical information, large numbers are often expressed
as decimals, and are usually rounded up or down.
... greater Tokyo is currently around thirty-five point six (35.6) million
(compare: 35,682,460 thirty-five million, six hundred and eighty-two
thousand).
... in 1900 it stood at just two hundred and twenty (220) million
... this figure is likely to rise to four point nine (4.9) billion
Slide 1 W orld urban population since 1 9 0 0
When talking about large numbers, it's usual to use approximation.
... almost half the world’s population living in major towns and cities
... around 50,000 new skyscrapers will be built
... with ju st over 5 billion urban residents

ASK 4 Presenting numbers

1 Look at slides 1 and 2. How would you say the num bers? (est.)

2 Practise presenting the num erical information on slides 1 and 2. Slide 2 U rb an izatio n in China and th e US

TASK 5 Recognizing and using signposting language

1 Match the phrases from the presentation in,Task 2 with functions 1-5.
For instance As you can see So moving on to look at Next I’d like to look a t ...
In my presentation today I'm going to look at OK, that was ... For example
I’ll then move on to look at firstly..., and seco n d ly ... So if we look at the slide

1 introducing the structure of the presentation 4 moving on to a new point

2 introducing a new point , 5 giving an example
3 referring to a visual

2 S 4.6 Watch eight clips from the presentation and notice how the phrases in I are used.

3 Use slides I and 2 to practise signposting language for introducing a new point and
moving from one point to another.

fASK 6 Preparing a short presentation describing change

1 Work in groups. Think of a key change that your countries are facing (for exam ple, the
move from rural to urban population) and discuss:
1 the reasons why the change is happening (e.g. why people migrate from rural to INDEPENDENT
urban areas) STUDY
2 problems associated with the change (e.g. problem s with overcrowding in cities, lack In your academic study
you will encounter a wide
of jobs in rural areas). *
range of data and figures
and it is important for you
2 Prepare a short presentation on the change you discussed in 1. Use the guidelines on
to be able to discuss or
page 195. present these clearly.
►Research some figures
or data related to your
'ASK 7 Giving and evaluating a presentation area of study. Practise
saying them out loud
1 Work in groups and take turns to give your presentations. and check against
the rules provided in
2 Evaluate each oth er’s presentations using the guidelines on page 196. Give each other Language reference
page 181.
feedback. Try to make at least one suggestion for improvement.

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Reading Textbooks (4)

You can use headings, pictures, and diagrams to predict the content of an academic te xt. It is
also im portant to use yo u r ow n know ledge of a topic, This can help to id e n tify the main ideas
in a te xt, and key details and evidence which support these ideas. Taking clear notes on main
, ideas and su pporting evidence w ill enable you to use the inform ation from the te x t in your
own w ritin g later.

This module covers:

• Predicting th e content of a te x t
• Id e n tifyin g the main ideas
• Id e n tifyin g and evaluating supporting evidence
• U sing progressive forms to refer to change

TASK 1 Predicting the content of a text

1 You are going to read a text describing desertification - the process by which land is
changed into desert. Is desertification mainly (a) a natural process, or (b) a m an-m ade
process?

2 Read the section headings in the text and questions 1 -4 . Predict what information or
evidence you think the text will include for each heading.
1 What is desertification?
2 How widespread is the risk of desertification?
3 What are the natural causes of desertification?
4 What are the hum an causes o f desertification?

3 Read the text quickly and check your predictions from 2.

TASK 2 identifying the main ideas in a text

*
1 Identify where in the text the authors express the main ideas 1-6 .
1 The areas most at risk of desertification are near existing deserts.
2 Climate change is a current concern and is happening now.
3 It is not known whether temperature and rainfall are a direct cause of desertification.
4 Human damage is an accident.
5 There is a limit to how m uch farming an area of land can support.
6 Using too little or too m uch water can contribute to desertification.

2 Note down the evidence in the text that helped you identify each of the main ideas in 1.
Exam ple: Main idea - Natural processes were causing desertification before hum ans
started to have an effect.
Evidence from text - ‘Natural climate change turned this region into desert
thousands o f years ago - long before hum ans had any major impact.'

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Desertification
What is desertification?
At first glance, figure 4,31 looks just like any other desert photo - lots of sand. But if you look more closely,
you can see signs of change in this environment. In the recent past, this landscape looked very different
to the way it looks today. As you can see, there is plenty of dead vegetation, plus the remains of animals
that once grazed the area. The land in the photo is turning into a desert. This is called desertification.

How widespread is the risk of desertification?

Figure 4.32 shows the location of land vulnerable to desertification across the world. The most
vulnerable areas tend to be located on the margins of the hot deserts. The UN estimates that roughly a
third of the world's land surface is currently affected by desertification.

What causes desertification?

Natural causes
The main natural cause is connected to climate, which has changed throughout geological time - altering
global temperature and rainfall patterns. For instance, there is evidence th a t-a s recently as 8000 years
ago (around the age of the last Ice Age) - the climate in North Africa and the Middle East was much
wetter than it is today. This evidence includes large aquifers (groundwater reserves) lying beneath
desert countries like Egypt and Jordan, as well as fossil plant remains and archaeological evidence (such
as ancient rock art). Natural climate change turned this region into desert thousands of years ago - long
before humans had any major impact.
Climate worldwide is still changing today, but now there is serious international concern that human
actions are worsening natural global warming and climate change. For example, serious droughts have
become more common in many parts of Africa over the last few decades.
Temperature and rainfall patterns worldwide have certainly been changing. But the changes have not
been gradual or consistent - they have been erratic, and have involved extremes of drought and flood.
The climate is becoming more unpredictable and more variable, Only time will tell how much of this is a GLOSSARY
direct cause of current and future desertification. climate change (n) changes
in the earth's weather,
Human causes
especially the rise in
People are not likely to deliberately damage the land on which they depend on for their survival. However, temperatures caused by the
circumstances can lead to people's actions tipping the delicate balance and inadvertently contributing increase of particular gases
towards the process of desertification. Host commonly, this involves: cultivation (n) the preparation
over-cultivation. Intensive farming on marginal land can reduce soil fertility and damage its structure. and use of land for growing
The lack of organic matter makes it crumbly and more likely to be washed or blown away, It also plants or crops
reduces its capacity to retain moisture. drought (n) a long period of
over-grazing. Marginal grassland has a sustainable carrying capacity - the number of animals that can time w ith out rain

be supported without causing long-term damage, If this number is exceeded, the system becomes grazing (n) land w ith grass
that cows, sheep, etc. can eat
unsustainable and the vegetation and soil deteriorate. If it continues, desertification can result,
over-irrigation. If plants are appropriately irrigated, little water should be wasted. However, if land irrigation (n) the supply
of water to an area of land
is over-irrigated, salinization can occur. This creates an impermeable and infertile salty crust on the
through pipes or channels for
surface, which (according to UNESCO) is a key feature of desertification. growing crops
Other human activities that can damage the soil and vegetation (leading to soil erosion and ultimately marginal (adj) on the edge
desertification) are: road building, deforestation, and inappropriate tourism.
sustainable (adj) involving
the use of natural products
sorce Ross, S ., Digley, B ., Chapman, R. & Cowling, D. (2011). pp.146-7. AQA Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. and energy in a w ay that does
not harm the environment

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TASK 3 Identifying and evaluating supporting evidence

1 Work in pairs. Read the essay title and discuss questions 1 and 2.

TITLE: 'Desertification is a natural process and is not caused by man.' Discuss.

1 From' your reading, do you think desertification is (a) a natural process, (b) a man-
m ade process, or (c) both natural and man-made?
2 Do you think the writers of the text would agree with the statem ent in the essay title?

2 Find examples of evidence in the text on page 055 that is both fo r and against the
statement in the essay title.
For Against
8,000 years ago the climate in North Africa and Intensive farming can damage soil
the Middle East was much wetter

3 Look at the arguments for and against the statement in 1. Do the authors provide
strong evidence to support both arguments?

4 What other evidence could you offer to support either argument?

TASK 4 Using evidence from the text in writing

1 Read the extract from the text on the natural causes of desertification. Match items a-c
to sentences 1-3.
a examples of evidence b a statem ent of evidence с the main idea

4 h e main natural cause is connected to climate, which has changed throughout geological time -
INDEPENDENT
altering global temperature and rainfall patterns. 2For instance, there is evidence that - as recently as
STUDY
8,000 years ago (around the age of the last Ice Age) - the climate in North Africa and the Middle East
You might already have an
was much wetter than it is today. 3This evidence includes large aquifers (groundwater reserves) lying opinion on an assessment
beneath desert countries like Egypt and Jordan, as well as fossil plant remains and archaeological topic before you do any
evidence (such as ancient rock art). reading or research. Try
to stay open to adapting
your position depending
2 Using your notes from Tasks 2 and 3, write three similar sentences about the human on what you find out while
researching.
causes of desertification.
►Next time you are
1 The main hum an cause is connected to farming given an assessment
topic, make a note of
your stance at the start.
2 For instance, there is evidence that As you do your research,
add to your notes to see
3 This evidence includes if, and how, your stance
changes.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►Language Reference page 183 31

Progressive forms Referring to change in progress

*
Progressive forms are often used to refer to change. They use the auxiliary verb be to indicate
the tense (present or past), plus the -ing form of the main verb.
The land in the photo is turning into a desert.
Climate worldwide is still changing today, but now there is serious international concern
that human actions are worsening natural global warming and climate change.
The climate is becoming more unpredictable and more variable.
The present perfect progressive can be used to show that, although the event is still in
progress, there is a sense of completion:
Temperature and rainfall patterns worldwide have certainly been changing.
This example shows that some changes in temperature and rainfall patterns already exist.
Notice that an adverbial can be added for extra meaning, e.g, still, certainly.

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TASK 5 Identifying and using progressive forms

1 Complete the text with the correct form of the present progressive or present perfect
progressive.

The world's climate 1.......................................... (change) for centuries. However, not everyone is
convinced that climate change z.......................................... (actually happen) because the data is
sometimes misleading or inaccurate. Ice caps and glaciers 3..........................................(get) smaller
across the world, although some predictions and estimates have not been very accurate. Glaciers
and ice caps outside of the Antarctic and Greenland 4 ........................................ (melt) at half the rate
previously thought. Jacob et al (2011) found that glaciers in the Himalayas5.........................................
(not shrink) as fast as was predicted; in fact, there has been very little change at all. While their
research overturned some previous ideas, in general it supported the overall view that sea levels
6 (rise) every year. Although some recent findings seem to contradict
previous research, the vast majority of it supports the idea that the climate7..........................................
(change) and that human a ctivity8.......................................... (cause) it.

2 Think about three changes in your country that are currently happening. Write a
sentence to describe each of these changes.
1

TASK 6 Critical thinking - reflecting on ideas for writing

1 Which of the following 1-5 do you think are the authors' aims in the text on page 055?
1 To inform the reader about causes of desertification
2 To describe where desertification is happening
3 To evaluate the causes of desertification
4 To argue that man is the main cause of desertification
5 To argue that desertification is a natural and unstoppable process
2 Which essay title 1-3 do you think the text might be the m ost useful source for?
1 Describe the stages and process of desertification.
2 Compare and contrast the different causes of desertification.
3 Evaluate the most effective way to manage the impact of hum an activity on
desertification.

3 Work in pairs. Discuss which parts of the text you could jise for each essay title in 2.
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A paragraph develops a topic or an idea, using su pporting inform ation such as examples,
explanations, and evidence. Some paragraphs m ay also include analysis from different
perspectives. When you w rite a paragraph, you need to use appropriate words or phrases to
connect th e ideas or add inform ation. These w ill also help th e reader to navigate yo u r te xt.

This module covers:

• A na lysin g, planning, and using notes to build up a paragraph
• U sing adverbials to add context and supporting inform ation to a sentence
• W ritin g a descriptive paragraph

TASK 1 Analysing the structure of a paragraph

1 Work in pairs. Read the paragraph from an essay and match features a-f to sentences 1-6.

xThere has been increasing interest in sustainable development in recent years. Sustainable
development can be defined as 'development which meets the needs of the present without
affecting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs' (United Nations, 1987).
3For example, in the UK a Sustainable Development Commission has been set up to advise
on such matters. “Similarly, in many countries, including newly industrialized countries such
as China, many businesses now have sustainable development policies. 5ln other words,
businesses are working to improve the sustainability of the natural world. 6These examples
show that sustainable development is increasingly important globally in political and
economic terms.

a the topic sentence с an explanation e another example ,

b the concluding d an example f a definition
sentence
2 Which sentence includes both the main point and evaluation?
3 Find words / phrases 1-6 below in the paragraph and decide what kind of information
they introduce.
Example: 'There has been increasing interest in’ - introduces a new topic
1 [...] can be defined as 3 Similarly, 5 In other words,
2 For example, 4 such as 6 These examples show

ACADEMIC L A N G U A G E _____________________ > Language R eference page 179 21

Cohesion (3) U sin g a d v e rb ia ls to in tro d u c e s u p p o rtin g in fo rm a tio n

Adverbials are used to introduce supporting information. They help to make your paragraph
cohesive by showing the reader how ideas are connected.
• To connect tw o similar ideas or examples, use Similarly, In the same way, or Likewise:
China's urban population has increased dramatically since the 1970s. Similarly, India's cities
have grown in the last thirty years.
• To introduce explanations, use In other words {i.e.) or To put this another way:
Countries like China, South Africa, and Brazil are considered newly industrialized countries
(NICs). In other words, they are no longer seen as developing countries.
• To introduce an example, use For example (e.g.), For instance, or such as:
For example, there are several famous cold deserts, such as the Gobi and the Atacama deserts.
• To introduce evaluation or indicate your personal stance, use adverbs like Basically,
Interestingly, Significantly, Surprisingly.
Significantly, a number of emerging economies are introducing new environmental laws.
• To summarize or restate a key point, use phrases like To summarize, or Essentially.
To summarize, it's clear that sustainable development is increasingly important.

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TASK 2 Using adverbials to make a paragraph cohesive

1 Complete the paragraph using the words / phrases in the list. Use the prompts in
brackets to help you.
For example such as In other words Essentially Similarly Interestingly

It's dear that economic growth and development need to be sustainable.

1 , (explanation) growth and development need to have an effect on
nature which is not too negative or damaging, There are several ways to help this to happen.
2 , (example) non-governmental organizations and charities need to put
pressure on businesses to operate cleanly. In the same way, governments across the world
need to bring in new laws to protect the natural w orld.3........................................, (evaluation)
in countries where laws like this have been introduced, environmental damage has fallen.
4........................................, (similarity) people's attitudes need to change so that they see the
world as an interconnected system rather than a limitless resource which humans can exploit.
This can be done in a number of w ays,5........................................ (example) through education
and advertising.6....................................... , (evaluation) the future of our world depends on.
people changing the way they think and behave.

2 Compare your answers with another student. Explain why you put the words / phrases
in these positions.

TASK 3 Expanding notes into sentences

1 Read the notes for a paragraph. Work out the topic and the main idea.

Notes
a Environmental damage - serious / overlooked effect of driving - locally & globally
b Driving - releases different pollutants -+ air, e.g. greenhouse gases, e.g. С0г
с Oil production, i.e. drilling - harmful to local environment -+ pollutes deserts, oceans
d Use / sourcing fuels, i.e. petrol’/ diesel - affects air quality - damages human health &
surrounding ecosystem
e Need - look for different / more sustainable kinds of fuel

2 Study the example, where the notes in 1 are expanded into a complete sentence; Look
at the annotated example to see which words were added.
Example: Notes: Environmental dam age - serious / overlooked effect o f driving - locally
& globally
Complete sentence: Environmental dam age is a serious b u t overlooked effect
o f driving, b o th locally a n d globally.

A d d verb A d d determiner a to complete Join two adjectives

the поип phrase w ith b u t
J /
Environmental damage js a serious but overlooked effect of driving,
both locally and globally.

. /
A d d both
К
Change abbreviation (&) to word (and)

3 Follow a similar process for notes b-e. You may not need to make exactly the same
changes, but you may need to make grammatical changes to some words.

4 Compare your complete sentences with another student.

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TASK 4 Connecting sentences to form a paragraph

1 Join your sentences from Task 3.3 to create a single paragraph. Use steps 1-3 to guide
you.
1 Decide on a logical order for your sentences.
2 Include a topic sentence and a main point based on your answer to Task 3.1.
3 Include adverbials from Academic Language to make your paragraph cohesive.
2 Compare your paragraph with another student. Explain why you chose the particular
order of sentences.

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE _______________________________ ►Language Reference page 176

Sentence structure (3) Adding further information using adverbials
As shown in Unit 1, the basic structure of simple sentences in English is subject (S) + verb (V) +
object (0). These parts are known as clause elements. For example:
People talk about the cost of motor transport.
You can add more detail to this basic sentence structure using adverbs or adverbial phrases:
People often talk about the cost of motor transport.
People often talk about the cost of motor transport, mainly in financial terms.
People often talk about the cost of motor transport mainly in financial terms such as the
cost of fuel and insurance.

TASK 5 Adding detail to sentences

1 Identify the different clause elem ents (subject, verb, object) in sentences 1-6. Not all
the sentences have an object.
Example: CO2 emissions have been increasing, (in recent years / rapidly)
(S ) (V )
1 Manufacturing companies should be regulated, (more strongly)
2 Pollutants damage the natural environment, (seriously / in almost every country)
3 These examples suggest that the damage is considerable, (strongly / to our
environment)
4 Businesses need more research on their environmental impact, (in simple terms)
5 Researchers are focusing on extinction, (increasingly)
6 We need solutions to the destruction of natural habitats, (urgently / from politicians
and business leaders)
2 Rewrite the sentences in 1 to include the additional inform ation (adverbials) in
brackets. The position of the adverbials in som e sentences can vary.
Example: CO, emissions have been increasing (in recent years / rapidly)
In recent years, C 02 emissions have been increasing rapidly.
OR CO, emissions have been increasing rapidly in recent years.
OR CO, emissions hqive been rapidly increasing in recent years.

3 Work in pairs. Take turns to read the sentences in 1 aloud. Stress different parts of the
sentences to change the em phasis.
Example: In recent years, Commissions have been increasing rapidly.
In recent years. Commissions have been increasing rapidly.

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TASK 6 Planning and writing a paragraph

1 Work in groups. Discuss ways that nature or the environment are related to different
academic disciplines - for example, technology, medicine, or business. For each idea,
think of an example or explanation, and an additional point.
Example: Idea: Nature relates to technology because many technological devices such as
mobile phones affect the environment.
Example: For example, phone masts can spoil the beauty of the local environment.
Additional point: When researchers are considering designing a new piece of
technology, they should think about its impact on nature.

2 You are going to write a paragraph describing the relationship between the
environment and one or more academic disciplines. Note down ideas for stages 1-5.
Stage Example
1 Select an idea to write about from those you The relationship between technology and the
discussed in your groups. environment
2 Decide on the topic of your paragraph. The effect of technology on the environment.

3 Decide on the main point you want to make. Students need to understand that technology
has a negative impact as well as benefits.
4 Think of some examples and/or explanations Mobile phone masts and wind turbines; toxic
to support your main point. materials in things like mobile phones
5 Identify any terms that need a definition. toxic materials

3 Using your notes in 2, write a paragraph of about 120-150 words. Follow guidelines
1-5. You may find it helpful to refer back to the sample paragraph in Task 1.
1 Write your topic sentence.
2 Decide where to state your main point - after the topic sentence or near the end of
the paragraph.
3 Add sentences which include examples and explanation.
4 Make sure your paragraph is cohesive: check your use of pronouns {it, its, they, their)
and adverbials such as Similarly and In other words.
5 Write a concluding sentence to state or restate the main point and, if necessary, give a Sam ple answer
brief evaluation. page 189

TASK 7 Critical thinking - evaluating your writing

1 Use the following checklist to evaluate your paragraph.
Check the paragraph structure. Does it contain ... Yes No
a topic sentence?
a clear statement of the main point?
examples and/or explanations?
definitions if necessary?
a concluding sentence?

Check your language Yes No

Does each sentence have a subject, verb, and object?
Is each verb in the right tense and form?
Do you use adverbials and pronouns to make the paragraph cohesive?

2 Read at least two other students’ paragraphs. Evaluate their paragraphs using the
checklist in 1 and give feedback.

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Vocabulary Adverbials
You can introduce supporting information using adverbials. These guide your reader through
your te xt and help to make it cohesive. For example, you can use adverbials at the start of
your sentence to introduce a comparison w ith something similar: Sim ilarly.... For explanations,
you can use In other words (sometimes abbreviated to i.e.), and to introduce an example you
can use an adverbial like For example. You can introduce evaluation using adverbials which
signal your stance, e.g. Significantly. Finally, you can introduce the main point, summarize, or
conclude: In b rie f....

TASK 1 Identifying adverbial meanings

1 Match these adverbials to functions 1-5.
basically essentially for example for instance in brief in conclusion in other words
in short interestingly in the sam e way likewise surprisingly to conclude

1 Comparing with som ething similar:

2 Offering explanation:
3 Introducing an example:
4 Showing stance:
5 Signalling m ain point / summary / conclusion:

TASK 2 Using adverbials for cohesion

1 Complete sentences 1 -5 with an appropriate adverbial from the list.
for instance in conclusion in other words likewise surprisingly

1 There are several extensive deserts, the Sahara in North Africa.

2 , very little of the sun’s energy is currently used for desalination
of water.
3 , this essay has argued that consum ption rather than production
needs to be evaluated.
4 Standards of living have risen in line with increased urbanization; ,
there is arguably a direct correlation betw een these two factors.
5 China has shown vast urban and econom ic development in recent years;
there has been considerable growth in India.

2 Complete the text with an appropriate adverbial from each pair.

While often criticized for their ecological impact, cities are sources o f ideas, creativity,
and techn ology.1 (For instance / Essentially) hum ans are social
animals and require a place to exchange knowledge and socially interact.
2 (In other words / Significantly) econom ic opportunity has been
a driver behind urban growth - 3 (in other words / essentially)
there is more chance of em ployment in cities despite widespread econom ic problems.
4 (To conclude ASimilarly) opportunites for education in cities are
greater than elsew here.5 (For instance / In other words) in Senegal
the urban literacy rates for males is 80.6%, compared to 45.2% in rural areas (UNESCO,
2 0 1 1 ).6 (Significantly / To conclude) by 2030 approximately two
thirds of the global population will be urban. Although there are definite disadvantages,
we must also look at the benefits of city living.

3 Decide on the function of each adverbial in 2. Choose from the five options in 1.1.

4 Write a brief paragraph describing a theory or ideas from your own area of study.
Include one or two linking adverbials to guide your reader.

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UNIT 5 Power
ACADEMIC FOCUS: REPORTING AND SUMMARIZING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

This unit covers:
1 Work in groups. Discuss how each of the two groups in 1-4
Listening can influence the other. Give examples.
Identifying different positions in a lecture 1 Private com panies and ordinary people
Identifying supporting arguments
2 Social m edia and society in general
Using present and past tenses to report findings
3 The media and ordinary people
Speaking 4 Managers and employees
Taking notes on a student presentation
Exam ple: Private companies influence what ordinary people
Using reporting verbs to refer to points in a
buy through advertising and marketing. Ordinary
presentation
people can influence companies to stop making
Participating in a seminar discussion certain products through boycotts or protests.
Reading
2 Present your group's m ain ideas to the class. Use the
Identifying the main ideas and key information in following phrases to help you.
a text
Our discussion focused on ...
Identifying key features of a summary *
The main points we discussed w ere...
Using noun phrases to summarize ideas
Wefeel that...
Evaluating summaries of a text
We cam e to the conclusion th at...
Writing
Analysing and using active note-taking strategies
Identifying and using summarizing words and
phrases
Writing a summary of a short academic text
Vocabulary
Using suffixes to recognize word families
Building word families using affixes

063
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Listening Lectures (3)

Lectures do not sim ply give inform ation on a topic; th e y also present differen t positions on
an issue from individual groups of people, or organizations. It is im portant to id en tify and
understand these differen t positions, as you m ay need to discuss them in a seminar or w rite
about them in an assignm ent. To argue for or against a particular position, a lecturer w ill often
refer to a stu d y on the topic. Id e n tifyin g references to these studies can help you to research
fu rth e r exam ples to support yo u r ow n ideas in yo u r w ritte n assignments.

This module covers:

• Id e n tifyin g different positions in a lecture
• Id e n tifyin g su pporting argum ents
• U sing present and past tenses to report findings

TASK 1 Thinking about note-taking styles

1 Look at the different ways of organizing lecture notes a-d. Which style of notes would
be best for showing:
1 argum ents/or and against a particular point? 3 a process or a sequence of events?
2 different positions in a debate? 4 connections between ideas? a Mind map

2 Work in pairs and discuss how you like to organize your notes.

3 0 5 .1 Watch the introduction to a lecture about the advertising industry. As you watch:
1 predict what the lecturer will talk about in the rest of the lecture
2 think about how the lecture will be organized, and what note-taking style you could
use to organize your notes on the rest of the lecture. b Tw o -p a ge split

TASK 2 Thinking about stance to prepare for a lecture

1 Work in pairs and discuss questions 1 and 2.
1 Is there m uch advertising aimed at children in your country?
с Page split into four
2 Do you think advertising to children should be regulated?

2 Discuss what stance you think the following groups might take on advertising to
children: doctors, parents, advertisers, the government.
Example: Doctors - advertising unhealthy foods and drinks to children
should be banned, (stance) It can lead to childhood obesity, (reason)
‘ obesity (n) a condition where someone is so fat it is a danger to their health d Linear notes

TASK 3 Identifying positions within a debate

1 0 5.2-5.5 Watch Extracts 2 -5 of the lecture. Complete the first two columns of the INDEPENDENT
table with (a) the interested group, and (b) their position. STUDY
The introduction to a
Extract Group Position * ' Supporting argument lecture usually gives an
Z Advertisers indication of how it will be
organized.
►Watch the opening
minutes of a lecture
related to your area
of study on your
institution's Virtual
learning environment
(VLE), or an external
website. Decide how
you would take notes
2 Compare your notes on Extracts 2 -5 with another student. Help each other to
for this lecture.
complete any missing information.

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TASK 4 Identifying supporting arguments

1 Э 5.2-5.5 Watch Extracts 2-5 again. Complete column 3 of the table in Task 3 with the
argument(s) that support(s) each group’s position, and the source it comes from.
2 Compare your notes with another student. Discuss questions 1-3.
1 What information did the lecturer give to support each position?
2 Which position do you most agree with? Give reasons.
3 What did you find most interesting about the lecture?

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Present and past tenses R e fe rrin g to re se arch fin d in g s
The present simple, present perfect, and past simple can all be used to refer to research
findings. The speaker's choice of tense may depend on whether the research is past or current,
but may sometimes be a question of style.
The present simple is used to make general statements about research findings where time is
not relevant.
Marketresearch.com estimates that children in the US directly spend $51.8 billion each year.
McNeal puts this figure at around $670 billion, and these figures continue to rise annually.
The present perfect is used when the findings are new or still relevant today.
One study by the Australian consumer group CHOICE has shown th a t...
The same study has also highlighted the fact that 86% of parents w ould...
The past simple is normally used when a specific date in the past is mentioned.
In 2007, CBS reported that the amount of money spent on advertising to children in the US
was $17 billion.

ASK 5 Using past tenses to refer to research findings

1 Complete sentences 1-4 with an appropriate past tense form of the verb in brackets.
1 Harris (2009) (estimate) that fast food companies spent $4 billion
in 2009 on advertising in the US.
2 CBS (put) the figure at around $17 billion on advertising to 8 - to
12-year-olds, and these figures continue to rise annually.
3 According to Halford etal. (2007), children’s food intake (increase)
100% after watching food advertising.
4 The World Health Organization (judge) that advertising is a
probable cause of obesity.

2 Work in groups. Select one of the interested groups from the table in Task 3.1 and
summarize their position and supporting argument. Which position is most similar
to your own?

TASK 6 Critical thinking - responding to a lecture 1 Do you believe that advertising

influences children's demands?
1 Look at the slide featuring the lecturer's discussion questions. Think
about your own position and what you heard in the lecture extracts. Work 2 Do you think it can be connected to
in pairs and discuss the questions. issues such as obesity or sm oking?

2 Think of a similar issue in your own area of study, or another field that 3 Should governm ents limit or control
what can be advertised to children?
you are familiar with. Work in pairs, and give a brief summary of the
different positions. Say which position you agree with, and why.

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Speaking Seminar discussions (3)

When you take part in a seminar, you w ill normally need to prepare by reading a te xt, or
attending a presentation or lecture. In this module you w ill listen to a student presentation, and
then discuss ideas from this presentation in the seminar. During the discussion, you w ill need to
refer to points that the presenter made, so it is im portant th at you take good notes as you listen.

This module covers:

• Taking notes on a student presentation
• U sing reporting verbs to refer to points in a presentation
• Participating in a seminar discussion

TASK 1 Discussing a topic to prepare for a presentation

1 Work in groups. Decide which of the following media are the most powerful, and why.
social m edia (e.g. Facebook) television the internet newspapers

2 Discuss the effect of these media on you personally, on business, and on society
in general.

TASK 2 Predicting the content of a presentation

1 Read the speaker’s slides 1-4, and check the meaning of any unknown words.

The power of social media The purpose and possibilities

of social media
• Changes in use
• Allow people to network
• Bypass* traditional media
• Unexpected outcom es

Jamila Khan

Slide 1 Slide 2

Advantages and limitations Next steps for social media

of social media • Are the real-life social skills of users declining?
1 Easy to access • How many real friends have you got?
2 Equality • Are you tweeting or working?
3 C ost • Will everyone use social media?
4 B ypass governm ents
5 ‘Safety in num bers’ GLOSSARY
6 Social media vs. real-life chat bypass (v) to go around, or
avoid something
Slide 3 Slide 4

2 Work in pairs and predict one or two points that the speaker might make for slides 2-4.

TASK 3 Taking notes on key information*

1 0 5 . 6 Watch Extract 1 of a presentation on the power of social media. For each social
media company mentioned, note down the following information.
• company nam e • who it was launched for, and why
• launch date • approximate num ber of users
2 0 5 . 7 Watch Extract 2 and note down the main points relating to slides 2 and 3.
Example: The purpose and possibilities of social media
change in focus from small local groups -+ global mass-market use
(allows people to network, chat, & exchange personal info worldwide)

3 Compare your notes with your predictions in Task 2.2. Did you predict any points
mentioned by the speaker?

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►Language Reference page 183

Reporting verbs Referring to points in a presentation

When you report what a speaker says, you can select from a number of verbs to show different
meanings.

Reporting a statement neutrally

The speaker says / states th a t...
Reporting the presentation of examples or evidence
The speaker shows / demonstrates th a t...
Reporting a speaker's position or stance
The speaker argues / believes / suggests th a t...
When you respond to what someone says, it is more common to use a different verb.
The speaker suggests that social media sites limit the m y we communicate, but I believe
that they can help us to communicate better.

TASK 4 Using reporting verbs

1 Read statements 1-5 made by the speaker, and report what she says. Select a different INDEPENDENT
reporting verb for each statement. STUDY
Presenters and lecturers
Example: 'W hat’s interesting is that social media can often bypass the traditional media.’ use a range of reporting
The speaker states that social media can often bypass the traditional media. verbs, depending on
their purpose and their
1 '... There have been some unexpected outcomes o f using social media.’
audience.
2 ‘They’re easy to access, easy to use, and almost anyone can get their message out there.’ ►Find a lecture
3 ‘Most governments find that they're almost impossible to regulate.’ online related to your
discipline, and note
4 ‘Some users have even been convicted o f crim es,... like the recent case where a down any reporting
student was sent to prison for writing racist Tweets about a public figure.’ verbs. If possible, also
read the transcript.
5 ‘In theory, everybody can access social media. But in reality, they can’t.’

TASK 5 Preparing for a seminar discussion

1 You are going to take part in a seminar discussion based on the presentation in Task 3.
Prepare for the discussion using stages 1-4.
1 Read the headings on the slides and your notes from Task 3. Decide which o f the
speaker’s points you agree with.
2 Note down your own views on the points on slides 2 and 3.
3 Work out how you will refer to these points using reporting verbs.
4 Think o f answers to the questions in slide 4.

2 Work in pairs and explain your ideas.

TASK 6 Taking part in a seminar discussion

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... i "

1 Work in groups. The purpose of the discussion is for you to raise the points you
prepared in Task 5, and respond to other students’ points.
1 Select a point from the presentation to begin with.
2 Take turns to make the points you prepared. Try to use a good range o f reporting verbs
and respond to what other people in your group say. Try to include your own views.
3 Continue the discussion until everyone has contributed. Then m ove on to the next
point.

2 Evaluate your own performance in the discussion using questions 1-3 .

1 Did you make the points you prepared?
2 Did other students understand and respond to your points?
3 Did you participate effectively by listening to and responding to other students’ points?

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Reading Textbooks (5)

When you are preparing for an assignm ent, such as an essay, te xtbo oks are useful sources
of inform ation. You need to be able to select those parts of the te x t which are relevant to the
topic of yo u r assignm ent. It-is im portant to id e n tify and note down th e main ideas from the
te xt. You can then use yo u r notes on these main ideas to w rite a summary of the te xt, which
you can include in your own w riting.

This module covers:

• Id e n tifyin g th e main ideas and key inform ation in a te x t
• Id e n tifyin g key features o f a sum m ary
• U sing noun phrases to summarize ideas
• Evaluating summaries of a te x t

TASK 1 Discussing reading to prepare for writing

1 Work in pairs. Think of an academic project you have done which involved reading and
writing, and discuss points 1-3.
1 How much reading did you have to do to prepare for the writing? H ow long did it take?
2 What sorts o f texts did you have to read?
3 How much material from the texts did you use in your writing?

2 Imagine you have to prepare to write an essay on individual power and social power.
Decide the order in which you would do the following.
a Search for key words such as power in the title, index, and contents pages o f textbooks,
or online
b Study the essay tide carefully and make sure you understand it
с Read selected extracts from your sources
d Use material from the notes and summaries in your essay
e' Think o f ideas to use in the essay
f Make notes and summarize key information from your sources
g Search for relevant sources o f information, such as textbooks or online articles

3 Compare your ideas with another pair, and give reasons for your selection. Are there
any other stages you would include?

TASK Z Identifying the main ideas in a text

1 Work in groups. Read Text 1 and discuss questions 1-3.

TEXT 1
Social class has traditionally been divided into three broad categories: an upper class that owns
property, land, and investments and is wealthy and powerful; a middle class made up of professional
workers such as managers and owners of small businesses; a lower class of people who have low-
paid jobs or who are unemployed.

1 To what extent is this stratification (i.e. the division o f something into different layers
or groups) o f society into three classes accurate?
2 What other factors can determine a person’s class?
3 H ow easy is it for someone to change classes, and how long might this take?

2 Read Text 2, which is the opening part of a longer section in a sociology textbook.
Identify the three aspects of power mentioned in the text.

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TEXT 2
Class and status
1 The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) saw social stratification as a central feature of
social life, and it figured in all his sociological studies. Yet his theoretical discussions of .it were
very brief. These discussions have, however, been enormously influential. The distinctions that he
made between class, status, and party have become commonplace in sociology, as has his related
definition of authority. Here we will review Weber's key ideas, building on them where necessary,
in order to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding social stratification. (See J, Scott
1996 for a fuller discussion.)
2 Weber identified three distinct aspects or dimensions of the distribution of power within
societies. These can be called the economic, the communal, and the authoritarian. Each of these
GLOSSARY
aspects of power has a separate effect on the production of advantaged and disadvantaged life
authority (n) the power or
chances. In summary, he holds that:
right to do sth, or to influence
• economic power is the basis of class relations; people
• communal power is the basis of status relations; communal (adj) involving
• authoritarian power is the basis of authority relations. different groups of people in a
We will look at each of these, concentrating on class and status, and we will show how other community
writers have helped to develop ideas about these issues. distinction (n) a clear
difference or contrast
sour ce: Fulcher,). 8 Scott, J. (2011), p,746. Sociology 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. status (n) a person's social
position

3 Complete the notes using information from Text 2.

Paragraph 1
W eber’s theories:
1 social stratification
• central to social life
• only discussed briefly, but
2 Class, status, and party
• these distinctions com m on in sociology
• Weber's also com m on in sociology
Paragraph 2
W eber identified three distinct of in societies
• econom ic power - class relations

• authoritarian power - authority relations

4 Based on the com pleted notes, identify the m ain points that could be included in an
essay on individual and social power.

TASK 3 Identifying the key features of a summary

1 Read the sum m ary o f Text 2, and evaluate it using the ‘ 4Cs’ criteria below.
In their text on class and status, Fulcher and Scott (2011, p.746) report the work o f Weber.
They state that Weber's theory o f social stratification is brief but highly influential, with
his distinctions o f class, status, and party being w idely accepted. W eber proposed three
key aspects o f power in society: economic, communal, and authoritarian.
An effective sum m ary is:
1 Complete: it includes all the main ideas, but not supporting details or examples
2 Concise: it is as brief as possible, and shorter than the original text
3 Clear: it is easy to understand
4 Creative: it uses some key terms from the text, but mainly uses the summary writer's
own language.

2 Com pare the summ ary to the notes in Task 2.3. Find one exam ple o f inform ation that
is included in the summary, and one exam ple o f inform ation that is not included.

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►Language Reference page 181

Noun phrases (2) Summarizing ideas •

S u m m a ^s need to be concise and information-rich. Noun phrases are useful for writing
summaries because they can express complex ideas in just a few words. Three typical patterns
of noun phrase are:
1 Adjective + noun
... and it figured in all his sociological studies.
Z Noun + prepositional phrase (beginning with a simple preposition like of or for)
Weber saw social stratification as a central feature of social life ...
... in order to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding social stratification.
В Noun + relative clause (part of a sentence that provides extra information, often starting
w ith that, which, or who)
The distinctions that he made between class, status, and party have become...

TASK 4 Writing noun phrases from notes

1 Use notes 1-4 to write noun phrases including all the information given. Add
grammatical words such as prepositions ( of) and determiners (a, the ) if necessary.
Example: Adorno's theory
Identity = key idea
-►Identity is a key theory in Adorno's theory
1 Leaders = people - high status - in their com m unity
2 Durkheim’s study: social roles = important!!!
3 ‘The masses’ = people (lo w econom ic status)
4 This = important concept - sociological & political

2 Match your noun phrases to one of the patterns from Academic Language.

Class and economic power

Class relations and class divisions have an economic basis because they result from the distribution
of property and other resources in the capital, product, and labour markets. It is possession and non­
possession of economic resources that give people their power to acquire income and assets from
their involvement in market relations. What Weber called class s itu a tio n is a person's position in
the capital, product, and labour markets as determined by the kinds of resources that they have
available to them. People occupy a similar class situation whenever they have similar abilities to
secure advantages and disadvantages for themselves through the use of their marketable resources. GLOSSARY
Someone who owns company shares, for example, will earn an investment income on them and may acquire (v) to gain sth by ytx r
be able to sell them for a profit on the stock market. Similarly, someone with educational qualifications own efforts

and a particular technical skill may be able to demand a higher income in the labour market than asset (n) something of value,
especially property
someone without this skill. A carpenter and an electrician both have skills that allow them to earn
higher wages in the labour market than an unskilled labourer. capital (n) a large amount of
money that is invested or usal
A person's economic power is, Weber said, a factor resulting in the determination of their life
to start a business
chances. What he means by this is that the inequalities in life chances that we examine in Chapter
company shares (n pi) units
18 are determined, to a greater or lesser extent, by differences in property and market position. A of equal value which a
person's class situation not only determines his or her life chances; it also determines the interests company is divided into
that he or she has in protecting and increasing these life chances. This is very important, as Weber determine (v) to make sth
held that people are often likely to act, individually or collectively, in pursuit of their class interests, happen in a particular way
investment income (n)
source: Fulcher, J, & Scott, J. (2011). pp.746-7. Sociology 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. money eam edfrom
investments

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TASK 5 Identifying key information in a text

1 Work in pairs. Decide which three characteristics are most associated with a person’s
individual power.
money qualifications status / official position in society job title

2 Read Text 3, Class and economic power, which follows on from Text 2, Class and status.
Which characteristics in 1 are mentioned in the text?

3 Find other words and phrases in the text related to each characteristic.
Exam ple: money - economic basis / assets / property / economic resources / investments

TASK 6 Evaluating summaries of a text

1 Read the two summaries of Text 3 and decide which is the better summary.
Sum m ary 1
In their text on class and econom ic power, Fulcher and Scott (2011, pp.746-7) state
that class and econom ic power com e from property and other resources, so they are
econom ically-based: people's power com es from their econom ic resources. W eber’s term
'class situation’ refers to a person's econom ic position. This reflects how they use their
econom ic resources, w hether financial, professional, or educational. W eber also argues
that a person’s econom ic power affects their 'life chances' and the actions they take to
maintain these life chances.
Sum m ary 2
Fulcher and Scott’s (2011, pp.746-7) text on class and econom ic power explains that a
person's class status is brought about by what they possess in term s of property and other
assets; w hether they own something or not, or how m uch they own, m eans that they have
a particular status and class. People can change what they have by gaining assets through
the market. This is an interesting observation, which W eber calls 'class situation! This
includes various assets such as financial assets, and these affect them in different ways,
whether through the ownership of stock market shares or the possession of a specific
skill such as electrical skills. These allow a person to hold different positions socially,
financially, and economically.

2 Work in pairs and evaluate the two summaries using the '4Cs’. Is each summary:
INDEPENDENT
• Complete? STUDY
• Concise? You should be able to
sum m arize other te xts
• Clear?
by id e n tifyin g th e main
• Creative? point(s) and the n rew ritin g
these,
3 Identify the weaknesses and possible areas for improvement in the less effective ►Find a te xt from your
summary. Discuss how to improve these areas by deciding what to add, delete, own area of study.
or change. Follow the same
procedure to w rite your
own summary of that
4 Look back at the better summary you selected in 1. Match each sentence in the
text.
summary to the part of Text 3 it refers to.

TASK 7 Critical thinking - responding to ideas in a text

1 Work in groups. Discuss whether you agree with ideas 1-3 from the texts. Give reasons
and examples.
1 A person’s power com es from their econom ic resources.
2 A person’s econom ic power affects their life chances.
3 People are often likely to act, individually or collectively, in pursuit of their
class interests.

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W hen ta kin g notes from a te x t, it is im portant th a t you have a clear purpose fo r th e notes.
This may be preparing fo r a sem inar or fin d in g inform ation fo r a w ritte n assignm ent. It is
also im portant to be active in yo u r n o te -ta k in g as th is w ill help you to th in k critica lly about
th e ideas in th e te xt. You can then use yo u r notes to w rite a sum m ary o f th e te x t w hich
includes all th e key inform ation.

This module covers:

• A n a lysin g and using active n ote-takin g strategies
• Id e n tifyin g and using sum m arizing words and phrases
• 'W ritin g a sum m ary of a short academic te x t

TASK 1 Critical thinking - discussing the features of a summary

1 Work in pairs. Discuss items 1-6 and decide which you agree with. Give reasons.
A su m m ary ...
1 includes your own ideas 4 includes all m inor details
2 is m uch shorter than the original text 5 helps you to understand a text
3 includes all main and supporting details 6 is useful for future activities.

TASK 2 Analysing note-taking strategies

1 Work in pairs. You are going to read a short text about leadership. Before you read,
discuss questions 1-3.
1 Do you think a leader should have a lot of power and make most of the decisions?
2 When might it be a good idea for a leader to share power with other people?
3 Would you rather work for:
a a leader who controls everything?
b a leader who shares power and responsibility?

2 Read the following statement and answer questions 1 and 2.

‘One style o f leadership is suitable fo r all situations.'
1 Work in pairs and discuss your initial response to the statement.
2 What areas might you need to research in order to prepare for a sem inar discussion
on this statement?

3 Read the text and the notes. Identify which note-taking strategies 1-8 on page 073
are used.

Research questions: How m any leadership styles are there? A re different styles better fo r different situations?,

Autocratic leadership A strong hierarchy

tunittic nal leaders hold on to as muptfpower and decision-making as they possibly could be u sefu l in
control leadership m anufacturing
can. There is likely to be minimaKconsult^ion and employee input into decision­
making. Orders should be4?beyed and employees should welcome the structured
environment and the rewards they receive.
This style of leadership is most likely to be used when subordinates are unskilled,*
not trusted, and their ideas are not valued. It is also more likely in an organization
that focuses on resuttfand has to make urgent decisions that depend highly on
the nrpjagerTfhe style is likely to be accompanied by very detailed instructions -
W ould this work Sndclose supervision. In some situations subordinates may expect-and lik e -to
in all cultures? be told what to do since there can be no second guessing or uncertainty. N0£yoodfor
Note: no evidence provided fo r any of the claims creative industries

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Note-taking strategies
1 underlining or highlighting words 5 highlighting anything useful for your
2 translating words you do not research aims
understand 6 writing notes on everything you read
3 making notes mainly in your own 7 evaluating and criticizing a source
words 8 thinking about and planning your
4 writing down a lot o f direct quotations research aims

4 Look at each note-taking strategy in 3 and decide if they are passive or active.
Passive note-taking - accepting what you read or hear, and writing it down without
reacting or thinking critically about what you are writing, or why.
Active note-taking - having a clear purpose for note-taking, evaluating what you read or
hear, and thinking critically about what you are writing down, and why it is useful.

5 A key idea in the first sentence o f the text is holding on to power and decision-making.
Find w ords in the rest o f the text that are related to this idea.

6 Read the notes sum m arizing the m ain ideas from the text. H o w might this person be
planning to use their reading of the text in a sem inar discussion?
Autocratic leaders = control and power - useful in unskilled non-creative job sectors -
employees expect and are given instructions and supervision.

TASK 3 Using active note-taking strategies

1 Read the text on a different leadership style. Take notes using the approach in Task 2.3
as a m odel. As you take notes:
1 try to use active note-taking strategies
2 remem ber your response to the statement in Task 2.2.

Laissez-faire leadership
Laissez-faire means to ‘leave alone'. In this leadership style the manager gives employees considerable
freedom in how they do their work.Employees can set their own goals, make their own decisions, and
resolve problems as they see fit.
This may be an appropriate management style to use when employees can be trusted to do their INDEPENDENT
job because they are motivated, skilled, and educated. It may be appropriate when working with a STUDY
culture based around the individual, and where people can work successfully on their own. Try to be active in your
note-taking by using
your own words, thinking
critically about the text,
2 Com pare your notes with another student. W hich active skills did you use?
and keeping in mind your
research aims.
3 Look back at the sum m ary notes in Task 2.6. W rite sim ilar notes sum m arizing the
►Find two texts from ■
m ain ideas from the text on laissez-faire leadership.
your area of study and
take notes using active
4 H o w are the ideas in the two texts connected? H o w could you link your notes on
note-taking strategies.
each text?

ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►Language R eference page 180 24.1

Noun phrases (3) Summarizing ideas using key nouns and determiners
Key nouns and a related determiner can be used to summarize the main ideas within a te xt or
section of the text.
Use definite determiners to refer to a specific example.
The rewards... This style of leadership... These studies... His ideas... Their own decisions...
Use indefinite determiners to refer to an idea in general.
An organization... A culture...
One use of determiners is to summarize ideas within or outside a text.
Employees are motivated by the benefits a company provides.
The benefits are not actually mentioned in the text, but they are specific and will include
things like paid holidays, pensions, bonuses, etc.

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TASK 4 Identifying and using summarizing words and phrases

1 Look back at the texts in Tasks 2.3 and 3.1 and find the phrases below. D o they
sum m arize an idea within the text or outside the text?
the structured environment the rewards this style their own goals
their own decisions

2 Replace the phrases in italics in the text b elo w with a suitable sum m arizing phrase.
the structured environment the rewards the relationships the working process
the personal characteristics

strong, determined, and decisive personality traditionally associated with a good leader
is perhaps more associated with za setting in which there is a strong hierarchy and chain
of command found in traditional manufacturing contexts.3The role of individuals and their
position within the hierarchy clearly determine how an individual is expected to behave in
an organization. Employees .were not expected to demand anything more than 4the salary,
holidays, pension, and bonuses associated with their role. Today, however, 5the way in which
people are expected to work plays a much more important role in determining managerial style.

ACADEMIC LA N G U A G E _________________________ ►Language Reference page 181 24.5

Noun phrases (4) Paraphrasing longer structures

To avoid using exactly the same words to repeat an idea, lecturers and textbook writers often
use a noun phrase instead of a longer structure (a clause or sentence). The noun phrase says
the same thing in a different, more concise way. Tw o typical patterns of noun phrase are:
1 Determiner + noun + prepositional phrase
2 Determiner + adjective(s) + noun
Compare these examples:
1 Clause: In some situations employees may expect to be told what to d o ...
Noun phrase: This expectation of being told what to do ...
Z. Sentence: It may be appropriate when working with a culture based around the individual...
Noun phrase: Such individualized cultures...
* Using noun phrases in this w ay often involves changing the class of a word. For example:
individual-> individualized (noun -> adjective], expect -¥ expectation (verb -> noun]

TASK 5 Paraphrasing longer structures using noun phrases

1 Rewrite sentences 1-4. Use one of the noun phrase patterns in Academic Language to
rephrase the underlined words, with the word in brackets as the head noun.
E x a m p le : Chapter 12 looks at how business became m ore global, (globalization)
-> Chapter 12 looks at the globalization o f business.
1 The following chapter examines how a laissez-faire business style has come to be
adopted, (adoption) *
2 The arguments for a laissez-faire business style lack a sufficient amount o f evidence to
support it. (evidence)
3 An important aim o f a successful business is to build trust among its em ployees,
(building)
4 This discussion in this essay is limited to what has caused this worrying situation to
arise, (cause)

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TASK 6 Writing a summary of a paragraph

1 Read the paragraph on democratic leadership and the summary that follows. Identify
the parts of the original paragraph that are included in the summary.

Democratic leadership
The democratic leadership style may not always work out, though. It is likely to be most
effective when used with skilled, free thinking, and experienced subordinates who enjoy
the relationships and chaos that can result from belonging to a highly effective team.
Nevertheless, the democratic process may slow down decision-making and may prove costly.
The style also requires a positive chemistry in the team and if this is absent, no amount of
democracy can make the style work.
Summary: Experienced, skilled, and open-minded employees work well in a team when
relationships are good, However, democratic leadership can be slow and costly, and can fail
w ithout an effective team.

2 Look back at your own notes from Task 3.3. Write summaries of autocratic and laissez-
faire leadership styles using the summary in 1 above as a model.

3 Read the paragraph on trait theory and write notes on the main ideas. Use your notes Sam ple answer
to write a summary of the paragraph. page 189

Trait theory
'She's a born leader' encapsulates the idea behind trait theory, which argues that some
individuals are born with the characteristics that make them natural leaders. Trait theory
suggests that leaders are different from other groups of individuals in that they consistently
demonstrate the following characteristics: intelligence, self-confidence, determination,,
integrity, sociability. Interestingly, height and fluency in speech were often found to be
common traits too, as were flat feet. Critics of trait theory believe that it fails to take into
account the life experiences that can affect leadership.

4 Compare your summary with a partner. Use questions 1-4 to evaluate (a) your own
summary, and (b) your partner’s summary. Is the summary:
1 Complete (does it include the main idea from the original text)?
2 Concise (is it significantly shorter than the original text)?
3 Clear (is it easy to understand)?
4 Creative (does the writer use their own language)?

'""frill ■-
■

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Vocabulary Affixes
Affixes include both prefixes, e.g. un-, dis-, and suffixes, e .g . -tion. Many affixes are
grammatical, and do not have much 'meaning', fo r example the p re fix -un shows an opposite,
and the suffix -ity shows th a t the word is probably a noun. Sometimes a s u ffix can be taken
away to leave the root word, e.g. in te n s ity -*■ intense, but sometimes th is does not work,
e.g. capacity. A ffixes can help you recognize word class, which in turn can help you understand
wider meanings and sentence structure.

TASK l Using suffixes to recognize word families

1 Match each group of suffixes to their typical word classes.
1 -tion, -sion, -ity, -ment, -ism, -ness Nouns:
2 -ly, -ilv Verbs:
3 -ify, -ize, -ate Adjectives:
4 -al, -ous, -ent, -ive Adverbs:

2 Choose one group, and give at least one example word for each suffix.
Exam ple: -ity: authority, intensity

3 Write a sentence related to your own area of study using each example word from 2.

TASK 2 Building word families using affixes

Decide on the word class for words 1-8. Then write in the remaining forms where possible.
The first is done as an example.
noun verb adjective adverb
1 centre centre centralize central centrally
2 divide -

В discuss
4 category
5 theoretical
6 similar -
7 differentiate
8 collectively

2 Add the word class to words 1-8. Then complete the second column with the word class given.
1 involve ( ) (n)
2 similar ( ) ...... (n)
В market ( ) (adj)
4 intense ( ) (adv)
5 summary ( ) ...... ......... (v)
6 division ( ) (adj) *
7 equal ( ) (n)
8 resource ( ) (adj)

3 Complete the sentences with the appropriate form of the word given.
1 UN in recent elections has helped stabilize the region, (involve)
2 Life on other planets is possible, but highly unlikely, (theoretical)
3 The betw een rich and poor has increased with each generation, (divide)
4 Researchers noted a in responses from m ale and fem ale test groups, (si]
5 Attempts to the flora and fauna of rainforests have been limited, (category

4 Write a short paragraph related to your own area of study using at least three of the words froir..

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UNIT 6 Growth
ACADEMIC FOCUS: USING SOURCES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Discussion

This unit covers:
1 Work in pairs and decide which area 1-4 is the most
Listening im portant for the growth of a country. Give reasons and
Completing notes on the mairr points of a lecture examples.
Identifying and discussing stance in source 1 technology and industry
material
2 education
Summarizing stance and perspective of source
3 natural resources (e.g. oil, forests)
material
4 government policy
Speaking
Referring to the main ideas in a text 2 Which of the following are likely to be the causes of growth,
Forming a stance based on a reading and which are m ore likely to be the results of growth?
Offering and responding to opinions a higher standard of living a more powerful country
innovation environmental problems
Reading
Identifying and evaluating sources for an essay 3 Work in groups. Identify the m ost effective ways of
Identifying author stance on main ideas promoting the growth of a country. Briefly present these
Identifying details and examples from sources to to the whole class.
support an argument
Writing
Analysing the use of sources in a text
Understanding and using ways of referring to
sources
Selecting and synthesizing sources to use in a
paragraph
Vocabulary
Identifying form in reported structures
Using reporting structures

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Listening Lectures (4)

Lecturers are likely to use a num ber of sources, such as te xtb o o k s or articles, to inform th eir lectures.
T h e y w ill often use these to support th eir argument. Reading the sources either before or a fter the
lecture w ill help you to understand th e topic of th e lecture more fu lly. W hile listening to a lecture, you
need to be able to id e n tify the sources th at the lecturer refers to, so th at you can fo llo w up by reading
any useful extracts.

This module covers:

• Com pleting notes on th e main points of a lecture
• Id e n tifyin g and discussing stance'in source material
• Sum m arizing stance and perspective of source material

TASK 1 Discussing a topic to prepare for a lecture

1 Read the definition of the Industrial Revolution. Work in groups and make a list of the th e Industrial
three most important technological developments since the Industrial Revolution. R evolution (n) [sing.]
the period in the 18th
and 19th centuries in
2 Discuss what you know about these key terms. Say how they can be connected, for
Europe and the US when
example, as a cause and effect. machines began to be
globalization capitalism the Industrial Revolution political theories used to do work, and
industry grew rapidly
technological growth

3 You are going to watch the first part of a lecture on 'the globalization of business'. The
lecturer refers to two sources which her students will need to read during the course.
Look at the contents page of one of the books on page 196 and answer questions 1 and 2.
1 Which three chapters relate to the worldwide growth of industry and technology?
2 How could you use the book to prepare for the lecture?

TASK 2 Completing notes on the main points of a lecture

I 0 6 .1 Watch Extract 1 and complete the notes on the lecture overview.
Course m o dule:1'Ihe Globalization of Business
Main topic:2............................................ "..........................................................................................
Focus:3................................................................................................................................................
Key question:4...................................................................................................................................
2 Compare your answers in 1 with another student, and identify the language that
helped you complete the notes.
3 0 6 . 2 Watch Extract 2 and complete the notes on the Industrial Revolution. The
symbol -►means causes or leads to.
Contextualizing the Industrial Revolution:
Advances in technology & inventions -►the Industrial Revolution2
(date) -> 'growth in ........................................
4the Industrial Revolution is permanent (evaluation)
Major areas of 19th century technological advance:
5agriculture 6.......................................... 7..........................................
Major areas of 20th century advance:
8transport (highways / cars and trucks) 9
10 11 12

4 0 6 . 3 Watch Extract 3 and note down the information given by the lecturer relating to
points 1-4.
1 Examples of 21st С technological growth 3 The buying power of Americans
2 The impact of 20th С technological growth 4 The cause of this increase in buying power

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The lecturer says that there have been ‘significant increases in people's consumption
standards’. W hose stance is this?
1 the lecturer's 2 the authors' (i.e. Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt)

Work in pairs. Use your notes on Extracts 1-3 to answer questions 1 and 2.
1 Why was the Industrial Revolution such an important social and historical event?
2 What are some of the benefits of industrialization and econom ic growth?

TASK 3 Critical thinking - offering an opposing stance

1 0 6 . 4 W atch the last part of Extract 3 again. Read statem ents 1 -3 and decide if they
INDEPENDENT
represent the stance of (a) the lecturer, or (b) the authors (Bowles, Edwards, and
STUDY
Roosevelt).
Lecturers often present
1 The 'unprecedented growth in the availability of material goods’ is universally beneficial. opposing stances so that
the information is not one­
2 Everyday life was also made better through changes in diet and housing.
sided.
3 Industrial and technological growth is a positive development. ►In a lecture, listen out
for evaluative words like
2 Work in groups. Write one sentence expressing an opposing stance to each statement in 1. beneficial and positive
Example: The ‘unprecedented growth in the availability o f material goods' can cause both and think of critical
questions, e.g. How
unhappiness and environmental damage. beneficial? Beneficial for
whom?
3 Com pare your answers with another group.

TASK 4 Listening for stance and perspective

1 Э 6 .5 Watch Extract 4, where the lecturer refers to a second source. Read sentences
1 and 2 and decide if they represent the stance of (a) the lecturer, or (b) the authors
(Wetherly and Otter).
1 'So we might expect a more critical stance than the one we looked at earlier, put
The
forward by Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt.’ Business
2 'So essentially, the Marxist view is anti-capitalist - it sees the effect of capitalism as Environment
Themes and Issues
increasing poverty among the, majority of the population.’
-find Woo j

2 0 6 . 5 Watch Extract 4 again. Make brief notes about:

• the Marxist perspective as presented by the authors, Wetherly and Otter
Paul Wetherly and Dorron Otter
• Adam Smith’s perspective as presented by the authors, Wetherly and Otter.

3 Read sum m aries 1 and 2. Which summ arizes (a) the Marxist perspective, and (b)
Adam Smith’s perspective on capitalism ?
Summary 1
This perspective accepts that capitalism can bring about econom ic growth. However, it
recognizes a major weakness in capitalism: it results in inequality, with a small number of
rich people owning a very large amount of a country's wealth.
Summary 2
This perspective accepts that capitalism can bring about econom ic growth. It believes
that capitalism, and in particular international free trade arid open markets, are positive
forces for econom ic development.

TASK 5 Critical thinking - responding to the content of a lecture

INDEPENDENT
1 Work in groups and discuss questions 1 and 2.
STUDY
1 Is continued econom ic growth always a good thing? Find a source from your
2 Does economic growth lead to increased wealth for everyone, or to increased inequality? own area of study.
►What's the stance
2 Write a short paragraph summ arizing your own stance on the Industrial Revolution. of the author? What
Choose from one or m ore of the following perspectives. perspectives are
covered?
social political financial technical environmental

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Speaking Seminar discussions (4)

A common seminar task is to discuss a te x t th at you have read in advance. You w ill be expected
to read and think about the te x t before the seminar. You w ill need to check that you understand
the main points and arguments in the te xt. You will also have to think about your own stance
and your reaction to the points in the te xt, and be prepared to discuss them w ith other students.

This module covers:

• Referring to the main ideas in a te x t
• Form ing a stance based on a reading
• O ffering and responding to opinions

TASK 1 Previewing the topic

1 W ork in groups and discuss questions 1-4.
1 H ow do you do most o f your travelling? By car, bus, train, or
another method?
2 Look at the graph. Is there a similar pattern in your country?
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages o f car use in
your country?
4 Has your government taken steps to solve the problems
caused by cars in your country? Explain what these steps
are and whether or not they have been effective.

2 Briefly present your answers to the class.

TASK 2 Referring to the main ideas in a text

1 Read Text 1 and underline the m ain ideas.

• 11 t u t s:
Can the planet sustain two billion cars? Not as we know them. Today's one billion vehicles are : t- ti : i
ti i nt
already releasing extraordinary quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. They are using ( tin U ' t
up the world's conventional petroleum supplies, starting political arguments over oil, and putting M l ttttW
pressure on the roads of today's cities. Billions of hours are wasted stuck in traffic, and billions of :t m u t
people are sickened by pollution from cars. From Paris to Fresno, and Delhi to Shanghai, conventional . 1 ; t l tt i ti
,'l fctt iU- ;
motorization, conventional vehicles, and conventional fuels are polluting cities. Cars are arguably one
M b ittc 5
of the greatest man-made threats to human society. I- til iti t I
Yet cars aren't going to go away. The desire for personal vehicles is powerful and everywhere.
Cars offer unprecedented freedom, flexibility, convenience, and comfort, unmatched by bicycles or
today's public transport. Cars have many benefits for those fortunate enough to own them. They have GLOSSARY
transformed modern life and are one of the great industrial success stories of the twentieth century.
conservative (adj) an
What, then, should be done about the soaring vehicle population? Radical changes are called for. estimate lower than what
Vehicles need to change, as do the energy and transportation systems in which they are embedded. is probably the real sum or
Even according to the most conservative scenarios, dramatic reductions in oil use and carbon amount
emissions will be needed within the next few decades to avoid sefious economic and climate change. conventional (adj) normal arc
ordinary; (of fuels) not n u d e »
Sperling, D, & Gordon, D. (2003). pp.1-2. Two Billion Cars: Driving towards sustainability. Oxford: Oxford
sour ce: sustain (v) to provide e n o u a
University Press. of what sb/sth needs in order
to exist

2 H 6.6 Listen to an extract from a sem inar discussion. Identify w hich ideas from Text 1
the speakers refer to. D o they agree or disagree with these ideas?

3 4 >)6.6 Listen again and note dow n the phrases the speakers use to:

1 refer to the text

2 respond to a point in the text
3 respond to each other's points.

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Referring and responding to points of view
In a discussion, it is important to make clear whether you are referring or responding to the
content of a source (e.g. a te x t or lecture), or putting forward your own points.
Referring to a source Responding to a point in a source
It says in the text th a t... I have to agree th a t...
the text talks about... I think that's pretty clear.
according to the te x t... I don't necessarily agree with that point.
if you look a t ... it suggests... Responding to another speaker
the authors also suggest th a t. Exactly, yes.
I understand what you're saying, b u t...
I suppose so, b u t...

TASK 3 Using phrases to refer to points in a source

1 Complete the discussion extract using phrases from Academic Language.
A So do you think the situation is really that bad?
В W e ll,1 the first paragraph, I think it’s difficult to argue with the
points. I m ean ,2 the number o f cars is increasing, which means
the problem will only get worse.
A 3 it seems to m e that there are more serious threats to society than
cars. I mean, over-population, water su pply... there are other things to worry about.
В 4................................ , but isn't it all connected? I mean, the authors
5................................ that there’s a connection with climate change.
A B u t... well, y es,6.................................with that. But7 that we
need a radical solution, w e need to make big changes in the technology and the INDEPENDENT
infrastructure.8 with that point. STUDY
Whenever you discuss
2 H j)6.7 Listen and check your answers. a topic based on a te xt
or other source, always .
try to move beyond just
TASK 4 Reading to prepare for a seminar understanding the ideas
in the text. T ry to think
about your reactions,
1 You are going to take part in a seminar discussion. Read the statement and think about
and the reactions other
questions 1-3. people may have, in order
‘M ost people aspire to im prove their standard o f living. It is therefore understandable to discuss the ideas more
effectively.
that the number o f cars worldwide is grow ing rapidly. However, this aspiration will cause
►Find a short text or
increasing demand fo r limited resources that could ultimately lead to conflict.'
lecture related to your
1 What is your opinion on this statement? 3 What arguments could you use to area of study. Make
notes on two different
2 What are other possible opinions? counter these opinions?
ways you could respond
to it.
2 Read Text 2 on page 197 and follow the instructions.

TASK 5 Taking part in a seminar discussion

1 W ork in groups and discuss the statement from Task 4.1. D uring the discussion, make
sure you:

• refer to points from the text

• respond to the points from the text
• respond to points made or referred to by other people.

2 Evaluate your own perform ance in the discussion using questions 1-3.
1 Did you make the points you prepared?
2 Did other students understand and respond to your points?

3 D id you participate effectively by listening to and responding to other students’ points?

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Reading Textbooks (6)

Reading an academic te x t often informs another task such as taking part in a seminar,
w ritin g an essay, or sittin g an exam, When using a te x t to inform yo u r w ritin g , it is im portant
to think about how you can use the material from th a t te x t - for exam ple, do you w a n t to
include summaries of large quantities o f material, or specific details to support yo u r stance or
argument? This module helps you to evaluate and select relevant material from a longer te x t
in preparation for a piece of w riting.

This module covers:

• Id e n tifyin g and evaluating sources fo r an essay
• Id e n tifyin g author stance on main ideas
• Id e n tifyin g details and exam ples from sources to support an argum ent

TASK 1 Previewing the topic of a text

1 Work in pairs and discuss questions 1-3 . Give reasons and examples.
1 Think o f three increasing demands that humans are placing on the Earth (e.g. the
demand for oil), and discuss which has the greatest impact.
2 At the same time as the w orld’s population has grown, incomes in many countries
have also risen. H ow might this add to the pressure on the Earth?
3 Is quality o f life increasing around the world? Is it increasing equally everywhere?

2 Compare your ideas with another pair.

TASK 2 Analysing essay titles

1 Read the essay title. Decide which of the research questions 1-5 it would be useful to
answer in preparing for this essay.

TITLE: 'Current levels of food consumption are unsustainable.' Discuss.

1 What are the levels o f food consumption?

2 What are the most popular foods in the world?
3 Are any countries self-sufficient in food production?
4 What evidence is there to show that the world is consuming too much?
5 Is consumption the same everywhere in the world?

2 Read the essay title. Work in pairs and discuss what background information would
help you prepare for the essay.

TITLE: 'Population growth is placing immense pressure on the world's resources and humans need
to adapt their lifestyle to maintain the planet's existence.' To what extent do you agree?

TASK 3 Understanding a1longer source text

1 Read the text quickly and decide h ow you could use'it as a source for the essay in
Task 2.2.

2 Match sentences a-h with the paragraph (1 -8 ) they summarize.

a Incomes have risen dramatically, by 700% in fifty years.

b Food supplies are most likely to suffer first: grain stocks fell for three years in a row.
с The world's population has grown rapidly in the last fifty years, faster than in the four
million years before it. 1
d In the past, farmers increased production when there was a shortage of food, but now
it is not clear if they can do so.
e It was the goal of the U N to halve levels of world hunger by 2015.

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f We are using more water than is being replaced by the natural environment, causing
significant ecological damage,
g Income and population growth have increased food dem and so much that farmers are
now farming land that is not sustainable,
h Nature is struggling to cope with CO, emissions, which are up from 316ppm to 369ppm
in just over forty years.

3 Identify the specific words or phrases in the text that helped you to match each
paragraph to its summary.

4 Highlight the main ideas in paragraphs 9 and 10. Use these to write a one-sentence
summary of each paragraph.

A Planet Under Stress

1 Humanity's demands on the Earth have multiplied over the last half-century as our numbers have
increased and our incomes risen. World population grew from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6.1 billion
in 2000. The growth during those 50 years exceeded that during the 4 million years since we
(emergpTas a distinct species.
2 Incomes have risen even faster than population. Income per person worldwide nearly tripled
from 1950 to 2000. Growth in population and the rise in incomes together expanded global
economic output from just under $7 trillion (in 2001 dollars) of goods and services in 1950 to
$46 trillion Tri 2000, a gain of nearly sevenfold.
Population growth and rising incomes together have tripled world grain demand over the
last half-century, pushing it from 640 million tons in 1950 to 1,855 million tons in 2000.
To satisfy this swelling demand, farmers have .plowed land that was highly erodible - land
that was too dry or too steeply sloping to sustain cultivation. Each year billions of tons of
_Jopsott are being blown away in dust storms or washed away in rainstorms, leaving farmers
to try to feed some 70 million additional people, but with less topsoil than the year before.
4 Demand for water also tripled as agricultural, industrial ancf recreational uses climbed, out­
stripping the sustainable supply in many countries. As a result, water tables are falling and wells
are going to dry. Rivers are going to be drained dry, to the detriment of wildlife and ecosystems.
5 Fossil fuel use quadrupled, setting in motion a rise in carbon emissions that is overwhelming
nature's capacity to fix carbon dioxide. As a result of this carbon-fixing deficit, atmospheric CO.,
concentrations climbed from 316 parts per million (ppm) in 1959, when official measurement
began, to 369ppm in 2000.
6 The sector of the economy that seems likely to ц п гЗ Ш first is food. Eroding soils, deteriorating
rangelands, collapsing fisheries, falling water tables, and rising temperatures are converging to
make it more difficult to expand food production fast enough to keep up with demand. In 2002;
the world's grain harvest of 1,807 million tons fell short of world grain consumption by 100 million
tons, or four percent. This shortfall, the largest or record, marked the third consecutive year of
grain deficits, dropping stocks to the lowest level in a generation.
7 Now the question is, can the world's farmers bounce back and expand production enough to fill
the 100-million-ton shortfall, provide for the more than 70 million people added each year, and
rebuild stocks to a more secure level? In the past, farmers responded to short supplies and higher
grain prices by planting more land and using more irrigation water and fertilizer. Now it is doubtful
that farmers can fill this gap without further depleting aquifers and jeopardizing future harvests.
8 In 1996, at the World Food Summit in Rome, hosted by the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), 185 countries plus the European Community agreed to reduce hunger by half
by 2015. Using 1990-92 as a base, governments set the goal of cutting the number of people
who were hungry - 860 million - by roughly 20 million per year. It was an exciting and worthy goal,
one that later became one of the U.N. Millennium Development Coals.
9 But in the late 2002 review of food security, the United Nations issued a discouraging report:
'This year we must report that progress has virtually ground to a halt. Our latest estimates, based
on data from the years 1998-2000, put the number of undernourished people in the world at 840
million ... a decrease of barely 2.5 million per year over the eight years since 1990-92.'
10 Since 1998-2000, world grain production per person has fallen five per cent, suggesting that
the ranks of the hungry are now expanding. As noted earlier, life expectancy is plummeting in sub-
Saharan Africa. If the number of hungry people worldwide is also increasing, then two key social
indicators are showing widespread deterioration in the human condition.

sourceBrown, L, in Dryzek, J.S. and Schlosberg, D. (2005). pp.38-9, Debating the Earth: the Environmental Politics
Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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TASK 4 Identifying author stance on the main ideas

1 Highlight the sen ten ces in the text w here the authors express th eir stance on points
1-5 below. Com plete colum n A of the table with notes on the authors' stance.
A A uthors' stance В Evidence used to support th e st
1 The part of the economy most under The sector of the economy that seems
pressure likely to unravel first is food.

Z The ability of farmers to increase None provided

food production

3 Reducing world hunger by 50%

4 The success of the World Food

Summit's goal

5 The standard of living for humans

2 Identify the evidence the authors use to support th eir stance on each point and
com plete colum n В of the table.

3 Use your notes from the table to sum m arize the authors' stance on each point.
Exam ple: Food supplies are the area most likely to collapsefirst, because of our continuing
over-use o f resources.

TASK 5 Identifying details in a text to support an argument

1 Work in pairs. D iscuss w hether you agree with the statem ent in the essay title.

TITLE: 'The world has a maximum number of people that it can support, and we have already
passed that point.' Discuss.

Read the essay plan. D oes the w riter plan to agree or disagree with the statem ent?
1 Introduction: main stance - The world has reached maximum capacity because
resources are being used so quickly that they are not naturally being replaced.
2 Paragraph 1 - The growth in population and demand on resources
3 Paragraph 2 - Growth is good for econom ic prosperity and ultimately for standards
of living, especially in areas such as health and education.
4 Paragraph 3 - The environment is being destroyed by hum an activity.
5 Paragraph 4 - We are no longer able to support everyone on the planet with the
amount of food we produce.
6 Conclusion - Consumption patterns or the overall population size need to change
INDEPENDENT
in order for hum an existence to continue.
STUDY
W hat is going to b e the w riter's m ain line 6 f argum ent, a or b? When you are preparii
an essay, think about
a The effect of hum ans on the world’s resources m eans that future growth is not stance on the issue, a
sustainable. w hat type of informal
you need to find in or
b The demand for resources needs to change to ensure sustainable growth. to support your argun

Read the text on page 083 again and identify any details that the w riter o f the ►Identifying your si
will give you a purp
essay could use to support their m ain argum ent.
for reading, and gui
you to the sources \
Com pare the details you identified with an oth er student. Give reasons for
need to use.
your selection.

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE > La n gu a ge Reference page 182

Prepositions (1) Referring to time and quantity

Prepositions have many different functions in academic texts. Many of the prepositions in the
te xt on page 083 refer to different periods of time or to changes in quantity. For example:
• over and during both refer to periods of time; over can also mean more than (quantity)
• in refers to a fixed period of time such as a particular year, month, or century
• from and to are used together to indicate a starting and finishing point
• by indicates the latest time something can happen (time) or the amount of change (quantity)
Population growth and rising incomes together have tripled world grain demand over
the last half-century, pushing it from 640 million tons in 1950 to 1,855 million tons
in 2000 .
World population grew from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6.1 billion in 2000. The growth
during those 50 years exceeded that during the 4 million years since we emerged
as a distinct species.
... 185 countries plus the European Community agreed to reduce hunger by half by 2015.

TASK 6 Using prepositions to refer to time and quantity

1 Find other examples of the prepositions from Academic Language in the text, and
notice how they are used.

2 Use the prepositions in the list and notes 1-5 to write complete sentences showing a
change in time or quantity.
Example: China’s livestock population / tripled / 1950 / 2002
China's livestock population tripledfro m 1950 to 2002.
over from to in during by
1 grain harvest / fall /1 0 per cent / 2050
2 Californian population / increase / 26 million today / 40 million / 2030
3 the last 50 years / Gobi desert / expanded / 52,400 square kilometres
4 global temperatures / higher / the last century
5 1972 / wheat prices / went up / $70 / $181 per tonne

TASK 7 Reflecting on reading for a purpose

1 Work in pairs and discuss questions 1-3.
1 Which of these specific skills are practised in this unit?
• Understanding essay questions
• Identifying the relevance of a text to a writing task
• Understanding main ideas in a text
• Understanding supporting details in a text
• Understanding key term s in a text
• Using a text to support your stance in a writing task *
2 How can you continue to practise these skills?
3 What makes this way of reading a text more challenging than the skills you practised
in earlier units?

2 Read statements 1-5 and discuss which you agree with. Give reasons and examples.
1 I know a lot about my subject area so I don’t need to support my ideas.
2 Using sources such as texts makes an essay stronger.
3 Essays are just a way of showing the teacher you have learnt something from your
research.
4 You can use any source you find in an essay.
5 Using sources such as texts helps you write a more complete and balanced essay.

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Writing Using sources

When you w rite an academic assignm ent such as an essay, you w ill need to use material from
other sources, such as te xtb o o ks and academic articles. The material from these sources adds
details and evidence th at support your main points. You need to select the source material
carefully so th a t it is useful, relevant, and coherent (clear and w ell-organized). Each use of a
source is known as a citation. You need to include a reference fo r each citation, to make clear
where the material is from, and to avoid plagiarism (see page 186).

This module covers:

A n a lysin g the use of sources in a te x t
Understanding and using w a ys of referring to sources
Selecting and syn th esizin g sources to use in a paragraph

TASK 1 Analysing the use of sources in an essay extract

1 W ork in pairs. Read the essay title and note dow n at least two ‘challenges' that you
could include in this essay.

TITLE: What are the main challenges facing the world today as a result of economic and
technological growth?

2 Read the paragraph from an essay on this title and answer questions 1-4.
1 Is this paragraph from the beginning o f the essay, or near the middle?
2 H ow many different sources are used?
3 What are the two main views discussed in the paragraph?
4 What is the main idea o f the paragraph?

1hs we have seen, recent economic and technological growth has led to a number of
environmental problems. ?However, it has also led to a number of social challenges, the most
important of which is inequality. 30ne view is that in capitalist countries people's incomes
have risen steadily (Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt, 2005, p.8). 4This means that countries
have become richer over the past tw o hundred years. 5However, an opposing view is that some
people have become richer very quickly while others have not. 6ln other words, inequality has
increased. 7A Marxist perspective supports this view. 8As reported by Wetherly and Otter (2011,
p.341), Marx believed that 'the social system of capitalism is very unequal'. 9lt seems that
although incomes have risen generally, the gap between rich and poor people has increased,
References:
1 Bowles, S., Edwards, R„ and Roosevelt, F. 2005. Understanding Capitalism: Competition,
Command, and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2 Wetherly, P. and Otter, D. 2011. The Business Environment: Themes and Issues 2nd ed.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

3 Match the sentences with features a-d.

Sentence 2: a a cftation
Sentences 3 and 8: b an explanation
Sentences 4 and 6: с the concluding sentence, including evaluation
Sentence 9: d the topic sentence

4 Look at the two citations in the paragraph and answ er questions 1-4.
W hich c ita tio n ...
1 is a direct quotation, using exactly the same words as the source?
2 is a paraphrase o f an idea in the source, using the student’s own language?
3 is a statement followed by a reference to the authors o f the source text?
4 refers to the authors o f the source text, follow ed by a statement?

5 U nderline the language that introduces each statement in the two citations.

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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ►La n gu a ge Reference page 183 34

Referring to sources (1) U sin g re p o rtin g v e rb s and v e rb s tru c tu re s

When referring to sources, you can use more than one style of citation.

1 Statement + reference (This style means that the reader focuses on the statement first)
Marx believed that ‘capitalism is very unequal' (Wetherly and Otter 2011, p.341).
Marx believed that ‘capitalism is very unequal', as stated by Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341).
2 Author-focus (This style puts the author names first)
As reported by / According to Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341), Marx believed that
'capitalism is very unequal'.
Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341) state that Marx believed ‘capitalism is very unequal
You can also select from a number of verbs within specific structures. For example:
Taylor argues / believes / says / states / suggests th a t ...
Brennan and Walsh define / describe X a s ...
As described / reported / shown / stated by Gonzalez and Friel...
According to Baker and Walsh...

TASK 2 Using reporting verbs and verb structures

1 Read the text and complete citations 1-4 using the reporting verb structures.

But wherever and whenever capitalism took hold, people's incomes and consumption levels began to
rise in a sustained way. [...] In the U.S. the buying power of the average income in 200Z"was 32 times
what it was in 1789 (the year the U.S. Constitution was adopted). This does not mean, of course, that
Americans are now 32 times happier than they were in 1789, but does indicate an unprecedented
growth in the availability of material goods.
GLOSSARY
source: Bowles, S.,
Edwards, R„ & Roosevelt, F. (2005). p.8. Understanding Capitalism: Competition, Command, and unprecedented (adj) that has
Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. never happened, been done, or
been known before

state that as reported by describe according to

1 The buying power of the average American rose by an extraordinary 32 times between
1789 and 2002, Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8).
2 Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8) the 200-year growth
of material goods in the US as ‘unprecedented!
3 Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8) capitalism led to an
‘unprecedented growth' in the US economy after 1789.
4 Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8), there is a clear link
between capitalism and growth.

TASK3 Understanding references

1 A reference in a text is known as an in-text reference. The fulbreference is also given
at the end of a text, in the References section. Look at the two examples of these
references below and answer questions 1-3.
In-text reference: (Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt, 2005, p.8)
Entry in References section: Bowles, S., Edwards, R., and Roosevelt, F. 2005. Understanding
Capitalism: Competition, Command, and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1 Which of the following pieces of information are included in each reference?
Year of Place of Authors' Authors' Title of the Page
Publisher publication publication surnames initials book number(s)
In-text reference /
Reference section

2 Why do you think page num bers are included in a reference?

3 What is the order of the items of information in each reference?

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2 Look again at the first citation from the paragraph in Task 1, and answer questions 1-4.
INDEPENDENT
STUDY
One view is that in capitalist countries people's incomes have risen steadily (Bowles, Edwards, When you are writing,
and Roosevelt, 2005, p.8). academic referencing
conventions can be quite
complicated, for example
1 Which part of the sentence is the statement, and which part is the reference? how to use the right
punctuation.
2 Does the citation focus on the statem ent or the authors?
►Locate the referencing
3 Does the student use a reporting structure to introduce the reference? guide used by your
institution and use it
4 Is the ‘view’ m entioned in the sentence
to help you write
a the view of the student writing the essay? accurate references
b the view of the authors nam ed in the reference? for your citations.

TASK 4 Using summary in citations

1 In order to write a correct citation, you need items a-с. Match these items with extracts
1-3 from an essay.
a the author's original words с the References section entry for the
b the writer’s summary of the original words original source

1 People have become richer as technology has grown.

2 Bowles, S., Edwards, R., and Roosevelt, F. 2005. Understanding Capitalism:
Competition, Command, and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3 'The technological changes of the past five centuries have been accom panied by
significant increases in people’s consum ption standards.’

2 Read the citation from an essay based on the material in 1. Complete citations 1-5
using the same material.

Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8) argue that people have become richer as
technology has grown.

1 Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt (2005, p.8) state that

2 (Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt, 2005, p.8).
3 As stated b y ...................................., ............................................................................................
4 , according t o ....................................
5 A s....................................argue,................................................................................................. .

TASK 5 Using direct quotation

1 If you think the original words in a source are particularly interesting, you can use
them as a direct quotation rather than a summary. Complete the table using material
from the essay extract in Task 1.

As reported by Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341), Marx believed that 'the social system of
capitalism is very unequal'.

The quotation

The reporting verb structure

The author(s) of the quotation

Who the quotation concerns

The reference

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2 Com plete the citations using the appropriate m aterial from the table on page 088.
1 Marx believed that (W etherly and Otter 2011, p.341).
2 The Marxist view is that 'capitalism is very unequal'
3 According to , 'capitalism is very unequal;
4 Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341) describe Marx's view on capitalism as
5 Capitalism is seen by Marx as , according to

TASK 6 Analysing sources to use in citations

Read Texts 1 and 2 on page 198, and com plete the table. Try to sum m arize the m ain
point o f Text 1 in one sentence. Select a useful quotation from each text.

Text 1 Text Z
1 In-text reference (Bowles, Edwards, and Roosevelt, 2005, p.8)
(following the statement)
2 In-text reference (author- Wetherly and Otter (2011, p.341)
focus style)
3 Stance of authors in te xt Pro-capitalism
(pro-capitalism, anti­
capitalism, or neutral)
4 Main point The Marxist view is that the growth of capitalism
and wealth leads to income inequality.
5 Useful quotation

2 Com pare your answers to points 3 -5 in the table w ith another student.

3 W rite one citation for each source. Use two different ways o f referencing.

TASK 7 Selecting sources to use in a paragraph

1 Read the essay title and decide w hether it is asking you to:
a compare the importance o f econom ic and technological growth with equality and
quality o f life
b argue for and against the importance o f equality and quality o f life rather than
econom ic and technological growth.

TITLE: 'Equality and quality of life are more important than economic and technological growth.' Discuss.

2 You are goin g to w rite a paragraph for the essay in 1. Your paragraph should present
reasons w hy quality o f life is m ore im p o rta n t than growth. F ollow steps 1-3 to select
m aterial from different sources to use in your paragraph.
1 Turn to page 198 and read Text 3. Identify any useful and relevant material from this
text to include in your paragraph. Repeat this process for Text 1 and Text 2 on page 198.
2 Organize the material you have selected using the headings in the table in Task 6.1.
3 Select material from at least two o f these sources to use in your paragraph.

TASK 8 Writing a paragraph incorporating citations

1 Plan and w rite a 120-150 w ord paragraph using guidelines 1-4.
1 Review the sample paragraph in Task 1, in particular the reporting structures and the
use o f sources.
2 Write one or two sentences expressing the topic and main point o f your paragraph.
3 Select supporting material from your sources in Task 7, and incorporate these into
your paragraph. W rite at least one sentence for each. Sample answer
4 Write a concluding sentence. page 190

2 Evaluate you r paragraph using the checklist o f questions on page 199.

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Б Д Vocabulary Reporting structures

When incorporating sources into yo u r w ork it is im portant th a t you use an appropriate
reporting verb or structure. Choice o f reporting verbs can indicate th e stren gth and position
o f the stance th a t th e source provides. U sing a range of reporting verbs also show s th a t you
are including a va rie ty o f stances, or a broad selection of relevant quotations to illustrate
yo u r point. Each verb is follow ed b y a particular structure th at you w ill need to learn. Many
o f the verbs are similar in th eir meaning and use but there are sligh t variations depending on
w h eth er the source is used in a neutral manner, or is fo r or against th e issue being discussed.

TASK 1 Identifying form in reported structures

1 Put the words in the correct column.
according as stated asserts as reported contends is defined
describe sth disputes maintains

followed with as followed with by followed with that followed with to

defined

2 Compare your answers with a partner.

3 Which phrases are used in a neutral way, which to argue for an issue, and which to
argue against an issue?

For Neutral Against

Maintains that

TASK 2 Using reporting structures

1 Complete sentences 1-4 with the most appropriate reporting verb.
1 Even though m uch research has shown it to be flawed, Krashen (contends / maintains)
that his theory holds true today.
2, As (asserted / stated) by Maslow, his theory was never grounded in scientific research.
3 Friedman (reports / disputes) that businesses have an ethical role in society; he
believes that they are there solely to make money.
4 Johnson (contends / asserts) that the population will reach levels the planet cannot
cope with. Unlike many other forecasters, he believes that population levels will fall
again in the next 40 years.
2 Complete the gaps with an appropriate phrase from below.
describe as as reported by maintains that according to
1 Brown (2005), population growth is placing significant dem ands on
the planet as people consume more and more food, water, and fossil fuels.
2 the UN in 1996, there were around 860 million people in the world
that were hungry. The world food sum m it3 this
a catastrophic situation and set Jhe goal of cutting the num bers by 20 million for the next
twenty years. Brown4 while this was a good goal to set out to achieve,
they have so far failed in doing so.

3 Write a short paragraph using two different sources to report on a key issue in your
own area of study.

090 UNIT 6E VOCABULARY