CHAPTER FOUR: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific

communication principles. These principles tie in closely with the basic
concepts of the communication process and are important for both
written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for choice of
content and style of presentation-adapted to the purpose and receiver of
your message. Called the "seven C's," they are completeness,
conciseness, consideration, concreteness, clarity, courtesy, correctness.

1. COMPLETENESS
Your business message is "complete" when it contains all facts the reader
or listener needs for the reaction you desire. Remember that
communicators differ in their mental filters; they are influenced by their
backgrounds, viewpoints, needs, experiences, attitudes, status, and
emotions.
Completeness is necessary for several reasons: First, complete messages
are more likely to bring the desired results without the expense of
additional messages. Second, they can do a better job of building
goodwill. Third, they can help avert costly lawsuits that may result if
important information is missing. Last, papers that seem inconsequential
can be surprisingly important if the information they contain is complete
and effective. In high-level conferences, in courtrooms, and in
governmental hearings, the battle often centers on an ordinary-looking
message that becomes important because of the complete information it
contains.
As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Answer all questions asked.
 Give something extra, when desirable.
 Check for the five W's and any other essentials.

Answer All Questions Asked

The first important guideline to make your message complete is to
answer all questions that are asked. Whenever you reply to an inquiry,
try to answer all questions-stated and implied. A prospective customer's
reaction to an incomplete reply is likely to be unfavorable. The customer
may think the respondent is careless or is purposely trying to conceal a
weak spot. In general, "omissions cast suspicions," whether you are
answering an inquiry about your product or recommending a former
employee for a new job. If you have no information on a particular
question, say so clearly. If you have unfavorable information in
answering to questions, handle your reply with both tact and honesty.
Have you ever encountered a situation where incomplete messages led to
serious consequences?
Check out the reply below, which is incomplete. Because the

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 1

respondents omitted the answers to one or more questions or omitted
important information in an explanation that answered a question, the
consequence was very serious.
A distributor of software, when replying to a dealer's letter answered only
four of seven questions. Because the original questions were unnumbered
and somewhat buried in five long paragraphs, the respondent apparently
overlooked or disregarded three of them. The reply, incomplete and
unfriendly, caused the distributor to lose the business and goodwill of a
potential customer.
What do you think should the distributor have done in the situation
above?
It is clear from the above situation that the distributor should have given
more time to read the request of the customer and should have tried to
respond in a more complete way. Sometimes before you can answer an
inquiry, you need certain specific information from the inquirer. Then it
is a good idea to list the needed details on a reply form that the inquirer
can fill out and return to you. In this way both your answer and that of
your respondent will be complete.
Give Something Extra, When Desirable
This is the second commonly recommended guideline that makes your
message complete. The words "when desirable," in the above heading, are
essential. At times it might not be at all important for you to give extra
message for a question that is asked. Doing so might even complicate the
situation and the message may not be addressed in an effective way. But
in some instances you must do more than answer the question. For
instance you might be required to give additional information to a
customer’s specific questions. The customer may not know what s/he
needs, or their questions may be inadequate. A simple example to
explain this could be:
Suppose you are the president of a big corporation (located in Addis
Ababa) and receive the following inquiry from one of a newly recruited
regional general manager (located in Jimma).
‘I think I would like to attend my first executive meeting (to be held in
Addis Ababa), even though I'm not acquainted in your city. Will you please
tell me where exactly the meeting will be held?’
If you answered only this one question, your letter would be incomplete.
Realizing that your reader is a newcomer to your city and to your
corporation meetings, you should include in your reply a welcome plus
such needed details as directions for reaching the building; parking
facilities; day, date, and time of meeting; and perhaps also the program
for the next meeting. Your message will then have the "something extra"
that a reader really needs and appreciates. Sometimes the something

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 2

extra is a detailed explanation instead of a mere brief statement. Here is
another example:
Letter 1: Incomplete letter to a new savings depositor
Thank you for the confidence you have shown us by the account you
recently opened.
All our facilities are at your disposal, and anytime we can be of service,
please call on us. Our appreciation is best expressed by our being of
service to you.
The last paragraph of the letter above contains an invitation that is
meaningless for any new depositor who does not know what "facilities"
are at his or her disposal.
A complete letter to the new savings depositors would be:
Thank you for the confidence you have shown in United Bank by the
savings account you recently opened. Our goal is to make all our services
to you both pleasant & helpful.
Among the conveniences & services available to you at United, you may be
especially interested in these; and you can continue listing all the
available services at the bank.
Check for the Five W’s and Any Other Essentials
The third way to help make your message complete is to answer,
whenever desirable, the "five W" questions - who, what, where, when,
why-and any other essentials, such as how. The five-question method is
especially useful when you write requests, announcements, or other
informative messages. For instance, to order (request) merchandise from
a supplier, make clear what you want, when you need it, to whom and
where it is to be sent, and how payment will be made. To reserve a hotel
hall, specify the accommodations needed (what), location (where),
sponsoring organization (who), date and time (when), event (why), and
other necessary details (how).

2. CONCISENESS
Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words
without sacrificing the other C qualities. A concise message saves time
and expense for both sender and receiver. Conciseness contributes to
emphasis. By eliminating unnecessary words, you help make important
ideas stand out.
To achieve conciseness it is recommended to observe the following
suggestions:
 Eliminate wordy expressions.
 Include only relevant statements.
 Avoid unnecessary repetition.
Eliminate Wordy Expressions

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 3

The elimination of unnecessary words from your statements is the first
thing that helps your message to be concise. This important guideline
can be explained by emphasizing on five points.
1. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible
without changing meanings. Have you ever realized that some messages
communicated could have been shorter and yet more meaningful?
Wordy Concise
 consensus of opinion consensus
 date of the policy policy date
 due to the fact that because
 during the year of during
 for the reason that since; because
 in accordance with your request as you requested
 in due course soon
 in many cases often; frequently
 in most cases usually
 in some cases sometimes
 in spite of the fact that although

Have you noted how concise we can be by using the words in the second
column as replacements to the phrases in the first column?
2. Omit trite, unnecessary expressions, such as "allow me to say," "in
reply I wish to state," "please be advised." Also, instead of "please find
attached" (or "enclosed"), use concise statements like "attached are,"
"enclosed is," or "the enclosed list includes."
3. Omit "which" and "that" clauses whenever possible. As much as
possible you should avoid these two clauses in your statements as they
will make your message longer and do not add any contribution in
making it more understandable to the receiver of the message. Look at
the simple example below.
Wordy: She bought desks that are of the executive type.
Concise: She bought executive-type desks.
4. Avoid overusing "It is," "It was," "There is," "There was," "There are,"
"There were" at sentence beginnings. The example below shows how a
wordy (long) sentence can be made concise.
Wordy: It was known by Ato Abebe that we must reduce the price by
12 birr per unit.
Concise: Ato Abebe knew we must reduce the price by 12 birr per unit.
Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed.
Concise: Four rules should be observed.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 4

5. Whenever possible, use a verb in the present tense and active voice –
using present tenses and active voices will make your messages to be
very simple and understandable. Remember! The objective of
communication is to make the receiver of the message understand what
is said perfectly, not to make your message long and complicated.
Business people are not impressed by speakers who use difficult words
and expressions but are rather interested in the content of the message –
they want short and precise messages. Example:
Wordy: The total balance due will be found on page 2 of this report.
Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.
Include Only Relevant Statements
The effective, concise message should omit not only unnecessarily wordy
expressions but also irrelevant material. To be sure you include only
relevant facts, observe the following suggestions:
1. Stick to the purpose of the message.
2. Prune irrelevant words and rambling sentences.
3. Omit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at length
what that person has already told you.
4. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, excessive
adjectives and prepositions, pompous words, gushy politeness.
5. Get to the important point tactfully and concisely.
Wordy: At this time I am writing to you to enclose the postpaid
appointment card for the purpose of arranging a convenient time when we
might get together for a personal interview. [30 words; 5 prepositions]
Concise: Will you please return the enclosed card and name a convenient
time for an interview? [15 words; 1 preposition.]
Wordy: We hereby wish to let you know that we fully appreciate the
confidence you have reposed in us. (18 words)
Concise: We appreciate your confidence in us. (6 words)

Avoid Unnecessary Repetition

Do you easily get fade up with somebody’s talk if s/he repeats the
message over and over again? Sometimes repetition is necessary for
emphasis. But when the same thing is said two or three times without
reason, the message becomes wordy and boring. Here are three ways to
eliminate unnecessary repetition:
1. Use a shorter name after you have mentioned the long one once:
Instead of the “Akaki Textile Factory” “Akaki Factory”, instead of “Kaliti
Products Company” “Kaliti Company”.
2. Use pronouns or initials rather than repeat long names: instead of
“Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation” “EEPCO”, instead of “The Federal

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 5

Inland Revenue Authority” “FIRA”
3. Cut out all needless repetition of phrases and sentences. For example
the following letter from a business executive to a firm the company had
dealt with for five years shows unnecessary repetition at its worst:
Will you ship us sometime, anytime during the month of Tikemet, or even
Hidar if you are rushed, for Hidar would suit us just as well, in fact a little
bit better, 20 power stabilizers for personal computers.

Thanking you to send these along to us by parcel post, and not express,
as express is too stiff in price, when parcel post will be much cheaper, we
are. . . .
The writer took 68 words to say what is said in 15 below:
Please ship parcel post, before the end of Hidar 20 power stabilizers for
Personal computers.

3. CONSIDERATION
As discussed in chapter two, the interrelationship of the message sender
and receiver profoundly affects communication effectiveness.
Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient
in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place. Try to visualize your
readers (or listeners)-with their desires, problems, circumstances,
emotions, and probable reactions to your request. Then handle the
matter from their point of view. This thoughtful consideration is also
called "you-attitude," empathy, the human touch, and understanding of
human nature. It does not mean, however, that you should overlook the
needs of your organization.
In a broad but true sense, consideration underlies the other six C's of
good business communication. You adapt your language and message
content to your receiver's needs when you make your message complete,
concise, concrete, clear, courteous, and correct. However, in all four
specific ways you can indicate you are considerate:
 Focus on "you" instead of "I" and "we."
 Show reader benefit or interest in reader.
 Emphasize on positive, pleasant facts.
 Apply integrity & ethics.
Focus on ‘You’ instead of ‘I’ & ‘We’
Your receivers are usually more concerned about themselves than about
you or the company you represent. They are more likely to read your
message when they see their name and the pronoun "you” rather than
"I," "we," or "us."
Usually it is very desirable to get the attention of your reader into the
first paragraph or the attention of the person hearing you in the first few

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 6

minutes or even seconds. If psychologically desirable, begin with "you" or
"your," and keep your reader in the message (tactfully) until you finish.
The opposite of the you-attitude is the we-attitude, in which the writer
views every matter from his or her own (or the organization's) standpoint
rather than from the reader's. Examples below contrasts the “we-
attitude” and the “you-attitude”.

We-attitude You-attitude
 I want to send my congratu-  Congratulations to you on your
lations for your promotion. promotion.
 We will ship soon the goods in  You should receive by May 8
your May 4 order. the TV screens you ordered on May
 We pay 8% interest on the loan. 4.
 You earn 8% interest on the
loan.
Show Reader Benefit or Interest in Reader
Whenever possible and true, show how your readers will benefit from
whatever the message asks or announces. They will be more likely to
react favorably and do what you suggest if you show that benefits are
worth the effort and cost. In situations where actual direct reader benefit
is impossible or irrelevant to the subject matter, the message should at
least show interest in and concern for the reader's needs or viewpoint.
Even a simple request gets better response when a reader-benefit plug
accompanies it. For example, an insurance company that wanted to
update its address files sent to half its policyholders a double postcard
with this message:

Because we have not written you in some time please help us bring our
records up to date by filling in and returning the other half of this card.
Only 3 percent of these cards came back.
To the remaining half of its policyholders the firm sent the same request-
reworded to show reader benefit:
So that dividend checks, premium notices, and other messages of
importance may reach you promptly, please fill out and return the other
half of this card.
This request brought 90 percent of the cards back in a few days!
Though your company is in business to make a profit, you omit that
selfish sounding idea; the reader assumes it anyway and is motivated
only by what benefits s/he receives. Reader-benefit appeals are desirable
also in job applications, favor requests, and announcements to your
customers, prospective buyers, and the like.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 7

Emphasize the Positive, Pleasant Facts
A third way to show consideration for your reader (or listener) is to
emphasize the positive. This means:
 Stressing what can be done instead of what cannot be done, and
 Focusing on words your recipient can consider favorably.
Statement of What Can Be Done
The reader (or listener) wants to know what you can do for him/her. For
most people negative words like no, won't, cannot, never, impossible
trigger unpleasant emotional reactions. By making clear what you can or
will do, you (by implication) often make clear what you cannot do,
without using a single negative word. Furthermore, whenever possible
and helpful, tell why or how.
Negative-Unpleasant Positive-Pleasant

 It is impossible to open an  As soon as your signature card

account for you today. reaches us, we will gladly open an
 account for you.
 We don't refund if the returned  We refund when the returned
item is soiled and unsalable. item is clean and resalable.
 When you travel on company When you travel on company
expense, you will not receive expense, your approved fare is for
approval for first class fare. tourist class.


Words Your Recipient Can Consider Favorable

Sometimes you will have to be very careful in your word choice. Some
people may find some words to be impolite when your intention was not
to create such a perception. Be very careful not to offend your customers
(or any individual for that matter) by the words you have chosen. Among
the positive words to which people react favorably are benefit, cordial,
happy, help, generous, loyal, pleasure, thanks, thoughtful. Words with
negative connotations that often arouse unfavorable reactions include
blame, complaint, failed, fault, negligence, regret, reject, trouble, unfair,
and many others. For example, in the following opening of a letter the
negative words (underlined) focus on ideas you’d rather not have the
reader think about.
We regret that, since you closed your account, your name will be missing
from our long list of satisfied customers. We sincerely hope that, despite
the best efforts of our fine staff, there were no occasions on which you felt
we failed to serve you properly.
A better opening expresses appreciation for the customer's patronage in
the first paragraph, as shown below. Then the second paragraph
welcomes him/her to other services.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 8

Having you as a member of XYZ Savings Bank was a pleasure. Thank you
for giving us the opportunity to serve you.
We noticed recently that you closed your account with us. Perhaps you
reached that particular goal for which you were saving, or it may be that
an emergency arose which called for a large outlay of cash. Whatever the
reason, we were happy to have some small part in your financial program.
You are cordially invited to use our other profitable, timesaving services
that can provide benefits for you in various ways.
Apply Integrity & Ethics
To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity – high moral
standards, personal honor, truthfulness, & sincerity – to your written &
oral messages. Integrity is indispensable in our jobs, in business
transactions, in social & political activities, in everything we do. Without
it business communications would prove worthless, & our confidence in
people would be shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right human conduct. Codes of ethics

provide standards enabling us to determine the fundamental distinction
between right & wrong human behavior.
Because you are an agent of your company, you help build your
company’s image. To make this image one of integrity & ethical conduct
required consistently fair standards & honesty in communications with
persons outside & inside your organization.
Integrity with Persons outside the Organization
When you show consideration for your customers, you try to let them
know you are aware of & are doing something about their interest &
needs. This does not mean that, however, you yield to the temptation of
showing favoritism, allowing deviation for one customer that you would
not allow for all other customers in similar circumstances, or arranging
money kickbacks & bribes to obtain government or commercial business.
Studies have shown that the behavior of superiors & pressures from top
management to meet competition & increase profits were the chief
factors influencing executives to make unethical decisions. Typical
examples include misrepresenting contents of products, substituting
materials without customer knowledge after the job contract has been
awarded, scheduling inaccurate delivery dates to get a contract, so on.
Therefore, an ethical boss can be an important influence for ethical
employee communications.
Needed Ethical Communication within the Organization
Employees must also be fair too their employer & to each other. Weak
ethical standards, economic pressure, & competition for promotions or
increased income have tempted many to unethical behavior.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 9

Dishonesty toward Employers: employee internal thefts & dishonest
practices like the followings are estimated to cost organizations a great
loss: Wasting time on the job – by taking excessive lunch or coffee breaks;
claiming sick leaves when not ill; failing to report an employee error that
will cost the company losses; so on.
Unfair Communication with or about Co-workers: examples of dishonest
behavior by employees toward each other include: Issuing false
instructions to a co-worker in order to make that person look bad or
perform poorly; giving false information to a superior in order to improve
the giver’s position in the department; falsely reporting high work
evaluations for personal favorites so they will get unjustified promotion,
etc.

4. CONCRETNESS
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid
rather than vague and general. The following guidelines should help you
compose concrete, convincing messages:
 Use specific facts and figures.
 Put action in your verbs.
 Choose vivid, image-building words.
Use Specific Facts & Figures
Using specific facts and figures, whenever possible adds up to the
content of your message. The receiver of your message would be very
comfortable with your speech when you can support some of your ideas
with facts. For instance you will lend your ears more to a person who
tells you that currently around 10 million people in Ethiopia are in need
of food assistance than a person who tells you a lot of people in Ethiopia
are facing drought. The former supports the information with a concrete
number. Therefore, whenever you can try to substitute an exact
statement or a figure for a general word to make your message more
concrete and convincing.
Vague, General, Indefinite Concrete and Convincing

 This computer reproduces  This computer types 400 per-

campaign letters fast. sonalized 150-word campaign
letters in one hour.
 Our product has won several  The heavy-duty generators that
prizes. our company produces has won
first prize in four national contests
within the past three years.

 These brakes stop a car within  These Goodson power brakes
a short distance. stop a 2-ton car traveling 60 miles
an hour, within 240 feet.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 10

Often vague, general words are opinion words; they may have different
meanings to the sender and the receiver. For instance, how fast is fast? A
bicycle rider and a racing-car driver will have different meanings for this
word. How large is large? Your friend who grew up in a village of only
2,000 people may consider a population of 150,000 large; yet to someone
living in the city of Addis Ababa, a city of 150,000 is a very small city. The
following words can also lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or
confusion:
a few high low more quick soon

early long many most slow tall

In some cases it is, of course, permissible-and even desirable-to use
general expressions. Exceptions to the "facts and figures" rule occur:
1. When it is not possible to be specific, for you may not have nor be
able to get definite facts or figures.
2. When you want to be diplomatic. Thus, instead of saying, "We have
sent you four notices of your overdue payment," you may be more tactful
(to a usually prompt paying customer) by saying, "We have sent you
several reminders of this. . . ."
3. When you want to allow the person to form his/her own opinion, or
when exact figures are unimportant, as in "A few (or Many) of our
employees attended the discussion."
Put Action in Your Verbs
Strong verbs can activate other words and help make your sentences
definite. To compose strong sentences, you should use active rather than
passive verbs.
Active versus Passive Voice
When the subject performs the action that the verb expresses the verb is
said to be in the active voice. In "Ato Alemu repaired the door" the subject
(Ato Alemu) did the repairing; the verb "repaired" is active.
When the subject benefits from or otherwise receives the action the verb
expresses the verb is said to be in the passive voice. In "The door was
repaired by Ato Alemu" the verb "was repaired" is passive.
A passive verb has three characteristics:
 The subject doesn't do the acting,
 The verb consists of two or more words, one of which is some form of
"to be" (is, is being, am, are, was, were, will be, has or have been, had
been, or will have been), and
 The word by is expressed or implied (by whom or by what).
Passive (Subject Receives the Active (Subject Performs the

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 11

 Action) Action)

 Tests were made by us.  We made tests.

 A full report will be sent to you  The supervisor will send you a
by the supervisor. full report [or You will receive a full
report from the supervisor].
 These figures are checked by  The research department
the research department. checks these figures.

Choose Vivid, Image-Building Words

Among the devices you can use to make your messages forceful, vivid,
and specific are comparisons, figurative language, and concrete instead
of abstract nouns.
Comparisons
Sometimes adding a comparison helps your recipient build a meaningful
picture. Consider the vague images you get from the sentences in the
left-hand column below as contrasted with the vivid impressions gained
from those at the right.
Vague Clear

There are a great many The spacecraft has 2.5 mil-

solder joints in the space-lion solder joints. If an extra
craft, and each must have drop of solder had been left
just the right amount of on these joints, the excess
solder. weight would have been
equivalent to the payload of
the vehicle.
This is pure clover honey, Honeybees have gathered
made by honeybees. nectar from approximately
4.5 million clusters of clover
and traveled about 150,000
miles--or equal to six times
around the world--to deliver
this package of honey to you.
Figurative Language
Figures of speech may express an idea more vividly than literal language.
Literal (and Dull) Figurative

She is usually the one who W/o Tirunesh is the spark

gets things started in the plug of the organization.
organization.
X product helps you lose If two chins quarrel for a

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 12

 your double chin in four place on your collar, X
weeks, if you use X as product helps settle the
directed. argument. Only one chin
remains after you use X
just four weeks as
directed.
Concrete instead of Abstract Nouns
Still another way that makes your message concrete is to use concrete
nouns instead of abstract nouns, especially as subjects of your
sentences. Concrete nouns represent subjects your recipient can touch,
see, smell, feel, hear, or taste. Abstract nouns as subjects designate
intangible concepts. They bring only vague "pictures," if any, to a
person's mind.

Abstract Concrete

Consideration was given The committee considered …

to the fact that. . . .
Termination of the The insurance contract ends
insurance contract will be in June.
in June.
Analysis of the situation I think Belete is right.
suggests that Belete is
right.
One more caution: If you are referring to an inanimate object, avoid
using the neutral word thing whenever possible. Use a more specific
word that is related to the "thing" such as event, element, fact, idea,
condition, method, plan, purpose, and principle.

5. CLARITY
Clarity means getting your message across so that the receiver will
understand what you are trying to convey. You want that person to
interpret your words with the same meaning you have in mind.
Accomplishing that goal is difficult because, as you know, individual
experiences are never identical and words may have different meanings
to different persons, as discussed in chapter two. Some ways that help
you make your message clear include:
 Choose short, familiar, conversational words.
 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
 Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids, when desirable.
Choose Short, Familiar, Conventional Words
When you have a choice between a long word and a short one, use the
short, familiar word that your reader or listener will quickly understand.
Also, use synonyms instead of Latin terms if they, though short, may be

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 13

unfamiliar to your message receivers. Some words you may use in your
communication instead of what are given in the ‘Not’ column:
The words followed by (L) indicate that they are Latin words commonly
used in the English language.
Say: Not: Say: Not:
about circa (L) home, house domicile
after subsequent pay remuneration
announce, declare promulgate show, uncover disclose
error inadvertency that is i.e. (L)
for example e.g. (L) use utilization
You should also avoid technical and business jargon whenever possible
when you talk or write to a person who is not acquainted with such
words. If you must use those words, define them briefly and clearly. If
you don't, you'll confuse, embarrass, or irritate the reader, and perhaps
be forced to explain later, as in the following story:
A local plumber wrote to an organization that deals with products’
standards a letter why hydrochloric acid is good for cleaning out clogged
drains. (Before you go any further into the story, visualize the plumber.
Assume you don't know him and have never exchanged correspondence. It
is a pretty good guess he isn't a college graduate-maybe he didn't finish
high school. But he probably is a good plumber-at least conscientious-
because he's writing to the organization to tell them something he thinks
will help other people.)
In reply to the plumber's message, a technical specialist of the
organization wrote:
The efficacy of hydrochloric acid is indisputable, but the corrosive residue
is incompatible with metallic permanence.
The plumber then wrote to thank the bureau for agreeing with him-when,
of course, the organization was actually disagreeing with him. Sensing the
plumber didn't understand, another member tried to set the man straight
by writing:
We cannot assume responsibility for the production of toxic and noxious
residue with hydrochloric acid, and suggest you use an alternative
procedure.
Again the plumber thanked the bureau. Then, in desperation, the depart-
ment manager wrote:
Don't use hydrochloric acid. It eats hell out of the pipes.
The moral of this story is to write and speak on the receiver's level of
understanding
Construct Effective Sentences & Paragraphs

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 14

Arranging your words in well-constructed sentences and paragraphs is
also an essential task that requires adaptation to your reader. Important
characteristics to consider are length, unity, and coherence.
Length as Short as Desirable
As in words we again prefer short sentences to long ones. Generally,
short sentences are preferred. The suggested average sentence length
should be about 17 to 20 words. Because a pleasing variety of length is
desirable, you can have a range of from 3 to 30 or more words. But when
a sentence exceeds 40 words, try to rewrite it into more than one
sentence. Please also note that it is important that your sentences are
not too short either.
A general rule in most business writing is to keep paragraphs as short as
possible. If well organized, they can help to emphasize facts, add to a
message's physical attractiveness, and improve readability. The first and
last paragraph of a letter or memo should preferably be kept to no more
than four or five lines. Keep all other paragraphs as short as possible,
but vary the length up to eight or nine lines.
Unity, to Express Main Ideas
In a sentence - whether simple, compound, or complex unity means that
you have one main idea and any other ideas in the sentence must be
closely related to it. "I like Elsa and Addis Ababa is the capital city of
Ethiopia" obviously is not a unified sentence.
In a paragraph, unity likewise means you have one main idea or topic.
Usually a topic sentence is a good way to express the main idea. (Of
course, a one- or two-sentence paragraph needs no topic sentence.) The
preferred position for the topic sentence in most paragraphs is at the
beginning, where it receives the best emphasis. The sentences that follow
it contain details to help develop the main idea. However, if you think
your reader will consider your main topic unfavorable or unclear, you
may be wise to place the supporting details first and then lead up to the
topic sentence at the end.
Coherence, for Clear Meanings
In a coherent sentence the words are correctly arranged so that the ideas
clearly express the intended meaning. Place the correct modifier as close
as possible to the word it is supposed to modify. In the following example
notice why each "unclear" sentence conveys a wrong meaning, and how it
is corrected in the "clear" sentence.

Example:
Unclear: Being an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can help us.
Clear: Being an excellent lawyer, you can surely help us. Or
Clear: As you are an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can help us.

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 15

Unclear: His report was about managers, broken down by age & sex.
Clear: His report focused on age & sex of managers. Or,
Clear: His report about managers focused on….
For coherence in a paragraph each sentence should be relevant to the
main idea expressed in the topic sentence. Transitional words and
phrases correctly placed within paragraphs help point the way from one
sentence to another. Likewise they can lead the reader from one
paragraph to another.
Include Examples, Illustrations, and Other Visual Aids, When
Desirable
In addition to focusing on clarity of words, sentences, and paragraphs,
you can also sometimes use various visual aids effectively.
When you have a complicated or lengthy explanation in a letter, speech,
or report, you'll often find you can improve the clarity by giving your
recipients an example, analogy, or illustration. Furthermore, visual aids-
such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, pictures, charts-are definite
aids to clarity and easy understanding. Also, typographical aids can be
useful. Some important statements may be underlined, numbered,
colored, or typed in all CAPITALS or italics or on short lines with wider
margins. For instance throughout this handout, especially titles and
some other important notes are written in bold. This help the reader to
recognize these as important parts of the whole material and hence to
give attention to.

6. COURTESY
Courteous messages help to strengthen present business friendships, as
well as make new friends. Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is
not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of "please's" and
"thank-you's." To be courteous, considerate communicators should
follow a number of guidelines in addition to the three guidelines
discussed under consideration. These guidelines are:
 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.
 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle.
 Grant and apologize good-naturedly.

Be Sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative

Tact instead of Bluntness
Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these traits are a
common cause of discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken
idea of conciseness, sometimes from negative personal attitudes. Avoid
expressions like those in the left-hand column below; rephrase them as
shown in the right-hand column.
Tactless, Blunt Tactful

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 16

  Your letter is not clear at all;  If I understand your letter
I can't understand it. correctly, it seems that it needs
some clarification.
Apparently you have already  As mentioned in my May 15
forgotten what I wrote you two letter [or memo] to you, [con-
weeks ago. tinue with the facts] . . .

Thoughtfulness and Appreciation

Writers who send cordial, courteous messages of deserved
congratulations and appreciation (to persons both inside and outside the
firm) help build goodwill. The value of goodwill or public esteem for the
firm may be worth thousands (or millions) of birr. For instance, much
money is spent on advertising to attract new customers and to keep
desirable old customers. While advertising may bring buyers into the
front door of your firm, discourteous letters can drive customers out the
back door!
Sometimes, silence can also be considered significantly discourteous. A
thoughtful, courteous businessperson – no matter how busy- should not
ignore answering customers’ or colleagues’ inquiries. Even a short,
courteous note written at the bottom of the request & returned promptly,
or a tactful phone call by the secretary, is usually better than no reply.
Totally ignoring the inquiry or request communicates unfavorable
nonverbal message that may lead to loss of business or employee morale.
Omit Expressions That Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle
The thoughtful business communicator should avoid expressions that
might offend the reader or listener. Such expressions are discussed here
in two groups: irritating, and questionably humorous.
Irritating Expressions
Here is a list of expressions that you should avoid, particularly when
used with "you" and "your."
 contrary to your  you are delinquent
inference  you are probably
 I do not agree with ignorant of the fact that
you  you claim that
 if you care  you failed to
 I'm sure you must  you leave us no choice
realize  you neglected to
 irresponsible (overlooked)
 obviously you  you should know
overlooked  you surely don't expect
 surely you don't  your apparent

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 17

 expect disregard of our previous
 we are amazed you request leaves us no
can't alternative
 we don't believe we take issue
 we expect you to  your neglect
 we find it difficult to 
believe that
 we must insist
 why have you ignored
 your stubborn silence

Questionable Humor
Humor is often quite effective in business writing. However, before you
try to be funny, be sure your humor is good-natured and appropriate for
the situation. At times what you think is humorous can be offensive to
your reader or listener.
Grant and Apologize Good-Naturedly
Whenever you grant a customer's request, begin your letter with the best
news first & inject a courteous, ungrudging tone. Notice the difference in
tone of the following two paragraphs:
Grudging:
Your request causes a great deal of extra paperwork to change monthly
payments. However, in compliance with your request we hereby reduce
your monthly interest and principal payments called for in our note to Birr
____, plus Birr ___ for taxes and insurance; effective [month, day, year],
your total monthly payment will be Birr ____.

Good-natured:
As you request, we will reduce the monthly interest & principal payments
called for in your note to Birr ____, plus Birr _____ for taxes & insurance.
Thus, starting [month, day, year], your total monthly payment will be Birr
____.
If a request has caused you extra work, you may tactfully tell the
customer somewhere in the letter but not the first paragraph to notify
you by a certain time if s/he again wishes to change something.
Occasionally you may get a "nasty" letter from a customer who is wrong
in his or her accusations. A courteous reply can lead not only to an
apology from the customer but also to future loyalty as a booster for your
firm.
When someone in your organization makes a mistake, you can apologize
and correct the error perhaps even before the customer discovers it.
Sometimes a small, courteous printed form is useful to admit an error
promptly and to explain how (and when) you are correcting it. Of course,

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 18

if the matter is serious or complicated, a special letter will be more
appropriate.

7. CORRECTNESS
The correctness principle comprises more than proper grammar,
punctuation, and spelling. A message may be perfect grammatically and
mechanically but still insult or lose a customer and fail to achieve its
purpose. The term correctness, as applied to a business message, means
the writer should:
 Use the right level of language
 Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
 Choose nondiscriminatory expressions
 Check accuracy of figures, facts, & words
 Apply all other pertinent C qualities
Use the Right Level of Language
As you may probably know, the English language is becoming a world
language. It is very important for you to have the right level of the
language to communicate (oral or written) correctly. The three levels of
language-formal, informal, and substandard-overlap because of our ever-
changing language. English, with almost a million words, has the richest,
largest vocabulary on earth. Some words once considered substandard
have moved into the informal level, and some once-informal words are
now acceptable on a formal level. The first two - formal and informal
language are both correct, but they are quite different from one another,
have different uses, and should not be interchanged.
The formal level of language is used for writing scholarly dissertations,
master's and doctoral theses, legal documents, top-level government
agreements, and other materials in which formality is expected. The
expressions used are often long, unconversational, and impersonal-just
what the term formal implies.
In contrast, the informal level refers to the language of business-for
letters, reports, newspapers, and other business communications.
Instead of formal words, you will use short, well-known, and
conversational words.
Check out the examples below differentiating between formal and
informal words having similar meanings.
Formal Informal Formal Informal
anticipate expect endeavor try
ascertain find out interrogate ask
conflagration fire procure get
deem think (believe) terminate end
edifice building utilize use

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 19

The third level of language-substandard-should be avoided. If you use
words on this level in writing (or in speaking), your readers will begin to
question your ability to use good English. Here are a few examples:
Substandard Acceptable Substandard Acceptable

 ain't  isn't, aren't  haven't got  don't have

 between you  between you  in regards to  regarding
and I and me  irregardless  regardless
 can't hardly  can hardly  nohow  anyway
 hadn't ought  shouldn't  should of should have

Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics

Acceptable writing mechanics include correct punctuation, capitalization,
syllabication, and spelling-plus correct sentence and paragraph
structure, already mentioned under Clarity. This area also includes
using correct format for letters, memos, reports, and envelopes.
Two common weaknesses in writing mechanics that deserve special,
though brief, attention are mentioned here. These are incorrect spelling
and careless omissions.
Spelling Errors
Business executives and customers expect you to spell correctly and may
begin to question your overall ability if you misspell - especially the
customer's name and everyday words like convenience, questionnaire,
stationery, personnel, and accommodation. Errors of transposition (‘nad’
instead of and or ‘receive’ instead of ‘receive’) are also spelling errors that
show carelessness.
English spelling does have many inconsistencies. Among them are short
words like ‘these’-with vowel sounds pronounced the same yet spelled
differently: made, paid; rule, school; say, weigh; dough, blow; sign, line;
trend, friend; bear, bare.
Careless Omissions
Another way to maintain correct writing mechanics is to double-check for
any careless omissions of punctuation marks or words needed for
grammatical accuracy. Sometimes even small omissions can lead to
costly miscommunication, as this example illustrates:
A traveling client had instructed his stockbroker to buy for him as many
shares of a certain company's stock as was possible and desirable. One
day the broker found an opportunity to purchase 3,000 shares. Because
the price had risen considerably, he asked the client to wire his decision
whether or not to buy. The client considered the price exorbitant. He wired:
NO. PRICE TOO HIGH.
Unfortunately, the period (full stop) was omitted after the first word, and

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 20

 the broker bought the unwanted shares - the broker read the message as
“No price too high” and bought the shares.
Choose Nondiscriminatory Expressions
Another important requirement for correctness is "equal treatment of the
sexes" and nonbias toward people of different races, ethnic origins, and
physical features. Conscientious business communicators (as well as
authors) should be continually alert to use nondiscriminatory
expressions whenever possible. The suggestions selected here are
guidelines that can be particularly useful for your written and oral
business communication. Try to choose nondiscriminatory language
when you refer to occupational roles and achievements, personal
characteristics, physical and mental attributes, humanity at large,
names, and various title designations.
Occupational Roles and Achievements
People should not be stereotyped or arbitrarily assigned to a leading or
secondary role because of gender, race, ethnic group, or some physical
"handicap." People can be in a variety of professions at all levels - doctors and
nurses; principals, professors, and teachers; lawyers, judges, and social
workers; bank presidents and tellers; accountants; pilots; plumbers; computer
operators; and many others.
Personal Characteristics
Women and girls of any race or ethnic origin should be shown as having
the same ambitions, abilities, mental strengths, and weaknesses as men and
boys. Both sexes include some people who are industrious, active, strong,
independent, courageous, competent, decisive, assertive, persistent, serious-
minded, & successful. Both include logical thinkers, problem solvers, and
decision-makers pursuing career goals. But because of some external factors, it
could be true that women are given some kind of affirmative action. A very good
example is the case of female higher education students in Ethiopia. They are
given an advantage over their male counterparts in admission to Universities
and to particular study disciplines.
It is possible to further list down and explore other non-discriminatory
expressions like physical and mental attributes, names, and occupational
titles. It is however sufficient if you have grasped the foregoing two points well.
Check Accuracy of Figures, Facts, & Words
Absolute accuracy is essential for effective writing & oral messages.
When figures, facts & some words are incorrectly used, they can cause serious
problems.
Risks from Incorrect Figures & Facts
One erroneous digit–creating, for instance, Birr 35,000 instead of Birr
85,000 – makes a difference of Birr 50,000 & may result in lawsuit. In addition,
a wrong figure in an account number muddles up records & leads to untold

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 21

problems.
To be sure of the accuracy of facts, communicators should verify all
statements before writing, & again before signing or approving, messages.
Guessing or assuming facts are right can be costly. Just because a certain fact
was true about a customer last year – or even last month- does not assure that
it is true now. The good business writer must be continually alert to accuracy,
because of changing rates, regulations, laws, & conditions locally & nationally
and within her/his organization.
Word often Confuse
Like most things in life, English is ever-changing. Even the dictionaries
cannot keep up with its fast pace, but they can usually help you choose correct
words to convey your intended meaning. The following are a few of the many
words that are often confused in usage:
anxious, eager Anxious implies
worry, whereas eager conveys keen desire
between, among Between involves
two people or two groups; among, three or
more
continual, continuous Continual
means ‘recurring regularly’. Continuous
means ‘without stopping.’

CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 22