CLIMATE READY BOSTON

FINAL REPORT

MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH DECEMBER 2016

 December 2016

Dear Neighbors,
The challenge of climate change is here, in Boston, now. We’ve seen more frequent
flooding on Morrissey Boulevard. We endured the record-setting snowstorms of 2015.
And this year we experienced the driest, and one of the hottest, summers in our history.
Climate change has influenced all these events. I’ve felt these changes from my home in
Dorchester, and I know you’ve felt them in your neighborhoods, too.

As the century progresses, the effects of climate change will grow. Those changes might seem
overwhelming, but Bostonians are practical and creative. We work together to solve problems.
And our response to climate change is no exception. Climate change has been a top priority since
I entered office. All parts and sectors of the city have expanded their efforts to save energy and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change. Now, because we know that the
climate will continue to change for many years, we—with community organizations, academic
institutions, and businesses—are accelerating the work of preparing Boston for change that cannot
be avoided.

A year ago, with the support of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the Green Ribbon
Commission, I launched Climate Ready Boston, an initiative to create a systematic and
comprehensive framework for the work we must do. With a team that included local climate
scientists and experienced engineers, planners, and designers, Climate Ready Boston updated the
projections of how much our climate will change, identified where we’re most vulnerable, and
proposed steps for becoming more resilient to the changes ahead. I’m pleased to share the results
with you.

Our responsibility is to turn these proposals into action. Climate change is not a narrow issue,
but one that affects the social and economic vitality of our city. Climate action will not only
keep us safer in the face of higher tides, more intense storms, and more extreme heat. It will also
create jobs, improve public spaces and public health, and make our energy supply more efficient
and resilient. These improvements will provide long-term economic benefits, strengthen our
infrastructure, and make our neighborhoods safer. By preparing for the inevitable effects of
climate change as part of the Imagine Boston 2030 citywide plan, we’re investing in our future.

Climate change poses a greater threat to some Bostonians. The very young and very old, people
who do not speak English, and those with low incomes or medical illnesses or disabilities are all
at elevated risk. By ensuring that our solutions are built together with those communities and
in response to their needs, climate action will help us build a more equitable city. Furthermore,
because climate change knows no borders, we will work with neighboring municipalities to
address the regional impacts we face together.

Climate change will continue for decades. Today, we can take steps to make our city healthier and
more thriving now and establish a foundation that enables the next generation to build on the
work that we are starting. I look forward to working with you in your communities.

Sincerely,

Martin J. Walsh, Mayor

The City of Boston and Green Ribbon
Commission would like to thank the
following individuals and groups for their
contributions to Climate Ready Boston.

CLIMATE READY BOSTON INFRASTRUCTURE COMMUNITY The City of Boston

STEERING COMMIT TEE ADVISORY COMMIT TEE ADVISORY GROUP would like to thank
City of Boston
City City the Commonwealth
Boston Housing Authority Boston Elderly Commission
Austin Blackmon, Carl Spector, Mia Goldwasser
Boston Redevelopment Authority Boston Housing Authority
of Massachusetts
Green Ribbon Commission Boston Transportation Department Boston Public Health Commission Executive Office
John Cleveland, Bud Ris, Amy Longsworth Boston Water and Sewer Commission Mayor’s Office of Resilience and Racial Equity
MA Office of Coastal Zone Management Boston Public Schools Mayor’s Office for Immigrant Advancement of Energy and
Boston Conservation Commission
Lisa Engler, Patricia Bowie
Boston Department of Public Works
Nonprofit Environmental
Alternatives for Community and Environment
Boston Planning and Development Agency Boston Inspectional Services Department
Boston Climate Action Network
Affairs and the Barr
Gerald Autler Boston Landmarks Commission
Boston Office of Emergency Management
Boston Harbor Now Foundation and Sherry
Boston Student Advisory Council
CLIMATE READY BOSTON
Boston Parks and Recreation Department
Climate Action Business Association and Alan Leventhal
City of Cambridge
PROJECT TEAM State and Regional
Codman Square Neighborhood Development Corporation Family Foundation for
City Life / Vida Urbana
City of Boston
MA Department of Conservation and Recreation Neighborhood of Affordable Housing the generous funding
MA Department of Public Utilities
Carl Spector, Mia Goldwasser
MA Department of Transportation that made this initiative
HR&A Advisors Metropolitan Area Planning Council BOSTON RESEARCH ADVISORY GROUP possible.
Jamie Springer, Phillip Kash, Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
Sara Brown, Jonathan Sandor Goldman Massachusetts Port Authority Sea Level Rise
Arcadis Massachusetts Water Resources Authority Robert DeConto, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Hugh Roberts, Carly Foster, Kelli Thurston National Park Service (Harbor Islands) Duncan FitzGerald, Boston University
Carling Hay, Harvard University
Sasaki Utilities
Zoe Hughes, Boston University
Jason Hellendrung, Jill Allen Dixon, Comcast
Andrew Kemp, Tufts University
Theresa O’Neil Eversource Energy
Robert Kopp, Rutgers University
National Grid
University of Massachusetts Boston Veolia Coastal Storms
School for the Environment Verizon Communications Bruce Anderson, Boston University
Paul Kirshen, Ellen Douglas, Zhiming Kuang, Harvard University
Robyn Hannigan, Rebecca Herst Nonprofit
Sai Ravela, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Medical Academic and Scientific Community Organization
Jonathan Woodruff, University of Massachusetts Amherst
A Better City
Partners Health Care Extreme Precipitation
The Trust for Public Land Mathew Barlow, University of Massachusetts Lowell
The Trustees of Reservations Mathias Collins, NOAA
Boston University Art DeGaetano, Cornell University
Harvard University C. Adam Schlosser, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Green Ribbon Commission Climate Preparedness Working Group Extreme Temperatures
Auroop Ganguly, Northeastern University
Evan Kodra, risQ Company
Matthias Ruth, Northeastern University
CONTENTS ix Executive Summary
l Recommended Roadmap

01 Climate Projection Consensus

12 Citywide Vulnerability Assessment

74 Resilience Initiatives
82 Layer 1: Updated Climate Projections
86 Layer 2: Prepared Communities
98 Layer 3: Protected Shores
116 Layer 4: Resilient Infrastructure
130 Layer 5: Adapted Buildings

148 Focus Areas

150 Charlestown 264 Roxbury
174 Charles River 282 South Boston
194 Dorchester 308 South End
216 Downtown 330 District-Scale Flood Protection
240 East Boston
 Climate risks
are not new for
Boston, but they
will continue to
increase as the
global climate
changes.
Image courtesy of Sasaki

H City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary ix

MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH

Since 1991, Boston has

experienced 21 events that
triggered federal or state
disaster declarations.

For example, in 2011, Hurricane Irene caused

downed trees and power outages across the
city. In 2012, while Boston was spared the most
devastating effects of Hurricane Sandy due to
the storm missing Boston’s high tide by five
hours, the city still experienced high winds and
coastal flooding. As the climate changes, the
likelihood of coastal and riverine flooding—as
well as other hazards, like stormwater flooding
and extreme heat—will increase.

The challenges from climate change are

substantial and complex but can be addressed
through bold and creative actions that support
the city’s vitality and livability.

Boston can thrive in the coming decades

if it takes action to adapt its people, its
neighborhoods, and its economic and cultural
assets, starting now. This work will be difficult,
Boston can thrive in the coming
contentious, and complex. But if done well, it
will not only create a resilient, climate-ready
decades if it takes action to adapt
Boston—it will also dramatically improve its people, its neighborhoods, and
its economic and cultural assets,
the city and quality of life for all its residents.

starting now.
Image courtesy of Sasaki

x City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xi

To address these challenges,
Climate Ready Boston
features four components.

UPDATED CLIMATE VULNERABILITY FOCUS CLIMATE

PROJECTIONS ASSESSMENT AREAS RESILIENCE
INITIATIVES
A set of updated projections A comprehensive Eight Boston areas
for four climate factors: evaluation of current where the results of the These policy, planning,
extreme temperatures, and potential future risks Vulnerability Assessment programmatic, and
sea level rise, extreme associated with each of and the climate resilience financial initiatives address
precipitation, and three climate hazards initiatives are applied in the risks identified in the
storms. The University (extreme heat, stormwater more detail to illustrate Vulnerability Assessment
of Massachusetts Boston flooding, and coastal and the risks Boston faces and and work together
oversaw a team of climate riverine flooding) for how Boston can address to increase Boston’s
scientists, the Boston Boston’s people, buildings, them. The focus areas resilience. The initiatives
Research Advisory Group, infrastructure, and recognize that some risk, are summarized in an
to develop these projections. economy. Vulnerability particularly for coastal Implementation Roadmap
assessment data for the and riverine flooding, that sets forth, for each
CLIMATE FACTORS
three climate hazards is spatially concentrated. initiative, responsibility,
◦ Extreme Temperatures reflects the underlying time frame, and key
ANALYSIS AREAS
◦ Sea Level Rise (SLR) factors studied in the milestones.
Climate Projection ◦ Charlestown
◦ Extreme Precipitation INITIATIVE LAYERS
Consensus. ◦ Charles River
◦ Storms ◦ Updated Climate
VULNERABILITY ◦ Dorchester
ASSESSMENT HAZARDS
Projections
◦ Downtown
◦ Prepared and
◦ Extreme Heat ◦ East Boston Connected
◦ Stormwater Flooding ◦ Roxbury Communities
◦ Coastal and Riverine ◦ South Boston ◦ Protected Shores
Flooding
◦ South End ◦ Resilient Infrastructure
◦ Adapted Buildings

xii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston

 Climate Ready Boston
is coordinated with
Imagine Boston 2030,
the fi rst citywide plan in
50 years, and 100 Resilient
Cities, to guide Boston
toward a more affordable,
equitable, connected,
and resilient future.
PLANNING CONTEXT institutions, higher education,
Through Imagine Boston 2030, and medical services. It is also the
Boston’s favorable location, with
the City has identified areas that hub of the region’s transportation
three rivers flowing into a sheltered
have capacity to accommodate system, with subway lines, bus
harbor well-suited for waterborne
Boston’s growing population and service, commuter rail lines, ports,
trade, helped it grow into a major
dynamic economy. Many of the and Logan International Airport.
commercial city. The city’s core was
areas where Boston will grow will LANDMASS 2016
once the narrow Shawmut Peninsula, Boston recognized the threat of IN 1630 SHORELINE
be exposed to increasing flood but as trade and population grew to climate change early and has
risk as sea levels rise. As it grows in make Boston the economic center of pursued an integrated approach to
these areas, Boston is committing the region, Bostonians filled in the address it. In 2000, Boston launched
to protecting them. While we do tidal marshes with wharves, parks, its climate action program when
not know all the mechanisms for and entire neighborhoods built on it joined the Cities for Climate
protection yet, Boston is investing in new land. In the three centuries Protection Campaign of ICLEI-Local Climate Ready Boston will guide ABOVE
Boston’s Present &
developing local climate resilience following Boston’s founding in 1630, Governments for Sustainability. Over Boston’s adaptation efforts, building Historical Shoreline
plans for vulnerable areas. These the city’s footprint increased by nearly the last 15 years, the City has led a upon recommendations from the
plans will identify multilayered 50 percent, with much of the land range of efforts to reduce emissions City’s 2007 Climate Action Plan and
investments needed to enable along the coastline and riverbanks citywide to slow the pace and scale its 2011 and 2014 updates. Based on the
climate-ready growth. filled to just above high tide. of climate change, including the most up-to-date scientific consensus
2011 commitment for an 80 percent of future climate conditions, Climate
Boston will approach this topic Although coastal expansion in
reduction in carbon emissions by 2050. Ready Boston provides an evaluation
dynamically and respond to new previous centuries made the city
In recognition of these efforts, the of potential impacts from Boston’s
information as we have it. Climate more vulnerable to climate change,
City received an award at the United three major climate hazards: extreme
adaptation presents Boston with it helped Boston become the largest
Nations Climate Change Conference heat, stormwater flooding, and
opportunities for carefully managed residential and commercial center
in Paris (COP21). However, even under coastal and riverine flooding. Climate
growth and investment that ensure in New England. The city is home
the most optimistic projections of Ready Boston then identifies climate
existing neighborhoods can thrive, to over 656,000 residents1 and 718,000
global emissions reductions, Boston resilience initiatives to enable Boston
new neighborhoods are ready jobs, 2 accounting for a total of $160
faces serious risk from climate change to address these risks and continue
for the changing climate, and billion in annual economic output.
and must adapt. to thrive in the face of climate change.
jobs are created and expertise Boston is a center for financial
developed for long-term growth
and protection.
1
Source: “ACS 5-Year Estimates (2011–2014).” U.S. Census Bureau.
2
Source: Boston Planning and Development Agency Analysis.

xiv City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xv

Boston’s Future Climate
TODAY’S CHOICES EMISSIONS SCENARIOS FUTURE IMPACTS
THE MORE GREENHOUSE GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE:

Bostonians must first understand the the next few decades are relatively consistent,
regardless of which emissions scenario they rely
These findings
likely impacts of climate change in on. However, the projections become increasingly emphasize that a
order to plan for a strong, resilient future.3 different the further we look into the future.
critical strategy for
Climate Ready Boston’s climate projections
climate adaptation
use three emissions scenarios from the
is the expansion of
To help us understand climate change impacts at the
local level, Climate Ready Boston convened a working Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
group of the region’s climate scientists. The Boston
◦ A HIGH-EMISSIONS SCENARIO often efforts to reduce our
carbon emissions.
Research Advisory Group (BRAG), overseen by the
characterized as a continuation of
University of Massachusetts Boston School for the
business as usual;
Environment, developed this consensus about how
Boston’s climate will change over the course of the ◦ A MEDIUM-EMISSIONS SCENARIO in which
twenty-first century. emissions remain around their current levels
through 2050 and then are slowly reduced
The longer-term impacts of climate change are
in the second half of the century through
largely dependent on the global community’s
moderate emissions reductions and;
success at curbing emissions of greenhouse gases.
Because we do not know how well we will do, ◦ A LOW-EMISSIONS SCENARIO in which net
scientists use multiple emissions scenarios as the global emissions are reduced to less than a
bases for their projections. Climate projections for third of their current levels by 2050 and are
brought to zero by about 2080 through major
3
This section is a summary of the BRAG Climate Projection Consensus report, which
emissions reductions.
describes future climate conditions in the Boston region, including extreme temperatures,
sea level rise, heavy precipitation, and coastal storms. The full report is available at
climateready.boston.gov/findings.

xvi City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xvii

EXTREME TEMPERATURES steel, and other building materials retain more THE NUMBER OF VERY HOT DAYS WILL INCREASE
heat than vegetation. This phenomenon, known as
Average temperatures in the Northeast have been
the “urban heat island effect,” is compounded by
slowly rising for over a century. Temperatures in
climate change.
the northeastern United States increased by almost
two degrees Fahrenheit between 1895 and 2011. Future temperatures in Boston will depend on
how much we are able to cut our greenhouse gas
The rate of increase in average temperatures
emissions. The rise in temperatures between now
is accelerating, and Boston’s average summer
and 2030 is largely consistent between all emission
temperatures and number of days with extreme
scenarios. However, the scenarios show that
heat will increase. Heat waves will become
cutting emissions now can greatly slow the rise in
more common, last longer, and be hotter. While
temperatures in the second half of the century.
the average summer temperature in Boston from
1981 to 2010 was 69 degrees, it may be as high SEA LEVEL RISE
as 76 degrees by 2050 and 84 degrees by 2100. In
The pace of relative sea level rise is accelerating.
other words, by 2050 Boston’s summers may be
Over the entire twentieth century, sea levels rose
as hot as Washington, DC’s, summers are today,
about nine inches relative to land. Another eight
and by the end of the century, they may be hotter
inches of relative sea level rise may happen by 2030,
than Birmingham, AL are today. Compared to the
almost three times faster. By 2050, sea levels may be
period from 1971 to 2000, when there were 11 days
as much as 1.5 feet higher than they were in 2000,
per year over 90 degrees, there may be as many
and by 2070, they may be as much as 3 feet higher SEA LEVELS IN BOSTON WILL CONTINUE TO RISE
as 40 by 2030 and 90 by 2070—nearly the entire
than in 2000. This is driven by a combination of
summer. Heat waves—extended periods of
the melting of land ice, the expansion of water as
extreme heat—are a leading cause of weather-
it warms, and changes in the amounts of water
related mortality in the United States.
extracted from below ground or stored behind
Although winters will be warmer, the risk of dams.
frost and freeze damage and cold snaps will
A major reduction in global greenhouse gas
continue. While from 1981 to 2010, Boston reached
emissions can have a tremendous impact on
below freezing almost one out of three days per
the future of Boston Harbor. While sea level rise
year, by the end of the century, this may happen
projections for 2030 are about the same across
only around one in ten days.
all emission scenarios, in later years there are
As an urban area, Boston tends to be hotter big differences between scenarios. With a sharp
than surrounding communities that are more reduction in global emissions, end-of-century
suburban or rural. Urban areas generally tend to sea level rise could stay under two feet, but a
be hotter than nearby rural areas because concrete, continuation of business as usual may result in over
seven feet of sea level rise.

Data Source:
BRAG Report, 2016

xviii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xix

Image courtesy of Sasaki RAINFALL FROM STORMS WILL INCREASE

EXTREME PRECIPITATION STORMS

In the Northeast, there has already been a very Current climate projections do not provide a clear
large increase in the intensity of extreme rain projection of how the intensity, frequency, and
and snow. From 1958 to 2010, there was a 70 percent trajectory (tracks) of tropical and extratropical
increase in the amount of precipitation that fell storms will change. Extratropical storms (like
on the days with the heaviest precipitation. This blizzards and nor’easters) have cold air at their
increase is greater in the Northeast than for any centers. Tropical storms, on the other hand, have
other region of the country. warm air, which means that they can develop
into hurricanes more quickly. There are large
The increase in extreme precipitation is expected
uncertainties about how climate change will
to continue. As the climate warms, more ocean
affect future storms. This is particularly true for
water evaporates into the air, and warmer air can
extratropical storms. For tropical storms, there
hold more water, supporting heavier precipitation
is some evidence that their intensity has been
events. Heavy precipitation events will continue to
increasing. If tropical storm intensity increases,
increase in Boston. However, due to the complexity
there could be more frequent major hurricanes
of the processes underlying precipitation as well as
(Category 3 and greater), even if the total number
natural variability, the magnitude of this increase is
of tropical storms does not increase.
not yet clear.
Rising sea levels mean that any given storm will
If we take action to cut global greenhouse gas
cause more flooding in the future than it would

Rising sea levels mean that

emissions, we can prevent the most extreme
today. During a storm, winds can blow ocean
precipitation projections from becoming a
water towards the land, creating a “storm surge”

any given storm will cause

reality. A commonly used measure of major
on top of the baseline sea level. When storm surge
rain and snow events is the “10-year, 24-hour
is combined with tidal processes, the result is
more flooding in the future storm,” or the amount of precipitation that has at
most a one-in-ten annual chance of falling during
known as a “storm tide.” With higher seas, it takes
less precipitation and a less powerful storm surge
than it would today. a 24-hour period. While projections for these
events are similar in the short term across different
to produce the same amount of flooding as a more
powerful storm would produce when the seas
emissions scenarios, by the end of the century, the
are lower.
difference between medium and high scenarios is
about 10 percent.

xx City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxi

Boston’s Increasing
Climate Vulnerability THE NUMBER OF HEAT-RELATED DEATHS EACH YEAR IN BOSTON WILL TRIPLE

Image courtesy of Sasaki

The Vulnerability Assessment In considering the impacts on people, the EXTREME HEAT IMPACTS emissions scenario. Climate change can also harm
assessment focuses on socially vulnerable air quality, leading to increasing risks for diseases
analyzes how Boston’s people, With climate change, Boston will experience both
such as asthma. Health impacts will be especially
populations, people who are more
buildings, infrastructure, and vulnerable to climate hazards because
increasing average temperatures and increasing
significant for populations such as older adults,
frequency, duration, and intensity of heat waves.
economy will be affected by they already experience stressors, such as children, and the medically ill.
While temperatures are hottest in areas of the city
climate hazards. poverty, poor health, and limited English
that experience localized urban heat island effects, Heat can have negative consequences for Boston’s
proficiency. For property, the assessment
on very hot days, the entire city is at risk for the infrastructure, presenting further challenges
considers direct and indirect impacts,
negative impacts of extreme heat. for health and quality of life. Power failures are
in terms of both structural damage to
more likely during heat waves due to the increased
buildings and site-access challenges. Extreme heat can cause negative health impacts,
demand for electric power for air conditioning, as
For infrastructure, it analyzes expected including direct loss of life, increases in
well as the added stress of the heat on mechanical
impacts on Boston’s transportation, power, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and
and electrical assets. High temperatures can also
water and sewer, emergency response, challenges to mental health. In the baseline
cause thermal expansion in roads and railroad
and environmental systems. Finally, it period (1985 to 2016), the heat-related mortality
tracks, leading to damage or requiring speed
evaluates the potential economic impacts rate was about 2.9 per 100,000 people in Boston.
reductions. As rising temperatures lead to a
of flooding, such as the loss of jobs and During the 2020s, this rate is expected to more
potential increase in tree mortality, any loss of
disruption of business operations. than double. By the 2080s, this rate may more than
canopy coverage or green space will only contribute
triple to 10.5 per 100,000 people under a moderate
to the urban heat island effect, reduced air quality,
emissions reduction scenario or reach as high
increased stormwater runoff, and decreased quality
as 19.3 per 100,000 under the business-as-usual
of life.

xxii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxiii

 STORMWATER BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO FREQUENT
STORMWATER FLOODING
FLOODING IMPACTS
Stormwater flooding occurs throughout Boston
today, as the city’s drainage system struggles to
manage intense rain events, rising sea levels, and
less permeable ground surface that would slow and
absorb stormwater. Common areas for stormwater
flooding are along the coast, where outfalls may be
unable to discharge; transportation corridors with
impervious surfaces where water cannot percolate;
and designed drainage areas whose capacities are
Near term Mid term Late term
exceeded. The drainage system requires ongoing (2030s–2050s) (2050s-2100s) (2070s onwards)

investments to catch up and keep up with climate

conditions.
LAND AREA EXPOSED TO FREQUENT
In the near term (2030s–2050s), rising sea levels and STORMWATER FLOODING
increasing extreme precipitation will exacerbate
stormwater flooding, unless the drainage system is
upgraded. Higher sea levels mean that stormwater
outfalls may not be able to discharge or may even
backflow, and more extreme precipitation means that
drains and pipes must handle greater volumes of
water in short periods of time.

The area of Boston exposed to stormwater flooding

is projected to grow steadily throughout the
century. As soon as the 2050s, 7 percent of the total Near term
(2030s–2050s)
Mid term
(2050s-2100s)
Late term
(2070s onwards)

land area in the city could be exposed to frequent

stormwater flooding from 10-year, 24-hour rain
events. BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO FREQUENT
STORMWATER FLOODING TYPE
Transportation infrastructure will be impacted by (2070S-2100S)
frequent stormwater flooding at multiple scales
ranging from sidewalks to local streets to major
thoroughfares like highways and MBTA lines.
Near term (2030s-2050s)
Mid term (2050s-2100s) Frequent stormwater flooding is projected near major RESIDENTIAL
Late term (2070s onwards)
Major Roads thoroughfares such as Columbus Avenue, Tremont MIXED-USE

ESSENTIAL
Street, and Morrissey Boulevard, as well as Interstates SERVICES

Without improvements to the stormwater STORMWATER FLOODING FROM

90 and 93 and along the MBTA Orange and Red INDUSTRIAL

10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM WITH Lines. Additionally, many of these transportation COMMERCIAL
system, over 11,000 structures and 85,000 VARYING CLIMATE CONDITIONS OTHER*
routes are also designated evacuation routes, which
people will be directly exposed to frequent may become increasingly more flood prone to coastal
*Education, General
Government, Cultural/
Religious, Parking & Storage,

stormwater flooding as soon as the 2070s.4

Agriculture, Food Supply,
storms with heavy rainfall. Recreation, Telecom,
Transport, & Utilities

4
Current building stock and population in areas expected to be exposed.
The building stock and population have not been projected.

xxiv City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxv

COASTAL & RIVERINE
FLOODING IMPACTS
NEAR TERM (2030s–2050s)
FLOOD PROGRESSION
In the near term (2030s–2050s), coastal and riverine
flood exposure will be concentrated in South Boston,
What Is a “1 Percent East Boston, Charlestown, and Downtown and represents
a significant threat to these neighborhoods and the rest
Annual Chance Flood”? of the city. Across the city, a severe flood with a
1 percent annual chance of occurring would inundate
A “1 percent annual chance 2,100 buildings, representing $20 billion in real estate
flood” is a flood event that value, and including the homes of 16,000 Bostonians.
Such an event would cause an estimated $2.3 billion
has a 1 in 100 chance of in physical damages to buildings and property and
occurring in any given year. other economic losses, including relocation and lost
productivity. Considering the impact of flood events of
Another name for this flood multiple probabilities, 70 percent of economic losses are
is the “100-year flood.” concentrated in Downtown and South Boston, with their
high densities of businesses and valuable properties.
Experts prefer not to use
the “100-year” term since
it gives the impression that
a certain level of flooding
will only occur once every
100 years. In fact, it has
a one percent chance
of occurring in any given
year and can even occur
multiple times in a single MID TERM (2050s–2100s)
year or decade. FLOOD PROGRESSION
Over a 30-year period, there In the second half of the century (2050s–2100s),
coastal and riverine flood exposure may increase
is almost a one in three across waterfront neighborhoods and start to be
chance that a 1 percent significant in Dorchester. As sea levels rise, the depths
of flooding along the waterfront will increase, and
annual chance flood will floodwaters will start to threaten higher grounds and
occur at least once. areas further inland that currently face little or no
flood risk.

xxvi City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxvii

 LATER TERM (2070s ONWARDS) Climate Ready Boston selected sea level rise
FLOOD PROGRESSION scenarios (9 inch, 21 inch, and 36 inch) that
In the late century (2070s or later), a significant are likely to occur within the century to focus
portion of Boston’s current land may be inundated the discussion on how Boston will adapt to
every month. Exposure to severe coastal and
riverine flooding will expand to vast areas of the city, climate change. The actual sea level rise Boston
including inland neighborhoods like the South End and experiences will be driven by many factors,
neighborhoods along the Charles River. By penetrating
past low-lying areas around Fort Point Channel and by
including global carbon emissions. Climate
the New Charles River Dam, floodwaters from storms models show that sea level rise in the near and
can reach these areas that are not currently exposed to
intermediate term is largely locked in due to
significant coastal and riverine flooding. Compared to
the near term (2030s–2050s), over three times the amount emissions that have already been released into
of land—almost one-fifth of Boston’s land area—will the atmosphere. In the first half of the century
be exposed to inundation from a lower probability (1
percent annual chance) event. Five percent of Boston’s (2030s–2050s), nine inches of sea level rise are
total land area will be inundated at high tide at least expected even if there is a major reduction in
once a month, even without any storm conditions.
emissions. Twenty-one inches or more of sea level
rise are expected in the second half of the century
(2050s–2100) regardless of the level of emissions.

The highest sea level rise

considered in this report,
36 inches, is highly probable
toward the end of the century
LAND AREA EXPOSED (ACRES) PERCENT OF NEIGHBORHOOD EXPOSED
if emissions remain at the
current level or even if there
Neighborhoods Total 9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR 36” SLR 9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR 36” SLR
1% annual 1% annual 1% annual AMHT 1% annual 1% annual 1% annual AMHT
Land Area
chance chance chance chance chance chance

is a moderate reduction in
(Acres)

I. Greatest Exposure & increasing throughout century

Charlestown 870 120 310 460 110 14% 36% 54% 12%
emissions.
Downtown 770 110 240 350 70 14% 31% 45% 10%
East Boston 3,340 540 1,040 1,680 480 16% 30% 49% 14% If there is a major emissions reduction, the
Harbor Islands 820 200 230 260 200 25% 28% 32% 24%
chance of 36 inches or more of sea level rise by
South Boston 1,940 470 930 1,220 360 24% 48% 63% 19%
the end of the century is still just slightly less
II. Lower Exposure today, but significant jump late century
than 50 percent. If emissions remain at current
Allston / Brighton 2,940 30 70 240 20 1% 2% 7% 1%
Back Bay / Beacon Hill 460 <10 <10 80 <10 <1% 1% 17% <1% levels, there is an approximately 15 percent chance
Roxbury 2,770 <10 <10 130 <10 <1% <1% 5% <1% that sea levels will rise at least 7.4 feet by the end
Dorchester 3,780 240 430 750 220 6% 11% 20% 6%
South End 640 <10 20 450 <10 <1% 3% 71% <1% of century, a scenario far more dire than those
III. Other Neighborhoods considered here. Any adaptation to even the lower
Fenway / Kenmore 620 <10 <10 <10 <10 <1% <1% <1% <1% end of projections for sea level rise will require
Hyde Park 3,260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
significant long-term effort, and the city must
Jamaica Plain 2,260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mattapan 1,560 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 therefore start adapting now.
Roslindale 2,250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
West Roxbury 3,350 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Boston Total 31,720 1,720 3,280 5,630 1,470 8% 10% 18% 8%

AMHT is the Average monthly highest tide

xxviii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxix

India Wharf view from the Harbor Walk — High Tide during October
Image courtesy of Sasaki

As sea levels continue to rise, severely damaging As climate change progresses over the course of
floods will shift from a rare occurrence to a this century, ever greater areas of Boston will
monthly reality. In the near term, a flood event be exposed to more frequent and more severe
inundating 5 percent of the city will have a 1 percent flooding.
chance of occurring in any given year. By mid-
◦ In the late century (2070s or later), 75 percent
century, such a flood will become ten times more
of buildings that will be exposed are either
likely, and by the late century, that magnitude of
residential or mixed-use, exposing over
flooding will occur at least once a month. This means
88,000 people (nearly 15 percent of Boston’s
that between 10 and 20 percent of Charlestown, East
population) to coastal and riverine flooding.
Boston, Downtown, and South Boston will face high-
tide flooding, even when there is no storm. ◦ More than 10 percent of Boston’s existing
buildings will be exposed to late-century

As the sea level continues to rise, coastal and riverine flooding.

the likelihood of major floods

◦ Toward the end of the century, 5 percent
of Boston’s real estate market value can be

will increase from a 1% annual expected to suffer flood exposure to high tides,
increasing to 25 percent for less frequent but

chance to a monthly reality. more severe events.

xxx City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxxi

Annualized losses will increase with sea level rise... CITY OF BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES
36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

CITYWIDE POPULATION EXPOSED

Severely damaging flood events will become Coastal and riverine flooding can disrupt the Although the Vulnerability Assessment
more common over time. As flood risk increases Critical infrastructural systems—including chapter of this report contains a discussion of
this century and beyond, not only do the total transportation, energy, communication, and the vulnerabilities of multiple infrastructural
expected annualized losses increase dramatically, essential facilities—on which Bostonians rely. systems, further study is necessary, especially
but the share of these losses attributable to high- Over time, an increasing number of these systems for energy and telecommunications systems.
probability floods (10 percent chance of occurring will be exposed to flooding.
The evacuation routes vulnerable
in any given year) also becomes much greater.
◦ Key components of Boston’s transportation to flooding include:
Coastal and riverine flooding can impact the local system, most notably MBTA T service and
◦ I-93
and regional economy through physical damages, major roads, may be at risk to coastal and
stress factors (mental stress and anxiety and lost riverine flood impacts in the near future. ◦ McClellan Highway Callahan Tunnel
productivity), displacement costs, and losses ◦ I-90 Ted Williams Tunnel
◦ There are 240 essential and public facilities
due to business interruption. Loss estimations
in the area exposed to late-century coastal ◦ Morrisey Boulevard
presented in this assessment are reported as an
and riverine flooding for lower probability ◦ Storrow Drive
annualized value for each sea level rise condition;
storms.
annualized values represent the total of the ◦ Tremont Street
product of single losses expected for each projected
sea level rise condition and the chance of occurring
Percentages are based on current population. in any given year.

xxxii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxxiii

Increasing Boston’s CLIMATE RESILIENCE PRINCIPLES doing either independently. Shading from the
tree canopy reduces the cooling load on the Addressing the Specific
Climate Readiness
The City drew on five principles for successful
building, and the retrofitted building radiates Characteristics of Each
resilience to climate change based on lessons from
less heat, with a failure to either layer having Climate Hazard
other cities. These principles include the following:
less impact because of the other.
Guided by the Vulnerability 1. Generate multiple benefits. Effective climate
4. Design in flexibility and adaptability. Climate
The resilience initiatives
are designed to respond
Assessment findings, which resilience initiatives both reduce risks from
conditions will continue to change over time, to the geographic scale,
climate hazards and create other benefits.
identified and quantified the Resilience initiatives that produce multiple
and resilience initiatives must be designed to frequency, intensity, and
impacts of future climate benefits generate more resources to support
adapt to them. For example, the 24-hour rainfall projected growth of each
for a ten-year storm is projected to increase climate hazard. For extreme
change, the City should their implementation and sustainability.
through the century. To be effective, the heat, this calls for resilience
undertake a set of climate Flood barriers that also provide recreational
stormwater system must be flexible enough to initiatives that can be
open space, developable land, or upgraded
resilience initiatives to address roadways represent examples of multiple-
adapt to this increase in extreme precipitation. applied throughout the
Boston’s climate risks. benefit solutions. Nonphysical interventions
In practice, this often means decentralized, city, prioritize vulnerable
distributed stormwater storage across cities that populations, and address
These initiatives will increase Boston’s also can offer multiple benefits, as evidenced by
can be expanded without disrupting the gray gaps in the capacity of
ability to thrive in the face of intensifying programs that help businesses and households
stormwater system. Similarly, the elevation of 1 buildings to cool themselves.
climate hazards, leading to improved make operational changes to reduce their
percent annual chance floods is also projected The resilience initiatives
quality of life for all residents, especially flood risk while also lowering utility costs or
to increase throughout the century. Buildings addressing stormwater
the most vulnerable, and creating reducing insurance premiums. Multiple-benefit
can be built today with high ground-floor flooding are intended to be
stronger neighborhoods and a healthier approaches enable Boston to address some
ceilings so that the ground floor can be filled in applied in affected pockets
environment. of the other pressing challenges that it faces
as sea levels rise over time. in each neighborhood
beyond just climate risks.
and emphasize the ability
The climate resilience 2. Incorporate local involvement in design
5. Leverage building cycles. Buildings and
infrastructure experience a natural cycle of to keep up with increased
initiatives build on a broad and decision making. Effective resilience precipitation over time.
rehabilitation and replacement over time.
set of efforts undertaken initiatives require on-the-ground knowledge
Taking adaptation actions within the context Coastal and riverine
to date by the City and its and sustained community support for
of the natural building cycle can reduce flooding calls for a very
implementation and long-term operations different approach. The
partners to prepare Boston and maintenance. Local stakeholders can help
disruption and cost, as in the case of adding
green infrastructure to roads as they are being resilience initiatives are
for climate change. illuminate critical resilience opportunities in intended to be targeted to
rebuilt, rather than pulling them up just to
their communities and generate creative ideas the areas directly exposed
To develop the initiatives, Climate install green infrastructure. While the natural
for solving multiple challenges at once. and involve the creation of
Ready Boston reviewed past climate building cycle progresses, operational changes,
adaptation plans, conducted interviews as opposed to physical adaptations, can be significant new infrastructure
3. Create layers of protection by working at
and focus groups with a broad range of made to reduce risks. For example, retailers can systems in addition to the
multiple scales. Layers that are independently
local stakeholders, and examined best move the inventory stored in the basement of adaptation of existing
effective can also work together to provide
practices from other cities across the their stores onto shelves to reduce flood damage systems and buildings.
mutual support and reduce the risk of a
world that are contending with climate catastrophic failure associated with a single in the near term, before local flood defenses are
change impacts. line of defense. For example, to address built. The development of new housing and job
extreme heat, adding green infrastructure (e.g., centers along the waterfront or in other flood-
increasing tree canopy) in combination with exposed areas presents opportunities to not
building-scale adaptations (e.g., using cool only construct individual buildings prepared
roofing and paving materials or increasing for flood risk but to also raise funds for the
energy efficiency) is more effective than construction of area-wide flood defenses.
xxxiv City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxxv
LAYERS, STRATEGIES,
AND INITIATIVES
The climate resilience initiatives have
been organized into four layers and
eleven strategies. The layers represent
an approach to building resilience at
different scales: the community, the
shoreline, infrastructure assets, and
buildings. The layers are designed to
support and reinforce each other.

UPDATED CLIMATE PREPARED AND PROTECTED SHORES RESILIENT ADAPTED BUILDINGS

PROJECTIONS CONNECTED INFRASTRUCTURE
COMMUNITIES Reduce Boston’s risk Create a regulatory
Ensure that decision of coastal and riverine Prepare the infrastructure environment and
making in Boston is Support educated, flooding through both systems that support life in financial and other
informed by the latest connected communities nature-based and hard- Boston for future climate tools to promote new
Boston-specific climate in pursuing operational engineered flood defenses. conditions and create and existing buildings
projections. preparedness, adaptation new resilient systems. that are climate
planning, and emergency ready.
response.

xxxvi City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxxvii

Strategy 1. Strategy 2. Strategy 3. Strategy 4. Strategy 5. Strategy 6.
Maintain up-to- Expand education Leverage climate Develop local Create a coastal Coordinate
date projections and engagement adaptation as a climate resilience protection system investments to
of future climate of Bostonians on tool for economic plans to coordinate to address flood adapt infrastructure
conditions to climate hazards development. adaptation efforts. risk. to future climate
inform adaptation. and action. WHY Over the coming decades, WHY Some effects of climate WHY Coastal and riverine conditions.
climate adaptation will require change, such as increased flooding poses a major
WHY Knowledge is the WHY Climate adaptation cannot WHY Boston’s infrastructure
significant investments in temperatures, are spread across and increasing threat to
foundation for action. As global occur without an informed, for power, water, transportation,
the city’s infrastructure, the city. Other, particularly coastal communities along Boston’s
energy use and greenhouse gas engaged, and active public. communication, and more is a
buildings, and other areas. The and riverine flooding, are more waterfront and to the vitality
emissions become clearer and Community members can complex network with many
community can leverage this localized. Everywhere, these of the city itself.
as more data on the response provide deeper insight into how public and private owners,
activity to promote equitable risks will interact with each other
of the Earth becomes available, climate change is affecting their WHAT The City and its regional operators, and regulatory
economic development, leaving and with the social and economic
climate projections will change. neighborhoods and businesses partners should investigate authorities. As climate change
Bostonians better prepared to needs of the neighborhood in
Bostonians need to remain and create innovative and major “gray” and “green” presents new risks of failure,
thrive and face climate and particular ways. Coordinated
informed to plan for the future. sensitive responses. infrastructure investments all stakeholders need to better
other challenges. adaptation actions can advance
to address flood risk. The understand the totality of
WHAT The City should establish WHAT The City should work with multiple community priorities
WHAT The City should help City should ensure that vulnerabilities and to coordinate
a Greater Boston Panel on partners from all sectors to inform simultaneously and use resources
train workers for jobs that will development in flood-prone action to address them.
Climate to update climate and engage the Boston community more effectively.
arise from climate adaptation areas does not prevent the
projections every five years. on the risks from climate change WHAT The City should establish
projects and ensure that these WHAT The City should develop future implementation of flood
These projections should inform and actions to reduce those risks. an Infrastructure Coordination
projects follow the City’s local plans to address climate protection. The flood protection
plans, policies, and regulations Different campaigns—targeting Committee with the region’s major
guidelines for local hiring, adaptation along with other system should incorporate
and be translated into readily the general public, building infrastructure organizations.
living wages, and employment community priorities. Through building-scale, district-scale,
accessible reports and maps. owners, community facilities, The committee would develop
of minority- and women-owned in-depth community engagement, and harbor-wide measures.
businesses, and vulnerable planning and design standards
businesses the plans should include
populations who are more aligned with up-to-date climate
district-scale flood protection,
susceptible to the impacts of projections, identify cascading
infrastructure adaptation,
climate change—should promote vulnerabilities, establish
and land-use planning, all in
short-term actions to reduce coordination mechanisms, and
coordination with Imagine
current risks while building align adaptation efforts with
Boston 2030, 100 Resilient Cities,
support for larger-scale and other planning priorities.
GoBoston 2030, and other
longer-term measures.
planning efforts.

xxxviii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xxxix

Strategy 7. Strategy 8. Strategy 9. Strategy 10. Strategy 11.
Develop district- Expand the Update zoning and Retrofit existing Insure buildings
level energy use of green building buildings against against flood
solutions infrastructure regulations to climate hazards. damage.
to increase and other natural support climate WHY Most of the buildings in WHY Whatever actions the

decentralization systems to manage readiness. Boston that need to be prepared community takes, natural
for climate change this century disasters may still occur. Flood
and redundancy. stormwater, WHY The current regulations are already standing. The insurance is an indispensable

WHY Decentralized mitigate heat, and that govern development in adaptation of existing buildings tool for supporting recovery
Boston do not have specific can be technically, operationally, after a flood. Affordable
infrastructure of many kinds
provide additional requirements for preparing for and financially difficult. Property access to appropriate levels of
has the potential to combine
climate adaptation with benefits. future climate conditions. In owners, particularly those flood insurance coverage is
some cases, they may even pose with smaller or less valuable critical to protecting property
greenhouse gas reduction
WHY Climate change will obstacles to doing so. properties, may require technical owners’ investments and
and economic development.
make it more difficult to or financial assistance. neighborhoods’ stability.
Local sources that can keep WHAT Building on current
manage stormwater and keep
operating during wider power requirements, the Boston WHAT The City should create WHAT The City should promote
Bostonians cool, dry, and
failures could maintain the Planning and Development programs to prepare existing appropriate flood insurance for
healthy. Green infrastructure,
community’s capacity to keep Agency should propose land- buildings for climate change. property owners. This should
which relies on natural
safe and cool as the frequency use and other regulations that Priorities should include include joining the National
processes, can address these
and intensity of heat waves rise. ensure that new development buildings facing near-term Flood Insurance Community
challenges and improve the
is ready for future climate flood risk and those with a Rating System to obtain
WHAT The City should pursue safety and beauty of the public
conditions. The City should public purpose or vulnerable flood insurance discounts
community energy solutions, realm.
advocate for changes to the populations. Programs could through advanced floodplain
such as district energy systems
WHAT Building on past Massachusetts Building Code include resilience audits, management and advocating
or microgrids, that increase
investments, the City should and explore measures that investments in municipal for reforms to better align
energy reliability and decrease
increase expand green increase climate-ready retrofits facilities, support for backup premiums with actual risk.
greenhouse gas emissions.
infrastructure on public and in existing buildings. power at facilities for vulnerable
Priority sites should include
private lands, in particular by populations, and a toolkit of
areas with clusters of affordable
developing sustainable funding financing strategies.
housing or critical facilities.
sources and maintenance
programs.

xl City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xli

ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE PROTECTED SHORES PREPARED AND CONNECTED COMMUNITIES RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE ADAPTED BUILDINGS

Climate-ready Zoning
Solar Panels & Potential
District Microgrids Education/ Engagement Harbor Barrier
Initiative
District Scale
Flood Protection
Adaption as a
Tool for Economic
Elevated Development
Mechanical Systems
Small Business Temporary
Preparedness Program Flood Barrier

Resilient
Building Design
Elevated First Floor Protective & Floodable
Waterfront Park

Expanded and
Maintained Urban
Green Tree Canopy
Infrastructure
Bioswale

xlii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xliii

Implementation
Climate Ready Boston’s ◦ Is one initiative a necessary or desirable One question underlying almost all of the ◦ Initiative 5-2. Determine a consistent
foundation for another? initiatives is how to pay for them. Some initiatives evaluation framework for flood defense
proposals are diverse in scope
explicitly address the financial question, but even prioritization
and scale. They are short ◦ What is the risk or cost of delay, and who
those that do not address this question will be
bears that risk or cost? ◦ Initiative 6-1. Establish an Infrastructure
term and long term, citywide affected by it.
Coordination Committee
and neighborhood specific, ◦ Who has to take action?
Some of the key initiatives that need to be started
municipal and regional, ◦ Is there already community or sectoral in the next two years include the following:
◦ Initiative 8-2. Develop a sustainable operating
model for green infrastructure on public land
regulatory and financial. support?
◦ Initiative 2-1. Expand citywide climate and right-of-way
Some actions can be undertaken simultaneously; ◦ How difficult is implementation? readiness education and engagement
◦ Initiative 9-2. Revise zoning code to support
others must proceed in a certain order. They campaign
climate-ready buildings
cannot all be done at once, because they would
◦ Initiative 4-1. Develop local climate resilience
overwhelm government and community capacity. ◦ Initiative 10-2. Prepare municipal buildings for
plans to support district-scale climate
Furthermore, they do not need to be done all at climate change
adaptation (for the first selected districts)
once. Because climate change will accumulate
over time, Boston’s response, if thought through
carefully, can proceed over time too.

The Recommended Roadmap presents a timeline

and designated lead agency for undertaking these
initiatives. The timeline has three divisions—
within two years, within five years, and long-
term—plus an arrow indicating if an initiative
is ongoing. Over half of the initiatives will be
ongoing because, once started, they will need to
continue or repeat indefinitely; for example, climate
projections should be updated with new data that
becomes available over time.

The time divisions represent a rough prioritization

based on many factors, including the following:

◦ Who and what are most at risk now?

◦ Are there existing efforts—climate related or

related to other initiatives—upon which the
next phase of climate initiatives can build?

◦ Are resources—human, technical, fiscal—

available to undertake this work? Image courtesy of Southie Trees

xliv City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xlv

 Orient

Focusing on Jeffries Point

Heights

North Charlestown
Neighborhoods to Central
Square
Wood
New Charles Island
River Dam
To guide adaptation planning across
Boston’s neighborhoods, especially Downtown Waterfront
when climate vulnerabilities are spatially Porzio
Park
concentrated, Climate Ready Boston
examined several areas in more detail:
South Boston
◦ Focus Area Vulnerability Seven out of the eight focus areas Waterfront
Assessments provide deeper contain coastal neighborhoods that
insight into the types of face significant risks from coastal and
vulnerabilities that the people, riverine flooding. Where multiple
buildings, infrastructure, and neighborhoods are exposed to Dorchester
economy face in specific areas. flooding from the same source in the Bay
same time period, they are grouped
◦ Focus Area Resilience Initiatives
together as a single focus area (e.g., all
show how the citywide resilience
of the Charles River neighborhoods
initiatives can be applied to specific
face flood exposure when the Charles
areas within Boston.
River Dam is flanked or overtopped).
◦ Charlestown 36 INCHES SLR (2070S OR LATER)
The eighth focus area, Roxbury, was DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
◦ Charles River developed to serve as an illustrative FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD

◦ Dorchester example of multiple vulnerabilities,

Based on the citywide vulnerability
based on the intersection of all three
◦ Downtown
climate hazards—coastal and riverine
assessment and the focus-area
◦ East Boston flooding, stormwater flooding, and analyses, Climate Ready Boston
◦ Roxbury extreme heat—and demonstrate the proposes nine locations for flood-
◦ South Boston application of resilience initiatives
protection interventions. As sea level
focused on these risks.
◦ South End rises over the century, the number
of interventions needed increases,
and their cumulative effectiveness
becomes more important.

CLIMATE READY BOSTON FOCUS AREAS HEAT & STORMWATER AND COASTAL FLOODING COASTAL HAZARD FOCUS AREAS

xlvi City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xlvii

Image courtesy of Sasaki

These bold and

creative actions
will support the
city’s vitality
and livability.

xlviii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary xlix

 CLIMATE READY BOSTON INITIATIVE WITH DEADLINE CONTINUOUS INITIATIVE

RECOMMENDED ROADMAP

IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD

WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5 WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5
# INITIATIVE LONG-TERM # INITIATIVE LONG-TERM
YEARS YEARS YEARS YEARS
Climate Prepared and
Launch the Greater Boston
Projection Panel on Climate Change Connected
Identify resilience Pathways are
Consensus 1.1 and require periodic updating Greater Boston Climate projections 3.1 focused workforce developed and Communities
of Boston-specific climate Panel on Climate updated
development pathways. incorporated into
STRATEGY 1– projections. is launched. every 5 yrs. existing workforce STRATEGY 3
programs.
Maintain up-to-date Leverage climate
projections of future Create updated local flood adaptation as a
City establishes Future flood maps Flood maps Pursue inclusive hiring
climate conditions to 1.2 maps to support planning,
policy, and regulation.
policy on planning are incorporated are periodically
3.2 and living wages for tool for economic
flood standards. into City policy updated.
inform adaptation. and regulation. resilience projects. development.

Prioritize use of minority-and

3. 3 women-owned businesses
for resilience projects.
Prepared and
Connected Expand Citywide Climate
Communities 2.1 Readiness Education and Citywide campaign
Engagement campaign. is launched.
STRATEGY 2–
Expand education
Launch a Climate Protected Shores
and engagement of Ready Buildings Education Climate Ready
2.2 Develop local climate
Bostonians about Program for property
owners and users.
Buildings Education
Program is resilience plans in
Initial plans are Complete Plans are completed
STRATEGY 4
climate hazards. launched. 4.1 vulnerable areas to
support district-scale
launched. initial plans. for all focus areas Develop local
and periodically
Conduct an outreach climate adaptation. revised. climate resilience
campaign to facilities that plans to coordinate
2. 3 serve vulnerable populations Outreach campaign
to support preparedness Establish local climate adaptation efforts.
is launched.
and adaptation. resilience committees
4.2 to serve as long-term First committee Committees are
community partners is established. established for
for climate adaptation. all focus areas.
Update the City’s heat
2.4 Heat emergency
emergency action plan. action plan
is updated.

Expand Boston’s Small Business Small business Climate adaptation

2. 5
Preparedness Program. preparedness is incorporated
resources into Main Streets
developed. program.

1 2
l City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary li
 IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD
WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5 WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5
# INITIATIVE LONG-TERM # INITIATIVE LONG-TERM
YEARS YEARS YEARS YEARS
Protected Resilient
Shores Establish Flood Protection Infrastructure
Overlay Districts (FPOD)
Conduct feasibility
STRATEGY 5 – 5.1 and require potential Policies for FPOD Policies for FPOD 7.1 studies for community
Launch feasibility
studies for
Implement STRATEGY 7
integration with are studied. are enacted. community energy
Create a coastal flood protection. energy solutions. community energy
solutions at high- Develop district-
solutions at high-
priority sites.
protection system to priority sites. level energy
address flood risk. solutions to increase
Determine a consistent decentralization
5.2 evaluation framework Evaluation Evaluation
for flood defense prioritization. framework framework and redundancy.
is studied. is established.

Resilient
Prioritize and study the Evaluation of Evaluation Evaluation of
Develop a green infrastructure Infrastructure
5. 3 feasibility of district-scale district-scale is completed for additional sites
8.1 location plan for public land Green infrastructure
flood protection. flood defenses
is initiated.
highest-priority
sites.
and continued
implementation. and rights-of-way. location plan is STRATEGY 8
launched.
Expand the use of
green infrastructure
Develop a sustainable
Decision on operating model for green and other natural
Launch a harbor-wide 8.2 New operating
Evaluation of harbor-wide infrastructure on public land systems to manage
5.4 flood protection system harbor-wide strategy is reached model is adopted
feasibility study. and rights-of-way.
flood protection and, as needed, by City. stormwater, mitigate
is initiated. implementation
launched.
heat, and provide
Evaluate incentives and additional benefits.
8. 3 other tools to support Evaluation of
green infrastructure. incentives
is complete.

Develop design guidelines

Resilient for green infrastructure
8.4
Infrastructure Establish an on private property to Design guidelines
support co-benefits. are set as regulation.
Infrastructure
STRATEGY 6– 6.1
Coordination ICC is launched.
Committee (ICC).
Coordinate
Develop an action plan
investments to 8. 5 to expand Boston’s Canopy inventory Canopy inventory
adapt infrastructure urban tree canopy. is launched. is completed.
Continue to collect
to future climate important asset
6.2 Data-sharing
conditions. and hazard data for protocol is
planning purposes. established. Prepare outdoor Adaptations are
8.6 facilities for evaluated and
climate change. prioritized
across portfolio.
Provide guidance
on priority evacuation
6. 3 Priority evacuation Conduct a comprehensive
and service road and service roads
infrastructure to the ICC. wetlands inventory and
are identified. 8.7
develop a wetlands Wetlands inventory
protection action plan. is completed.

3 4
lii City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary liii
 IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD
WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5 WITHIN 2 WITHIN 5
# INITIATIVE LONG-TERM # INITIATIVE LONG-TERM
YEARS YEARS YEARS YEARS
Adapted Buildings Adapted Buildings
STRATEGY 9– Establish a planning 10.1
Establish a Resilience Audit Resilience STRATEGY 10
flood elevation to support Analysis process Planning flood Program for property owners. audit program
Update building 9.1 is launched. Retrofit existing
zoning regulations in the initiated elevation is
regulations to support future floodplain. established for buildings against
all development.
climate readiness. climate hazards.
Prepare municipal facilities
10.2
for climate change. Priority buildings Priority retrofits Retrofits continue.
are identified. are begun.
Revise zoning code
9.2 to support climate- Review of zoning Zoning changes
ready buildings. code launched. are implemented. Expand back-up power at
First tranche of Back-up power
10. 3 private buildings that serve back-up power installation
vulnerable populations. installation continues.
completed.

Promote climate readiness for

9. 3 projects in the development Develop toolkit of building Toolkit of
Notifications are 10.4
pipeline. sent to all permitted retrofit financing strategies. financing strategies
developments. is released.

Pursue state building

Begin working with
9.4 code amendments Commonwealth
to promote climate readiness. regarding building Adapted Buildings
code amendments.
Evaluate the current
Evaluation STRATEGY 11
11.1 flood insurance is completed.
landscape in Boston. Insure buildings
against flood damage.
Incorporate future
Standards
9. 5 climate conditions are enacted as
into area plans. City policy for
future plans. Join the NFIP Community City becomes active
11.2
Rating System. participant in CRS.

Advocate for reform City begins

advocacy for
11. 3 in the National Flood reforms that align
Insurance Program. with Boston’s
flood risks.

5 6
liv City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Executive Summary lv
MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH

EXTREME TEMPERATURES EXTREME PRECIPITATION

Climate
Projection
Consensus
RELATIVE SEA LEVEL RISE COASTAL STORMS

To better understand
climate change
impacts at the local
level, the City of Boston
The Climate Projection Consensus summarizes
and the Green Ribbon how Boston’s climate is expected to change
throughout the twenty-first century, focusing
Commission convened on four climate factors: extreme temperature,

the Boston Research

relative sea level rise, extreme precipitation,
and coastal storms. These factors drive Boston’s

Advisory Group (BRAG), major climate hazards: coastal and riverine

flooding, stormwater flooding, and extreme heat

a team of the region’s (see Vulnerability Assessment for more details on

these hazards and their impacts in Boston).
top climate scientists,
to develop the Climate
Projection Consensus.
Image courtesy of Bud Ris

lvi City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Projection Consensus 01

DEVELOPING A SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
This chapter is a summary of the BRAG Climate
BOSTON’S FUTURE CLIMATE
Projection Consensus report, describing future
climate impacts in the Boston region, including
extreme temperatures, sea level rise, heavy
precipitation, and coastal storms. The full report
is available at climateready.boston.gov/findings.

The BRAG was overseen by the University

of Massachusetts Boston School for the
Environment. BRAG members were organized
into four working groups, each focused on a
single climate factor: extreme temperature,
relative sea level rise, extreme precipitation,
or coastal storms. They collaborated across
working groups on phenomena that cut across
multiple climate factors, such as possible
changes in snow frequency and amounts of
coastal and riverine flooding. From October
2015 to January 2016, the working groups
reviewed both academic and non-academic
literature—including sources that varied in terms
of their climate models, spatial resolution (scale),
future time periods considered, and historical
reference periods—and reported their findings
of the scientific consensus. These reports were scenarios to underlie their climate projections,
For Boston to effectively plan for the impacts ◦ A high-emissions scenario, often
then compiled and edited by the University of
Massachusetts Boston team and peer-reviewed of climate change, there must be a shared based on projections about future population characterized as a continuation of business as
by an international team of experts.
understanding about what these impacts are growth, development patterns, and energy use. usual;
likely to be. While the Intergovernmental Panel Climate projections for the next few decades are
◦ A medium-emissions scenario, in which
on Climate Change publishes global climate relatively consistent, regardless of their underlying
emissions remain around their current levels
BOSTON’S “80 X 50” COMMITMENT projections, the impacts of climate change vary emissions scenario, because the past 200-plus
TO EMISSIONS REDUCTION through 2050 and then are slowly reduced
by location, and therefore local projections are years of human actions have already caused
Almost a decade ago, an Executive Order in in the second half of the century through
Boston set a goal of reducing greenhouse gas
needed for better-informed planning. Since the late changes to our climate and will continue to do
moderate emissions reductions;
emissions to 80 percent below 2005 levels by 2000s, there have been a number of vulnerability so. However, the projections become increasingly
2050 for municipal operations, and Boston has
since expanded this goal to include citywide assessments and adaptation plans published for different further into the future, because human ◦ A low-emissions scenario, in which net global
emissions. By 2013, there had been significant the Boston region, which have included local actions going forward will have an important emissions are reduced to less than a third of
progress, with citywide emissions reduced by 17
percent1, but there is still much work to be done. climate change projections. Because knowledge of and compounding effect on whether climate their current levels by 2050 and are brought to
Boston’s commitment is roughly in line with the
global emissions reductions needed in order to
climate change is continually growing, the BRAG change accelerates or slows down. Another zero by about 2080 through major emissions
keep the global temperature from rising more was charged with identifying and evaluating the source of uncertainty is the complexity of natural reductions.
than two degrees Celsius relative to pre-industrial
levels and with the low-emissions scenario most-recent data available for the Boston region on processes, which scientists are still working to
analyzed in this report2. Boston’s emissions are a climate change impacts. better understand. There is also a certain amount of The magnitude of future changes depends
very small fraction of global emissions; to avoid
the worst potential impacts of climate change, naturally occurring interannual and interdecadal on our actions today. Our choices about
the international community must enact strong The findings reported here reflect a consensus transportation, energy, and land use determine
emissions reduction policies.
climate variability (also called “internal
among the scientific community, including a the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
variability”). Finally, there appear to be “tipping
scientific approach to uncertainty. Currently, As greenhouse gas emissions increase, so do
points” in the climate system, which have the
the largest source of uncertainty related to the impacts of climate change, like sea level rise,
potential to result in larger, more rapid changes,
understanding the future impacts of climate extreme precipitation, and extreme temperature. As
and our understanding of these events is limited.
change is our lack of knowledge about the future we take actions now to address the change that is
amount of carbon that humans will emit into the These climate projections use three emissions coming, it is critical that we continue to reduce our
1
“2014 Climate Action Plan Update.” Greenovate Boston, 2014. atmosphere. To address this issue, scientists have scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on emissions and minimize future climate change.
2
“Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.”
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014. defined a set of possible future carbon emissions Climate Change:

02 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Projection Consensus 03

 THE NUMBER OF VERY HOT DAYS WILL INCREASE

EXTREME
TEMPERATURES
KEY FINDINGS

Average temperatures There will be more days of extreme

heat. Compared to the period from
in the Northeast have
1971 to 2000, when an average of 11
been slowly rising for days per year were over 90 degrees, * Baseline represents historical average from

over a century.
1971 - 2010, Upper values from high-emissions
there may be as many as 40 days over scenario. Lower values from low-emissions
scenario, Data Source: Rossi et al. 2015

90 degrees by 2030 and 90 days by

Temperatures in the northeastern
2070—nearly the entire summer.
United States increased by almost
two degrees Fahrenheit between Heat waves will become more
1895 and 2011. common, last longer, and be hotter.
AVERAGE SUMMER TEMPERATURES WILL INCREASE
The City of Boston defines heat
The rate of increase in average
waves as periods of three or more
temperatures is accelerating. While
days above 90 degrees, and heat waves
over the past century, temperatures in
are a leading cause of weather-related
the Northeast rose about two degrees,
mortality in the United States.
the increase over the next century
may be greater than ten degrees. Although winters will likely
* Baseline represents historical average from
be warmer, the risk of frost and 1981 - 2010, Upper values from high-emissions

As an urban area, Boston tends

scenario. Lower values from low-emissions
scenario, Data Source: Houser et al 2015
freeze damage and cold snaps will
to be hotter than surrounding
continue. While from 1981 to 2010,
communities that are more
Boston reached below freezing almost
suburban or rural. Urban areas
one out of three days per year, by the
generally tend to be hotter than
end of the century, this may happen
nearby rural areas because concrete, THE NUMBER OF VERY COLD DAYS MAY DECREASE
only around one in ten days.
steel, and other building materials
retain more heat than vegetation. Future temperatures in Boston will
This phenomenon, known as depend on how much we are able to
the “urban heat island effect,” is cut our greenhouse gas emissions.
compounded by climate change. The rise in temperatures between
now and 2030 is largely consistent
Boston’s summers are getting
among all emission scenarios.
hotter. While the average summer
However, the scenarios show that
temperature in Boston from 1981 to
cutting emissions now can greatly
2010 was 69 degrees, it may be as high * Baseline represents historical average from

slow the rise in temperatures in 1981 - 2010, **Upper values from high-emissions
scenario. Lower values from low-emissions
as 76 degrees by 2050 and 84 degrees scenario, Data Source: Houser et al. 2015
the second half of the century.
by 2100.

Climate Projection Consensus 05

 SEA LEVEL RISE IN BOSTON DURING THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

SEA LEVEL RISE

KEY FINDINGS

Sea level rise is caused The pace of relative sea level rise is
accelerating. Over the entire twentieth
by a combination of
century, sea levels rose about nine inches
land ice melting, relative to land. Another eight inches
thermal expansion, of relative sea level rise may happen by
and changes in land 2030, almost three times faster. By 2050,
the sea level may be as much as 1.5 feet
water storage.
higher than it was in 2000, and as much
Land ice melting includes the melting as 3 feet higher in 2070.
of mountain (alpine) glaciers, ice caps,
As sea levels rise, a deeper harbor
and the continental-scale ice sheets
will mean higher and more powerful
on Greenland, West Antarctica, and
waves. Although Boston remains Data Source: BRAG Report, 2016
East Antarctica. Thermal expansion
relatively protected from Atlantic waves
describes the phenomenon that, as
by Winthrop, Hull, and the Harbor
water warms, it generally occupies
Islands, stronger waves are more likely
a greater volume. Land water storage
to damage sea walls and erode beaches.
describes activities that affect the THE AMOUNT OF SEA LEVEL RISE DEPENDS ON GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
The outer islands and peninsula
amount of water stored on land, such
shorelines of Boston Harbor are likely
as holding water in reservoirs or behind
to experience these impacts to a greater
dams or pumping out underground
extent than the Boston proper shoreline.
water for irrigation and use by people.
A major reduction in global greenhouse
The relative sea level in Boston Harbor
gas emissions can have a tremendous
has risen over the past century. From
impact on the future of Boston Harbor.
1921 to 2015, the overall trend in relative
While sea level rise projections for
sea level rise was about 0.11 inches per
2030 are consistent across all emission
year. Relative sea level is the difference
scenarios, in later years big differences
in elevation between the sea surface
exist between scenarios. With a sharp
and land surface at a specific place and
emissions reduction, we may be able
time, so relative sea level rise can result
to keep end-of-century sea level rise to
from a combination of changes in the
under two feet, while higher emissions
sea surface and changes in the land
may result in over seven feet of
surface. In Boston, the sinking of the
sea level rise.
land surface—called “subsidence”—is
relatively minor compared to changes
in sea levels.

Climate Projection Consensus 07

EXTREME
PRECIPITATION
KEY FINDINGS

RAINFALL FROM STORMS WILL INCREASE

In the Northeast, there However, changes in daily heavy
snowfall events can be quite different
has already been a
from changes in annual snowfall.
very large increase in Expected changes to individual heavy
the intensity of extreme snow events, ice storms, and drought
rain and snow. are not clear.

Both stormwater and riverine flooding

From 1958 to 2010, there was a 70 are affected by extreme precipitation.
percent increase in the amount of Boston’s stormwater drainage system
precipitation that fell on the days with may be overwhelmed by major rain
the heaviest precipitation. events. It may be further compromised
This increase is greater in the by sea level rise as drain outlets are
Northeast than for any other flooded by the rising ocean, reducing
region of the country. the ability of the drainage system to
convey stormwater to the coast. River
The increase in extreme precipitation
flooding is also likely to increase,
is expected to continue. As the
but there are large uncertainties
climate warms, more ocean water
associated with river flooding due
evaporates into the air, and warmer
to the complexity of the climate and
air can hold more water, supporting
hydrological systems involved.
heavier precipitation events. Heavy
precipitation events will continue If we take action to cut global
to increase in Boston. However, due greenhouse gas emissions, we can
to the complexity of the processes prevent the most extreme precipitation
underlying precipitation as well as projections from becoming a reality.
natural variability, the magnitude of A commonly used measure of major
this increase is not yet clear. rain and snow events is the amount of
precipitation that has at most a one-
While the total amount of annual
in-ten annual chance of falling during
snowfall will decrease, there may
a 24-hour period. While projections
still be some heavy snow events
for these events are similar in the
through the end of the century. Based
short term across different emission
on regional projections, total snow
scenarios, by the end of the century, the
accumulations could decrease 31 to 48
difference between medium and high
percent by 2100, and the start of the
scenarios is about 10 percent.
snow season is expected to be delayed.

Climate Projection Consensus 09

STORMS
KEY FINDINGS

For Boston, the Current climate projections do not

provide a clear projection of how the
storms that are of
intensity, frequency, and trajectory
greatest concern are (tracks) of tropical and extratropical
extratropical cyclones, storms will change. Extratropical
followed by tropical storms (like blizzards and nor’easters)
have cold air at their centers. Tropical
cyclones.
storms, on the other hand, have
Extratropical cyclones, which are warm air, which means that they can
more common and longer lasting develop into hurricanes more quickly.
in the Northeast than tropical There are large uncertainties about
cyclones, currently produce most of how climate change will affect future
the storm-induced flooding in the storms. This is particularly true for
Boston region and will continue to extratropical storms. For tropical
do so in the near future. These are storms, there is some evidence that
storms that originate outside of the their intensity has been increasing.
tropics and are sometimes called If tropical storm intensity increases,
nor’easters. They can form during major hurricanes (Category 3 and
any time of the year but are most greater) could occur more frequently,
prevalent in the extended cold-season even if the total number of tropical
months. Tropical cyclones are storms storms does not increase.
that originate in the tropics and are
Rising sea levels mean that any
called hurricanes once they reach a
given storm will cause more
sustained wind speed of more than 74
flooding in the future than it would
miles per hour.
today. During a storm, winds can
blow ocean water toward the land,
creating a “storm surge” on top of the
baseline sea level. When storm surge
is combined with tidal processes,
the result is known as a “storm tide.”
With higher seas, less precipitation
and a less powerful storm surge can
produce the same amount of flooding
as a more powerful storm would Image courtesy of Sasaki
produce when the seas are lower.

Climate Projection Consensus 11

MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH

Each of these hazards impacts the city’s people, buildings,

infrastructure, environment, and economy in different ways.

Climate
Stormwater flooding and extreme heat assessment also considers the nature of
are evaluated as frequent or chronic the three climate hazards, as well as their
hazards1 that gradually degrade personal

Vulnerability
separate and diverse expected effects on
and economic well-being and directly Boston’s people, buildings, infrastructure,
expose parts of every neighborhood in and the economy. The Exposure and

Assessment
Boston. Coastal and riverine flooding is Consequence Analysis for Focus Areas was
expected to be an acute hazard for much developed to provide deeper insight into
of the remainder of the century, exposure and consequences as a result of
experienced through major storm events coastal flood hazards in specific vulnerable
with immediate and long-lasting impacts. areas within the Boston community. Climate
Moreover, as sea levels continue to rise, Ready Boston is able to address coastal flood

As the climate coastal flooding from high tides is

expected to become a chronic hazard,
hazard for coastal focus areas due to the
robust nature of the information available,
continues to potentially flooding many low-lying
neighborhoods along the waterfront on a
quality of evaluation possible at that scale,
and magnitude of expected consequences
change, three monthly basis. This is in addition to acute throughout this century. The following

major climate
storm events, which are expected to become focus areas have been examined for coastal
more severe and cause greater damage flood hazard beyond the details provided at

hazards will
over time. This chapter, the Climate Ready the citywide scale:
Boston Vulnerability Assessment, analyzes
◦ Charlestown
increasingly how people, buildings, infrastructure,
and the economy are affected by climate ◦ Charles River neighborhoods2

impact Boston: hazards. Vulnerability Assessment findings

are reported at two scales: first, at the city
◦ East Boston
◦ Dorchester
extreme heat, scale (referred to herein as the Citywide
Exposure and Consequence Analysis); ◦ Downtown

stormwater and second, at the scale of neighborhoods

or groups of neighborhoods, referred to as
◦ South Boston
◦ South End
flooding, and focus areas. The Citywide Exposure and
Consequence Analysis includes a discussion
An eighth focus area, Roxbury, serves as

coastal and of socially vulnerable populations in the

an illustrative example of the interplay
of the three hazards reviewed in this

riverine flooding.
city: people who are more vulnerable to
Vulnerability Assessment with multiple
climate hazards due to life circumstances
social vulnerability factors and their effects
such as poverty, poor health, and limited
on collective risk and resilience planning.
English proficiency. The citywide

1
Both heat and stormwater flooding also have the capacity to impact 2
The Charles River neighborhoods include Allston/Brighton, Back Bay,
the city through severe, acute events. Boston currently experiences heat Beacon Hill, and Fenway/Kenmore. These neighborhoods are expected to
Image courtesy of Sasaki indexes greater than 90 degrees more than once a year. Over time, the be exposed to overtopping or flanking of the Charles River Dam.
number of days at which this heat index is reached will continue to grow,
increasing an already chronic issue. Climate Ready Boston evaluates
stormwater flooding at the 10-year, 24-hour frequency event, though more
and less severe and frequent events are known to occur. This evaluation is
in line with the assessment led by the Boston Water and Sewer Commission,
as well as the target level of performance for drainage systems within the
City of Boston.

12 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 13

PROCESS OVERVIEW THE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
EVALUATES THESE THREE CLIMATE
The Climate Ready Boston Vulnerability HAZARDS:
Assessment evaluates three climate hazards
and their plausible changes over time due to
climate change:

◦ Chronic extreme heat

◦ Frequent stormwater flooding
◦ Acute and chronic coastal and riverine
flooding
Climate Ready Boston developed a
methodology unique to each hazard to evaluate
impacts on people, buildings, infrastructure,
and the economy. Boston’s socially vulnerable
populations, which are less able to prepare for,
adapt to, and bounce back from climate impacts, EXTREME HEAT FREQUENT STORMWATER FLOODING COASTAL & RIVERINE FLOODING
received particular attention. Heat is a chronic hazard, a stress The extent of frequent stormwater Coastal and riverine fl ooding is
that the city faces every year. As fl ooding 4 is expected to grow expected to lead to the most
Methodologies vary for each hazard due to the average temperatures rise and over time, further limiting access signifi cant climate hazard
the frequency, duration, and and mobility during fl ood events consequences. Flooding will
quality and granularity of data available. In the intensity of heat waves increase, across the city. Due to limitations in be concentrated in low-lying
case of extreme heat, for instance, a detailed risk heat mortality rates will also rise. available data, this study assesses waterfront neighborhoods,
assessment of infrastructure and the economy is Temperatures are hottest in areas frequent stormwater fl ooding particularly Charlestown,
of the city that experience the only. Though high-severity, low- Downtown, East Boston, South
impractical due to data limitations. Accordingly, urban heat island effect, but on probability rain events are not Boston, and, later in the century,
the impacts to people and buildings are the very hot days, the entire city is assessed, the impacts of frequent the South End and Dorchester.
primary focus. In the case of the stormwater at risk for the health impacts of fl ooding are informative to long- Due to sea level rise, late in the
extreme heat, especially those term planning as they can have century, coastal and riverine
flooding, the evaluation of buildings and with health or other physical broad societal effects and can be fl ooding will affect Boston both
infrastructure is largely qualitative. In contrast, challenges, such as older adults particularly disruptive for people during storm events and during
a rich coastal and riverine flooding dataset is or those with medical illness. The who already face signifi cant high tides, which will cause
heat will increasingly stress the challenges due to poverty, illness, large-scale fl ooding in some
available for multiple sea level rise conditions city’s energy supply and related or other social vulnerability factors. neighborhoods.
and coastal storm flood probabilities that can infrastructure as people seek ways Frequent stormwater fl ooding is a
be used to quantitatively assess exposures, to cool down. citywide concern in Boston, with 7 Building upon previous work
percent of the total land area in the by the City, other government
vulnerabilities, and consequences.3 city likely to be exposed to the 10- agencies, and private entities,
year, 24-hour event as soon as the the Climate Ready Boston
2050s and 9 percent by the end of Vulnerability Assessment uses
the century. West Roxbury, Allston, the best available hazard data,
3
Quantitative results presented in this report are preliminary and are based
Brighton, East Boston, and South adjusted in some cases to align
on data with inherent uncertainties, as well as generalized assumptions, as Dorchester have the largest areas with the climate projection
opposed to site-specific assessment of assets, structures, and population
present within specific buildings. For example, the first-floor elevation of a of land affected by stormwater consensus developed by the
structure is assumed to be at grade. In actuality, many residential structures are
split, and steps at grade may descend to the first floor (potentially increasing fl ooding, while the South End and Boston Research Advisory Group
flood loss), and other structures may be elevated or flood-proofed above
grade. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are beyond the scope of
South Boston can expect to see (BRAG), the fi rst component of the
this assessment and should be reserved for detailed evaluation of specific the greatest increase in land area Climate Ready Boston initiative
adaptation measures. Values should be interpreted as indicators of relative risk
among different areas within the city. exposed to stormwater fl ooding (see Climate Projection Consensus
as sea levels rise and precipitation chapter, p.01).
events become more extreme.
4
The Vulnerability Assessment evaluates 10-year, 24-hour storm
events. It does not evaluate more severe events, like the 100-
year, 24-hour storm events.

14 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 15

EXPOSURE, VULNERABILITY,
CONSEQUENCES, AND RISK
Exposure signifies people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources (assets)
that are within areas that are most likely to
experience hazard impacts. Nevertheless,
exposure analysis does not provide insight
into the extent or severity of exposure or
even whether the people, buildings, or
infrastructure will experience loss, as it does
not consider site specific conditions (e.g.,
building flood-proofing) that may prevent or
limit impacts.
Vulnerability refers to how and why people or
assets could be affected by a hazard or how
and why the effects could be exacerbated or
limited. Assessing vulnerabilities requires site-
specific or demographic information, such as CONNECTING CLIMATE PROJECTIONS TO THE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT’S HAZARD ANALYSIS
existing flood-proofing measures or whether
people have vehicles that could facilitate
evacuation.
Consequence analysis illustrates to what
extent people or assets can be expected
to be affected by a hazard, as a result
of combined vulnerability and exposure.
Consequences are qualitative and
quantitative impacts to exposed and
vulnerable people, buildings, or infrastructure, Climate Factors for Climate
and many can be communicated in terms
of economic losses. Categories of loss Projection Consensus
quantified for this analysis include direct
physical damages to buildings (including
structure, contents, and inventory damage),
human impacts or stress factors (mental stress,
anxiety, and lost productivity), displacement
costs (the cost to relocate a business or
household as a result of flood impacts), and
losses to the city’s economy due to business

Climate Hazards from

interruption. The consequence analysis
also evaluates shelter needs expected as

Vulnerability Assessment
a result of a coastal flood event, but these
consequences are not separately monetized.
Risk is essentially the combination of exposure,
vulnerability, and consequences. Risk is often
defined as the product of both the probability
and consequences of an impact and is
expressed in this report as annualized losses.

GEOGRAPHIC VARIABILITY OF HAZARDS and businesses that reside in the area, the entry in the Exposure and Consequence Analysis for
point along the waterfront leading to flooding, Focus Areas, which were selected for additional
Two climate hazards—extreme heat and
variation in topography, and the coastal or riverine assessment at a more granular level due the robust
stormwater flooding—generally pose similar
conditions defining the flood hazard (e.g., the nature of the information available, quality of
threats citywide; thus, the challenges and basic
duration of flooding). evaluation possible at that scale, and magnitude of
principles of many preparedness efforts related to
expected consequences throughout this century.
heat and stormwater hazards remain largely the Level of detail also varies spatially (e.g.,
The Roxbury neighborhood has been selected as
same across neighborhoods. In contrast, coastal neighborhood versus citywide) based on best
a case study example of the interplay of multiple
and riverine flooding hazards vary widely by available data and methodological approaches by
hazards with multiple social vulnerability factors
neighborhood and throughout time. Possible hazard. Exposure to each hazard is assessed in the
and their effects on both collective risk and
adaptations are dependent on the location in Citywide Exposure and Consequence Analysis.
resiliency planning.
the city, community context and the people Coastal flood hazard details are further explored

16 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 17

HAZARDS to understand future UHIs and temperature Wastewater Facilities Study9 used the storm to
severity in Boston areas. Since extreme heat will be conduct a climate assessment; the BWSC data are
A description of each of the three hazards
experienced across the city, there are no “exposure” the best available set of comprehensive stormwater
evaluated as part of this Vulnerability Assessment,
statistics to report, and focusing only on the flooding data throughout the city.10 Additionally,
the motivation for assessing a given hazard,
exposure to heat islands would be misleading; the BWSC data align with the Climate Ready
the Climate Ready Boston climate projections
populations and infrastructure across the city will Boston climate projections for sea level rise (SLR)
analyzed, and hazard data available from previous
be at risk of the impacts of hotter temperatures. and precipitation.11 Specifically, three BWSC
studies are outlined below.
10-year, 24-hour stormwater flood extents were
Many of the consequences of extreme heat are
EXTREME HEAT evaluated citywide.12
not readily quantifiable. Instead, understanding
Boston will experience both an increase in that loss of life is a severe risk that a city or
average temperatures and more extreme heat community can face, the assessment focuses LIKELY YEARS OF VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT SLR 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR
INITIAL OCCURRENCE (ABOVE CURRENT TIDE LEVELS) RAINFALL DEPTH
events. Heat waves can cause risks to health, on quantifying an increase in heat mortality
but the negative consequences of heat on the and analyzing qualitatively the other
2030S–2050S13 9 INCHES 5.6 INCHES
population can be mitigated with effective consequences of extreme heat, including
measures to prepare individuals and communities. increased morbidity (illness), increased 2050S–2100S14 21 INCHES 5.8 INCHES

Heat is especially dangerous to those with health energy use, and environmental impacts.
2070S OR LATER15 36 INCHES 6.0 INCHES
challenges, and it puts strain on the natural and
STORMWATER FLOODING
built environment, including through energy
demands and damage caused by heat expansion For the purposes of this study, frequent stormwater Due to model and data limitations associated with 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM
flooding has been assessed using a 10-year, 24-hour Consistent with the BWSC Wastewater Facilities Study,
in building and road materials. the BWSC analysis, stormwater flooding exposure the Vulnerability Assessment uses the 10-year, 24-hour
design storm. Changes in frequent stormwater is reported at the citywide scale. The Vulnerability design storm to approximate stormwater flooding
This assessment outlines anticipated increases extents due to changing sea levels and extreme
flooding over time were evaluated based on Assessment estimates direct exposure to buildings precipitation over time.
in average temperature and extreme heat events
projected changes to extreme precipitation and and the residents within those buildings but does
and the impact these changes will have on
sea level rise but assuming no changes to the not describe impacts to individual buildings or
A 10-year storm has a 10 percent chance of being
public health. The Climate Ready Boston Climate equaled or exceeded any given year. A 24-hour
current stormwater drainage system.6 Even with infrastructure assets.16 Additional qualitative design condition defines the duration of intense
Projection Consensus evaluated data from many rainfall. Though rainfall can be less or more intense,
current sea levels and precipitation intensities, assessments are made where possible. In contrast,
recent studies performed across the northeast; and the duration can last hours to days, only 10-
Boston’s existing stormwater drainage system is the available coastal and riverine flooding data year, 24-hour design storm data are available for this
data sources used include projections for average analysis. More intense rainfall, like 100-year events (i.e.,
designed to handle 4.8 inches of rain in 24 hours7 allow for an assessment of individual buildings those with a 1 percent chance of occurring in a given
temperatures and heat waves, as well as analysis
and can become overwhelmed by fairly frequent and infrastructure and a more detailed discussion
year), are not considered due to data limitations but
of the urban heat island (UHI) effect. are important to understanding the full spectrum of
rain events (e.g., the 10-year, 24-hour storm, both at the citywide and neighborhood scale. vulnerabilities related to stormwater flooding.

Locally, a heat wave is defined most often approximately 5.24 inches of rain in 24 hours8),
(and for the purposes of this study) as three or leading to pooling of water on streets and localized
more days in a row with maximum ambient flooding. Conveying collected stormwater will 6
The analysis assumes that the current stormwater drainage system remains as it is See Appendix for a comparison of the flood data used in this analysis to current
12

today, though the Boston Water and Sewer Commission has plans to improve the conditions, as well as a description of system current conditions.
temperatures greater than 90 degrees Fahrenheit. prove even more challenging with the addition system incrementally over time.
Climate condition and stormwater hazard flooding data are the BWSC Wastewater
13

7
Source: Sullivan, John “Climate Adaptation Challenges for Boston’s Water and Facilities Study medium sea level rise scenario for 2035. The exact BWSC sea level rise
The Vulnerability Assessment used data and of sea level rise and more intense precipitation. Sewer Systems.” Presentation for the National Association of Flood and Stormwater value examined is 0.87 feet above 2010 tide levels, in combination with a 10-year, 24-
Management Agencies. October 15, 2014. hour rainfall of 5.55 inches.
projections created as part of the City of Cambridge This design storm was selected because the 8
Source: Jewell, Charlie, John Sullivan, Bill McMillin. “BWSC Climate Change Risk Climate condition and stormwater hazard flooding data are the BWSC Wastewater
14

Assessment: Findings and Mitigation/Adaptation Strategies for Wastewater and Storm Facilities Study medium sea level rise scenario for 2060. The exact BWSC sea level rise
Vulnerability Assessment, supplemented by the Boston Water and Sewer Commission’s (BWSC) Drainage.” Presentation for the NEWEA Annual Conference and Exhibit. January 28, value examined is 1.71 feet above 2010 tide levels in combination with a 10-year, 24-
2015 hour rainfall of 5.76 inches.

Kopp and Rassmussen 2014 projections to best 9

Source: “Wastewater and Storm Drainage System Facilities Plan.” CH2M Hill
Companies, Ltd. Final Report to Boston Water and Sewer Commission. June, 2015.
15
Climate condition and stormwater hazard flooding data are the BWSC Wastewater
Facilities Study precautionary sea level rise scenario for 2060. The exact BWSC sea level
understand and analyze frequency, intensity, 5
While Climate Ready Boston has not analyzed future heat island projections in this
10
BWSC examined multiple stormwater flooding conditions, including the impacts
rise value examined is 2.76 feet above 2010 tide levels in combination with a 10-year,
24-hour rainfall of 6.03 inches.
report, Rossi et al. observed a general trend that UHIs tend to remain in place (and of coastal storms on stormwater flooding. Because coastal and riverine flooding is
and duration of extreme temperatures in Boston. increase in severity) in warmer future scenarios, which were applied in this UHI analysis.
UHI is understood through spatial analysis conducted by the TPL to identify specific
addressed separately using the recently developed MassDOT-FHWA analysis data,
the BWSC data carried forward into this Vulnerability Assessment are the stormwater
16
Per the BWSC Wastewater Facilities Study: “It is not appropriate to use [these data] for
detailed analysis (i.e., at the community or parcel-level) and [these data] should not be
localities in Boston that experience higher temperatures than the city average locality flooding data that combined future sea level rise and extreme precipitation conditions used as the sole source of flood elevation information. It does not necessarily identify
during days with hot temperatures. The TPL maps show relative land surface temperature only. all areas subject to flooding particularly from local drainage sources of small size. Users
The Vulnerability Assessment uses the Trust for data from MODIS/Aqua radiometer satellite (MODIS MYD11A2) from the warmest summer 11
BWSC Wastewater Facilities Study data considered two climate change scenarios,
should be aware that inundation areas are calculated by mathematical models with
months. They identify the specific locations in urban areas that meet the characteristics precision that is limited to historical calibrations.”
B2 (medium) and A1FI (precautionary). For extreme precipitation, the BWSC medium
Public Land’s (TPL) base heat island analysis5 of UHI isotherms and have land surface temperatures averaging at least 1.25 degrees climate scenario aligns with the BRAG moderate emissions reduction projections, while
Fahrenheit above the mean temperature for both day and night scenarios. the precautionary scenario aligns with the BRAG business-as-usual emissions projections.

18 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 19

COASTAL AND RIVERINE FLOODING MassDOT-FHWA data, and the data for 21 inches CLIMATE READY BOSTON SEA LEVEL SCENARIOS COASTAL AND RIVERINE FLOODING
of sea level rise were created specifically for
Coastal and riverine flood hazard data used in
Climate Ready Boston.19
this Vulnerability Assessment define estimated
flood depths and extents as a result of tide levels, The Climate Ready Boston evaluation also considers
riverine flows, coastal storms, and sea level rise. flood hazards from high tides and sea level rise
The flood hazard data were selected to capture a alone—meaning “blue sky” conditions, without
spectrum of acute events (e.g., severe coastal storms storms. Because the Boston area has a large tide
combined with sea level rise) and chronic flooding range, a combined sea level rise and high tide
(e.g., potential frequent flooding due to high tide flood exposure evaluation must also consider
and sea level rise alone, without storms). the frequency of occurrence of tide levels. This
Vulnerability Assessment combines an average
In order to define a range of possible flood
monthly high tide level20 with sea level rise to define
conditions for Climate Ready Boston (higher
future high-tide flooding exposure. Average monthly
probability / lower impact through lower
high tide is approximately two feet higher than the
probability / higher impact), 10 percent, 2 percent,
commonly used mean higher high water (MHHW,
1 percent, and 0.1 percent annual chance flood
the average of the higher high water levels of each
extents and depths were generated for three
tidal day), and lower than king tides (the twice-a-
sea level rise conditions using data provided by
year high tides that occur when the gravitational
MassDOT-FHWA. The Climate Ready Boston flood
pulls of the sun and the moon are aligned).
data (all four probabilities) for 9 inches17 and 36
inches18 of sea level rise are largely identical to the 18
Climate scenario and coastal/riverine hazard flooding data are the MassDOT-FHWA
high sea level rise scenario for 2070/intermediate sea level rise scenario for 2100. Actual
sea level rise value is 3.2 feet above 2013 tide levels, with an additional 2.5 inches to
17
Climate scenario and coastal/riverine hazard flooding data are the MassDOT-FHWA account for subsidence.
high sea level rise scenario for 2030. Actual sea level rise value is 0.62 feet above 2013 19
Data were interpolated from the MassDOT-FHWA 2030 and 2070/2100 data.
tide levels, with an additional 0.74 inches to account for subsidence.
20
Average highest tide for each month in 2015. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT SLR
LIKELY YEARS OF INITIAL OCCURRENCE
(above current sea level)

Major Emissions Moderate Emissions

Business as usual
Reduction Reduction

9 inches 2030s–2050s 2030s–2050s 2030s–2050s

SELECTION OF SEA LEVEL RISE 21 CONDITIONS • Three sea level rise conditions have been used in the
Sea levels, or the difference in elevation between the sea evaluation: 9 inches, 21 inches, and 36 inches above 21 inches 2060s–2100s 2060s–2090s 2050s–2080s
surface and land surface, have risen in Boston over the past current sea levels.22 These selected conditions reflect
century due to multiple, complex, and simultaneous processes. a range of sea level rise conditions likely to occur before 36 inches 2090s OR LATER 2080s OR LATER 2070s OR LATER
These processes include thermal expansion and ice-sheet melt, the end of the century in the three emissions scenarios
the gravitational effect of ice-sheet melt, ocean dynamics, considered.
and vertical land movement (such as local subsidence).
From 1921 to 2015, the overall trend in sea level rise was • By the end of the 2050s, 9 inches of sea level rise is These three sea level rise conditions do not COASTAL FLOOD HAZARD DATA
approximately 1.1 inches per decade. From 1990 to 2010, expected consistently across emissions scenarios and is include the worst-case scenarios but instead The majority of the coastal flood hazard data created as part of this assessment
the average rate increased to 2.1 inches of sea level rise per together define a likely range before the end are a reanalysis of the coastal flood hazard data developed as part of the
likely to occur as early as the 2030s.
decade. This means that Boston’s 2015 sea levels are about 3 of the century. Though these three scenarios MassDOT-FHWA analysis.23 In 2015, MassDOT released an analysis of coastal flood
inches higher than 2000. • In the second half of the century, 21 inches is expected are used for qualitative and quantitative hazards using state-of-the-art numerical models capable of simulating thousands
assessment in this study, more severe and even of potential nor’easters and tropical storms coincident with a range of tide levels,
across all emissions scenarios.
The pace of sea level rise is accelerating. Sea level rise worst-case sea level rise scenarios should also riverine flow rates in the Charles and Mystic Rivers, and sea level rise conditions.
projections by 2030 are consistent across all emissions scenarios • The highest sea level rise considered, 36 inches, is highly be considered as part of future climate-related
evaluated in Climate Ready Boston, with likely sea level rise rates studies. Evaluation and design of adaptation The City of Boston used a similar approach and the same technical team as the
probable toward the end of the century. This scenario has
ranging from historic rates to 3 inches per decade (a nearly 50 measures should consider that more severe sea MassDOT-FHWA analysis when working with the Federal Emergency Management
a greater than 50 percent chance of occurring within this
percent higher rate of increase than the last two decades). level rise conditions are possible; the BRAG’s Agency (FEMA) in the development of flood insurance rate maps (FIRM)
Later in the century, the rate of sea level rise is expected to time period for the moderate emissions reduction and
“business as usual” scenario estimates that that went into effect on March 16, 2016. The FEMA FIRMs define current flood
further accelerate, with significant variation between emissions business-as-usual scenarios and a nearly 50 percent chance seven feet of sea level rise is within the likely risk from a regulatory perspective. Nevertheless, the data available from the
scenarios (see the Climate Projection Consensus for more for the major emissions reduction scenario. range by the end of the century. MassDOT-FHWA analysis are used in this study because unlike the FEMA FIRMs,
information on this topic). the MassDOT-FHWA data account for sea level rise and other climate related
factors. More details can be found in the Appendix.
21
Relative sea level rise, including subsidence, is considered in this document. Though 22
The BRAG Climate Projection Consensus report documented sea level changes relative Bosma, Kirk, et al. “MassDOT-FHWA Pilot Project Report: Climate Change and Extreme Weather Vulnerability
23

the term “sea level rise” is used throughout the document, this Vulnerability Assessment to a year 2000 reference level, while the Vulnerability Assessment assumes current (2016) Assessments and Adaptation Options for the Central Artery.” MassDOT FHWA Report. June 2015. https://www.
is referring to relative sea level rise, and not just rise in sea levels alone. Additionally, in sea levels as a reference level. Current sea levels are about three inches higher than massdot.state.ma.us/Portals/8/docs/environmental/SustainabilityEMS/Pilot_Project_Report_MassDOT_FHWA.pdf.
many graphs and tables, the acronym “SLR” is used. those in 2000. See the Climate Projection Summary in this report for more information.

20 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 21

 EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES: AN can be thought of as a stressor that the individual
INTRODUCTION TO THE VULNERABILIT Y or household experiences, limiting that person or
JUNE 1–JUNE 15, 2016 OBSERVED WATER LEVELS, BOSTON, MA ASSESSMENT CALCUL ATIONS household’s ability to adapt to and absorb chronic
PEOPLE or frequent stresses from climate hazards (e.g., heat
or stormwater flooding hazards) or recover from
Boston enjoys a richly diverse population; a key
acute events (e.g., coastal storm flooding).
part of Climate Ready Boston is analyzing how
climate hazards will impact Boston’s residents. Data regarding social vulnerability to climate
The Vulnerability Assessment quantifies exposures change face some limitations; it can be difficult
to populations as a whole, with an additional to differentiate between inherent challenges
qualitative focus on vulnerable populations to socially vulnerable populations and climate-
expected to be disproportionately affected by specific challenges and impacts. Similarly,
each hazard. solutions to create more resilient neighborhoods
often overlap with solutions to strengthen the
Not all residents are equally able to prepare
community as a whole. In-depth research into
for, adapt to, and bounce back from temperature
how different social vulnerabilities correlate and
and flood hazards. Those most vulnerable to
Observation Data from NOAA Gauge Observations (Station 8443970 in Fort Point Channel) “Average Monthly High Tide” is an average of the highest monthly tides
overlap is in somewhat early stages, making it
current hazards are expected to be impacted
difficult to quantify how much belonging to one or
the most as hazards worsen with climate change.
more socially vulnerable group changes the way a
Climate Ready Boston specifically considers the
person is affected by climate hazards. Overlapping
populations in Boston more vulnerable to these
groups can lead to over-counting; the assessment
PERCENT ANNUAL hazards. The Climate Resilience Initiatives chapter
quantifies how many people in one specific
CHANCE FLOOD (see p.74) describes options for increasing resiliency
vulnerable group live in a neighborhood but not
VERSUS 100-YEAR for these groups.
FLOOD the total number of vulnerable residents, due to
A “1 percent annual
Seven groups who tend to be especially vulnerable the potential for one individual to belong to
chance flood” is a flood
event that has a 1 in 100 to heat and flood hazards have been considered:24 multiple groups.
chance of occurring in
any given year. Another In its evaluation of exposure to and consequences
name for this flood, which ◦ Older adults (65+)
is the primary coastal flood of impact as a result of heat or frequent stormwater
hazard delineated in FEMA ◦ Children
FIRMs, is the “100-year
flooding, the Vulnerability Assessment takes a
flood.” Experts prefer not ◦ People of color
to use the “100-year” term,
since it gives the impression ◦ People with limited English proficiency
that a certain level of
◦ People with low to no income SOCIAL VULNERABILITY
flooding will reliably occur
once every 100 years. In Social vulnerability is defined as the disproportionate
fact, it has a 1 percent ◦ People with disabilities susceptibility of some social groups to the impacts
chance of occurring in of hazards. These impacts could include death,
any given year and can ◦ People with chronic and acute medical illness injury, loss, or disruption of life or livelihood. Social
even occur multiple times vulnerability also affects a population’s resilience:
in a single year or decade, These groups are not necessarily independent. ability to adequately recover from or avoid
or it can occur less impacts. Vulnerability is a function of demographic
frequently. Over a 30-year For example, immigrants are often those with characteristics of the population, as well as
environmental and community conditions such as
period, there is almost a limited English proficiency.25 Each vulnerability healthcare provision, social capital, access to social
one in three chance that
a 1 percent annual networks, and social isolation.
chance flood will occur 24
Several studies and methodologies surrounding social vulnerability informed this
at least once. analysis, including the Social Vulnerability Index and a 2015 study by Dr. Atyia Martin,
Image courtesy of Sasaki which used advanced Boston-specific data to assess how various determinants of
social vulnerability relate to one another (co-occurrences) and to identify primary
variables that capture the full range of vulnerabilities. Source: Martin, S. Atyia. “A
Framework to Understand the Relationship between Social Factors That Reduce
Resilience in Cities: Application to the City of Boston.” International Journal of Disaster
Risk Reduction 12:53–80. 2015.
25
Ibid.

22 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 23

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT LOSS CATEGORIES

consider the portion of the population expected to understand potential financial consequences in
LOSS CATEGORY LOSSES CONSIDERED DESCRIPTION
actively seek treatment and not all of those who the case of flood impacts. Grade-elevation data
will likely experience some sort of impairment as was combined with the building stock in order
Natural disasters threaten or cause the loss of a result of the stress from an event. to analyze the extent and depth of flooding that
• Mental stress and Anxiety health, social, and economic resources, which
STRESS FACTORS leads to psychological distress. Stress factors are a could occur at and within each structure based
• Lost Productivity Additional consequence calculations related
product of damage to people’s homes and are on the flood hazard data described above.
quantified as treatment costs and as lost income.29 to the city’s population are captured within the
coastal and riverine evaluations for buildings Flood exposure was determined by cross-
Shelter needs for coastal and riverine flood events and the economy and should be considered when referencing structure location data with
• Number of people and
SHELTER NEEDS households in need of
are calculated as a function of flood depth and planning for both the general population and stormwater, coastal, and riverine flood hazard
certain social vulnerability factors, such as age and
public shelter vulnerable people. Such calculations include overlays and has been calculated based on
income of the affected population.
relocation and displacement costs as well as structures shown to currently exist within areas
potential job loss. More information on these identified as future flood hazard areas. Exposure
• Structure Damage Direct physical damages include the destruction
DIRECT PHYSICAL topics is provided below. results for flood hazard can be reported based on
and degradation of buildings as a result of coastal
DAMAGES TO • Content Loss
BUILDINGS
or riverine flooding and are quantifiable as any number of structure characteristics and are
• Inventory Loss monetary losses. BUILDINGS
provided in this report by number and type of
Climate Ready Boston developed an understanding structures exposed, exposed square footage, and
of both exposure and potential consequences real estate market value exposed. Exposure to heat
Displacement costs are associated with moving
DISPLACEMENT
• One time displacement and
a household or a business to a new location and of climate hazard impacts to the city’s current hazard is pervasive across the city, with higher
relocation costs
resuming activity in that new location. heat indexes expected within urban heat islands.
building stock through a number of steps described
in detail in the Appendix and briefly described
Consequences of coastal and riverine flood
here. First, Climate Ready Boston compiled a
more qualitative approach, though it also explores Mental stress and anxiety calculations are based damage were evaluated based on depth damage
comprehensive building stock inventory from a
numbers and demographics of people expected on the percent share of the impacted population functions developed by the United States Army
variety of sources. The information gathered from
to be affected. The coastal and riverine flood-risk expected to seek mental health treatment as a Corps (USACE) for this region following Hurricane
these sources was reconciled and reviewed for
evaluation considers potential consequences in result of disruption caused by direct physical flood Sandy.34 Flood depths at each structure are cross-
overlap, inaccuracies, and need for clarity. Data
a more quantitative fashion. It looks not just at impacts to the structures within which they reside, referenced with depth damage functions that
fields used for the evaluation were extensive and
the number of people exposed or expected to be as well as the expected costs of such treatment.27 provide expected percent loss and expected
include such structure characteristics as location,
displaced as the result of an event but reviews Lost productivity28 refers to lost work productivity displacement times (number of days that the
footprint, use, number of stories, and real estate
expected economic costs resulting from mental as a result of mental stress and anxiety alone, and it structure is expected to be uninhabitable) for
market value. Based on the location, use, size,
stress and anxiety as well as lost productivity. is calculated based on expected earnings lost over the structure.35 Costs of displacement36 and direct
and type of structure, analysts developed building
Shelter needs expected for each evaluated event time as a result of decreased work productivity or physical damage to buildings were then calculated
construction and replacement costs,30 one-time
in each sea level rise scenario have been calculated performance. Both figures only consider impacts based on percent loss and displacement time
disruption costs31 for the structure, and expected
based on the following factors:26 for the 30-month period following a flood event combined with structure replacement costs and
contents and inventory32 as well as rental rates33
and are considered highly conservative (low disruption costs and rental rates, respectively.
◦ Expected flood depths within occupied and other assumptions that would be needed to
estimates), particularly given that results only
structures
26
Methodology is detailed in the Appendix and follows process described in FEMA’s 30
Building replacement values per square foot were obtained by analysts from Source: “North Atlantic Coast Comprehensive Study (NAACS).” U.S. Army Corps of
34

◦ Population residing in those structures Hazus Flood Technical Manual 2.1. Source: “Hazus Flood Technical Manual.” Federal
Emergency Management Agency. Hazushtt
RSMeans2016 square footage costs for building types in the Boston area. See Appendix
for more detail.
Engineers. http://www.nad.usace.army.mil/CompStudy.
35
One-time disruption costs are essentially costs to move people or contents from one
27
See Appendix for detailed methodology and sources. 31
One-time disruption costs are essentially costs to move people or contents from one location to another and have been developed using FEMA Hazus values. See Appendix
◦ The share of the current population within a 28
Both mental stress and anxiety and lost productivity are calculated using FEMA
location to another and have been developed using FEMA Hazus values. See Appendix TBD for more detail.
TBD for more detail.
methodologies approved for benefit-cost analyses to federal funding for mitigation 36
Displacement or relocation costs are calculated based on numerous factors to
given area that is identified as low to moderate projects. See Appendix for detailed methodology and sources. Source: “Final 32
The contents replacement value is based on the contents-to-structure ratio values include local rental rates, owner occupancy rates, structure flood depths, and others.
Sustainability Benefits Methodology Report.” Federal Emergency Management Agency. (CSRV) for residential and non-residential structures from data obtained through surveys See Appendix for full methodology.
income or as older adults August 23, 2012. /pii/S22124291400119 in the West Shore Lake Pontchartrain Hurricane and Storm Damage Risk Reduction
Study. Source: “West Shore Lake Pontchartrain Hurricane and Storm Damage Risk
29
Values are considered conservative as they only incorporate the percent of the
Reduction Study—Final Integrated Feasibility Study Report and Environmental Impact
population expected to seek treatment, as opposed to the entire population expected
Statement.” USACE. November 2014.
to experience mental stress and anxiety. Further, only near-term effects are evaluated.
Refer to the Appendix for a more detailed description of the approach. 33
Based on 2016 local market rates. See Appendix for more detail.

24 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 25

 SUPPORT FROM INFRASTRUCTURE
DEPTH DAMAGE FUNCTIONS IN PRACTICE
Example Adapted from FEMA’s Benefit Cost Analysis Training Unit 3
37 AND COMMUNITY LEADERS
Infrastructure and community stakeholders supported the
development of the Vulnerability Assessment and climate
resilience initiatives through participation in the IAG and
the Community Climate Resilience Focus Groups.

Infrastructure Advisory Group: IAG members included

representatives from the following:

• Utility companies

• Hospitals, including Medical and Scientific

Community Organization, Inc. (MASCO)

• Universities

• Public agencies, such as the Massachusetts Port

Authority (Massport), MassDOT, Boston Housing
Authority, and the Boston Water and Sewer
Commission.

• City agencies such as the Department of Public Works

(DPW), the Parks and Recreation Department (BPRD),
Consequences of impact from heat- and Climate Ready Boston developed a detailed specific information necessary to individually the Boston Transportation Department (BTD), the Boston
stormwater-related flood hazards are assessed asset inventory to capture infrastructure and to assess infrastructure vulnerability.38 Only direct Conservation Commission, the Boston Public Health
Commission, and the Commission for Elderly Affairs
more qualitatively based on structure types supplement the general building stock described physical damages to buildings have been captured
and occupancies, as well as lessons learned. above. This combined inventory was based on for coastal and riverine flood hazard using Through a series of group planning discussions and
For example, certain structures are more likely over 130 separate datasets from a variety of the method explained above in the Buildings workshops, IAG members supported the process by
providing insight on the greater Boston area infrastructure
to experience stress to their power supply as a sources (see Appendix for more detail). This section, with potential impacts to service and (e.g., transportation, utilities, buildings, environmental
and recreational assets, public housing, and schools)
result of excessive heat. dataset was merged with the general building line routes (such as transportation, pipelines,
and key interdependencies between different types of
stock, where appropriate, in order to fill in data electrical lines) described qualitatively.39 Heat infrastructure. Cascading impacts of interruption in the
INFRASTRUCTURE transportation network rose as a major concern across
gaps and confirm property uses. Members of the hazard vulnerability is assessed qualitatively IAG members from all sectors.
Infrastructure refers to facilities and assets that Infrastructure Advisory Group (IAG) supported and refers predominantly to impacts on energy
provide a public service to the City of Boston and the identification of infrastructure assets, as well infrastructure as well as public and other facilities Community Climate Resiliency Focus Group: Focus group
members included representatives from the following:
its population. Infrastructure may be publicly or as relationships and interdependencies between without air conditioning or that may house
• Community and neighborhood development
privately owned and operated and include the different assets and entities, individual and system vulnerable populations (such as nursing homes
corporations (e.g., the Neighborhood of Affordable
following, for example: vulnerabilities, and existing resiliency measures or public housing). Housing [NOAH])
in place or planned. • Government agencies and commissions (i.e., the
◦ Critical facilities, such as water treatment While the focus of this analysis is on impacts to
Boston Public Health Commission] and the Boston
facilities and generating plants The infrastructure analysis for stormwater Boston’s infrastructure, much infrastructure is Elderly Commission)
and coastal and riverine flooding presents systemic in nature and will have broader regional • 100 Resilient Cities Steering Committee and Working
◦ Transportation infrastructure, such as exposure statistics accompanied by largely impacts that need to be considered in future Group (led by City of Boston Chief Resilience Officer
roads, bridges, and public transportation qualitative descriptions of potential impacts planning efforts. Similarly, the impacts of regional
Dr. Atyia Martin)

◦ Essential facilities, such as hospitals that may result from service interruptions, infrastructure on Boston’s people and economy Goals included providing input to the Vulnerability
including interdependencies between different should be considered in future efforts. Assessment and Climate Resilience Initiatives and
and emergency operations centers providing an opportunity for groups to learn from one
infrastructure networks. Due variably to data another. Discussions focused on community infrastructure,
◦ Public facilities, such as schools and limitations or privacy and security concerns, the
ongoing resilience work, and opportunities for partnerships
on implementation of community initiatives. Key findings
civic structures Vulnerability Assessment does not include site-
37
It should be noted that calculations typically involve the 10 percent, 2 percent,
1 percent, and 0.2 percent annual chance events. Climate Ready Boston has
included the importance of sensitivity around mapping
substituted the 0.2 percent annual chance event with the 0.1 percent annual chance efforts and the need to be equitable when prioritizing
event in order to understand impacts at that severity of storm. As such, damage-cost climate readiness solutions.
calculations may be conservative compared to if the 0.2 percent annual chance had
been incorporated.
At a minimum, site-specific information needed to make conclusions about asset
38

or system vulnerability include the critical flood elevation and any mitigation or
emergency protection measures in place.
39
It should be noted that service loss can be quantified.

26 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 27

CALCULATING BUSINESS INTERRUPTION CONSEQUENCES

LOSS CATEGORY LOSSES CONSIDERED DESCRIPTION

Business interruption is associated income lost as

• Loss of Employment a result of an event that disrupts the operations of
BUSINESS INTERRUPTION the business or the removal of a piece of real estate,
• Output Loss both rental and sale properties, from the market as
a result of disaster impacts.

ECONOMY REPORTING OF EXPECTED LOSSES AS PROBABILITY TIMES CONSEQUENCE

A RESULT OF COASTAL AND RIVERINE FLOODING Annualizing losses is one method used to “normalize” results of By annualizing the losses of this event, it becomes apparent
Impacts to people, structures, and infrastructure an evaluation (or even historical losses) in order to communicate that the risk (probability times consequence) associated with
risk. In fact, the definition of “risk” is often communicated the 10 percent annual chance event is higher than the lowest
as a result of climate hazards can also disrupt All loss estimations are reported by imposing as “probability times consequence”; this is exactly how probability event evaluated, despite the fact that one-time
the broader Boston economy. Severe impacts can future climate conditions on the present annualized losses are calculated. Annualized losses can be event costs for the 10 percent chance are expected to be
used to compare the impacts of different events across time significantly lower. This information informs the resiliency planner
have regional, national, and even international population and built environment. Neither for mitigation-planning purposes and can even be used to that, in combination with other factors, properties within the 10
compare the effects of entirely different hazards (so long as a percent annual chance flood area should perhaps be prioritized
consequences. As a result, Climate Ready population nor development have been projected
probability of impact and costs of such impact can be derived). for action prior to those at risk only to lower-probability events.44
Boston has sought to quantitatively capture into the future. Expected relocation costs within the city as a result of 9 inches
of sea level rise (near-term sea level rise scenario) can be used
the potential impacts of business interruption to illustrate this point: 44
Risk prioritization should take into consideration a variety of factors.
Loss estimations for people, property, and the
within Boston as a result of coastal and riverine
economy presented in this assessment are reported
flooding, although results are conservative (low
both as one-time costs by event in total, by loss
estimates). Calculations use a combination of
category, and as an annualized value for each sea
expected building restoration times sourced by
level rise condition.42 Annualized values represent ANNUALIZATION OF ESTIMATED RELOCATION COSTS FOR THE 9-INCH SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIO
FEMA, output and employment values by zip
the total of the product of single losses expected
code for Suffolk County from 2014 (most recent ONE-TIME EVENT PROBABILITY ANNUALIZED
for each projected sea level rise condition and EVENT
CONSEQUENCES percent annual chance probability x consequence
available data), and input output modeling
its chance of occurring in any given year.43 This
through IMPLAN.40 Only loss impacts within the 10%
method facilitates resiliency planning by allowing $12,000,000 10% $1,200,000
high probability
city are considered, and restoration times used
for comparison across areas and events, as well as
to determine business interruption assume only
expected losses in each sea level rise scenario. 2% 30,500,000 2% $600,000
floors of the structure that are directly impacted
1%
experience disruption. It further assumes that all lower probability
$35,600,000 1% $400,000
businesses will eventually reopen and that all real
0.1%
estate will return to value production. It reality, very low probability
$155,200,000 0.1% $200,000

almost 40 percent of small businesses never reopen

Total cannot be calculated - $2,400,000
following a disaster.41
The one-time economic consequences When the frequency of occurrence is
Exposure and consequences to the city’s economy are larger for lower probability storms. considered, the total economic cost of high
probability events is significantly higher. These
as a result of heat- or stormwater-related flood 42
Annualized values consider four of the five frequencies considered in this Vulnerability
events have a lower cost each time they
occur, but occur much more frequently.
Assessment, including the 10 percent, 2 percent, 1 percent, and 0.1 percent annual
hazard is explored qualitatively. chance flood. Direct damages for each of the flood frequencies for one sea level rise
condition were multiplied by their percent chance of occurrence and then added
together to yield the annualized value for one sea level rise condition. Thus annualized
values do not consider frequent flood events such as high tides or storms with a chance
of occurrence greater than 10 percent.
40
Detailed methodology provided in the Appendix. 43
Annualized losses should not be interpreted as the losses expected annually. Refer
Source: “National Flood Insurance Program: Protecting Your Business.” Federal
41
to the Appendix for a more detailed description of the approach taken to evaluate
Emergency Management Agency. http://www.fema.gov/protecting-your-businesses. damage factors.

28 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 29

 SOCIAL VULNERABILITY Social vulnerability is defined as the disproportionate susceptibility
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOCIALLY VULNERABLE POPULATIONS 45
of some social groups to the impacts of hazards, including death,
injury, loss, or disruption of livelihood.

63,187 104,659 327,284 239,246 176,059 70,701 236,938

Numbers show a representation

OLDER ADULTS CHILDREN PEOPLE OF COLOR PEOPLE WITH LIMITED ENGLISH PROFICIENCY PEOPLE WITH LOW-TO NO-INCOME PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES CASES OF MEDICAL ILLNESS
of citywide populations or cases.

KEY VULNERABILITIES PEOPLE OF COLOR response personnel. If residents are more socially period of time. Low- and no-income residents
BY POPULATION GROUP isolated, they may be less likely to hear about can also be more vulnerable to hot weather if
People of color make up a majority (53 percent)
upcoming events. Finally, immigrants, especially running air conditioning or fans puts utility
OLDER ADULTS of Boston’s population. People of color are more
ones who are undocumented, may be reluctant to costs out of reach.
likely to fall into multiple vulnerable groups as
Older adults (those over age 65) have physical use government services out of fear of deportation
well. People of color statistically have lower levels PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
vulnerabilities in a climate event; they suffer or general distrust of the government or emergency
of income and higher levels of poverty than the
from higher rates of medical illness than the rest personnel. People with disabilities are among the most
population at large. People of color, many of whom
of the population and can have some functional vulnerable in an emergency; they sustain
also have limited English proficiency, may not PEOPLE WITH LOW-TO NO-INCOME
limitations in an evacuation scenario, as well as disproportionate rates of illness, injury, and death
have ready access in their primary language to
when preparing for and recovering from a disaster. A lack of financial resources impacts a household’s in disaster events.46 People with disabilities can
information about the dangers of extreme heat or
Furthermore, older adults are physically more ability to prepare for a disaster event and to find it difficult to adequately prepare for a disaster
about cooling center resources. This risk to extreme
vulnerable to the impacts of extreme heat. Beyond support friends and neighborhoods. For example, event, including moving to a safer place. They are
heat can be compounded by the fact that people of
the physical risk, older adults are more likely residents without televisions, computers, or data- more likely to be left behind or abandoned during
color often live in more densely populated urban
to be socially isolated. Without an appropriate driven mobile phones may face challenges getting evacuations. Rescue and relief resources—like
areas that are at higher risk for heat exposure due
support network, an initially small risk could be news about hazards or recovery resources. Renters emergency transportation or shelters, for example—
to the urban heat island effect.
exacerbated if an older adult is not able to get help. may have trouble finding and paying deposits for may not be universally accessible. Research has
PEOPLE WITH LIMITED ENGLISH PROFICIENCY replacement housing if their residence is impacted revealed a historic pattern of discrimination
CHILDREN
by flooding. Homeowners may be less able to against people with disabilities in times of resource
Without adequate English skills, residents can
Families with children require additional afford insurance that will cover flood damage. scarcity, like after a major storm and flood.
miss crucial information on how to prepare
resources in a climate event. When school is Having low or no income can create difficulty
for hazards. Cultural practices for information
cancelled, parents need alternative childcare evacuating in a disaster event because of a higher 45
Socially vulnerable populations were mapped by number of people per land acre
sharing, for example, may focus on word-of-mouth in each census tract in the City of Boston. Census tracts whose concentrations of
options, which can mean missing work. Children reliance on public transportation. If unable to vulnerable populations in each group fall in the top quartile (25 percent) of census
tracts are highlighted in the series of maps.
communication. In a flood event, residents can also
are especially vulnerable to extreme heat and evacuate, residents may be more at risk without 46
For example, research indicates the mortality rate among people with disabilities was
face challenges communicating with emergency twice that of the rest of the population during the 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami.

stress following a natural disaster. supplies to stay in their homes for an extended

30 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 31

SOCIALLY VULNERABLE GROUPS BY NEIGHBORHOOD

PEOPLE WITH LIMITED LOW-TO

OLDER ADULTS CHILDREN PEOPLE OF COLOR DISABILITY MEDICAL ILLNESS48
ENGLISH PROFICIENCY47 NO-INCOME

COMMUNITY TOTAL POPULATION # % # % # % # % # % # % # %

Allston/ Brighton 75,000 6,100 8% 4,600 6% 25,400 34% 9,700 13% 21,000 28% 6,200 8% 29,200 n/a
Back Bay/ Beacon Hill 22,600 2,800 12% 1,900 8% 3,600 16% 600 3% 2,600 11% 1,000 5% 9,500 n/a
Charlestown 16,400 1,800 11% 3,300 20% 4,000 24% 1,600 10% 4,200 25% 1,500 9% 6,500 n/a
Dorchester 87,400 8,500 10% 21,000 24% 62,500 72% 35,100 40% 26,600 30% 12,400 14% 31,800 36%
Downtown 30,000 4,100 14% 2,000 7% 9,400 31% 4,000 13% 6,800 23% 2,600 9% 12,400 n/a
East Boston 40,500 4,100 10% 8,700 21% 25,500 63% 17,400 43% 13,700 34% 5,200 13% 14,800 n/a
Fenway/ Kenmore 44,300 2,100 5% 600 1% 14,400 33% 3,700 8% 11,200 25% 2,700 6% 16,000 n/a
Harbor Islands - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Hyde Park 32,300 4,200 13% 7,000 22% 23,200 72% 4,600 14% 5,700 18% 3,800 12% 12,500 n/a
Jamaica Plain 42,100 4,100 10% 6,300 15% 19,200 46% 4,900 12% 14,500 34% 4,200 10% 16,400 n/a
Mattapan 33,700 3,900 11% 9,600 29% 32,100 95% 5,800 17% 11,900 35% 6,000 18% 12,500 n/a
Roslindale 37,700 3,800 10% 7,100 19% 16,700 44% 5,400 14% 6,800 18% 4,100 11% 12,500 n/a
Roxbury 71,600 5,800 8% 16,700 23% 59,200 83% 11,400 16% 27,700 39% 10,400 15% 24,000 n/a
South Boston 31,800 3,200 10% 4,900 15% 7,100 22% 2,600 8% 8,200 26% 3,000 9% 13,500 n/a
South End 38,600 3,300 9% 4,900 13% 16,500 43% 5,800 15% 11,600 30% 4,300 11% 12,800 n/a
West Roxbury 30,400 5,400 18% 6,100 20% 8,100 27% 3,000 10% 3,500 11% 3,000 10% 12,400 n/a

Boston Total 634,400 63,200 104,700 327,300 98,200 176,100 70,700 236,900

Percent of Boston 100% 10% 17% 52% 15% 28% 11% 37%

CASES OF MEDICAL ILLNESS NEIGHBORHOOD VULNERABILITY road connections overall are more vulnerable in a access to much-needed medications has historically
AND CONNECTIVITY climate event. If a neighborhood only has one bus been an issue in large coastal flood events.
Symptoms of existing medical illnesses are often
or subway line connecting it to the transportation
exacerbated by hot temperatures. For example, The Vulnerability Assessment analyzes personal The daily stresses socially vulnerable residents
system, residents who depend on transit can
heat can trigger asthma attacks or increase already characteristics (like income or race) that heighten face can also make recovery and adaptation more
more easily be cut off from their employment or
high blood pressure due to the stress of high vulnerability in a climate event and also considers difficult. For example, residents living in an area
healthcare. The GoBoston 2030 planning effort is
temperatures put on the body. Climate events can vulnerabilities that occur at a neighborhood without a grocery store may have less access to
evaluating and planning for Boston’s neighborhood
interrupt access to normal sources of healthcare scale. If a neighborhood has less access to a healthy food. In such areas, classified as “food
connectivity.
and even life-sustaining medication. Special certain resource, its residents can be even more deserts,” residents may face challenges to eating
planning is required for people experiencing vulnerable. Neighborhoods need redundancy Neighborhood connectivity spans more than just healthily on a daily basis as well as acquiring
medical illness. For example, people dependent on in their resource networks in the same way that transportation access; connections between people adequate food supplies for sheltering in place
dialysis will have different evacuation and care individuals do. also create more resilient communities. Strong in a climate event. Boston’s food deserts include
needs than other Boston residents in a climate community organizations reduce risk from social the Seaport, Roslindale, East Boston, Roxbury, and
Communities with overlapping vulnerabilities
event. isolation and connect residents to resources and West Roxbury.49
are at greater risk. Risk is increased even further
information regarding climate change impacts.
in the context of chronically under-resourced 47
“People with limited English proficiency” = ACS survey respondents who indicated
Limited access to resources at a neighborhood scale they speak English less than “very well.”
neighborhoods. 48
Health data at the local level in Massachusetts not available beyond zip codes. EASI
can also exacerbate social vulnerability. East Boston, modeled the health statistics for the U.S. population based upon age, sex, and race
probabilities using U.S. Census Bureau data. The probabilities are modeled against the
Neighborhood connectivity is a significant factor for example, has high concentrations of medical census and current-year and five-year forecasts. “Medical illness” is the sum of asthma
in children, asthma in adults, heart disease, emphysema, bronchitis, cancer, diabetes,

in community resilience. Neighborhoods that are illness but no hospitals. If the tunnels and bridges kidney disease, and liver disease. A limitation is that these numbers may be over-
counted as the result of people potentially having more than one medical illness. These
statistics reflect the number of incidences of each illness, not the number of residents.
less well served by public transit or with fewer became inaccessible in a flood event, those in need Neighborhood percentages are not available due to potential for over-counting.
Food deserts are areas located greater than one mile away from a grocery store.
of acute medical care could be less able to access it;
49

Source: “Food Access Research Atlas.” USDA Economic Research Service.

32 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 33

EXPOSURE AND
CONSEQUENCE
ANALYSIS

OVERVIEW
The citywide findings of the Vulnerability
Assessment are summarized within this section.
Based on the hazard data and methodologies
previously discussed, the exposures and
consequences of all three hazards are presented
and compared by neighborhood. The findings
for each hazard are organized based on expected
CHILDREN AND HEAT ISLAND EXPOSURE OLDER ADULTS AND HEAT ISLAND EXPOSURE MEDICAL ILLNESS AND HEAT ISLAND EXPOSURE
impacts to people, buildings, infrastructure,
and the economy. Where possible, quantitative
analyses were conducted, though due to EXTREME HEAT high temperature or severe storms—most operate The maps above show both daytime and nighttime heat
islands as measured by changes in land surface temperature
limitations in the available data, some findings through complex systems involving urban land across the City of Boston. The dots help show concentrations
PEOPLE of populations vulnerable to heat.
only include a qualitative assessment of exposure. use, infrastructure, ecology, and other systems.
Heat impacts are some of the most well- Compromised infrastructure can magnify health
This section includes analyses of the following:
vulnerabilities. For example, air conditioning
Some members of
understood, measurable, and preventable impacts
1. Extreme Heat: Public health and other of climate change on human health. requires reliable delivery of electricity, which, in

the population are

impacts of rising temperatures turn, depends on the integrity of the electrical
Negative health impacts often accompany extreme grid system and associated power-generating
2. Stormwater Flooding: Quantitative and heat. These consequences may include direct loss
particularly at risk
facilities. Access to healthcare services depends
qualitative impacts on people, buildings, of life, increases in respiratory and cardiovascular on a functioning transportation system. Thus,
infrastructure, and economy diseases, and challenges to mental health. Weather

3. Coastal and Riverine Flooding: Quantitative

and climate can also influence health stressors,
understanding the impact that future extreme
weather events may have on health in Boston when temperatures
spike, including
such as air pollution and vector-borne diseases. requires considerations of the vulnerabilities of
and qualitative impacts on people, buildings,
Given the steady rise in temperatures that has been critical infrastructure systems.
infrastructure, and economy
older adults, the
occurring in Boston—1.8 degrees Fahrenheit since
1970 (see Climate Projection Consensus within Heat extremes can cause death in addition to

very young, outdoor

this report)—it is probable that corresponding exacerbating chronic health conditions and disease.
health risks will become an even greater challenge Emergency room visits and hospital admissions
in the future. Climate Ready Boston examined
current climate health risks faced by Boston and
increase during heat waves. Consequences of heat
are some of the most well-understood, measurable, workers, and those
considered how climate change may worsen these
risks. The assessment draws on related assessments
and preventable impacts of climate change on
human health. While everyone is vulnerable
with pre-existing
completed over the past several years. when temperatures spike, some members of
the population are particularly vulnerable,
health conditions.
While some health impact pathways are rather including older adults (especially if living alone),
direct—such as the immediate consequences of the very young, low- and no-income residents,
34 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 35
outdoor workers, and those with preexisting Researchers at Columbia University examined In the baseline period (1985–2016), heat-related are also related to its position downwind of
chronic diseases.50 In addition to these individual the potential future health impacts from warming mortality rates were estimated to be 2.9 per 100,000 much of the urban northeast corridor, along
characteristics, research shows that living in temperatures by linking together future climate people in Boston. During the 2020s, median heat- with power plants and factories throughout
neighborhoods with less tree canopy leads to projections with information on the health related mortality rates for the low and high GHG the mid-western states.
greater risk.51 responses that occur in a city when temperatures emission scenario are expected to be 5.9 and 6.5
Ozone is a strong oxidant gas that occurs at high
increase.52 The historical relationship53 between per 100,000, respectively.56 By the 2050s, Boston
The link between less tree canopy and warmer levels during the warm half of the year and is
heat and deaths in the summer in Suffolk County, could experience median mortality rates of 8.8
temperatures in urban neighborhoods is part of the the major contributor to urban smog. Ozone
Massachusetts,54 shows that death rates increased and 11.7 per 100,000, for the low and high scenarios,
“heat island effect.” The concept of the heat island exacerbates respiratory illnesses like asthma
significantly with high temperatures. The analysis respectively. By the 2080s, the median heat-related
effect refers to the higher temperatures observed and has also been linked with premature deaths
projected future health impacts for future mortality rates will increase to 10.5 and 19.3
in city centers as compared with surrounding in cities. PM2.5 measures the quantity of tiny,
temperatures in the 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s. per 100,000.
regions; these higher temperatures are particularly invisible particles suspended in the air due
hazardous at nighttime, when it is important for Since climate change will be affected by Air pollution in Boston is negatively to emissions from a wide variety of sources.
the body to cool off. greenhouse gas emissions now and into the impacted by rising average temperatures. Combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., from cars, trucks,
future, and projected emissions are uncertain, furnaces, or power plants) produces large amounts
Most of the scientific evidence on the health effects Boston currently faces challenges in keeping levels
moderate upper- and lower-bound greenhouse of toxic PM2.5 emissions. PM2.5 exposure over the
of heat has focused on increases in daily death of air pollution below health-based standards,
gas projections were used to drive the climate long term contributes to the development of heart
counts during and following extreme heat events. especially for ozone and fine particulate matter
models.55 The following figure shows annual and lung diseases, similar to cigarette smoking.
Even a single day of high temperatures may (PM2.5). Boston’s challenges with these pollutants
heat-related mortality rates for Boston.
increase death rates, but a sequence of hot days,
as in the case of a heat wave, brings even more MORTALITY RATE RELATIVE RISK BY TEMPERATURE PROJECTED ANNUAL HEAT-RELATED DEATHS PER 100,000 POPULATION
risk. Extremes of heat will become more severe and
more prolonged and extend into the spring and fall Baseline
(1985–2016) and
seasons, leading to greater exposures of vulnerable projected future
annual heat-
people. This exposure may be exacerbated given related mortality
rates for Boston
according to 33
the aging of the population. global climate
models and two
greenhouse gas
Morbidity and mortality effects of heat may be scenarios.

especially severe if the power goes out during an

extreme heat event. Power failures are more likely
during heat waves due to the increased demand
for electric power for air conditioning, as well as
the added stress of the heat on mechanical and
electrical assets. At the same time, air conditioning
provides important protection from exposure to
extreme heat, especially for those who are most
vulnerable. The loss of power during extreme
The figure shows the way that historical death rates from the baseline
events, which may be more likely with climate period of 1985–2006 changed as a function of temperature. A relative

Mortality rates due to extreme heat

risk of 2.0, for example, would indicate that the heat-related mortality
change, could significantly amplify heat-related rate for a day of that temperature would be twice as high as a normal
(1.0) day.
health impacts in the future.

are expected to triple with the

52
Source: Petkova et al., “Projected Heat-Related Mortality in the U.S. Urban
Northeast.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2013.
50 Source: Kinney et al., “Approaches for Estimating Effects of Climate Change on doi: 10.3390/ijerph10126734.
Heat-Related Deaths: Challenges and Opportunities.” Environmental Science and 53
Using daily data from 1985 to 2006.

impacts of climate change in Boston.

Policy 11, 2008. Note: data for medically ill people double-counts people with multiple 54
Suffolk County includes the cities of Boston, Revere, Chelsea, and Winthrop.
illnesses and thus represents total cases of medical illness of various types as opposed to
a total number of people. 55
Values derived from a combination of multiple climate studies. See the Climate
Projection Summary in this report for more information.
51 Source: Madrigano et al., “A Case-Only Study of Vulnerability to Heat Wave–Related
Mortality in New York City (2000–2011).” Environmental Health Perspectives 123, no. 7. 56
The high-emissions scenario assumes the continuation of business as usual (no
July 2015. reduction in greenhouse gas emissions).

36 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 37

 Studies suggest that climate change alone (absent to the ground. Under enough force of expansion, tree canopy, public parks and open space, and
changes in pollution-precursor emissions) could tracks will buckle in an impact sometimes called private and commercial green space—play a
lead to higher concentrations of air pollution in a “sunk kink.” More frequent and severe heat significant role in mitigating extreme heat events.
the northeastern United States, especially for waves may require track repairs or speed These systems can also suffer from chronic stress
ozone, leading to increasing health risks. Holding restrictions to avoid derailments. Many rail related to increased average temperatures, drought,
emissions constant, climate changes could worsen networks require trains to reduce their speed in and abnormally warm winter seasons.
air quality, and health, by up to 5 percent by mid- temperatures over 90 degrees. With more annual
While tree species near the southern end of their
century.57 By reducing emissions from fossil fuel days over 90 expected in the future, the efficiency
native range and those which are intolerant of
combustion, we can achieve benefits both for of the rail system in the city and in the Northeast
urban conditions will be particularly stressed,
health and for climate. Corridor could be impacted.
2001 increased temperatures, mild winters, and
Changes in average temperatures Thermal expansion can also occur in asphalt dramatic temperature fluctuations may disrupt
can also impact transmission of and concrete roads in hot temperatures, causing the seasonal cycles of many species. This would
vector-borne diseases. roads to buckle. Road buckling is more common potentially lead to damage or death. These
in concrete than in asphalt since it is a less stressors can also leave urban forests particularly
Mosquitoes and the diseases they carry are
flexible material. Buckling is most common in the vulnerable to pest and pathogens that more freely
highly sensitive to weather phenomena such as
early summer months when there is subsurface proliferate with reduced frost depth and increased
temperature, rainfall, and humidity. For example,
moisture. Road buckling is difficult to predict frost-free days.
rain provides still water for mosquitoes to breed,
and difficult to prepare for aside from cautioning
while drought conditions decrease survival; rising Heat-related vulnerabilities to the urban tree
drivers to be aware of the road condition and
temperatures can enhance the rates of larval canopy and natural systems are a compounding
having repair crews ready. Some bridges and
development, adult feeding behavior, and pathogen issue. As rising temperatures lead to a potential
railroad tracks are constructed with expansion
development within the mosquito. Climate change increase in tree mortality, any loss of canopy
joints designed to safely absorb heat-induced
and associated warmer, wetter conditions may coverage or green space will only contribute to
2014 expansion of construction materials without
increase the risk of vector-borne disease infection, the urban heat island effect, reduced air quality,
any cracking or buckling. Control joints, on the
CHANGES IN LYME DISEASE CASE REPORT DISTRIBUTION including Lyme disease. Of particular concern are increased stormwater runoff, and decreased
other hand—much less expensive than expansion
Maps show the reported cases of Lyme disease in 2001 potential future impacts related to the diseases quality of life.
in 2014 for the areas of the country where lyme disease is joints—are strategic cuts in concrete used to allow
most common (the Northeast and Upper Midwest). Both the
carried by the mosquito Aedes albopictus, which is
any cracking from thermal expansion to occur in
distribution and the numbers of cases have increased. (Figure present in the northeastern United States but has
source: adapted from CDC 2015) a controlled fashion for predictability and ease of
not thrived to date because of the constraining
repair.58
influence of cold winters. This mosquito transmits
dengue fever and chikungunya and may also carry Finally, regular road upkeep can be negatively
In extreme heat, the air-conditioned built
environment is where the city takes shelter, but our Zika virus. impacted by construction crews’ ability to work
built environment also faces impacts from heat.
Though the exact impacts of increased temperatures safely outdoors to maintain roads in the hotter
INFRASTRUCTURE
and increasing frequency, duration, and intensity summer months.59 In Boston, this challenge could
of heat waves on energy use in Boston are not
quantified in this report, higher average temperatures Boston’s transportation infrastructure be somewhat mitigated by workers being able to
will increase energy use in all building categories. Air
conditioning is energy intensive; if the city’s energy could be at risk from increased frequency, work longer into the winter months.
infrastructure does not keep pace with increasing
demand (especially a more sudden spike in energy
duration, and intensity of heat waves. Increased average temperatures will also impact
use as a result of a heat wave), then brownouts or High temperatures can cause steel railroad tracks
blackouts are probable. Furthermore, this increased natural systems and green infrastructure in
energy usage can strain the individual building to expand. The expansion causes stress to ties, Boston. Natural systems—including the urban
infrastructure of some of Boston’s aging building stock
that may not have adequate electrical capacity for
ballasts, and rail anchors that keep the tracks fixed
sufficient cooling.
58
Source: “The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on U.S. Transportation.”
Transportation Research Board Special Report 290. National Research Council (NRC).
2008.
57
Source: Knowlton, Kim et al. “Assessing Ozone-Related Health Impacts under a
Changing Climate.” Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (15): 1557–1563. 2004. 59
Source: “Workers at Risk from Excessive Heat.” Occupational Safety and Health
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1247621/. Administration. United States Department of Labor.

38 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 39

L AND AREA EXPOSE D TO FREQUE NT STORMWATER FLOODING UNDER VARYING CLIM ATE CONDITIONS

NEIGHBORHOOD ACRES FLOODED PERCENT OF NEIGHBORHOOD FLOODED

TOTAL AREA
NEIGHBORHOOD 2030S–2050S 2050S–2100S 2070S OR LATER NEIGHBORHOOD 2030S–2050S 2050S–2100S 2070S OR LATER
ACRES

West Roxbury 3,350 240 240 260 West Roxbury 7% 7% 8%

Allston/Brighton 2,940 200 200 220 Allston/Brighton 7% 7% 8%
Dorchester 3,780 330 360 410 Dorchester 9% 10% 11%
East Boston 3,430 180 210 260 East Boston 5% 6% 8%
Jamaica Plain 2,260 170 180 190 Jamaica Plain 8% 8% 9%
Hyde Park 3,260 170 170 180 Hyde Park 5% 5% 6%
Roslindale 2,250 170 170 180 Roslindale 7% 7% 8%
Roxbury 2,770 170 170 180 Roxbury 6% 6% 7%
Mattapan 1,560 130 130 140 Mattapan 8% 8% 9%
South Boston 1,940 120 150 190 South Boston 6% 8% 10%
South End 640 70 90 160 South End 11% 14% 26%
All figures
Charlestown 870 60 60 70 Charlestown 7% 7% 8% presented based
on current
Fenway/Kenmore 620 50 50 60 Fenway/Kenmore 8% 8% 9% available land.
Any change to
Downtown 770 40 40 50 Downtown 5% 6% 7% the landscape
from present
Back Bay/Beacon Hill 460 30 30 30 Back Bay/Beacon Hill 6% 6% 7% conditions, such
as subsidence or
Harbor Islands 820 90 100 120 Harbor Islands 11% 12% 15% land loss as a result
of sea level rise,
Boston Total 31,720 2,200 2,350 2,720 Boston Total 7% 7% 9% are not taken into
consideration.

Top Affected by Percentage in the Near Term Top Three Affected by Acres in the Near Term

STORMWATER FLOODING to see the greatest increase in land area exposed exacerbate such conditions), transportation
The Wastewater Facilities Study completed by to stormwater flooding as sea levels rise and corridors with impervious surfaces where water
BWSC has greatly improved understanding of Without improvements, the existing precipitation events become more extreme. Sea cannot percolate, and designed drainage areas that
stormwater flood risk in Boston.
stormwater system will not be capable of level rise exacerbates stormwater flooding issues may be overwhelmed. In total, these flooded areas
Data and insight provided by BWSC has
been instrumental in the completion of the conveying a 10-year, 24-hour rainfall event, by preventing outflow or even causing backflow, impact large portions of neighborhoods; 5 percent
Vulnerability Assessment and the development
of the resilience initiatives. As discussed in the
causing untreated stormwater runoff to resulting in backup of water attempting to flow or more of the land area in each of Boston’s 17
Process Overview above, the BWSC’s analysis pond in the streets. Further, the system toward lower ground. neighborhoods will be exposed to flooding from
of current and future flooding for 10-year, 24-
hour rainfall events has provided a foundation currently struggles to convey the current a 10-year, 24-hour storm as early as the 2030s.
for this Vulnerability Assessment. Though the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall event. Every neighborhood in Boston will be
BWSC stormwater flooding exposure data are
not specific enough to approximate structural By mid-century, 7 percent of the total land area in exposed to frequent stormwater flooding. Direct exposure to stormwater flooding
damage or other direct consequences, the
the city could be exposed to stormwater flooding Throughout every neighborhood in the city, there increases steadily over time due to climate
data provide ample details to assess areas
impacted by frequent (10-year, 24-hour) and for the 10-year, 24-hour event, with that percentage are multiple areas at risk of stormwater flooding change.
nuisance flooding. Additionally, BWSC has been
an active partner through the Climate Ready increasing to 9 percent by the end of the century.60 for the 10-year, 24-hour design storm, ranging in This trend is expected for frequent hazards like the
Boston process, providing insights necessary to
West Roxbury, Allston, Brighton, East Boston, and size from hundreds of square feet along streets 10-year, 24-hour storm and may not be consistent
develop impactful resilience initiatives.
South Dorchester have the largest areas of land to multiple city blocks. The largest areas of for other, more severe events. When planning ways
expected to be affected by stormwater flooding, stormwater flooding generally are concentrated to address stormwater flooding, the long-term
while the South End and South Boston can expect at low points and in areas with poor hydraulic rate of expected change in stormwater flooding
conveyance or insufficient storage capacity. Key (including potential planned system upgrades) is
areas include along the coast, where outfalls important for implementation timing.
Land areas are based on the three 10-year, 24-hour stormwater flood extents
may be unable to discharge (sea level rise will
60

developed by BWSC and outlined in the Process Overview section. Sea level rise is
accounted for in future climate conditions.

40 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 41

FLOODING FROM 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM WITH VARYING CLIMATE CONDITIONS
Near term (2030s-2050s)
Mid term (2050s-2100s)
Late term (2070s onwards)
Major Roads

LAND AREA EXPOSED TO CHRONIC

STORMWATER FLOODING

Near term Mid term Late term

(2030s–2050s) (2050s-2100s) (2070s onwards)

42 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 43

Future frequent stormwater buildings that are adjacent to poorly drained soils, Although not evaluated within this Vulnerability less frequent. Additional analysis on extreme event
flooding will require gray and have poorly sealed exterior windows and roofs, or Assessment, rain events more extreme than the flooding and the sensitivity to climate change is
green infrastructure investments. use forced hot air, which can become a conveyor 10-year, 24-hour rainfall will have more severe recommended for future analyses.
Even with some improvements to the existing of air from damp basement areas. impacts in Boston, though the impacts would be
stormwater system, untreated runoff is expected to
pond. According to the BWSC Wastewater Facilities
Some socially vulnerable populations
Study, adding storage to the conveyance systems,
may face significant challenges with BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO FREQUENT STORMWATER FLOODING WITH VARYING CLIMATE CONDITIONS

making major upgrades in individual pump station

nuisance flooding.
capacities, or combinations of these alternatives The presence of residential buildings in flooded NEIGHBORHOOD 2030S–2050S 2060S–2090S 2070S–2100S
will improve hydraulics but may not be able to areas likely translates to nuisance flooding, which
mitigate stormwater flooding in the future caused rarely damages property but impacts road access Dorchester 1,200 1,260 1,390
South End 1,110 1,320 2,040
by climate change. Further analyses are necessary and mobility. Nuisance flooding affects quality of
Roslindale 880 890 960
to examine the projected severity of ponding for life for people in general, with a higher probability
Roxbury 870 900 950
future climate projections after improvements are of impacting socially vulnerable populations.
East Boston 670 820 1,000
made to the stormwater system. Flooded sidewalks, for example, can especially Allston/Brighton 660 660 730
impact someone in a wheelchair or someone who Mattapan 640 670 710
PEOPLE has difficulty walking, making it more difficult to Back Bay/Beacon Hill 530 580 600
get to a bus stop, to work, to a shop for groceries, Fenway/Kenmore 440 460 490
Over 85,000 people61 currently live in
or to a healthcare appointment. Flooded roads and West Roxbury 420 420 450
areas expected to be directly exposed
sidewalks also disrupt neighborhood connectivity Hyde Park 410 420 460
to frequent stormwater flooding by the Jamaica Plain 340 350 390
and isolate residents from one another,
end of the century. South Boston 340 370 490
contributing to social isolation. For populations
Of the existing structures exposed to expected Downtown 260 310 350
burdened with significant stresses and fewer
Charlestown 200 210 240
stormwater flooding, 80 percent are either resource redundancies, this hazard will cause Harbor Islands <10 <10 <10
residential or mixed-use buildings, impacting disproportionate impacts. Boston Total 8,970 9,610 11,230
tens of thousands of residents and workers in the
exposed buildings and many more that use nearby BUILDINGS
streets and open spaces that would be flooded.
Without stormwater system improvements,
BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO CHRONIC BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO FREQUENT
Stormwater flooding can lower indoor air over 11,000 structures citywide62 will STORMWATER FLOODING STORMWATER FLOODING BY TYPE
quality and worsen asthma symptoms. be directly exposed to late-century (2070s TO 2100s)

Because people spend at least 90 percent

stormwater flooding as a result of sea level
of their time indoors, the quality of the air
rise and increased precipitation. Many
indoors heavily affects health status. Moisture
more will be indirectly impacted.
and air humidity as well as the dampness of Though stormwater flooding exposure is primarily
building materials can significantly impact a nuisance and largely does not imply structural
indoor air quality. damage even with direct exposure, ponding water
may compromise access to buildings, present
Any residential or commercial structures that transportation challenges, and damage yards and
experience flooding will face potential long-term other landscaped areas. In addition, buildings
challenges related to mold growth and resulting that are still connected to the combined sewer
respiratory problems. This risk is exacerbated in system may experience wastewater backup issues.

Current population residing in areas expected to be exposed. The population has not
61 62
Current building stock in areas expected to be exposed. The change in building stock
been projected into the future. has not been projected.

44 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 45

INFRASTRUCTURE employees. Every minute counts with essential COASTAL AND RIVERINE FLOODING
services, and extended service time is associated Flood hazard data and adaptation recommendations
Access and mobility can be impacted with increased risk of mortality and harm in health The probability of high-impact developed as part of the 2015 MassDOT-FHWA study
are an essential component of the Climate Ready
at multiple scales ranging from building and safety situations. storms in the City of Boston is Boston analysis.
entrances to local streets to major
thoroughfares like highways and ECONOMY increasing over time. As discussed in this section and the Focus Areas
chapter, the rich MassDOT-FHWA flood hazard
dataset has been critical to quantifying exposure
MBTA lines. Coastal and riverine flooding is expected and consequences. Coupled with the Climate Ready
Frequent stormwater flooding will Boston general building stock and asset inventory, a
Without improvements to the stormwater to lead to the most significant increases in comprehensive assessment of coastal and riverine
inconvenience customers and discourage
management system, frequent stormwater flooding climate hazard consequences to people, flooding exposure and consequences is possible
them from using nearby businesses. within Climate Ready Boston, while creating a
is projected near major thoroughfares, such as buildings, infrastructure, and the economy. foundation for future studies.
Columbus Avenue, Tremont Street, and Morrissey Though this analysis does not have sufficient
Over the course of the twenty-first century,
Boulevard, as well as Interstates 90 and 93 and data to quantify economic impacts, it is expected
Boston will become incrementally more exposed
along the MBTA Orange and Red Lines. Because that local business may be negatively impacted
to extensive coastal and riverine flooding in The factors driving risk from coastal and
data resolution is not great enough, this analysis by frequent stormwater flooding. Around 800
neighborhoods fronting Boston Harbor, Fort Point riverine flooding vary greatly along the
may not be well suited to accurately reflect commercial buildings are expected to be within
Channel, Dorchester Bay, and the Chelsea, Mystic, waterfront.
stormwater flooding extents along these MBTA late-century frequently flooded areas, with greatest
and Charles Rivers. Neighborhoods fronting the Boston could manage much of the coastal flooding
lines, roadways, and highways. Nevertheless, it is concentrations of exposed commercial buildings
coastline, like Downtown, East Boston, and South projected early in this century by addressing low
clear that, at a minimum, the flood data highlight located in Downtown and Dorchester. Businesses
Boston, are especially vulnerable currently and points at the waterfront through which water could
potential nuisance flooding at intersections and can expect brief closures during and after flood
will grow more vulnerable in the coming decades. penetrate inland. This kind of approach could
onramps providing access to these transportation events, with the potential for prolonged closure if
there is direct damage to property. Even without be particularly effective in Charlestown and East
routes. Many of these transportation routes are also Coastal and riverine flooding
damages to buildings, continued flood damage to Boston, where the length of waterfront sections
designated evacuation routes, which may become consequences will increase dramatically
parking lots, sidewalks, and landscaping can cause with low elevations is comparatively limited.
increasingly more flood prone to heavy rainfall. by the middle and end of the century as
these assets to deteriorate more rapidly, potentially South Boston, in contrast, will be challenged
storm frequency increases and flooding early in the century even with relatively moderate
Increased precipitation may impact contributing to uneven surfaces and negative
via new pathways becomes more increases in sea levels. In this neighborhood,
emergency response time throughout appearances that would impact safety, as well as
probable. significant portions of the waterfront serve as
the city. customer choices.
Many areas impacted by lower probability events flood entry points, so developing strategies to
Several hospital campuses, fire stations, and
(i.e., 1 percent annual chance floods) in the early increase protection would require more significant
police stations are expected to experience frequent
to mid-century are expected to face exposure to investments in infrastructure or more complex
stormwater flooding in their vicinity and possibly
flooding from the monthly highest tides by the coastal flood resiliency planning. Other flood entry
within structures in the future, including Carney
mid- to late century. As sea levels rise in Boston points, such as the flanking of the Charles River
Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
Harbor, coastal flooding is also significantly Dam or Fort Point Channel, are likely to require
Children’s Hospital, Boston Medical Center, and
more likely to penetrate inland through Fort large-scale infrastructure improvements to reduce
the Boston Police Headquarters. Impeded vehicle
Point Channel to much of the South End and flood risk but would likewise result in significant
access to and from such facilities may impact
the northern portion of Roxbury. Additionally, benefits, reducing flood exposure across multiple
the timeliness of response vehicles to emergency
neighborhoods along the Charles River, including neighborhoods. See the Protected Shores resilience
situations. Access issues due to stormwater
Allston/Brighton, Back Bay/Beacon Hill, and initiatives (p.98) and the Focus Areas chapter (p.
flooding may also impact shift changes—
Fenway/Kenmore, are more likely to face exposure 148) for more details on potential flood protection
essential services operate around the clock, and
to flooding late in the century when the Charles systems.
a delay in shift change could potentially result
River Dam is at a higher risk of being flanked or
in a diminished quality of service due to tired
overtopped.

46 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 47

As the sea level continues to rise, the likelihood of major floods
will increase from a 1% annual chance to a monthly reality

2030s–2050s: 9 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE 63 63

Future flood extents shown only within City of Boston for all conditions.

COASTAL AND RIVERINE FLOOD SCENARIOS PERCENT ANNUAL CHANCE

For each of the three sea level rise scenarios considered, The 1 percent annual chance flood has a 1 in 100 chance
Climate Ready Boston also evaluated expected exposure of being equaled or exceeded in any given year and is the
and impacts for four modeled flood events, as well as the primary coastal flood hazard delineated in FEMA FIRMs. Percent
average monthly high tide (see Process Overview for more annual chance flood elevations do not imply a period of time
on the average monthly high tide). The modeled flood events between occurrences. Though the chance of occurrence each
coincide with the 10 percent, 2 percent, 1 percent, and 0.1 year may seem relatively low, a 1 percent annual chance event
percent annual chance flood events, plus appropriate sea could occur multiple times in a given year, decade, or century.
level rise. The lower probability the event, the higher the Climate Ready Boston uses a 1 percent annual chance flood
magnitude and severity of impact can be expected from nomenclature rather than the “100-year” flood, in order to
the storm when it arrives. limit confusion related to the possible time horizon of an event
occurring. The 100-year flood event terminology can more
easily be misinterpreted to imply that 100-year events occur
only once every 100 years. In reality, these events have close
to a one in three chance of occurring at least once during a 2050s-2100s: 21 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE
30-year period.

48 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 49

 Ten percent of Boston’s land area
is expected face exposure to 1
percent annual chance coastal
and riverine flooding as soon as
the 2050s. In the late century, this
increases to 18 percent.

2070s OR LATER: 36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE As soon as the 2070s, almost 5
AREA AND PERCENT OF NEIGHBORHOOD EXPECTED TO EXPERIENCE FLOOD IMPACTS
percent of Boston’s land area
UNDER THE 1 PERCENT ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD EVENT IN EACH SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIO
is expected to face exposure
to inundation from the average
LAND AREA EXPOSED (ACRES) PERCENT OF NEIGHBORHOOD EXPOSED

Neighborhoods Total 9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR 36” SLR 9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR 36” SLR

monthly high tide.

1% annual 1% annual 1% annual AMHT 1% annual 1% annual 1% annual AMHT
Land Area
chance chance chance chance chance chance
(Acres)

I. Greatest Exposure & increasing throughout century

Charlestown 870 120 310 460 110 14% 36% 54% 12%
Downtown 770 110 240 350 70 14% 31% 45% 10%

East Boston and South Boston have

East Boston 3,340 540 1,040 1,680 480 16% 30% 49% 14%
Harbor Islands 820 200 230 260 200 25% 28% 32% 24%
South Boston 1,940 470 930 1,220 360 24% 48% 63% 19%

II. Lower Exposure today, but significant jump late century

Allston / Brighton 2,940 30 70 240 20 1% 2% 7% 1%

the most land area affected by
coastal flooding and sea level rise.
Back Bay / Beacon Hill 460 <10 <10 80 <10 <1% 1% 17% <1%
Roxbury 2,770 <10 <10 130 <10 <1% <1% 5% <1%
Dorchester 3,780 240 430 750 220 6% 11% 20% 6%
South End 640 <10 20 450 <10 <1% 3% 71% <1%

III. Other Neighborhoods

Fenway / Kenmore 620 <10 <10 <10 <10 <1% <1% <1% <1%
Hyde Park 3,260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jamaica Plain 2,260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mattapan 1,560 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Roslindale 2,250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
West Roxbury 3,350 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Boston Total 31,720 1,720 3,280 5,630 1,470 8% 10% 18% 8%

AMHT is the Average monthly highest tide

50 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 51

BACK TO THE FUTURE?
Landmarks nearest the coast, like the Institute
CITYWIDE LAND ACRES EXPOSED
for Contemporary Art, the New England
Aquarium, and Boston Children’s Museum, lie
in some of the most exposed parts of the city.
Faneuil Hall and Quincy Market are slightly
farther inland but without additional actions
are also at risk of flooding during future high
tides. Many of the city’s oldest landmarks, such
as the Old State House, Paul Revere House, and
Old North Church, sit on higher ground, above
flood risk. Why are many of the Boston’s oldest
landmarks out of the projected floodplains?
The relative safety of these older landmarks
reflects the history of our city: transformed
through centuries of landfill, the original islands
and peninsula of the city remain higher and
more protected than areas built on filled
tidelands. Comparison of Boston’s original
landforms to the 1 percent annual chance
floodplain late in the century shows a close
parallel; large portions of the original landforms
in Charlestown, the North End, Downtown,
East Boston, and South Boston remain out of
the coastal floodplain even late in the century
while areas that were filled over time are at
higher risk of flooding from coastal storms.
However, some filled areas, like parts of
Columbia Point, were filled to higher elevations
and therefore face less exposure to future
flooding.
The impacts of climate change are not only
isolated to coastal storms. By late in the
century, the most noticeable changes to our PEOPLE considered more dangerous, as it is more likely
current landscape will likely be seen during CITYWIDE POPULATION EXPOSED to result in massive property damage and injury
high tides, which will creep higher and higher In the late century, 75 percent of
over the decades. By 2100, the extent of future and can require years for full recovery. Further,
high tide could be similar to flooding caused by
buildings exposed will be either residential
unresolved impacts following coastal storms can
a major storm early in this century. or mixed-use, potentially exposing over
become long-term chronic issues.
88,000 people (nearly 15 percent of
Boston’s population) to coastal and For late-century climate conditions, estimates
riverine flooding.64 show that more than 9,000 people in these four
The majority of the more than 88,000 Bostonians neighborhoods will be in need of public shelter due
who will be exposed to late-century 1 percent to a coastal flood. The existing emergency shelters
annual chance coastal storms and sea level rise located in these neighborhoods have a combined
impacts reside in four neighborhoods: Downtown, capacity of just over 1,000 people.
East Boston, South Boston, and the South End.
Projected future 10-year, 24-hour stormwater
flooding for the same time period has similar
building and population exposure statistics.
Nevertheless, coastal and riverine flooding is

64
All population, structure, and infrastructure exposure figures refer to potential future
hazards projected onto current conditions. No projections have been completed for
the purposes of the quantitative analysis due to inherent uncertainty.

52 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 53

 POPULATION EXPOSED BY SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

9” SLR (2030s - 2050s) 21” SLR (2050s - 2100s) 36” SLR (2070s or later)
The South End and East
Neighborhood Total AMHT 10% 1% 0.10% AMHT 10% 1% 0.10% AMHT 10% 1% 0.10% Boston both have significant
populations of low- to no-
East Boston 40,500 280 820 7,020 16,670 770 9,090 16,700 18,500 6,300 18,180 19,070 20,410 income residents within future
Downtown 30,020 630 2,190 4,680 9,600 860 3,770 9,940 12,810 2,990 11,120 13,950 16,090 flood extents.67

South Boston 31,780 100 1,680 2,330 6,400 100 3,090 7,340 9,210 2,270 8,750 10,960 12,260 Areas outlined on the map
in black represent census
Dorchester 87,380 0 150 340 5,740 20 3,530 5,100 6,590 160 5,760 6,820 9,700 tracts with the top quartile
Charlestown 16,430 350 420 1,340 3,600 350 2,530 3,730 4,750 1220 3,920 5,180 5,540 of concentrations of low- to
no-income residents. Census
South End 38,600 0 0 0 230 0 0 240 23,350 0 24,980 27,400 35,940
tracts falling in the top quartile
Back Bay/Beacon Hill 22,600 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,920 0 10 4,630 13,650 had concentrations of over
Roxbury 71,580 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 720 0 1060 1,830 3,590 170 low-income households
per acre of land area.
Allston/Brighton 74,990 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 190 0 0 190 2,380
A major storm at 36 inches
Fenway/Kenmore 44,260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 31,400 of sea level rise impacts the
Harbor Islands 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 vulnerable neighborhoods
of East Boston, Dorchester,
Hyde Park 32,310 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Roxbury, and the South End.
Jamaica Plain 42,070 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The South End and East
Mattapan 33,680 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Boston both have significant
West Roxbury 30,440 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 populations of low- to no-
income residents within future
Roslindale 37,720 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 flood extents.
Boston Total 634,440 1,360 5,260 15,700 42,250 2,110 22,010 43,060 78,055 12,930 73,790 90,080 150,950

At the 36-inch sea level rise condition, like Roxbury and portions of Dorchester. This
10 percent of Boston’s K–12 schools is a concern because of the multiple layers of
are exposed to lower-probability flood vulnerability that these neighborhoods are
impacts.65 already facing.
Closure of these schools as a result of flooded
The risk of major storms is very difficult for
access or direct damage would affect over 11,500 In a major flooding emergency, effective Those with impaired mobility (older adults,
members of the population to conceptualize if
current students—15 percent of all of Boston’s communication of information becomes people with medical illness, and people with
they have not experienced one in their lifetime. As
school-age population. essential to safety and even survival. Those disabilities) may need special transportation and
such, risk may be underappreciated, and residents
lacking information because of social isolation are at risk of being left behind. Recovery resources
may fail to prepare adequately or evacuate
Coastal flooding is particularly disruptive or limited technology, literacy, or English must be accessible to those with mobility or other
on time. In communities with lower levels of
and dangerous for those living in proficiency are at risk of missing crucial issues. Evacuation of hospitalized or long-term
education and income, people may simply lack
chronically stressed neighborhoods, information, and preparedness plans must care patients carries with it additional risks of
the resources to adequately prepare. Additionally,
without resources or education for disaster take this into consideration. Flooding carries death or injury.
large-scale flood defense infrastructure can result
preparedness and recovery. physical risk of bodily harm, even after the
in a false sense of security for some communities;
Coastal flooding will have a significant near-term immediate storm danger has passed. Within the
flood defense systems, like in New Orleans, can
impact on socially vulnerable populations living week following Hurricane Sandy, more than 10
never fully eliminate risk of inundation, making
in waterfront areas like East Boston. Moreover, percent of the population in the flooded area
multiple mitigating lines of defense, as well as
with 36 inches of sea level rise, a major coastal suffered some sort of injury; injuries occurred
preparedness and evacuation measures, vitally
storm will impact even inland neighborhoods during evacuation and cleanup or repair of
important. Such factors together exacerbated 66
Source: “Nonfatal Injuries 1 Week after Hurricane Sandy.” CDC Report. October 2014.
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6342a4.htm.
impacts of Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana in 2005. damaged or destroyed homes.66 67
Map highlights census tracts falling within top quartile for density of low- to no-income
65
Percentage of all schools mapped by Climate Ready Boston thus far. residents. Flood extents shown are with 36 inches of sea level rise.

54 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 55

BUILDINGS percentage of structures exposed to sea level rise value. Land value is an important consideration followed (by a wide margin) by commercial,
and coastal storms (20 percent, 12 percent, and 10 when looking at exposure of buildings to recurrent general government, and residential uses, in that
By number of structures alone (as percent for the early-, mid-, and late-century sea flooding, particularly flooding of the sort that may order. High tide exposure of the market value of
opposed to square footage or market level rise conditions, respectively). Commercial occur with high tides. Studies have shown that transportation-related buildings68 increases by
value), more than 10 percent of Boston’s buildings vulnerable to sea level rise and coastal real estate market values can decrease significantly significant orders of magnitude from mid- to late
existing buildings will be exposed to storms are most concentrated in Downtown and with increased perception of flood risk. The area century. Transportation-related structures and
late-century flooding. South Boston. identified as the Special Flood Hazard Area on essential facilities (such as Fire, EMS, police stations,
Of exposed buildings late century, the majority FEMA flood maps is subject to mortgage-related and hospitals) are expected to have over $1.3 billion
Toward the end of the century, 5 percent of Boston’s
(almost 80 percent) are concentrated in the four flood insurance requirements, as well as higher in property value exposed to average monthly high
real estate market value is expected to suffer flood
neighborhoods of the South End, East Boston, flood insurance premiums. As such, flood risk tide flood events during that same period.
exposure to high tides, increasing to 25 percent for
South Boston, and Downtown, in that order. exposure to lower-probability events may not only
less frequent but more severe events. Any structure can experience cascading impacts as a
affect the cost of ownership of exposed buildings
Office, retail, and service-based result of direct losses to other infrastructure service
Another way to view buildings’ exposure is through in the future but also affect their desirability.
commercial buildings are among sectors, regardless of whether the site experiences
real estate market value. Market value exposure
the top impacted buildings in terms of By the end of the century, mixed-use buildings direct flood impacts. This concept is further
takes into consideration the size and relative
numbers for all sea level rise conditions. will occupy about half of real estate market value described in the Interdependencies section below.
desirability of location and features of structures
exposure to flooding from high tides alone,
After residential and mixed-use buildings, exposed to future flood risk, and considers land
68
Transportation-related buildings are those defined by the Boston Assessing Department
as terminals for trucks, air freight, bus and rail, and the airport, in addition to Port Authority

commercial structures make up the highest property, piers and docks, hangars, and railroad structures.

BUILDINGS EXPOSED BY SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

9”SLR (2030s - 2050s) 21” SLR (2050s - 2100s) 36” SLR (2070s or later)

Neighborhood Total AMHT 10% 1% 0.10% AMHT 10% 1% 0.10% AMHT 10% 1% 0.10%
CITYWIDE BUILDINGS EXPOSED
East Boston 6,930 20 90 1,070 2,540 70 1,420 2,570 2,920 990 2,830 3,080 3,330

Downtown 2,960 60 160 390 830 80 390 850 1,150 300 1,050 1,240 1450

South Boston 6,800 20 160 350 730 30 420 1,000 1,360 280 1,270 1,530 1,750

Dorchester 15,740 30 90 170 820 60 360 610 1,090 120 850 1,210 2,000

Charlestown 3,420 20 70 140 410 30 170 420 610 140 470 680 780

South End 3,980 0 0 0 50 0 0 50 2,950 0 3,120 3,440 3,730

Allston/Brighton 22,600 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,920 0 10 4,630 13,650

Harbor Islands 130 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10

Back Bay/ Beacon Hill 3,470 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 0 <10 600 1,940

Roxbury 10,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 0 90 240 460

Fenway/ Kenmore 2,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 <10 1,440

Hyde Park 8,490 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Jamaica Plain 6,690 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mattapan 6,090 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Roslindale 7,660 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

West Roxbury 9,390 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Boston Total 101,980 150 580 2,130 5,380 260 2,750 5,530 10,430 1,830 9,710 1,2100 1,7140

Building exposure is based on present-day building stock currently located within projected flood area.

56 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 57

INFRASTRUCTURE CA/T assets70 are within identified flood extents of PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION EXPOSED
TO FLOODING WITH 36" SLR
coastal storms by the end of the century. CA/T and
Key components of Boston’s transportation EVACUATION ROUTE EXPOSURE major road vulnerability poses potential threats
system, most notably MBTA T service to evacuation processes, and flood repairs to these
and evacuation routes, may be at risk to routes would extend gridlock and traffic-delay
coastal and riverine flood impacts in the issues, affecting air quality and quality of life for
near future. commuters. Moreover, for those who do not have
Many residents depend on Boston’s public transit access to a personal vehicle or cannot afford a taxi
system to get to work, school, or healthcare, and or similar option in the case that alternate forms of
this system is one of the first to face exposure transportation are needed, getting around may not
to coastal flooding. Twelve MBTA stations face be possible.
exposure to sea level rise impacts from lower-
MassDOT is currently working on resilience
probability events in the near term. This includes
plans for the Sumner, Callahan, and Ted Williams
four Blue Line stations that connect East Boston to
Tunnels to combat coastal storm and sea level rise
Downtown and eight Silver Line stations in South
impacts expected in the near future. Additional
Boston. With increasing sea level rise, almost a
consequences of transportation failures are
third of MBTA T stations face exposure as soon as
described in the Interdependencies section below.
the 2070s. Any MBTA Blue and Orange Line station
closures69 could restrict travel between East Boston, Two hundred and forty essential and
Downtown, and Charlestown; MBTA Silver Line public facilities currently lie within late-
MBTA STATION EXPOSURE
station closures would affect South Boston and the century coastal flood extents for lower-
South End. Service interruptions at one station may probability storms.
impact service for an entire line.
Together, law enforcement stations, fire stations,
and EMS stations are expected to have the greatest
Alternative transportation options may
share of their facilities exposed throughout the
be especially difficult for East Boston and
century. A quarter of Boston’s law enforcement
Charlestown residents to take advantage
stations alone are within late-century projected
of, as these areas are physically separated
flood extents for low-probability events. All
from other Boston neighborhoods.
essential facilities, by regulation, must have
Major roads and evacuation routes, as well as
emergency protective measures in place to
Central Artery/Tunnel (CA/T) facilities, are CURRENT TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE
ensure operations continue during flood events. EXPOSED TO A 1 PERCENT ANNUAL CHANCE
expected to face significant sea level rise impacts, FLOOD: NUMBER OF ASSETS AND PERCENT OF
If an essential facility such as a fire station, EMS
and bus transit can expect to be interrupted in the TOTAL ASSETS IN CATEGORY 71
station, or law enforcement station is temporarily
case of flooded roadways or tunnels. Even in the
inoperable, a common practice is for the closest
near future, one-third of the evacuation routes Facility Type 9”SLR 21”SLR 36”SLR
2070s or later station to assume responsibility for covering
serving the city are expected to have at least some
the service population. As distance between Major Evacuation
21 (33%) 30 (48%) 39 (62%)
portion impacted during storm events. As soon Routes
essential service stations and locations that
as the 2070s, the majority of identified evacuation
CA/T Assets 70 18 (19%) 30 (48%) 61 (66%)
routes may have some portion flooded during low-
Water Transportation
probability storms. In addition, two-thirds of the 71
Exposed infrastructure assets portrayed in this table are based on the information 6 (24%) 15 (60%) 18 (72%)
gathered and mapped by Climate Ready Boston as of July 2016. Climate Ready Facilities
Boston recognizes gaps in the asset inventory exist and recommends that future
assessments confirm existing data and continue to refine the dataset.
MBTA stations include commuter rail and T stations, including Silver Line surface
72 MBTA Stations72 6 (24%) 18 (17%) 32 (30%)
69
This analysis considers exposure as opposed to expected site-specific impacts to bus stations.
infrastructure assets. Site-specific analysis will determine to what extent assets may
already be resistant to flood impacts and should be conducted as part of resiliency
planning efforts.

58 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 59

require public safety assistance increases, so does may require evacuation, and incoming patients Boston’s natural and recreational The Charlestown Wind Turbine and Mystic
the response time. As response time increases, may be redirected to other medical facilities in resources, particularly waterfront parks, Generating Station are exposed to mid-century
the chance of a successful outcome decreases. the region, which could create overcrowding are highly vulnerable to coastal flooding. sea level rise impacts for lower probability storms.
Associated costs could include more fire losses, issues at other hospitals and emergency facilities, Boston’s waterfront parks, as expected, are very Resilience plans are in place for each of these
an increase in completed crime, and an upturn in potentially resulting in delays in healthcare. exposed to coastal flooding. Also exposed are facilities, but specific impacts for mid- to late
casualties during life-safety related incidents. The Evacuation of patients carries its own risks to large recreation areas like Victory Park and the century are not currently known. As soon as
Massachusetts State Police Turnpike Headquarters health and life safety, particularly to critically ill Neponset River Estuary Area in Dorchester, the the 2070s, all of Veolia’s steam supply points are
is expected to face exposure to coastal storm and and at-risk patients, which are carefully considered Neponset River Reservation in Mattapan, and the expected to experience significant flooding as the
sea level rise impacts in the near future, while the prior to and during an event. Partners Healthcare Charles River Esplanade. Park structures are at risk result of a 1 percent annual chance event, but they
Harbor Patrol and Suffolk County Sherriff’s office is currently in the process of conducting an to a flood event, and trees and other vegetation in could be quickly stabilized following an event, as
will be exposed mid- to late century. independent risk evaluation and actively planning parks can be susceptible to damage from frequent the steam distribution system is not expected to
appropriate resiliency measures. Partners saltwater exposure. Other natural resources, like experience impacts. Further, Veolia is currently
CURRENT ESSENTIAL AND PUBLIC ASSETS EXPOSED
Healthcare designed Spaulding to be climate Belle Isle Marsh, serve as protective barriers in a pursuing system resilience by modifying plants to
TO A 1 PERCENT ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD:
NUMBER OF BUILDINGS AND PERCENT OF TOTAL resilient, and it is expected to be prepared for storm surge event. These assets are susceptible to upgrade emergency and alternate power systems.
BUILDINGS IN CATEGORY 73 lower-probability flood events in the near future. a changing climate and flooding, and the City
National Grid, an electricity and gas utility, has
must take care to maintain them as habitats and
FACILITY TYPE 9”SLR 21”SLR 36”SLR Most currently mapped water, wastewater, many distribution mains and gas regulator stations
flood protection resources. Landmark open spaces
and stormwater facilities are not directly in Boston that will be exposed to sea level rise and
Emergency Response
13 (4%) 23 (8%) 57 (20%) like the Boston Public Garden are at risk from
Facilities74 exposed to coastal and riverine flooding coastal and riverine flooding. Half of the regulator
future storms, while the Boston Common sits on
Non-Emergency until late in the century. stations that will be exposed are already protected
Medical Facilities
9 (2%) 32 (7%) 70 (16%) higher ground and is not expected to be exposed to
against current storm surge, and the utility has
Of the existing MWRA and BWSC water and even the 1 percent annual chance flood with
Educational and Childcare
12 (1%) 46 (5%) 110 (13%) performed its own vulnerability assessment to
Facilities75 wastewater facilities mapped by Climate Ready 36 inches of sea level rise.
identify and prioritize resiliency upgrades to assets
Boston, only the Sullivan Square Pump Station
Several Boston Medical Center campus over the next three years. National Grid operates
in Charlestown is currently exposed to coastal Boston’s energy systems are critical in a
buildings in the South End and Spaulding throughout Massachusetts, and infrastructure
storms.76 Of the 27 water and wastewater facilities flood situation, and all essential operations
Rehabilitation Hospital structures in investments will not be targeted solely toward
identified within the city limits, three combined rely on private companies as the first
Charlestown will face exposure to sea level Boston.
sewer overflow (CSO) facilities, nine stormwater source of energy. Vulnerabilities to some
rise in the mid- to late century. pump stations, and three sanitary sewer pump energy infrastructure are understood, but Eversource, an electric and gas utility, has
The Boston Medical Center is the largest safety- stations are located within late-century flood additional assessments are needed.77 conducted an assessment of potential power
net hospital and Level I trauma center in New extents for lower probability storms. The Boston’s energy system is composed of many outages during severe coastal storms (e.g., 1 percent
England, and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital stormwater pump stations service evacuation private companies that operate natural gas, to 0.1 percent annual chance) expected late century.
is the official teaching hospital for Harvard routes and other transportation infrastructure; petroleum, electricity, and renewable energy. Expected outage durations vary throughout Boston
Medical School’s Department of Physical Medicine. if these pumps fail, finding alternative routes Veolia Kneeland Street Plant is currently exposed based on the vulnerability of individual electrical
Together, the two facilities have over 600 beds. would be necessary. At-risk sanitary sewer and to high-probability flood impacts in the near grid assets. The longest durations of outage due to
Both facilities are exposed to coastal and riverine CSO assets service growing areas within Boston term, and approximately 250 steam delivery and system flood impacts are expected in East Boston
flooding and sea level rise. Flooding of hospitals and already have protection measures in place distribution points could experience temporary and Back Bay, while Beacon Hill, Fenway/Kenmore,
could have a significant impact on the region’s or planned to ensure continuity of operations, service curtailments if the plant is to be impacted. and South Boston are expected to have both the
healthcare system, as most hospitals within the including redundant pumps and generators. Nevertheless, Veolia is currently planning the shortest duration and only partial outages.
system are currently at capacity. Existing patients potential replacement of the facility; MassDOT
73
Exposed infrastructure assets portrayed in this table are based on the information 76
The BWSC Wastewater Facilities Study identified the Sullivan Square Pump Station redevelopment efforts and the new facility would 77
Information provided herein has been collected directly from the private
gathered and mapped by Climate Ready Boston as of July 2016. Climate Ready Boston exposure, noting the consequence of failure for the pump station as roadway flooding energy companies.
recognizes gaps in the asset inventory exist and recommends future assessments serve and the required use of alternate routes. be designed for climate resiliency.
to confirm existing data and fill in gaps.
Emergency Response Facilities include emergency medical services, law
74

enforcement, fire stations, hospitals, and emergency shelters.

75
Educational and Childcare Facilities include child care centers, K–12 schools, and
colleges and universities.

60 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 61

EVERSOURCE POWER OUTAGE VULNERABILITIES AND DURATIONS FOR LATE-CENTURY SEVERE COASTAL STORMS
To mitigate the effects of sea level rise and and the system is continually assessed and
climate change, Eversource is making significant prioritized for vulnerabilities. Fiber networks are
investments in the local electrical grid to harden versatile and can be quickly rerouted through
and make it more resilient to coastal storms alternate shared lines.
and climate change. This is exemplified in the
construction of Substation 99 on the South Boston Providers indicate they maintain a robust risk-
Waterfront. The substation, which was built as a management program in order to limit service
response to the rapid development and growth in interruptions. For example, if a single distribution
the South Boston Waterfront, sits on a reinforced, facility is compromised, fiber networks allow
elevated steel platform. Sitting nearly 26 feet above rapid rerouting and redistribution of service, and
mean sea level, this substation is designed to outages are tracked via sophisticated programs
withstand significant storm surge and flooding that identify sites of loss. Certain providers, such
scenarios. as Comcast, maintain use of mutual aid and
service agreements to ensure rapid distribution of
Telecommunications providers in Boston generators and fuel in the case of regional disaster
share critical infrastructure networks to situations in order to speed repair services, as
provide service. Few redundancies exist, would be the case in a hurricane, nor’easter, or
other than those built directly by providers, blizzard. Telephone service is prioritized as the
and essential and critical facilities most important communication option to maintain
could find themselves limited to radio after emergency alert systems. Nevertheless,
communication in a flood event. individuals and government agencies must
Telecommunication is a critical service to essential consider communication backups to supplement
and critical facilities, particularly in times of the efforts of the providers.
emergency, when systems may be compromised.
Exposure of regional assets, such as the
The timeliness of emergency medical and public
Chelsea and Everett food distribution
safety calls and data transfer is critical for
markets and oil refineries on Chelsea
successful outcomes. Providers such as Comcast
Creek, will have an effect on Boston
and Verizon typically deliver their services
resiliency and should be considered in
through satellite or fiber networks. Cable, land
planning efforts.
telephone lines, and cellular service for multiple
carriers is often provided over shared fiber Though not covered within the exposure and
networks, reducing system redundancy between consequence analysis, Boston is dependent upon
providers. Compromised fiber networks would resources and assets located outside the city limits.
slow communications and require customers For example, two fresh-food distributors located in
to rely on backup communication options, Chelsea and Everett (New England Produce Center
such as satellite cellular services not reliant on and Boston Market Terminal, respectively) have
fiber or radio frequencies. Wireless services are been flagged as potential vulnerabilities in Boston’s
relied upon heavily in an emergency or flood food distribution system because of current and
event; this can lead to delays in the transfer future flood risk. Furthermore, the majority of food
of phone calls and data, particularly if fiber that comes into Boston is trucked in through I-93,
networks are compromised. For this reason, which is expected to be exposed to coastal and
individual providers work to introduce multiple riverine flooding throughout this century.
redundancies within the fiber network system,

62 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 63

 Our daily lives depend on
a complex, interconnected system.

BOSTON’S INFRASTRUCTURE INTERDEPENDENCIES

The relationships and dependencies between different Nonessential assets are also affected by energy loss. Many
infrastructure networks are complex and intertwined. Each buildings house primary and redundant energy assets, such as
infrastructure system depends on others to sustain operation, generators, in basements, which will likely be the first portions
as illustrated through the descriptions above. As part of the of buildings to flood. If commercial buildings are without power
development of the Vulnerability Assessment, IAG members for long periods of time, major productivity and revenue losses
provided input regarding potential interdependencies between may be experienced. If private energy assets are impacted by
infrastructure assets and systems.78 The Vulnerability Assessment flooding, repair crews require clear roads and bridges to access
identified infrastructure systems that IAG organizations rely on for sites and transport heavy equipment. Steam-generating plants
their core functions, as well as anticipated consequences of full also rely on continuous water supply for operations.
or partial system failures.
MWRA and BWSC are highly dependent on each other to
Members of the IAG have identified continued functionality of ensure continued operation of Boston’s water and wastewater
the city’s transportation infrastructure as a top resiliency priority. system. MWRA operates water supply and treatment facilities
Many members have identified road and bridge functionality as within Boston, while BWSC handles potable water delivery and
a key critical requirement so citizens can evacuate; emergency water/wastewater conveyance and pumping. If one of the
vehicles can pass; maintenance trucks can reach impacted two operations fail, then potable water and sewage treatment
electric, communication, and water/wastewater assets for operations in Boston will be impacted. Uninterrupted service
swift repair; and hospitals and other emergency facilities can of water and wastewater systems is essential for public health
continue to receive food, water, and medical supplies. In and safety facilities, such as hospitals and emergency shelters.
turn, the transportation system relies on continued access to Although water and wastewater operations rely on energy
electricity and communications systems, so tunnels may remain systems, failure to the system may be mechanical and require
open, and any blocked paths are cleared quickly or detours on-site repairs. As such, clear transportation routes are critical
swiftly communicated. for continued operations of water and wastewater systems,
particularly in the case of flood events.
Boston’s energy systems are also critical in a flood situation, and
all critical and essential operations rely on private companies All of these facilities require fuel to run generators in the case
as the first source of energy. Though critical and essential of power outages as well as to operate key equipment at
operations most often have redundancies in their energy their facilities. Fuel is often a key area of concern post-disaster,
systems, back-up energy sources have limited capacity and and critical shortages are common simply because of the
cannot sustain operations for an extended period of time. compounded need. These shortages can be significantly
For example, water and sewer systems rely on energy to exacerbated when fuel provider facilities themselves are
operate pump stations and process and treat wastewater; compromised or transportation pathways are blocked,
communication systems require significant amounts of electricity damaged, or submerged, leading to more severe cascading
to run and to keep equipment cool; emergency shelters require impacts across the infrastructure system.
heat, water and wastewater, and communication systems to be
Communication assets are critical in any emergency situation.
operational at all times; and hospitals need energy to continue
Radio, telephone, and television-transmitting stations are
to operate life-saving equipment.
necessary to keep lines of communication open between
public safety agencies and the public so situational updates
can continue to be conveyed. Moreover, communication
interruptions can result in the loss of information distribution and
78
Many details related to site-specific interdependencies are not described within this
potentially disrupt interactions among hospitals, government
report due to data limitations and privacy or security concerns. agencies, police, and EMTs.

64 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 65

EMPLOYMENT IMPACTS OF COASTAL FLOODING ECONOMY

For all sea level rise conditions, restaurants,

real estate, retail and wholesale trade, and
transportation industries are consistently the
most affected by business interruption due
to coastal and riverine flooding.
Combined, the top four economic industries
in Boston expected to be affected by business
interruption account for over 50 percent of the
expected business interruption impacts for the
city (averaged across all sea level rise conditions).
Business interruption also impacts jobs in Boston,
as a reduction in sales and revenues, as well
as temporary business closure, may ultimately
reduce the number of jobs required to support the
economy. The restaurant and retail industries lead
with the most jobs impacted for each sea level rise
condition, accounting for 80, 48, and 52 percent of
the total annual jobs expected to be lost for early-,
mid-, and late-century impacts, respectively. That Even considering only 9 inches of sea level rise, CITYWIDE ANNUALIZED LOSSES BY LOSS CATEGORY
these industries are affected by coastal and riverine Boston is expected to experience roughly $137
CALCULATING ANNUALIZED LOSSES
flooding is another demonstration of how vulnerable million in annualized direct physical damage,
Annualized losses are calculated by multiplying
populations will be impacted more significantly by stress factor, and displacement costs. These
the potential consequence in dollars (such as climate change. Restaurant and retail sectors tend impacts are expected to increase tenfold to nearly
damage costs for the 1 percent annual chance
event) by the probability of occurrence for that to provide jobs for low- to moderate-income people, $1.39 billion by late in the century for the four
consequence (1 percent annual chance). This and those who lose their jobs or experience reduced
allows for comparisons of different events across event scenarios considered in the Vulnerability
time. Depending on the circumstances, smaller but work hours may struggle financially, even more so Assessment (10 percent, 2 percent, 1 percent, and
higher-probability storm events may actually yield
more costs to the community over time than larger,
if they are also burdened with structural damage or 0.1 percent annual chance flood events). Costs
lower-probability storm events. The graphic below relocation costs. related to structural damage and contents losses
displays this effect; the 10 percent annual chance
events consistently carry the highest annualized
SUMMARY AND ANNUALIZED RESULTS make up the majority of these damage costs,
values throughout the century within the City of
Boston. averaging 95 percent of all direct damage costs
Late-century sea level rise conditions across all three sea level rise conditions. South
As flood risk increases this century and beyond,
total expected annualized losses increase combined with coastal storms make South Boston accounts for the highest annualized
dramatically; severe storms are expected to
become increasingly more frequent.
Boston, Downtown, and the South End79 damages for each sea level rise condition,
the top three impacted neighborhoods comprising between 32 and 47 percent of the city’s
in terms of expected costs of structure total annualized direct damage costs. The sharpest
damage, contents losses, relocation costs, increase in loss between mid- and late century is
and stress factors in that time period, by a expected to take place in the South End, with a
2070s or later

wide margin. hundredfold increase in total annualized losses Losses in the bar graph are expected total loss costs for
direct damage, relocation, mental stress and anxiety, lost
expected. productivity, and business interruption. All values consider
only present assets located within projected flood area.
79
Losses to South End are not expected to begin in earnest until late in the century.

66 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 67

 ANNUALIZED DIRECT PHYSICAL DAMAGE, STRESS FACTORS, AND
ANNUALIZED IMPACT TOTALS BY NEIGHBORHOOD AND CITYWIDE BUSINESS INTERRUPTION DISPLACEMENT COSTS FOR THE 36” CLIMATE CONDITION BY NEIGHBORHOOD

9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR DIRECT PHYSICAL DAMAGE STRESS FACTORS DISPLACEMENT COSTS TOTAL

% Boston % Boston % Boston South Boston $431M $4.7M $14.3M $450M

Neighborhood $ Total $ Total $ Total
Losses Losses Losses Downtown $276M $5.4M $7.3M $289M

South Boston $64.6M 48% $191M 37% $450M 27% South End $193M $14.1M $10.9M $218M

Downtown $44M 31% $104M 20% $289M 17% East Boston $163M $10.2M $6.4M $179M

Charlestown $115M $2M $3.4M $120M

East Boston $13.3M 8% $87.1M 17% $179M 11%
Dorchester $86M $3.2M $3.4M $92.5M
Charlestown $8.9M 6% $42.8M 8% $120M 7%
Roxbury $32.6M $240K $970K $33.8M
Dorchester $6.2M 4% $26.9M 5% $92.5M 6% Back Bay $6.6M $470K $310K $7.3M

South End $27k <1% $2.2M <1% $218M 13% Allston $7M $30K $120K $7.1M

Roxbury <$1k <1% $189K <1% $33.8M 2% Fenway $1.5M $120K $50K $1.6M

Harbor Islands $320K - $10K $330K

Back Bay <$1k <1% $72K <1% $7.4M <1%
Boston Total $1.3B $40.4M $47.1M $1.4B
Allston <$1k <1% $254K <1% $7.1M <1%

Fenway/Kenmore <$1k <1% <$1k <1% $1.6M <1%

Harbor Islands $252k <1% $284K <1% $328K <1%

Citywide Business
$19.7M 13% $63.8M 12% $283M 17%
Interruption

Boston Total $157M $518M $1.68B

Note: Values consider only present-day people and structures currently located within the projected flood area

68 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 69

 36-INCH

ANNUALIZED LOSSES FROM BUILDINGS,

9-INCH, 21-INCH, AND 36-INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITIONS

9-INCH 21-INCH

The above map demonstrates High-rise buildings, concentrated in Downtown

and South Boston, show heavier impacts for several
expected annualized structure
reasons. Not only are these structures larger, but
and contents losses per building they typically penetrate more deeply into the
for the 36-inch sea level rise earth to accommodate their size and have more
condition.80 sophisticated and costly mechanical, electrical, and
plumbing systems, often located in the basements
80
These expected losses only address the building stock current to 2016 and do not
take into consideration development changes or adaptation. Each bubble depicts a of these structures. Impacts to residential
single structure, with the size of the bubble demonstrative of the magnitude of expected
impacts to that structure. Concentrations of loss are depicted with darker colors. structures, however, should not be discounted.
The majority of loss expected throughout the city
will be to residential properties.

70 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 71

 All damage figures presented in this Exposure and
CITY OF BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES CITYWIDE ECONOMIC LOSSES Consequence Analysis may be considered the lower
36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION bound of actual economic losses that can result
from regional and site-specific82 coastal and riverine
flooding for the below reasons. A full explanation of the
limitations associated with this assessment can be found
in the Appendix.

• Short- and long-term impacts to the local and

federal government that follow a flood event, such
as dispensing additional public aid and mobilizing
emergency management crews, are not reflected
in the damage costs. Such costs are based on
a variety of factors (including the scale and
magnitude of the event, as well as the built and
natural environment and population contexts) and
are extremely difficult to predict.

• Businesses located above the second floor of

a multistory building are not considered in this
analysis, even though those businesses may
also experience closures or damage (such as
mold accumulation) if power and water are not
operating in the building. Further, code compliance
actions that may be triggered by repairs (such as
electrical and fire suppression systems) can run
2070s or later
through the entirety of a building, depending on
the specifics of the structure, further increasing
restoration costs; such costs are not considered in
this analysis.

• Impacts to the economy assume all businesses will

eventually reopen, yet in reality almost 40 percent
of all small businesses never reopen following a
CITYWIDE ANNUALIZED LOSSES disaster.83

• Impacts to supporting economic industries and

spending patterns are only acknowledged within
the context of Suffolk County. Boston has broader
economic relationships, which would increase
the reverberation of impacts to the regional and
broader economy.

• Calculations consider zero growth or change from

Business interruption is expected to they repair flood-damaged structures or restock the present-day population and built environment.
Values are based on the imposition of current
total nearly $250 million in annualized inventory. It also includes $82 million of losses
climate conditions on the current-day built
damages, accounting for 15 percent in industries that support the directly impacted environment.
of mid- to late century total damages. businesses and losses due to decreased consumer
In addition to the $1.4 billion in expected spending. This brings the total annualized losses
expected for the 36-inch sea level rise condition Most losses, except for business interruption, are calculated on
82

annualized direct physical damage, stress factor, a per-structure basis.

to $1.7 billion, with business interruption losses Source: “National Flood Insurance Program: Protecting Your Business.”
83

and displacement costs for the 36-inch sea level Federal Emergency Management Agency. http://www.fema.gov/
protecting-your-businesses.
rise condition, annualized economic output losses accounting for 17 percent of this total.
caused by business interruption within Boston total 81
Business interruption values only consider businesses on floors that are directly
impacted by flood events and assume that all businesses eventually reopen. Direct
at least $283 million.81 This includes $201 million in losses are calculated within Boston, and indirect and induced losses are only modeled
throughout Suffolk County. In actuality, the entire building will often experience business
direct output losses, which are sales and revenues interruption (though no reliable resource exists to consistently calculate business
interruption impacts to an entire structure), many flooded businesses may not ever
2070s or later

lost by businesses that must close or relocate while reopen after being directly flooded, and economic impacts could extend nationally
or internationally, depending upon industries affected. As such, these results are
considered the minimum business interruption consequences of a regional flood event.
See Appendix for more detail on methodology.

72 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Vulnerability Assessment 73

MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH

Climate
Resilience
Initiatives
The climate resilience initiatives
build on a broad set of efforts
Guided by the Vulnerability Assessment undertaken to date by the City
and other actors to prepare
findings, which identified and quantified Boston for climate change. To
develop the initiatives, Climate
the impacts of future climate change, Ready Boston reviewed past
climate adaptation plans,
the City should undertake a set of interviewed a broad range

climate resilience initiatives to address

of local stakeholders, and
examined best practices from

Boston’s climate risks. These initiatives

other cities across the world that
are contending with climate

will increase Boston’s ability to thrive in change impacts.

The City will need dedicated

the face of intensifying climate hazards, public and private partners, as
well as significant additional
leading to stronger neighborhoods and resources, to advance these

improved quality of life for all residents.

initiatives and implement
comprehensive climate
adaptation.

Image courtesy of Bud Ris

74 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 75

Climate Resilience Principles
Climate Ready Boston draws on five
principles for successful resilience to climate
change based on lessons from other cities.
These principles are outlined below:
Incorporate local involvement in design and decision-making.
Effective resilience initiatives require on-the-ground knowledge
and sustained community support for implementation and long-
term operations and maintenance. Local stakeholders can help
illuminate critical resilience opportunities in their communities and
generate creative ideas for solving multiple challenges at once.

Generate multiple benefits.

Climate Ready Boston / Boston Harbor Now Workshop
Effective climate resilience
initiatives both reduce
risks from climate hazards
and create other benefits.
Resilience initiatives that
produce multiple benefits
generate more resources to
support their implementation
and sustainability. Flood
barriers that also provide
recreational open space,
developable land, or
upgraded roadways
represent examples of
multiple-benefit solutions.
Image courtesy of Sasaki Non-physical interventions
also can offer multiple
benefits, such as programs
that help businesses and
households make operational
changes to reduce their flood
risk while also lowering utility
costs or reducing insurance
premiums. Multiple-benefit
approaches enable Boston
to address some of the other
pressing challenges that it
faces beyond climate risks.
76 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 77
 Image courtesy of Sasaki

Create layers of protection

by working at multiple scales.
Layers that are independently
effective can also work
together to provide mutual
support and reduce the Leverage building cycles. Buildings and
risk of a failure associated infrastructure experience regular cycles
with a single line of defense. of rehabilitation and replacement over
For example, to address time. Taking adaptation actions within the
extreme heat, adding green context of the building cycle can reduce
infrastructure (e.g., increasing disruption and cost, as in the case of green
tree canopy), in combination infrastructure installed as part of a road
with building-scale adaptations reconstruction project, rather than as a
(e.g., using cool roofing and standalone project that would still require
paving materials or increasing digging up roads. While the building
energy efficiency), is more cycle progresses, operational changes,
effective than doing either as opposed to physical adaptations, can
independently. Shading from be made to reduce risks. For example,
the tree canopy reduces the retailers can move the inventory stored in
cooling load on the building, the basement of their stores onto shelves
Image courtesy of Sasaki
and the retrofitted building to reduce flood damage in the near term,
radiates less heat, with a failure before local flood defenses are built.
to either layer having less
impact because of the other.

Design in flexibility and adaptability. Climate conditions will

continue to change over time, and climate resilience initiatives
must be designed to adapt to them. For example, the 24-hour
rainfall for a 10-year storm is projected to increase through the
century. To be effective, the stormwater system must be flexible
enough to adapt to this increase in extreme precipitation.
In practice, this often means decentralized, distributed
stormwater storage across cities that can be expanded
without disrupting the gray stormwater system. Similarly, the
elevation of 1 percent annual chance floods is also projected
to increase throughout the century. Buildings can be built
today with high ground-floor ceilings so that the ground floor
can be raised as sea levels rise over time, without creating
undesirably low floor-to-ceiling heights.

78 Image courtesy of Sasaki Climate Resilience Initiatives 79

 ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE PROTECTED SHORES PREPARED AND CONNECTED COMMUNITIES RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE ADAPTED BUILDINGS

Layers and Strategies

Climate resilience initiatives are actions

that Boston can undertake to improve its
preparedness for climate change. They
respond to the geographic extent, frequency,
and severity of the three key climate hazards
the city faces. The initiatives tied to extreme
heat and stormwater flooding are meant to
be applied citywide, given the geographic Climate-ready Zoning
Solar Panels & Potential
dispersion of those hazard impacts, while District Microgrids Education/ Engagement Harbor Barrier
Initiative
those tied to coastal and riverine flooding are
District Scale
targeted to the specific waterfront and inland Flood Protection

areas exposed to this hazard. Adaption as a

Tool for Economic
Elevated Development
The climate resilience initiatives have been Mechanical Systems
organized into 5 layers and 11 strategies. Small Business Temporary
Preparedness Program Flood Barrier
The first layer is an understanding of Boston’s
future climate conditions, the foundation on Resilient
Building Design
which other initiatives rely. The remaining layers Elevated First Floor Protective & Floodable
Waterfront Park
represent an approach to building resilience
at different scales: the community, shoreline,
infrastructure assets, and buildings. The layers
Expanded and
are designed to support and reinforce each Maintained Urban
other. For example, a building that has been Green Tree Canopy
Infrastructure
retrofitted for flood risk (Adapted Buildings) is Bioswale
more resilient if it sits behind a district-scale
flood protection system (Protected Shores) that 38 Executive Summary Increasing Boston's Climate Readiness 39

prevents the flooding of adjacent buildings VISUALIZING MULTIPLE LAYERS OF CLIMATE READINESS
and streets. It is even more resilient when
LAYERS OUTCOMES
its users are aware of and have prepared
for climate risks (Prepared and Connected Ensure that decision making in Boston is informed
Updated Climate Projections
by the latest Boston-specific climate projections.
Communities), and the manmade and natural
infrastructure that serves it is climate ready Support educated, connected, empowered communities
Prepared and Connected Communities in pursuing operational preparedness, adaptation planning,
(Resilient Infrastructure). and emergency response.

Within each layer, individual initiatives are Protected Shores

Reduce Boston’s risk of coastal and riverine flooding through
both nature-based and hard-engineered flood defenses.
clustered under strategies, with the initiatives
under each strategy reinforcing each other Prepare the infrastructure systems that support life in Boston
Resilient Infrastructure
and driving toward related outcomes. for future climate conditions and create new resilient systems.

Create a regulatory environment and financial and other tools

Adapted Buildings
to promote new and existing buildings that are climate ready.

80 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 81

 Layer 1
UPDATED CLIMATE
PROJECTIONS

82 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 83

Strategy 1: Maintain up-to-date INITIATIVE 1-2 . CREATE FUTURE FLOOD life of buildings and infrastructure. This
CASE STUDY: NEW YORK CITY PANEL
MAPS TO SUPPORT PLANNING, POLICY is critical for planning, designing, and
information on future climate AND REGULATION.
ON CLIMATE CHANGE
regulating for the flood risk an asset will
conditions in Boston face during its expected life, rather than just
In 2008, Mayor Bloomberg convened the New York City
Panel on Climate Change, an independent body of
The City should create a set of flood maps that scientists, to develop localized climate projections. In
show the extent and depth of future flooding, the risk that it faces today. For example, in its September 2012, the New York City Council passed Local
INITIATIVE 1-1. UPDATE BOSTON-AREA Climate Change Preparedness Checklist, the Law 42, which requires the NPCC to meet at least two times
possibly including indications of wave action, per calendar year to review the most recent scientific data
CLIMATE PROJECTIONS PERIODICALLY Boston Planning and Development Agency on climate change and its potential impacts on New York
moving water, and channelization hazards. The
The City should establish the Greater Boston Panel currently assumes that large buildings in
City. The NPCC is required to release updated local climate
future flood maps should be based on the latest change projections at least every three years, with the last
on Climate (GBPC) to serve as the continuation of Boston have a design life of at least 60 years. set of projections released in 2015.
climate projections from the Greater Boston Panel
the Boston Research Advisory Group (BRAG), which
on Climate (GBPC; see Initiative 1-1, p. 84), as well ◦ Flood probabilities. Future flood maps
developed the Climate Projection Consensus for
as policy decisions regarding acceptable levels of should show the extents and depths of
Climate Ready Boston. The GBPC should consist of
risk. These policy decisions should be made in various probabilities of flooding. These CLIMATE READY BOSTON’S FUTURE FLOOD MAPS
leading climate scientists from local and regional
collaboration with local and state agencies and multiple probabilities will support decisions Climate Ready Boston produced maps that reflect
institutions, organized into working groups
future conditions for three sea level rise scenarios
will require consideration of four key parameters: regarding acceptable levels of risk. For
focused on key climate factors, such as extreme (9, 21, and 36 inches) for the purpose of conducting
example, an infrastructure agency may high-level assessments of flood risk and developing
temperatures, sea level rise, coastal storms, and ◦ Emissions scenario. The GBPC will create climate resilience initiatives. These scenarios are not
precipitation. decide that a local road serving a very necessarilythe appropriate ones for detailed planning
climate projections for multiple greenhouse and regulation.
small area should face no more than a 1in
gas emissions scenarios. Future flood maps
The GBPC should be charged with two 100 annual chance of inundation during
should reflect a decision regarding which
responsibilities. First, the GBPC should produce its useful life, while a major artery or
emissions scenario is the most appropriate
an updated set of climate projections for the Boston evacuation route should face no more than
to use for planning, policy, and regulation.
area every five years, building on the 2016 Climate a 1 in 1,000 annual chance of inundation. STANDARDS FOR ACCEPTABLE FLOOD RISK LEVELS
For example, a decision to use the business-
Projection Consensus. These projections should FEDERAL FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT STANDARD
as-usual scenario would mean setting a lower Local and state agencies, with guidance from
reflect the most up-to-date data and theoretical In January 2015, President Obama signed Executive Order
level of acceptable risk and more stringent the Environment Department, should use the
13690, which established national flood risk standards for
understanding and include consideration of multiple all federally funded projects in and near floodplains. Under
regulatory standards than a decision to use resulting flood maps for planning, policy, and the order, federally funded projects must adhere to one of
emissions scenarios and time periods, extending at
three standards. They can use projections informed by the
the moderate-reduction emissions scenario. regulations. For example, the Infrastructure
least 100 years in the future. As part of the process best available data and methods, build two feet above
the current 1 percent annual chance flood elevation for
of developing climate projections, the GBPC also ◦ Projection likelihood. Each emissions Coordination Committee should incorporate
standard projects and three feet above for critical buildings
should fill research gaps in local climate change scenario includes a range of likely outcomes them into planning and design standards (see like hospitals and evacuation centers, or build to the 0.2
percent annual chance flood elevation.
knowledge. Second, the GBPC should assist local for sea level rise and other climate factors. Initiative 6-1, p.118), and the Boston Planning and
Development Agency should use them for setting DUTCH FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT STANDARD
and state agencies in applying those conclusions Future flood maps should reflect a decision The Netherlands government recently revised flood risk
to policy, design, and regulation. In particular, about which outcome from within this range appropriate zoning standards within the future management standards for national flood defenses. The
the GBPC should provide information to the should be used. For example, the median floodplain (see Initiative 6-1, p.118). new standards are based on the level of protection required
to provide a basic level of safety for people behind flood
Infrastructure Coordination Committee to support projection of sea level rise has a 50 percent defenses and to minimize severe economic losses. For flood
In conjunction with the work of the GBPC, the defense systems to be considered to provide a basic level of
the development of planning and design standards chance of being exceeded; a stricter standard safety, the individual annual risk of dying due to flooding at
City should update future flood maps every five
(see Initiative 6-1, p.118), and to the Boston Planning may require that the sea level rise assumption
a particular location must no higher than 1 in 100,000, taking
years, reflecting updated climate projections, into consideration evacuation possibilities. The economically
and Development Agency to support efforts to used should have at most a 15 percent chance efficient level of protection is that which minimizes the sum
ongoing policy decisions regarding acceptable of expected damages and required protection investments.
incorporate climate readiness into zoning standards of being exceeded. levels of risk, and changes in the natural and Where one of the two standards (basic safety and
and land-use planning (see Initiative 9-2, p.135). economic efficiency) leads to a higher
◦ Appropriate time periods. The GBPC will built environment. level of protection, the stricter standard is used.
The Environment Department should oversee the create climate projections for multiple time Sources: “Federal Flood Risk Management Standards.” FEMA. http://www.fema.
gov/federal-flood-risk-management-standard-ffrms.
GBPC’s work, and the City should identify funding periods. Future flood maps should reflect H. van der Most, I. Tanczos, K. M. de Brujin, and D. Wagenaar. “New Risk-Based
Standards for Flood Protection in the Netherlands.” Paper Presented at the Sixth
for the work of the GBPC. multiple time periods, corresponding to International Conference on Flood Management, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 2014.

decisions regarding the minimum expected

84 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 85

 Layer 2
PREPARED AND
CONNECTED
COMMUNITIES

86 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 87

Boston residents, resilience investments to investments in housing,
transportation, open space, job growth, and
and the Environment Department, the Office
of Emergency Management, the Boston Public
DIGITAL EQUITY AND ENGAGEMENT
High-speed Internet infrastructure is a tool that all
businesses, institutions, and community Bostonians need to engage in the educational,
neighborhood services in order to increase Health Commission, the Office of Neighborhood
groups are essential partners in climate economic, and civic pursuits that are critical to a future
safety, economic opportunity, and livability Services, the Office of Resilience and Racial Equity, of equity and opportunity. The City is committed to
adaptation, given their role as the day-to- providing Bostonians with access to high-speed Internet,
for all residents. Because resilience the Boston Planning and Development Agency,
day stewards of Boston’s neighborhoods. along with the skills and tools to leverage this technology,
improvements may increase property values the Inspectional Services Department, and the to build the individual, family, and community capacity
In preparing for climate change, the City necessary for preparedness. To this end, the City is
and thereby potentially affect affordability Department of Neighborhood Development. The
will work closely with these groups to learn taking the following steps to support digital equity and
for residents, the City, led by the Office of consortium should partner with a broad range of engagement:
from their local expertise, identify and
Resilience and Racial Equity, will work to resilience-focused nonprofits, business groups,
incorporate their adaptation-planning • The City is expanding the availability of high-speed
address these impacts by developing a local community development corporations, local Internet in places where Bostonians work, learn, play,
priorities, overcome challenges to successful and engage in civic life, including Boston Public Library
resilience and racial equity toolkit. This toolkit small businesses, and other community-based
adaptation, and partner in planning efforts. branches, Boston Centers for Youth and Families, Boston
can be used to evaluate policies and practices organizations. Public Schools, Main Streets districts, and other important
Throughout both adaptation planning and public gathering places.
in order to make sure that racial equity and
implementation efforts, the City will engage The consortium can act as a coordinating
social cohesion form the foundation of the • The City is working to ensure that community members
in two-way communication with residents, committee for all outreach related to Climate and local businesses are equipped with the digital
City’s decision-making processes.
businesses, institutions, and community Ready Boston. The consortium should perform tools and skills that they need to take advantage of
opportunities and create the future of Boston. City
partners, wherein it is actively engaged in two functions. First, it should coordinate both the agencies and local nonprofit organizations, such as Tech
both sharing and receiving information. independent citywide education campaign and the Goes Home, are collaborating to offer one-time and

Strategy 2: Expand education more targeted campaigns that will be undertaken

ongoing digital-skills training, such as basic computer
and Internet use, coding, and media production.
The City will connect with residents through
a variety of methods and channels, with and engagement of Bostonians for specific groups, including property owners • The City is working to support a more competitive

a special focus on ensuring that it reaches about climate hazards. (see Initiative 2-2, p.90), small businesses (see broadband marketplace so that households and
businesses can choose among a range of high-
Initiative 2-3, p.92), and facilities serving vulnerable
socially vulnerable populations. Recognizing quality, affordable high-speed Internet options. The
INITIATIVE 2-1. EXPAND CITYWIDE CLIMATE populations. For example, the Office of Emergency City is facilitating collaboration across departments
Boston’s large population of renters and READINESS EDUCATION AND ENGAGEMENT to streamline permitting for broadband infrastructure,
Management runs the “Ready Boston” community
students, the City will make a strong effort CAMPAIGN support innovative technology during the design and
preparedness campaign that takes an all-hazards construction of Boston’s built environment, and remove
to connect these groups with information
approach (natural or manmade) to informing the building-level barriers to broadband access and choice.
and resources and engage them in planning The City should leverage its existing emergency
preparedness and climate adaptation outreach public about the risks that they face and what
efforts. The City will provide pathways for
efforts to develop and implement a long-term they can do to protect themselves. Second, the
residents to participate in climate-related
education campaign targeted to all Bostonians consortium will identify opportunities to integrate
volunteering efforts, such as the Boston
with a special focus on socially vulnerable resilience into existing education campaigns.
Medical Reserve Company, and to take part
populations. In the short term, the City’s education Across both of these functions, the consortium
in Resilience Area Planning Committees.
campaign should focus on sharing the results and will ensure integrated and coordinated messaging.
To conduct effective outreach to Boston’s
population, City agencies will partner with implications of Climate Ready Boston with all
In the short term, the consortium can lead the
a broad range of resilience-focused Boston residents. In the intermediate and longer
development of print and online materials in
nonprofits, business groups, community term, the campaign should support both individual
multiple languages and coordinate in-person
development corporations, and other climate preparedness efforts and neighborhood
and social media outreach. The materials should
community-based organizations. engagement in district-scale climate adaptation
summarize the key findings from Climate Ready
planning through the Local Climate Resilience
Boston, focusing on Boston’s three major climate
Building on its commitment to inclusive Committees (see Initiative 4-2, p.102).
hazards: coastal and riverine flooding, stormwater
growth, the City will use its climate
This education campaign should be coordinated flooding, and extreme heat. The materials should
adaptation efforts as a tool to enable
by a consortium of partners within the City. clearly explain the risks that Boston faces, the time
more residents to fully participate in Boston’s
The consortium can include Greenovate Boston frames over which the city faces them, and the
economy. Where possible, the City will link

88 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 89

potential impacts of those risks on Boston’s people, INITIATIVE 2-2 . LAUNCH A CLIMATE READY The Climate Ready Buildings Education SUPPORTING INDIVIDUAL FINANCIAL PREPAREDNESS
property, infrastructure, and economy. In the BUILDINGS EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR campaign should be led by the Boston Planning The out-of-pocket costs associated with an acute event, such

long term, the campaign should seek to increase PROPERTY OWNERS AND USERS and Development Agency, the Inspectional
as coastal flooding that temporarily displaces residents from
their homes and prevents them from accessing nonsalaried
both the emergency and long-term preparedness The City should develop and run a Climate Ready Services Department, and the Department of jobs, can be a significant stress for low- and moderate-income
households. Today, 46 percent of Boston’s residents are liquid-
of Bostonians, both by building out a network Buildings Education Program to inform property Neighborhood Development (DND). These asset poor, meaning that they do not have enough savings to
live above the poverty level for three months if they suffer an
of climate readiness volunteers and preparing owners and other groups about current and future entities can do outreach to property owners at income disruption such as losing a job.
Bostonians to engage district-scale climate climate risks facing their buildings and actions they key touchpoints. For all owners, these points
For this reason, the City should continue to support low-
adaptation planning through Resilience Area can undertake to increase their preparedness. This include when they seek development approvals income households in both saving for emergencies and doing
Planning Committees (see Initiative 4-2, p.102). and permits from the Boston Planning and long-term asset building through the efforts of the Office of
education program will be connected to, but also Financial Empowerment (OFE). For example, as one tool to
distinct from, the citywide education campaign Development Authority and Inspectional Services build preparedness, OFE can continue to promote use of
To build out a network of climate-readiness myRA federal savings accounts to residents during its financial
because of its specific focus on building readiness. Department and when they are subject to code counseling, financial-literary education, and tax preparation
volunteers, the City can tap into the existing
It should be linked to building audit and retrofit enforcement from the Inspectional Services assistance sessions. The myRA program offers free retirement
Boston Medical Reserve Company (BMRC). savings accounts to households without access to an Individual
financing programs (see Initiative 10-1, p.138). Department. In addition, the City should use Roth Account (IRA) or 401(k) account who make less than
BMRC is a citywide volunteer group that receives $191,000 per year. While deposited funds can be withdrawn
outreach to property owners conducted as part
funding through the U.S. Department of Health While the Climate Ready Buildings Education
from accounts at any time without penalty, accrued interest
of Boston’s Community Rating System application can only be withdrawn once the account holder reaches the
and Human Services and is coordinated by Program will focus on property owners, it also will age of 59. By enabling Bostonians to save for retirement but
(see Initiative 11-2, p.145). Finally, some additional also be able to access funds in the event of an emergency,
the Boston Public Health Commission’s Office include outreach to three other groups who play touchpoints by specific owner type myRA accounts can potentially serve as a useful tool to
of Public Health Preparedness. It trains both a critical role in the use or upgrading of Boston’s
advance preparedness goals.
are summarized in the table.
medical and nonmedical community members Source: “Financial Insecurity in Boston: A Data Profile,” Family Assets Count.
building stock:
in emergency and long-term preparedness. The campaign should share print and online
Climate-readiness volunteers can help support ◦ Tenants, given that the majority of Boston resources and potentially include in-person
both on-the-ground responses to acute events, residents are renters and they have the workshops with property owners and other
such as assisting neighbors during heat waves and capacity to advocate for resilience upgrades; stakeholders. The purpose of the campaign is to
proactively reporting stormwater flooding in their build a prepared community of building owners EXISTING PARTNERSHIPS WITH PROPERTY OWNERS
◦ Developers with projects in the pipeline; and The City can leverage its existing experience working with
communities, and longer-term adaptation—for and users across Boston, recognizing the need for property owners to educate them about climate change
example, by helping care for young trees to expand ◦ Design, construction, and property broad awareness, because owners and tenants turn mitigation and adaptation challenges. Since November 2013,
the Boston Planning and Development Authority has required all
the urban canopy. management professionals required for over relatively quickly in Boston. The campaign development projects subject to Article 80 large project review
the construction or retrofitting of resilient should perform the following functions: (50,000 square feet and over) to analyze and describe their
climate preparedness.
buildings.
◦ Educate stakeholders about buildings at risk
from climate change hazards over different
time periods, taking into account both direct
PROPERTY OWNER TYPE TOUCHPOINT
impacts to buildings and indirect impacts to ◦ Inform building owners about the need
Their participation in industry groups (e.g., NAIOP Commercial
supporting services. to make both operational changes (e.g.,
Large commercial property owners Real Estate Development Association, Greater Boston Real Estate
Board, A Better City, and Urban Land Institute). developing continuity of operations and
◦ Inform building owners about the timing evacuation plans and securing adequate
Market-rate multifamily Required registration of their rental property through DND.
and severity of their exposure and the risk insurance) and physical upgrades to improve
residential owners Their participation in industry groups.
levels to which they should be planning. resilience. In addition,
Their application for housing development or rehabilitation
Affordable multifamily
financing from DND. Their coordination with community
Ideally, this would involve providing owners
residential owners ◦ Inform building owners about opportunities
development corporations. with information about not only flood depths
Their participation in homeownership counseling or application but also wave heights and moving-water to combine climate mitigation and adaptation
Owner-occupants, especially low-to
for rehabilitation financing through DND’s Boston Home Center
moderate-income owner-occupants
and in partnership with local CDCs. hazards, and also the effects of heat, because by making energy-efficiency improvements to
these factors affect appropriate adaptation their buildings. This may include solar power
Their application for capital upgrade
Owners of small business space
assistance through Main Streets program. strategies. generation or design elements such as high-

90 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 91

OUTREACH THROUGH reflectance “cool roofs” that can reduce property INITIATIVE 2- 4. UPDATE THE CITY’S HEAT In addition, the City should partner with community
PROACTIVE CODE ENFORCEMENT owners’ cooling costs while also reducing the EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN nonprofits to expand access to facilities with cooling
urban heat island effect. capacity in areas that currently have limited access
Because the frequency and intensity of heat waves
The City should conduct outreach to to municipally owned emergency shelter facilities
private property owners about two relatively ◦ Educate building owners about how they can are expected to increase with climate change, the
inexpensive actions that can reduce their or that have access only to pool facilities, which are
flooding risk. participate in district-scale adaptation planning City should continue its efforts to update its heat
not suitable for the elderly, medically ill, or small
efforts, including larger-scale flood defenses that emergency action plan to reflect both current and
• Installation and maintenance of backflow children. The City should prioritize installation of
potentially could reduce the need for individual likely future needs. The City’s action plan lies within
preventers: The Massachusetts Uniform backup power at shelter facilities to reduce their
State Plumbing Code requires backflow defenses, while also providing education about the City’s Emergency Operations Plan Annex on
preventers to be installed for all buildings risk of losing cooling capacity during heat waves
site-specific mitigation to support multiple layers Extreme Temperatures.
with plumbing fixtures located below (see Initiative 10-2, p.142). The City also should
the manhole cover serving the building of protection.
(i.e., with any kind of water connection The revised action plan should enhance the refine its existing systems to provide transportation
below street level). These preventers INITIATIVE 2-3. CONDUCT OUTREACH framework for coordination during heat events to facilities with cooling capacity for older adults
stop contaminated sewage from flowing
TO FACILITIES THAT SERVE VULNERABLE across the City, state agencies, and nonprofit partners and disabled people, with these systems including
back into a building’s systems during
sewage overflow events. However, current POPULATIONS TO SUPPORT PREPAREDNESS critical to preparedness and response. Key state using the Elderly Commission’s Senior Shuttles
compliance rates for both installation and AND ADAPTATION
agencies include the Department of Conservation and MBTA’s THE RIDE fleet. The City should
maintenance are estimated to be low.
As a separate effort, but closely linked to its Climate and Recreation, which owns and operates public partner with community nonprofits and healthcare
• Installation and maintenance of tide
gates on private storm drain outfalls: Ready Buildings campaign, the City should conduct pools, and the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority, providers to help disabled residents who lack cooling
BWSC controls the majority of public
outreach to owners and operators of privately owned which operates THE RIDE fleet. The revised plan capacity in their homes register for THE RIDE, if
storm drain outfalls in Boston, but does
not control private storm drain outfalls facilities that serve significant concentrations of should ensure that there is a clear set of roles and interested, in advance of heat events. In addition, the
that run from private properties to the vulnerable populations but that are not currently responsibilities for each partner and define the City should work with the MBTA to reduce the time
ocean or other waterways, such as the
Charles River, Neponset River, and Fort required to have operational preparedness and actions to be undertaken under both heat advisory required for reservations during heat emergencies so
Point Channel. BWSC estimates that there evacuation plans under state and local regulations. and heat emergency conditions. In addition, the plan that the reservation period is not a barrier to usage.
are approximately 1,000 private outfalls in
The purpose of this outreach should be to encourage should set a clear set of protocols for the City and
Boston. They have completed mapping
of all private outfalls along Fort Point the owners and operators of these facilities to develop its partners to communicate with Bostonians about
Channel, although other outfalls still need heat risks across a broad range of channels, including
to be identified through fieldwork done at
operational preparedness and evacuation plans for
low tide. With sea level rise, outfalls that situations in which sheltering in place is not feasible, phone, radio, print, online, social media, and in-
lie at low elevations along waterways
as well as to make needed capital upgrades. person outreach.
subject to tidal influence will need to be
tide-gated to prevent them from backing
up and flooding the buildings or sites that Under current regulations, municipal facilities and In addition, in the revised plan, the City should
they serve. healthcare facilities (hospitals, healthcare clinics, and standardize its definitions for both heat advisory
nursing homes) licensed by the Massachusetts Bureau and heat emergency events. The Elderly Commission
of Healthcare Quality are already required to have defines a heat emergency as three consecutive days
operational preparedness and evacuation plans. The with maximum temperature exceeding 86 degrees
City can work with local community development Fahrenheit and relative humidity exceeding 68
corporations to identify facilities for outreach, with percent, and a heat advisory when these conditions
target facilities likely to include privately owned are in effect for one or two days. The Mayor’s Office
affordable housing complexes, substance abuse currently defines a heat emergency as three or more
treatment centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, days with maximum temperature exceeding 90
small nonprofit offices, and others. The City should degrees Fahrenheit.
encourage facility managers to use planning resources
In standardizing its definitions, the City should
provided by the Federal Emergency Management
recognize that different thresholds for taking action
Agency to develop continuity of operations plans. The
to address heat risks may be appropriate for different
City should also prioritize these facilities for climate
populations.
resilience audits (see Initiative 10-1, p.138) and backup
92 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston power installation (see Initiative 10-3, p.143). Climate Resilience Initiatives 93
The City may need to partner with the MBTA to INITIATIVE 2-5. EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL to insurance coverage to small businesses. The jobs and create a pipeline of local workers prepared
identify additional resources to support this type of BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS PROGRAM City is undertaking a separate set of initiatives to undertake resilience projects, the Office of
service. To serve physically homebound people who to address insurance availability and cost under Workforce Development then should create a
Small businesses play a critical role in employing
cannot leave their homes without assistance, the City Strategy 11 (see p.145). Finally, the City should plan to incorporate resilience skills development
Boston residents and driving the Boston economy,
should work to help them obtain energy-efficient air help connect small business owners and, as into Boston’s existing job-training programs and
with 44 percent of Boston’s employees in private,
conditioners or other means of cooling. relevant, their landlords with the resilience audit establish resilience-focused workforce-development
for-profit businesses working in small businesses.1
program (see Initiative 10-1, p.138). Because cost is pathways. The Office of Workforce Development
To take advantage of the important role that strong Because small businesses face challenges in
a major barrier to making resilience improvements, also should work to incorporate resilience retrofit
peer-to-peer relationships and community ties play preparing for and recovering from climate change
the City should investigate funding models for skills training into its existing construction pre-
in reducing negative health impacts during heat impacts, the City should launch a preparedness
building-level resilience improvements under apprenticeship and apprenticeship training
waves, the City should make heat a major focus of program to increase their readiness. The City
Initiative 10-4 (see p.143). programs.
its citywide education and engagement campaign should leverage the strong existing relationships
INITIATIVE 3-2 . PURSUE INCLUSIVE
(see Initiative 2-1, p. 88). Communications should that it has with small businesses through its
Strategy 3: Leverage climate
help Bostonians understand heat health risks, heat Main Streets and Renew Boston Small Business HIRING AND LIVING WAGES FOR
programs to launch Small Business Preparedness
adaptation as a tool for RESILIENCE PROJECTS
illness symptoms, cooling center locations and
hours, and available transportation and emergency Program. The program should be targeted towards economic development The City can consider the hiring of graduates
services. In addition, as part of its citywide small businesses that are exposed to coastal and INITIATIVE 3-1. IDENTIFY RESILIENCE- of Boston’s resilience workforce-development
campaign, the City should work to establish a riverine or stormwater flooding in the near term, FOCUSED WORKFORCE-DEVELOPMENT programs for firms working on resilience projects
network of neighborhood-level volunteers who because of the potential for physical damage, PATHWAYS that receive City funding or land. In addition, the
can check on socially vulnerable populations, focusing particularly on Main Streets districts that City can explore whether City-sponsored resilience
The Office of Workforce Development can
such as seniors, the disabled, and the homeless, are exposed under these conditions. The program projects can pay employees a prevailing or a living
explore developing required skill profiles for
during heat waves. The City can leverage existing also should provide information on heat risks. wage to support economic opportunity for all
resilience-focused jobs at a range of skill levels,
volunteer networks, such as the Boston Medical Bostonians. Under the initiatives set out in Imagine
As part of this effort, the City can facilitate in- based on Boston’s planned resilience initiatives.
Reserve Company, and community nonprofits to Boston 2030, the City is advocating for a higher
person workshops to help small business owners For example, potential resilience-focused jobs
help build out these networks. In addition, as part minimum wage to improve economic mobility for
increase their preparedness in five ways: may include performing resilience audits of
of its outreach to owners and operators of facilities Boston workers and help ensure that all Boston
buildings and installing and maintaining green
serving concentrations of vulnerable populations, ◦ Better understand their risks from climate residents are able to earn a family-sustaining wage.
infrastructure. To prepare Bostonians for these
the City should encourage them to educate their hazards, including coastal and stormwater
clients about heat risks (see Initiative 2-3, p.92). The flooding and extreme heat.
City can encourage nutrition vendors, home care
◦ Develop business continuity plans.
agencies, and visiting nurses to increase phone and USING CLIMATE INVESTMENTS BOSTON’S EXISTING
in-person check-ins during heat events.
MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH,

◦ Evaluate whether they have adequate

CITY OF BOSTON
TO ADVANCE EQUITYEQUITY RESIDENT JOB POLICY
insurance coverage. In the coming years, the public, private, and City agencies should leverage
Finally, the City should work with its partners (state nonprofit sectors will be making large investments the existing Boston Resident
in climate mitigation and adaptation. Earlier this Job Policy to increase
agencies and nonprofits) to improve tracking of the ◦ If they own their space, prioritize necessary year, the City released its Economic Inclusion resident employment on
need for public heat support services in Boston to physical upgrades for their specific building. and Equity Agenda, which provides a detailed City-sponsored development
overview of the City’s ongoing programs, policies, projects and support equity
evaluate if services are keeping pace with demand. and initiatives to address racial and economic in hiring and contracting.
These metrics include emergency shelter usage, ◦ If they do not own their space, communicate disparities in Boston. The agenda provides context Under this policy, developers
for the City’s work across four themes: income and contractors agree to
transportation requests, and healthcare service the importance of resilience improvements to
and employment, wealth creation, business make best-faith efforts to
requests. Under a separate set of initiatives (see property owners. development, and economic mobility. To fulfill employ 50 percent residents,
its commitment to inclusive growth, the City 25 percent people of color,
Strategy 6, p.118), the City will prioritize green As needed, the City should partner with the should undertake the initiatives under Strategy 3 and 10 percent women
to ensure that these investments yield maximum across all trades.
infrastructure development in areas that are subject insurance community in Boston to address barriers benefits to residents in terms of job creation,
to the urban heat island effect and have high levels workforce development, and entrepreneurship
opportunities.
of air pollution and socially vulnerable populations. 1
Source: “Small Business Plan.” City of Boston

94 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 95

 PRECEDENT: CITY OF NEW ORLEANS
Climate Ready Boston / Boston Harbor Now Workshop WORKFORCE-DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
In recent years, New Orleans has become
a national leader in resilience workforce
development, and is poised to extend this
role through its winning project under the U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development’s
National Disaster Resilience Competition,
“Reshaping the Urban Delta.” New Orleans’s
program offers several useful best practices for
Boston:

• Defining short-term and long-term workforce-

development objectives. New Orleans has
committed to both train unemployed and
underemployed working-age individuals
for job readiness in the short term and
develop the next generation of design and
construction professionals in the long term.
It has set a target that over 10 percent
of resilience project jobs will be filled by
unemployed or underemployed individuals.

• Developing a clear set of workforce-

development pathways. New Orleans has
prioritized environmental services and water-
management-sector workforce development.
It has elected to focus on these sectors
because they have both local demand and
export potential.

• Incentivizing firms to exceed workforce-

INITIATIVE 3-3. PRIORITIZE USE OF development targets. When bidding
MINORITY- AND WOMEN-OWNED MAIN STREETS PREPAREDNESS BOSTON’S EXISTING WORKFORCE-
out contracts, New Orleans encourage
respondents to exceed Section 3 training
BUSINESSES FOR RESILIENCE PROJECTS PROGRAM MODELS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS and hiring requirements for low- or very-low-
The Office of Workforce Development can leverage a income residents by making the additional
For the Main Streets Preparedness Program, the
The City can request that City-sponsored City can draw on precedents from both within and number of existing workforce-development programs costs incurred to provide extra training
resilience projects prioritize minority and outside the Boston metro. The Metropolitan Area to explore providing the infrastructure for climate eligible for reimbursement as long as they are
Planning Commission has been working with the City resilience-focused job training. In particular, the Office deemed reasonable.
women-owned businesses for spending of Cambridge to assist Cambridge’s small businesses of Workforce Development can use the framework of
in recovering quickly from business disruption. New the Greater Boston American Apprenticeship Initiative, • Supporting workforce-development
on capital and operating and maintenance which includes the Building Pathways and YouthBuild accountability. New Orleans has
York City’s Business Preparedness and Resiliency
costs. The Mayor’s 2016 Executive Order on Program (BPREP) offers resilience planning workshops, programs, to offer construction pre-apprenticeship implemented a rigorous tracking system
building assessments, grants for building retrofits, and and apprenticeship opportunities. The Greater Boston to ensure that workforce-development
Procurement set spending goals for minority online tools for assessing vulnerability and potential Apprenticeship Initiative was launched in the fall of graduates hired by contractors are
and women-owned business enterprises (MBE adaptation strategies. 2015 with a U.S. Department of Labor grant. Building
receiving pledged training and employment
Pathways is a six-week pre-apprenticeship program run
Source:“Business Preparedness and Resiliency Program (PREP).” opportunities.
and WBE, respectively) competing for City The City of New York. by the Metropolitan Boston Building and Construction
Trades Council that provides women and people of color
construction, architecture, engineering, and with an introduction to careers in the building trades, Source:“City of New Orleans Application to HUD National Disaster
Resilience Competition.” City of New Orleans, 2015.
professional services contracts.2 The spending gives them the opportunity to earn key certifications,
and provides them with guaranteed placement into an
goals, which range from 10 to 25 percent MBE apprenticeship program. YouthBuild Boston is a 12-week
and 15 to 20 percent WBE utilization, depending pre-apprenticeship program to youth ages 14–24 that
EMERGENCY SHELTERS offers them the opportunity to earn key certifications
on the type and size of the contracts, can be The City and community organizations currently operate in preparation for building trades apprenticeships. The
many facilities throughout Boston that offer cooling Office of Workforce Development also can explore
applied to all City-sponsored resilience projects. capacity during heat waves. The City will work with incorporating resilience skills development into the
community organizations to ensure that these facilities Mayor’s Youth Summer Jobs Program and Operation
are open whenever necessary, accessible to all who Exit, an intensive career-readiness and occupational skills
need them, and feature backup power in case of power training program that prepares at-risk youth and young
outages. adults for buildings trades apprenticeships.
2
“An Interim Executive Order Promoting Equity in Public Procurement.” Executive
Order of Mayor Martin J. Walsh, 2016.

96 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 97

 Layer 3
PROTECTED
SHORES

98 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 99

Strategy 4: Develop local ◦ Community Engagement (see Initiative 4-2, ◦ Infrastructure Adaptation Planning (see governance structures for managing the
p.102). To understand current challenges Initiative 6-1, p.118). The City should work implementation, operations, and maintenance
climate resilience plans to
facing residents, businesses, and institutions with the Infrastructure Coordination of adaptation actions. These governance
coordinate adaptation efforts and to develop creative solutions to address Committee to develop district-scale structures may include formation of a
INITIATIVE 4-1. DEVELOP LOCAL CLIMATE these challenges, the City should work with infrastructure adaptation plans to prepare special assessment district governing board,
RESILIENCE PLANS TO SUPPORT DISTRICT- district stakeholders through local climate existing infrastructure—and design new resilience business improvement district, or
SCALE CLIMATE ADAPTATION resilience committees. Representative of their infrastructure—for climate change. This public-private partnership. The form of the
neighborhoods, these committees should may include opportunities for joint capital governance structures should be guided by
The City should develop local climate resilience
gather data, provide input on potential planning, such as the elevation of a road the type and financing needs of resilience
plans to address climate adaptation in areas of
resilience actions, and identify potential combined with upgrades to the stormwater actions to be undertaken.
geographically concentrated climate risks. The
co-benefits of climate adaptation such as management system or coordination with
priority local climate resilience plans should be
increased access to economic opportunity for district-scale flood protection infrastructure.
for East Boston, Downtown, Charlestown, South
an improved public realm. Engagement with
Boston, and Dorchester, which face the greatest ◦ Coordination with Other Plans (see Initiative
the local climate resilience committees should
risk from coastal flooding in the near term. For 9-5, p.138). The City should coordinate with
be a feature of all components of local climate
these and subsequent local climate resilience other planning processes such as Imagine
resilience plans.
plans, all climate hazards should be addressed, Boston 2030, 100 Resilient Cities, Special
including coastal and riverine flooding, extreme ◦ Land Use Planning for Future Flood Planning Areas, or Municipal Harbor Plans to
heat, and stormwater flooding. Protection Systems (see Initiative 5-1, p. 106). ensure that district-scale climate adaptation
To support the feasibility of district-scale flood is incorporated into area plans and, where
Local climate resilience plans should coordinate
protection systems, the Boston Planning and appropriate, codified into the Zoning Code.
all climate adaptation efforts within a district.
Development Agency should establish Flood
This would allow the City and its partners to ◦ Development of Financing Strategies.
Protection Overlay Districts in strategically
use limited resources more wisely and avoid The City should evaluate and, as necessary,
important “breach points” where floodwaters
the duplication of investments, not only in provide implementation support for financing
can enter and inundate large inland areas.
capital projects but also in planning, design, strategies to support district-scale adaptation.
New development proposals at these breach
and operations. District coordination also The strategies may include federal and state
points would need to demonstrate the potential
offers opportunities for the City or its partners infrastructure funds, special assessment
for integration into future flood protection
to capture some or all of the value created by districts, resilience business improvement
systems. This is particularly important in areas
climate readiness efforts in order to finance these districts or joint capital planning structures
where waterfront development is currently
investments and to integrate other community to collect funds from the beneficiaries of
proceeding rapidly and may introduce new
priorities—such as housing affordability, adaptation projects. Assessment districts
challenges for the creation of future flood
economic opportunity, access to quality open could help the City to fund capital and
protection infrastructure.
space, and safe and efficient mobility—in tandem operating expenses for district-scale resilience LOCAL CLIMATE RESILIENCE PLANS
with climate adaptation. At the district scale, investments by levying a small tax on the FOR DISTRICT-SCALE ADAPTATION
◦ Flood Protection Feasibility Studies (see
The City should develop local climate resilience plans for
climate readiness efforts can be integrated with Initiatives 5-2, 5-3, pp. 106, 110). The City properties that benefit. Joint capital planning East Boston, Downtown, Charlestown, South Boston, and
locally specific initiatives to advance multiple should apply a consistent framework for among agencies and other actors could enable Dorchester, which face the greatest risk of geographically
concentrated coastal flooding. For these and subsequent
goals simultaneously. evaluating the feasibility of district-scale larger-scale interventions that reduce the local climate resilience plans, all climate hazards should be
addressed, including coastal and riverine flooding, extreme
flood protection alternatives. Key need for individual interventions and pool
The local climate resilience plans should include heat, and stormwater flooding, as should additional
considerations include flood risk reduction resources from the agencies that benefit from community priorities.
the following:
benefits; additional benefits like recreation the large-scale interventions.
or economic development; environmental
◦ Development of Governance Structures.
impacts; cost; land ownership; permitting;
The City should evaluate and, as necessary,
and intergovernmental coordination.
provide implementation support for
100 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 101
 INITIATIVE 4-2 . ESTABLISH LOCAL Strategy 5: Create a 1. “Gray,” or hard-engineered coastal
CLIMATE RESILIENCE COMMIT TEES infrastructure, such as levees, floodwalls, or
PRECEDENT: CLIMATE CARE
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION MODEL TO SERVE AS LONG-TERM COMMUNITY coastal protection system
gates. Typically, gray coastal infrastructure
PARTNERS FOR CLIMATE ADAPTATION
The Climate CARE (Community Action for As discussed in the Climate Ready Boston is necessary to protect built-up areas from
Resilience through Engagement) program in
East Boston is being led by the Neighborhood of The City should work with local residents, Vulnerability Assessment, Boston faces severe flood events like coastal storms, as it
Affordable Housing (NOAH), with funding from
businesses, and institutions in each resilience significant and increasing coastal flood risk due is designed to be strong enough to withstand
the Kresge Foundation. The program consists
of two major components. First, it employs planning area to form a local climate resilience to a combination of sea level rise, high tides, and coastal forces and high enough to reduce risk
local residents as “Climate Canvassers” to
educate East Boston residents about current committee to help guide district-scale climate coastal storm events. A key component of the from storm surge.
and future climate risks in a multiyear outreach
adaptation activities (see Initiative 4-1, p.100). The multilayered strategy for addressing this risk is
effort. Second, it brings together local residents, 2. “Green,” or nature-based, coastal
public-sector entities conducting adaptation committees should help identify local challenges to create a robust system of coastal protection
planning, and planning, design, and infrastructure, such as wetlands or living
engineering experts in working groups to discuss and develop creative solutions, ensure that other infrastructure that responds to community
shorelines. Green coastal infrastructure alone
community input and priorities, with the goal local initiatives—such as economic development or needs and ecological dynamics.
of developing a set of pilot design projects. is typically most appropriate for protecting
Climate CARE builds on earlier work done by open space planning—are integrated with climate
NOAH and the University of Massachusetts- There are generally three categories of coastal against chronic flooding events like future
adaptation, and steward the ongoing adaptation
Boston and the University of New Hampshire, protection: high tide or minor storms, rather than severe
with funding from the National Oceanic and process over time.
Atmospheric Administration. NOAH and its coastal storm events. This is because it is
partners held workshops in May and June 2014
to map key assets and generate preliminary Local climate resilience committees may take a
adaptation strategies, including a set of variety of forms and may have multiple missions
multipurpose flood barriers. SUMMARY OF INITIATIVES TO CREATE A COASTAL PROTECTION SYSTEM
depending on the needs of each neighborhood
and other planning and development initiatives. A
# INITIATIVE SUMMARY
committee may be staffed by a community-based
organization with a long-term presence in the area Establish Flood Protection Based on preliminary hydrological analyses, establish new overlay
Overlay Districts and require districts in potential flood protection system locations and require
and the capacity to work productively with local 5-1 potential integration with flood that development proposals do not prevent the future creation of
protection flood protection infrastructure.
residents and public agencies. The committees
should help to disseminate information about Determine a consistent
Determine a framework through which alternative flood protection
systems would be consistently evaluated, and which is compatible
climate-related risks and gather feedback on 5-2 evaluation framework for flood
with the framework used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, a
protection system prioritization
local residents’ priorities for climate adaptation. key implementation and funding partner.

The development of these local climate resilience

Using a consistent evaluation framework (Initiative 5-2), study the
committees should fit within Greenovate’s existing Prioritize and study the feasibility
5-3 of district-scale flood protection
feasibility of district-scale flood protection in a number of locations,
prioritizing those that face the greatest risk.
efforts to establish a climate action network.

Launch a feasibility study

Using a consistent evaluation framework (Initiative 5-2), study the
5-4 of a harbor-wide flood
feasibility of a Harbor-wideharbor-wide flood protection system.
protection system

EXAMPLE FLOOD PROTECTION DESIGNS

102 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 103
 unlikely to reach the elevation necessary infrastructure include reinforced dunes or would be more cost effective in narrow low- the low tide) in the harbor, reducing
to sufficiently reduce storm surge, even if living shorelines that contain engineered lying areas where floodwaters can enter and tidal inundation as well as storm surge
it does dissipate wave energy and slow- levees. These infrastructure types are inundate large inland areas and less cost- inundation.
moving water. designed to withstand coastal forces and effective in broad, low-lying exposed areas.
○ Blocking storm surge. Boston could be
storm surge during extreme events and may
Green coastal infrastructure may feature 2. Harbor-wide coastal protection. These are protected from storm surge by installing
provide some of the benefits of green coastal
certain advantages over gray coastal offshore interventions in Boston Harbor that a system with operable gates that could be
infrastructure, with similar challenges for
infrastructure in terms of ecological can reduce flood risk for all of Boston, as well temporarily closed during storm events to
finding appropriate sites. prevent storm surge from penetrating into
benefits, long-term adaptability, and lifetime as neighboring cities. These interventions
maintenance costs. However, it can be There are two scales of coastal protection that are could be used to achieve two outcomes: Boston Harbor from the North Atlantic.
particularly challenging to site in urban possible for Boston:
○ Decreasing Boston Harbor’s tidal range. There may be potential solutions that would
areas, since it generally has a much broader
1. District-scale coastal protection. These are Boston Harbor’s tidal range could be decrease Boston Harbor’s tidal range without
footprint than gray infrastructure and
infrastructure investments at or near the lessened by narrowing or shallowing including an operable gate to block storm surge.
requires specific environmental conditions
waterfront that can reduce flood risk for a the inlets between Harbor Islands. However, since any operable surge barrier would
that foster ecological function and habitat
specific area within Boston. In each case, Reducing the openings between islands require construction in the harbor, such a solution
suitability.
some type of flood barrier would need to acts to reduce the exchange of water and would also end up decreasing the tidal range.
3. Hybrid coastal infrastructure, which be constructed, connecting two points of moderate the tidal range. This would
See Initiative 5-2 (p. 106) for further discussion of the
incorporates both “gray” and “green” high ground in order to reduce flood risk in effectively lower the high tide (and raise
potential implications of flood protection infrastructure.
components. Examples of hybrid low-lying areas. Generally, these defenses

THE MULTIPLE LAYERS APPROACH

Resilient solutions are independently effective (provide benefits • Co-Benefits. District-scale flood protection and harbor-wide
on their own) but can also be applied in multiple layers to interventions offer different opportunities for co-benefits,
increase effectiveness. This multiple-layers approach is applied such as parkland, transportation infrastructure, or additional
to the flood protection strategy described here, where both developable land.
district-scale and harbor-wide flood protection plans are
advanced simultaneously. • Negative Impacts. While the flood risk reduction benefits of
a harbor-wide intervention may be far greater than those
While the pursuit of both district-scale and harbor-wide flood Image courtesy of Sasaki
of a district-scale intervention, the potential for negative
protection may at first seem duplicative, there are a number of
reasons to pursue them in parallel: impacts on the regional ecology and economy would also
be far greater.
THE HARBOR ISLANDS AND FLOOD RISK BOSTON’S EXISTING COASTAL
• Time. The smaller scale of the district-scale interventions • Risk of Failure. If a harbor-wide intervention were to fail and
The Harbor Islands play an important role in mitigating tides PROTECTION STRUCTURES
means that they would likely be less expensive, complex, there were no district-scale flood protection, the results
and time consuming to implement than a harbor-wide and wave action between the Atlantic Ocean and Boston’s In addition to flood protection provided by natural waterfront
could be catastrophic. At the same time, however, district- shores. They slow the rate at which water can enter and exit areas such as the Belle Isle Marsh, Boston is already protected
intervention would be. Many Boston neighborhoods face scale interventions are also not fail-proof, as they can be the harbor, decreasing the difference in elevation between by a number of manmade coastal protection structures. The
significant coastal flood risk today and would benefit from overtopped. For this reason, even buildings behind flood high tide and low tide, and they also dissipate the energy of Massachusetts Department of Coastal Zone Management
district-scale interventions as soon as they are implemented. protection structures should retrofitted or built to climate- waves entering the harbor. As sea levels rise, the Harbor Islands conducted an inventory and assessment of publicly-owned
Even if harbor-wide and district-scale interventions were ready standards, and communities should be prepared for are at risk of shrinking. Currently, a team of public and nonprofit coastal structures in 2015, and identified a total of 110 structures
aggressively pursued, there could be a period of years or severe storms. partners are studying the erosion of the Islands and the potential in Boston, with 18 structures in East Boston, 16 in Charlestown, 13
even decades between when a district solution would be for installing submerged breakwaters—including using materials in Downtown Boston, 36 in South Boston, and 27 in Dorchester.
operational and when a harbor-wide solution could be in • Regular Tidal Inundation. Some areas like South Boston and from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ dredging of the harbor Approximately $46 million in rehabilitation funds would be
place. East Boston will face monthly inundation once sea level rise channels—to act as wave attenuators which would promote required to bring all structures up to an “A” condition rating, with
passes a certain threshold later this century. A harbor-wide shoreline protection and possibly provide habitat for species $23 million of that required for structures that are in “D” or “F”
• Scale. The cost and complexity of a harbor-wide intervention alone may not be able to prevent all tidally like eelgrass. The team includes the City of Boston, the U.S. Army condition. Given that well-maintained structures are necessary
intervention may prevent it from ever being fully Corps of Engineers, the Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone to provide effective protection, there is a resilience opportunity
induced flooding, requiring a multiple-layers approach over
implemented. Management and the Division of Marine Fisheries, The Nature associated with restoring and upgrading Boston’s existing
the long term.
Conservancy, and Northeastern University. structures.

104 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 105
INITIATIVE 5-1. ESTABLISH FLOOD INITIATIVE 5-2 . DETERMINE A CONSISTENT there are currently over 90,000 Bostonians and FINANCING A FLOOD PROTECTION SYSTEM
PROTECTION OVERLAY DISTRICTS AND EVALUATION FRAMEWORK FOR FLOOD 12,000 buildings in the areas expected to be Through its General Investigation Program, the U.S. Army
REQUIRE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION WITH PROTECTION PRIORITIZATION inundated during a 1 percent annual chance
Corps of Engineers (USACE) helps communities study
and construct flood risk management projects. Typical
FLOOD PROTECTION
The City should establish a framework through flood event under a 36-inch sea level rise feasibility studies take three years to complete, and
cost up to $3 million, with costs split evenly between
The Boston Planning and Development Agency which alternative district-scale and harbor-wide scenario (2070s or later). Under this scenario, the federal government and the local sponsor. If
the project is found to have federal interest and a
(BPDA) should petition the Boston Zoning flood protection systems would be consistently the expected economic losses3 in the City of favorable benefit-cost ratio, the federal government
Commission to create new Flood Protection Overlay evaluated. While this framework should be guided Boston from such a flood event would be over can fund up to 65 percent of construction costs, with
the local sponsor contributing the remainder, as well
Districts in areas that are strategically important by local priorities, it must also be compatible with $14.2 billion. The potential flood risk reduction as all operations and maintenance costs. For the
benefits at specific locations are detailed in the USACE to pursue study and construction through the
for potential future flood protection infrastructure. the framework used by the U.S. Army Corps General Investigation Program, Congress must provide
These areas are low-lying “breach points” near of Engineers, who would be an indispensable Focus Area chapter. authorization and appropriate funds. The City should
work with its senators and congressional representatives
the waterfront where floodwaters could enter partner on studying, permitting, funding, and to advance this agenda in Congress.
These estimates only consider current people
neighborhoods and where targeted district-scale implementing any flood protection infrastructure. and property in Boston, and do not take While this federal process can be extremely helpful for
interventions could yield significant risk reduction advancing flood protection projects, it typically takes
It is critical to consistently quantify the social, into account population growth or future years to even begin a feasibility study.
(see Initiative 5-3, p.110). The purposes of the Flood
environmental, and economic benefits of each development. Further studies should verify Given the urgency of these projects, Boston should
Protection Overlay Districts are first to recognize advance studies outside of the USACE process—
alternative intervention—with particular the flood risk reduction potential of multiple but using a framework that is compatible with
that the rapid pace of development occurring in USACE methodologies—to both accelerate the timeline
attention to social equity and the needs of socially district-scale and harbor-wide intervention of the studies and increase the likelihood that the USACE
strategically important areas today could increase
vulnerable populations—so that they can be designs, considering Boston’s neighbors who would eventually get involved.
the cost and complexity of potential future district- This was the approach taken by six proactive Texas
weighed both against the costs of the project and also face flood risk from the harbor, as well as counties around Houston and Galveston, which
scale flood protection, and second, to provide a are currently funding a comprehensive flood protection
against each other. Any evaluation framework future city and regional growth.
regulatory mechanism to address that situation. study using the USACE’s process and
with the USACE engaged as reviewers. The goal is
Drawing on the findings from the Vulnerability must compare a baseline “without project” ○ Residual flood risk. The City must consider to reach a consensus with key stakeholders and
Assessment, and specifically the locations of key scenario, in which flood risk continues to increase “residual risk,” or the risk remaining then pass the study to the USACE, who should be able
to use the study findings, model, and data for future
inundation points, Climate Ready Boston has with sea level rise, to “with project” scenarios, in after the flood protection system is built. phases to save on costs and accelerate the overall

identified a set of potential locations for flood which flood risk is managed through appropriate This includes the risk that a flood event
study timeline.

protection systems that could address inundation interventions. of greater magnitude or intensity occurs Even if there is significant federal financial support for
a harbor-wide intervention, Boston and its neighbors
points by connecting places of high ground (see The key considerations for an evaluation than the one selected as the basis for would still be required to finance a large portion of
the project.
map, “Potential Flood Protection Locations,” and the framework for district-scale and harbor-wide design, as well as increased risk due to
Focus Areas chapter of this report). flood protection systems include: flood risk the diminished drainage capacity of the
reduction benefits; additional benefits, such as area behind the flood protection system.
Within a Flood Protection Overlay District, a
developer would be required to submit a study of quality of life impacts; environmental impacts; ○ Induced flood risk. The City must also
how the proposed project could be integrated into a cost; land ownership; permitting and regulations; consider potential impacts on areas
future flood protection system; options may include and intergovernmental coordination. Each outside the flood protection system,
raising and reinforcing the development site or consideration is discussed further below. which could potentially face greater risk
providing room for a future easement across the site. ◦ Flood risk reduction benefits. The primary of flooding due to the displacement of
The BPDA should engage in conversations with the goal of a flood protection system is to reduce water by the flood protection system.
development community to develop guidelines for the flood risk for residents, businesses,
such studies and determine a minimum project size property, and infrastructure, ensuring that
for this requirement so that small projects are not Boston can continue to thrive as sea levels rise.
unnecessarily burdened. Proposals should consider
the feasibility of nature-based flood protection The information in the Climate Ready Boston
systems that may include dunes, landscaped berms, Vulnerability Assessment is an initial attempt
or created salt marshes or oyster reefs. at quantifying flood risk and therefore the
potential for risk reduction. For example, 3
Includes direct physical damage, displacement costs, and stress factors.
See Vulnerability Assessment for details.

106 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 107
 ◦ Additional benefits. To maximize both the ◦ Environmental impacts. Any flood protection for local natural systems. Impacts on ecological used wherever possible. In order for FEMA
total benefits of a flood protection system system would have both immediate and systems, such as species habitat, and public to certify a flood protection project, which
and its potential to generate revenue for lasting impacts on the region’s complex health, such as water quality, must be studied. is necessary for realizing National Flood
its own construction, design alternatives ecosystems, including effects on water quality On the other hand, both harbor-wide and Insurance Program savings, the project must
should advance other community goals in and coastal habitats. district-scale flood defenses would have some be publicly owned and maintained. If any
addition to flood risk reduction. For example, near- and long-term ecological benefits that private land were incorporated into a project,
In assessing environmental impacts, it is
flood protection systems could be used to should be further understood. For instance, it would require an easement to allow 24-hour
crucial to compare them to a baseline “without
create new recreational and ecologically baseline “without project” scenarios would access for maintenance activities. To reduce
project” scenario in which there is no harbor-
productive open spaces through green coastal include uncontrolled flooding in many urban challenges associated with private ownership,
wide intervention and the sea continues to
infrastructure, new or newly protected land and industrial areas, heightening Boston especially fragmented private ownership,
inundate land with increasing frequency. For
for residential or commercial development, Harbor’s exposure to toxins. By reducing public parcels or rights-of-way are preferred
example, a harbor-wide intervention would
or new transportation infrastructure. There the probability of flooding, harbor-wide and wherever possible.
likely disturb Belle Isle Marsh, Neponset
are many existing and proposed examples district-scale flood defenses would reduce the
River, and other intertidal wetlands in the ◦ Permitting and regulations. Regulations
from around the world of flood protection probability of toxic releases that would harm
harbor by altering salinity, nutrient, and affect the feasibility of flood protection
being incorporated into other investments harbor ecosystems.
toxin loads and other biochemical factors. both directly, by setting the parameters for
that improve quality of life in a city. Brooklyn
However, without a harbor-wide intervention ◦ Cost. The planning, design, construction, the permitting process, and indirectly, by
Bridge Park, for example, was built with
or adjacent land for these wetlands to environmental mitigation, and annual controlling the types of uses that can occur
shoreline riprap, a constructed marsh, and
migrate to over time, sea level rise will more operations and maintenance activities for near the defenses and therefore the ability to
lands elevated well above the floodplain,
quickly convert these areas to open water a coastal protection system would all require raise funds from nearby properties.
protecting the park and some inland areas
and eliminate the benefits wetlands provide. significant expenditures.
from damage during Hurricane Sandy. These As with any major water infrastructure
Because sea level rise will threaten key
benefits can also help avoid, or mitigate, any Primary cost drivers for solutions such as project, a number of local, state, and federal
habit areas with or without flood protection
negative quality of life impacts. For example, the harbor-wide intervention would be the agencies would need to approve a coastal
interventions, expected future environmental
a system that requires the construction of large gate structures and marine walls,which protection system.
conditions with and without interventions
a vertical wall may block physical or visual would span 1.5 to 3.5 miles and require deep
need to be understood. At the local level, the Boston Conservation
access to the waterfront; a system that utilizes foundations to withstand the forces of storm
Commission is the agency responsible for
a landscaped berm would improve waterfront Although district-scale flood protection events.
reviewing projects impacting wetlands, under
access and opportunities for recreation, infrastructure would not have the same scale
For district-scale defenses, cost is affected the Massachusetts Wetlands Protection Act.
education, and tourism. of environmental impact as a harbor-wide
by flood protection location and typology
intervention, it would still have consequences At the state level, the Office of the
and the physical and urban conditions of the
Secretary of Energy and Environmental
location where defenses are being built. Cost
Affairs is responsible for administering
considerations include the relative size of the
the Massachusetts Environmental Policy
flood protection system, its relative complexity
Act (MEPA), the primary environmental
(e.g., deployable gates across road intersections
FLOOD RISK REDUCTION BENEFITS law that governs major actions taken by
9” SLR 21” SLR 36” SLR make systems much more expensive to build
As sea levels rise, the potential benefits of a harbor- (2030s-2050s) (2050s-2100s) (2070s-2100s) Massachusetts governments. In addition, the
wide intervention, in terms of avoided impacted and operate), and opportunities to integrate
people and economic losses, will increase. This state Department of Environmental Protection
table of potential flood risk reduction benefits only
Population exposed flood protection with other infrastructure and
to 1 percent annual 16,000 43,000 90,000 administers Chapter 91, the Massachusetts
includes the current people and property in Boston; chance flood redevelopment to reduce and share costs.
the actual avoided losses would be larger because Public Waterfront Act, which includes
they would include areas outside Boston and Buildings exposed
because the region’s population and economic
◦ Land ownership. Flood protection systems requirements for public access and water-
to 1 percent annual 2,000 6,000 12,000
activity are expected to continue to grow. chance flood will likely span multiple parcels of land. dependent uses. The MassWildlife Natural
Estimated economic To minimize the cost and complexity of Heritage and Endangered Species Program
losses from a 1 percent $2.3 billion $6.2 billion $14.2 billion administers the Massachusetts Endangered
annual chance flood
flood protection, public land should be

108 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 109
 Species Act. Finally, the Massachusetts
Office of Coastal Zone Management (CZM)
Orient
would need to be involved in project review
to ensure that the proposed activities are Heights
consistent with Massachusetts’s enforceable
coastal program policies and to conduct a North Charlestown Jeffries Point
federal consistency review for any project to Central
requiring federal permitting or funding.
Square
Wood
At the federal level, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers would likely lead coordination
Island
with other federal agencies, including the
New Charles
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the
River Dam
Environmental Protection Agency. Regulators
would consider project impacts on the natural Downtown Porzio
environment, historic and cultural resources,
Waterfront Park
and the navigability of Boston Harbor by
commercial and recreational vessels.

◦ Coordination with other municipalities South Boston

and government entities. Harbor-wide Waterfront
and district-scale interventions are likely to
require close collaboration with neighboring
cities and towns, such as Cambridge, Chelsea,
Winthrop, and Quincy, as well as the state
and regional agencies.

INITIATIVE 5-3. PRIORITIZE AND STUDY

THE FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT-SCALE Dorchester
FLOOD PROTECTION POTENTIAL FLOOD PROTECTION Bay
LOCATIONS
Applying a consistent evaluation framework
Based on existing topography, rights-of-way,
(see Initiative 5-2, p.106), the City should study and urban and environmental conditions,
Climate Ready Boston has identified key
the feasibility of district-scale flood protection in “breach points” where flood protection
a number of locations and prioritize them based systems could potentially be sited. Important
additional factors, including existing drainage
on costs and benefits to populations, businesses, systems, underground transportation and utility
structures, soil conditions, and zoning—as well
property, and infrastructure. For more details on
as any potential external impacts as a result of
potential flood protection locations, including a the project—have not been studied in detail
and should be required as part of detailed
discussion of order-of-magnitude benefits that feasibility studies, along with appropriate public
could be realized from each, see the Focus Areas and stakeholder outreach and coordination.

chapter and Appendix of this report. These For more details on these potential flood
protection locations, including a discussion
feasibility studies should take place in the context of order-of-magnitude benefits that could be
of local climate resilience plans (see Initiative realized from flood protection systems, see the
Focus Areas chapter and Appendix of
4-1, p.100), featuring engagement with local this report.
communities, coordination with infrastructure

110 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 111
 adaptation, and considerations of how flood INITIATIVE 5- 4. LAUNCH A
protection would impact or be impacted by HARBOR-WIDE FLOOD PROTECTION
neighborhood character and growth. SYSTEM FEASIBILITY STUDY.

The location and design options of flood The City, in collaboration with regional partners,
protection systems determine their positive and should study the feasibility and desirability of a
negative impacts and implementation feasibility. harbor-wide flood protection system and compare
In connecting areas of high ground to one it to the alternative of multiple district-scale
another, many flood protection systems must defenses, using a consistent evaluation framework
span more than one type of location or design. (see Initiative 5-2, p. 106). Partners may include
Location and design options for district-scale the Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC)
flood protection include the following: and its Metro Boston Climate Preparedness Task
Force. In addition, early and frequent engagement
◦ In-water. Within a water body, a flood with the Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone
protection project would likely be an operable Management and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
gate. In-water defenses can restrict navigable would be critical, as well as ongoing engagement
channels. In addition, they are likely to require with the Boston Harbor Islands National and State
higher elevations to protect against flooding Park. Studying such a significant intervention
due to wave heights, which can block visual in detail is a major undertaking in its own right,
and physical access to water. and such studies elsewhere have been multiyear
efforts requiring significant public resources and
◦ Water’s edge. At the water’s edge, there are
structured coordination.
many types of potential flood protection
designs. As with in-water barriers, defenses As part of comparing the feasibility and
at the water’s edge are likely to require higher desirability of multiple harbor-wide and district-
elevations to protect against flooding due to scale alternatives using a consistent evaluation
wave heights. framework (see Initiative 5-2, p.106), a study would
need to consider a number of location and design
◦ Upland. There are many types of flood
options for a harbor-wide intervention, including
protection designs upland from the water as
the following:
well. Compared to in-water or water’s edge
defenses, upland flood protection systems ◦ Alignment options. A harbor-wide
provide a comparatively smaller area of risk intervention could potentially occur along
POTENTIAL HARBOR-WIDE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
reduction. However, they are not likely to be one of multiple different alignments. The
A harbor-wide intervention could potentially occur along one of multiple
different alignments: as tall as defenses in the water or at the water’s outermost alignment would stretch from Deer
edge, since the ground elevation is higher, and Island and across the Harbor Islands (most
• Inner Harbor Barrier from Logan Airport to Castle Island.
wave energies dissipate over land. Still, upland likely Lovell’s Island) to the Hull Peninsula.
• Harbor Island Barrier from Deer Island across Long Island to Moon
flood protection can interfere with visual and An alignment closer to the shore would stretch
Island in Quincy.
physical connections within a neighborhood. from Deer Island across Long Island to Moon
• Outer Harbor Barrier from Deer Island, across the Harbor Islands (most
likely Lovell’s Island), to the Hull Peninsula
In addition, they may cross roads, requiring Island in Quincy. Finally, an Inner Harbor
The outer alignments would reduce flood risk in a greater area but would deployable gates, or cross privately owned alignment would stretch from Logan Airport
also likely be longer, more expensive, and have greater environmental land.
consequences. The inner alignments would offer flood risk reduction for to Castle Island. As a very basic comparison,
smaller areas but may also have fewer implementation challenges (see the outer alignments would reduce flood
“Boston Harbor and Harbor-Wide Flood Protection,” p.115). See “Example Flood Protection Designs” (p.102)
risk in a greater area but would also likely
for a sample of various design options.
be longer, more expensive, and have greater

112 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 113
 BOSTON HARBOR AND
Image courtesy of Bud Ris HARBOR-WIDE FLOOD PROTECTION
The challenges of implementing a harbor-wide
flood protection system, as well as the potential
environmental impacts, are significant. However,
Boston Harbor also has distinctive characteristics that
may make it more amenable to a harbor-wide flood
protection system than are other cities’ harbors:

• Harbor depth. The harbor is relatively shallow. Aside

from the major shipping channels, which have
been dredged to accommodate large vessels
and are currently being deepened, much of the
harbor is about 20 feet deep. The $310 million
Boston Harbor Dredging Project will deepen the
Outer Harbor 40-foot channel to 51 feet, the
Inner Harbor 40-foot channel to 47 feet, and the
Reserved Channel to 47 feet. Feasibility studies of
channel narrowing or barrier construction should
consider the impact of channel deepening.

• Public land. Almost all of the land that would need

to be incorporated into a harbor intervention—
from Deer Island through the Harbor Islands—is
publicly owned and therefore can more readily
accommodate a public flood protection project.

There are also a number of factors that would make

construction of a harbor-wide flood barrier challenging,
including impacts on ecological communities
resulting from changing tidal conditions and salinity
levels; the impacts on water quality because of
decreased exchange of water between the harbor
and the ocean; the potential for conflicts with
commercial shipping, recreational boating, and water
transportation; and the risk of inducing flooding in areas
on the Atlantic Ocean side of a harbor-wide flood
defense.
environmental consequences. The inner would be some narrowing of the harbor large investment, built to reduce flood risk for
alignments would offer flood risk reduction mouth by virtue of the in-water infrastructure generations to come. However, as discussed Source: “Boston to Begin Dredging in 2017.” The Journal of Commerce,
November 2015.

for smaller areas, but may also have fewer necessary to support the barrier. A feasibility in the Climate Projection Consensus (see p.01)
implementation challenges. study would need to explore the size, number, there is uncertainty regarding future sea levels
and locations of gates necessary to provide after about 2050, both because of the complex
◦ Sizes of gaps and gates. For each approach to
flood risk reduction while minimizing the nature of climatic systems and because they
a harbor-wide intervention—only decreasing
impacts on the environment and navigation. are heavily dependent on the success of global
tidal range, and doing so with an operable
For both options, attention must be paid to efforts to reduce emissions. To address this
surge barrier—there are questions related
how the tide levels and salinity of the harbor uncertainty, the City should explore how to
to the optimal size of harbor openings, with
would change, along with the consequences minimize the probability of designing to too
respect to both reducing flood risk and
for local and regional ecosystems. high or too low a standard. For example, it may
minimizing negative impacts. A feasibility
be worthwhile to narrow the tidal range in a
study would need to explore how narrow the ◦ Project phasing. Based on best practices from
way that would accommodate the addition of
harbor mouth would need to be in order to other locations, it is critical that resilience
a surge barrier at a later point in time.
sufficiently reduce the tidal range to reduce solutions be adaptable and flexible. Any
flood risk. For the surge barrier option, there harbor-wide intervention would be a very

114 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 115
 Layer 4
RESILIENT
INFRASTRUCTURE

116 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 117
Strategy 6: Coordinate ICC Formation BOSTON-AREA ICC PRECEDENTS
The Mayor should work with the Governor of
investments to adapt
The ICC should build on four important efforts that have departments and commissions with responsibility for hazard
been undertaken in Boston and the metro region to date to mitigation, to guide the Boston Natural Hazards Mitigation
Massachusetts and other key stakeholders to
infrastructure to future
convene key public and private infrastructure operators about Plan Update. In 2011, as part of the process for preparing
establish a standing Infrastructure Coordination issues directly or indirectly related to resilience. For Climate Massachusetts’s first Climate Change Adaptation Report,

climate conditions
Ready Boston, in 2015, the City convened the Infrastructure a mandate of the 2008 Global Warming Solutions Act, the
Committee (ICC), consisting of key private and Advisory Group to collect data about vulnerable assets Massachusetts Executive Office of Energy and Environmental
and infrastructure system interdependencies and discuss Affairs convened both the Climate Change Adaptation Advisory
public infrastructure owners and operators in
INITIATIVE 6-1. ESTABLISH AN possible resilience initiatives. In 2016, the Boston Planning and Committee and the State Agencies Steering Committee.
INFRASTRUCTURE COORDINATION the Boston metro area. The ICC should serve as Development Agency convened the Smart Utilities Planning Through these groups, Boston and the Commonwealth have
Committee to do coordinated, proactive utility planning for the started the process of building institutional knowledge and
COMMIT TEE the primary vehicle for coordination between Dorchester Avenue corridor. In 2014, the Office of Emergency overcoming barriers to data sharing.
the City and these entities on how to set design Management convened the Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan
Steering Committee, comprised of representatives of key City
standards and track investments in climate resilient
infrastructure. The committee also can be used as a NON-BOSTON ICC PRECEDENTS
RESILIENCE RATE CASE
framework to support coordination on other issues, To date, there have been efforts to establish entities similar to develop a comprehensive roadmap for resilience building in
The utilities that serve the Boston metro region may
as required. the ICC in other cities, most notably in New York City. In 2008, NYC, leveraging the work of the CCATF.
seek funds for resilience capital projects as part of
Mayor Michael Bloomberg convened the New York City Climate
their rate cases to the Massachusetts Department
Change Adaptation Task Force (CCATF), a group of public In addition, as part of Con Edison’s electric, gas, and steam rate
of Public Utilities (DPU) so that they can cover The continued reliability of the infrastructure and private infrastructure operators, to assess climate risks cases filed in January 2013, the New York State Public Service
the costs of required resilience investments. For
to their assets and identify strategies to protect them. Mayor Commission convened the Storm Hardening and Resiliency
example, Con Edison included a $1 billion request systems that meet Boston’s transportation, water Collaborative to provide guidance on how the funds should be
Bloomberg charged the CCATF with developing an inventory of
for funds to support resilience capital upgrades from
2013 to 2016 as part of its electric, gas, and steam
and sewer, energy, communication, and other at-risk infrastructure assets, supporting coordinated adaptation spent. The collaborative brought together academic experts to
planning, and creating design guidelines for new infrastructure. support Con Edison in adaptation planning.
rate cases filed in January 2013. Should the utilities needs is necessary for both Boston’s continued The New York City Panel on Climate Change (NYCPCC), an
pursue this approach in Boston, the City may want
to consider whether to support such a request. The prosperity and its residents’ safety and health. independent body of climate scientists, advised the CCATF. In
Sources: “A Stronger More Resilient New York.” Special Initiative for Rebuilding and
2013, following Hurricane Sandy, Mayor Bloomberg convened Resiliency, City of New York, June 11, 2013.
Greater Boston Panel on Climate Change could The ICC is needed because Boston does not have the Special Initiative for Rebuilding and Resiliency (SIRR) to “Storm Hardening and Resiliency Collaborative Report.” Consolidated Edison
be available to provide expert testimony about
Company of New York Inc. December 4, 2013.
future climate conditions and the need for resilience direct control over all of the infrastructure that
investments to address utility system vulnerabilities.
serves its population and economy, relying partially
on regional systems. Climate Ready Boston’s DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDS BY ICC WORKING GROUPS

Vulnerability Assessment revealed that Boston’s

WORKING GROUP KEY MEMBERS STANDARDS TO BE DEVELOPED
infrastructure systems are vulnerable to near-
STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT WORK TO DATE
term and long-term climate impacts. Discussions • 10-year, 24-hour design storm
In developing system standards, the ICC should
leverage significant work done by its members to conducted through Climate Ready Boston’s Boston Water and Sewer Commission,
• Annual rainfall totals
date. For example, the Boston Water and Sewer • Elevation at which public and private outfalls
Commission has developed recommendations for
Infrastructure Advisory Group indicated that WATER AND SEWER
Massachusetts Water Resource Authority,
are required to be tide-gated
Department of Conservation and Recreation,
the 10-year, 24-hour design storm, annual rainfall infrastructure owners and operators do not have Public Improvement Commission • Elevation and level of protection requirements
totals, and elevation at which outfalls are required for assets critical to maintaining service
to be tide-gated. In addition, the Massachusetts full information on their systems’ vulnerability to • Performance design standards
Port Authority has developed recommendations changing climate conditions, especially in regard to
for design flood elevations as part of a new flood-
proofing design guide. For existing facilities, the upstream and downstream impacts. Both the City Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority,
• Elevation and level of protection requirements
design flood elevation is the maximum water Massachusetts Department of Transportation,
elevation with a 0.2 percent annual probability
and infrastructure operators have a vested interest Massachusetts Department of Conservation
for assets critical to maintaining service (roads,
TRANSPORTATION bridges, tunnels, rail, subways, buses, water transit,
of exceedance in 2030 based on the Boston in understanding and addressing vulnerabilities and Recreation, Boston Transportation
and transportation support facilities)
Harbor Flood Risk Model (BH-FRM), plus three Department, Boston Public Works
feet of freeboard. For new facilities, the design to create resilient infrastructure systems. The ICC Department
• Performance design standards
flood elevation is defined by the maximum water should provide a forum to bring together the key
elevation with a 0.2 percent annual probability
of exceedance in 2070 based on the BH-FRM, actors who regulate, operate, and own infrastructure
plus three feet of freeboard. The Massachusetts
Department of Transportation has put forward
so they can align their efforts, in terms of both Eversource, National Grid, Veolia, Boston • Elevations and level of protection requirements
ENERGY Environment Department, Massachusetts for critical assets and facilities
recommendations for elevations at which to deploy setting and implementing standards to meet future Department of Public Utilities • Performance design standards
temporary and permanent protections for Central
Artery and tunnel assets. climate conditions.

The key members of the ICC should include

• Elevations and level of protection requirements
representatives from all of the major infrastructure for assets critical to maintaining service
Verizon, Comcast, Department • Level of access and continuity of service for
systems, including transportation, water and sewer, TELECOMMUNICATIONS
of Innovation and Technology broadband and Wi-Fi access
energy, telecommunications, and environmental • Performance design standards
118 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston • Redundancy Climate Resilience Initiatives 119
assets, that are critical to the City of Boston’s to upgrade their vulnerable assets over time Department of Information Technology (DoIT).
operations. These individuals should include to meet the agreed-upon planning and design The objective of this initiative is to establish a
participants from City departments, state agencies, standards. ICC members can use the Climate central place for the storage of key data about
private utilities, and adjacent municipalities that Ready Boston Vulnerability Assessment data as the infrastructure systems to create an integrated
interact with or affect Boston’s infrastructure basis for their adaptation planning. However, they dataset and allow for the identification of
systems. The ICC will be coordinated closely with may need to conduct asset-specific vulnerability upstream and downstream vulnerabilities. For
the Metro Boston Climate Preparedness Task Force, assessments. Members should be asked to develop the Vulnerability Assessment, Climate Ready
which has been convened by the Metro Mayors adaptation plans within five years of the initial Boston requested information on public and
Coalition. planning and design standards being released. private infrastructure assets from a broad range of
These plans should consider adaptation both across city and state agencies and private infrastructure
ICC Duties their systems as well as within specific focus areas operators, and reconciled and verified the
To strengthen Boston’s resilience, the ICC should be prioritized by the City for coordinated adaptation submitted data. DoIT should coordinate with
charged with four duties: planning. Capital projects should be prioritized the Boston Regional Intelligence Center (BRIC)
based on the following: database to explore holding and storing data that
First, the ICC should use the updated climate is sensitive or proprietary.
projections to develop planning and design ◦ Timing and level of assets’ exposure to climate
change risks INITIATIVE 6-3. PROVIDE GUIDANCE
standards across member agencies for retrofitting
ON PRIORITY EVACUATION AND SERVICE
or constructing all major infrastructure systems ◦ Consequences of assets’ full or partial failure, ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
to a standard set of future climate conditions. including frequency and severity of service
The ICC should work with the City to define levels To guide adaptation planning by ICC members,
disruption
of acceptable risk. Members should be organized the Office of Emergency Management (OEM),
into working groups by major infrastructure ◦ Cost and feasibility Boston Transportation Department (BTD), and
system, with the groups to include transportation, Department of Public Works (PWD) should work
◦ Opportunity to advance equity and protect MBTA VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
water and sewer, energy, telecommunications, and with the utilities to identify roads to prioritize To support the ICC, the City should request
socially vulnerable populations. The City
environmental assets, in order to develop specific for adaptation planning. These roads should that the Massachusetts Bay Transportation
should charge ICC members with paying Authority (MBTA) expand its asset-level
planning and design standards by system. include first those that are part of Boston’s vulnerability assessment from the Blue Line,
particular attention to vulnerable populations currently in progress, to its entire public transit
evacuation network and second those that are
Second, ICC members should collaborate who may be disproportionately impacted by system. Prior to the current Blue Line study,
required to restore or maintain essential services, vulnerability assessment of the MBTA’s assets
to identify cascading vulnerabilities and full or partial infrastructure failure. and services has been limited to assets
for example, by delivering personnel or backup within the Central Artery corridor (e.g., South
opportunities for joint adaptation projects that power (mobile generators or fuel) to critical Station, Silver Line, Aquarium Station, and
Finally, members should provide the City with
could improve effectiveness or cost efficiencies North Station) included in MassDOT’s Federal
regular reports on their progress in developing facilities. OEM should share the list with the Highway Administration-funded study. The
by addressing multiple systems’ vulnerabilities Massachusetts Department of Transportation MBTA’s system-wide vulnerability assessment
adaptation plans and bringing their assets up to should include detailed analyses of physical
at once. The ICC should provide a framework for (Mass DOT) and Department of Conservation
planning and design standards. The Environment infrastructure assets and supporting systems,
members to detect and reduce vulnerabilities that and Recreation (DCR). The City should support and consider not only the relative importance
Department should annually summarize those of specific assets, but also their upstream
fall within larger systems that affect their assets Mass DOT in continuing its efforts to develop an and downstream interdependencies, with
reports to inform joint adaptation planning and
but are out of their direct control. In addition, particular attention to the energy supplies
identify gaps in adaptation across systems. emergency response plan for tunnel protection or on which MBTA’s systems rely and potential
the ICC should provide a forum for members to closure in the event of a major storm, in line with impacts on vulnerable populations. The MBTA
share information, consult with each other about INITIATIVE 6-2 . CONTINUE TO COLLECT should consider the vulnerabilities of both
the recommendations from the 2015 FHWA/Mass the regional energy infrastructure on which
adaptation projects they plan to individually IMPORTANT ASSET AND HAZARD DATA it depends for maintaining service and its
DOT Central Artery and tunnels vulnerability
FOR PLANNING PURPOSES internal backup power supply, which ensures
undertake, and work together to identify efficiencies assessment. continued operation even when the power
and important community co-benefits, including grid is unavailable.
To maximize the benefit of the data collected and
advancing equity. produced as part of Climate Ready Boston, Climate
Ready Boston should transfer non-confidential data
Third, ICC members should develop adaptation
on public and private infrastructure assets to the
plans, tied to capital improvement plans, in order
120 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 121
Strategy 7: Develop district- high potential for community-based energy Strategy 8: Expand the use of BOSTON’S USE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
solutions, based on preliminary engineering and In recent years, Boston has started to expand its
scale energy solutions to green infrastructure and other use of green infrastructure, which encompasses a
cost-benefit analyses. However, there is a need range of interventions, including porous pavement;
increase decentralization and for further feasibility studies that evaluate other natural systems to manage bioswales; rain gardens; tree planters; green streets,
alleys, and parking lots; green roofs; and constructed
redundancy important factors, such as the state and capacity of stormwater, mitigate heat, and wetlands. Relative to gray infrastructure traditionally
used to manage stormwater, green infrastructure has
INITIATIVE 7-1. CONDUCT FEASIBILITY
existing infrastructure at potential sites, building provide additional benefits. the potential to provide numerous environmental,

STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY ENERGY retrofit costs, and street excavation costs. For economic, and social co-benefits.

example, parts of the Downtown, Charles River, With climate change, Boston faces more intense
SOLUTIONS In 2012, BWSC reached an agreement (consent
and South Boston focus areas are served by an precipitation that will increase total stormwater decree) with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and the Conservation Law Foundation to address
The Boston Planning and Development Agency electrical grid that is not designed to export locally volume and decrease water quality, rising sea pollution caused by stormwater runoff as required
and Environment Department should work generated energy. levels that will inhibit stormwater outfalls from by the Clean Water Act, after these organizations
asserted that BWSC was not moving quickly enough
with the relevant members of the ICC and other draining, and increasing temperatures. Under to do so. Under the agreement, BWSC committed to
stakeholders to use the findings from the BPDA’s The BPDA and the Environment Department these conditions, large-scale expansion of green
a seven-year plan to find and remove illegal sewage
connections and expand its use of stormwater
Boston Community Energy Study (2016) to develop should prioritize further feasibility studies for infrastructure in Boston has the potential to management best practices, including green
infrastructure. BWSC also agreed to prepare a report
action plans to pursue community energy solutions potential energy justice and emergency microgrid both increase the city’s resilience and provide identifying the stormwater best management practices
in areas with significant concentrations of critical sites, as identified by the Community Energy many co-benefits. Green infrastructure helps most suitable for use in Boston, and to construct three
demonstration green infrastructure projects at Central
facilities and socially vulnerable populations. Study. Energy justice microgrid sites have the slow the pace of stormwater runoff, support on- Square in East Boston, Audubon Circle, and City
Community energy solutions are local energy potential to serve clusters of affordable housing site infiltration, and reduce pollutants entering
Hall Plaza. BWSC has provided the capital funding
for these projects but partnered with BTD and PWD,
generation, energy storage technologies, district and critical facilities. Emergency microgrid sites waterways. It offers a decentralized approach to which control the sites and are doing transportation
upgrades, to construct the green infrastructure. BWSC
energy, and microgrids. The Community Energy have the potential to serve clusters of critical stormwater management that supports redundancy also has agreed to fund and perform three years of
Study identified 42 locations across Boston with facilities. and adaptability because it can be expanded required maintenance for these projects but does not
have an ongoing maintenance plan beyond that.
over time. It also may be less costly than gray
In addition to BWSC, local nonprofits, including the
infrastructure. Furthermore, green infrastructure Charles River Watershed Association (CRWA), have
can help mitigate the urban heat island effect by supported green infrastructure in Boston. CRWA
led the development of two green infrastructure
PROPOSED RAYMOND L. creating shade, reducing heat-absorbing materials, demonstration projects at Everett Street in Allston and
COMMUNITY FLYNN MARINE Peabody Square in Dorchester, and also created a
ENERGY PARK MICROGRID and emitting water vapor that cools the air. It set of Green Street Guidelines for Allston-Brighton that
SOLUTIONS The BPDA is working also can help create an attractive environment, identify potential green infrastructure interventions on
with Eversource to three pilot streets.
clean the air by filtering airborne pollutants, and
pursue a feasibility
Finally, the City has been actively supporting green
study for a pilot reduce building energy costs through shading and
microgrid project at infrastructure. The Boston Transportation Department
the Raymond L. Flynn recyclable water.4 incorporated green street strategies into Boston’s
Marine Park in South Complete Streets Design Guidelines. In addition, the
Boston. Boston Parks and Recreation Department has installed
rain gardens in multiple city parks, and is evaluating
4
Source: “A Triple Bottom Line Assessment of Traditional and Green Infrastructure opportunities for additional locations with current
Options for Controlling CSO Events in Philadelphia’s Watersheds.” Stratus Consulting.
August 24, 2009. design projects.

Source: Marks, Alex. “Stormwater Management in Boston: To What

Extent Are Demonstration Projects Likely to Enable Citywide Use of Green
Infrastructure” MIT Thesis. 2014.

122 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 123
INITIATIVE 8-1. DEVELOP A GREEN and other benefits. The purpose of the green SITING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
INFRASTRUCTURE LOCATION PLAN FOR infrastructure location plan is to increase the
PUBLIC LAND AND RIGHTS-OF-WAY volume of water managed on-site on public land, PRIORITIZATION CRITERIA FEASIBLE PROJECT TYPES

The City should work with the Boston Water as well as to identify potential opportunities to
and Sewer Commission to develop a green manage off-site stormwater.
infrastructure location plan for public land and The Energy, Environment, and Open Space
rights-of-way in Boston. The green infrastructure Cabinet, which includes the Environment
location plan should identify high-priority sites Department and Parks Department, should
for green infrastructure development, focusing on lead this effort, with the participation of other
existing public land but also considering potential relevant City agencies, such as the Transportation
future public land that could be acquired to Department, Public Works Department, and
support multifunctional green space. This green Boston Public Schools. The Boston Water and
space would provide stormwater management Sewer Commission is currently conducting a

GOAL PRIORITY LOCATIONS FOR GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

IMPROVE WATER QUALITY TO MEET FEDERAL

Areas with high pollutant loads
STANDARDS

MITIGATE CURRENT AND FUTURE CLIMATE Areas that are daytime or nighttime land
CHANGE HAZARDS (EXTREME HEAT) surface temperature hot spots (heat islands)
comprehensive analysis of its drainage system ◦ The Trust for Public Land’s work on green
to identify high-priority locations for green infrastructure prioritization throughout
• Areas that are subject to current or near-term stormwater infrastructure in Boston based on this type of Boston developed as part of its Climate Smart
flooding (lie at low elevations and have limited hydraulic
capacity) infrastructure’s capacity to reduce total pollutant Cities initiative; and
MITIGATE CURRENT AND FUTURE CLIMATE
loads. The Energy, Environment, and Open
CHANGE HAZARDS (STORMWATER FLOODING) • Upstream areas where green infrastructure construction ◦ The Boston Water and Sewer studies to
could help reduce downstream stormwater flooding Space Cabinet should supplement this analysis
identify high-potential locations for green
• Areas with large amounts of impervious surface by developing a set of other green infrastructure
infrastructure based on pollutant loading
location prioritization criteria that serve other goals.
and to define the most feasible types of green
Neighborhoods with lower-than-average access to green Potential criteria are shown on the opposite page.
PROVIDE EQUITABLE ACCESS TO GREEN SPACE
space, especially those with high concentrations of socially
infrastructure for these locations.
THROUGHOUT BOSTON
vulnerable populations To refine this list of criteria, the Energy,
The City and BWSC then should collaborate to
Environment, and Open Space Cabinet should
create a green infrastructure location plan that
draw on four sources:
shows sites that meet multiple criteria so that
IMPROVE NEIGHBORHOOD LIVABILITY AND • Areas with higher-than-average air pollution levels
HEALTH AND SERVE SOCIALLY VULNERABLE ◦ The findings from Climate Ready Boston; they can be prioritized for green infrastructure
POPULATIONS • Areas with lower-than-average tree canopy construction.
◦ The green infrastructure location analysis
currently being done by the Parks and
Recreation Department for the assets that it
LEVERAGE PLANNED CAPITAL UPGRADES
SO THAT GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE CAN BE
Areas targeted for future capital projects, owns;
such as parks or roads upgrades
INCORPORATED INTO THESE PROJECTS

124 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 125
INITIATIVE 8-2 . DEVELOP A should be tied to efforts to support workforce INITIATIVE 8-3. EVALUATE INCENTIVES INITIATIVE 8- 4. DEVELOP
SUSTAINABLE OPERATING MODEL development and inclusive hiring (see Strategy 3, p.95). AND OTHER TOOLS TO SUPPORT GREEN DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR GREEN
FOR GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE ON INFRASTRUCTURE INFRASTRUCTURE ON PRIVATE
PUBLIC LAND AND RIGHTS-OF-WAY The Energy, Environment, and Open Space Cabinet PROPERTY TO SUPPORT CO-BENEFITS
should lead this effort, with the participation of other The City and Boston Water and Sewer
The City should work with the Boston Water Commission should evaluate a set of incentives The City should request that the Boston Sewer and
relevant City agencies, such as the Budget Department.
and Sewer Commission to develop a sustainable and other tools to reduce impervious surfaces, Water Commission develop design guidelines and
The Energy, Environment, and Open Space Cabinet
operating model for green infrastructure on public increase on-site stormwater retention and set maintenance protocols for green infrastructure
should be charged with four tasks. First, it should
land, including trees. Currently, the lack of a management, and create green infrastructure on private property to encourage installations that
establish a clear division of responsibilities that
sustainable funding and operating model for green on public and private property. For example, deliver significant co-benefits, such as increased
defines which entities are responsible for constructing,
infrastructure on public land is a major barrier the City can explore the creation of a green access to green space. In addition to their efforts to
maintaining, and evaluating the performance of
that has limited its large-scale deployment. Green infrastructure revolving fund and a system that support green infrastructure on public property
different types of green infrastructure. Second,
infrastructure assets require different maintenance provides owners with savings on their water bills through the green infrastructure location plan (see
it should evaluate the total capital and operating
procedures than gray infrastructure assets and in exchange for green infrastructure creation Initiative 8-1, p.124), the City and BWSC also should
and maintenance costs associated with large-scale
must be properly maintained to preserve their and maintenance. To fund incentives and other prioritize the development of green infrastructure
deployment of green infrastructure in Boston and
functionality. Green infrastructure maintenance tools, the City and the Boston Water and Sewer on private property in order to introduce it into
recommend a “triple bottom line” approach to
Commission should consider a stormwater neighborhoods where there may be limited public
evaluating costs and benefits. An excellent model is the
fee, which has been implemented effectively sites. Stormwater flooding in Boston tends to
framework developed by Philadelphia that considers
PHILADELPHIA’S “GREEN CITY, in other municipalities. The Boston Water and primarily impact residential buildings, making
long-term financial, social, and environmental benefits
CLEAN WATERS” GREEN Sewer Commission is currently evaluating the on-site solutions attractive.
against costs.5 Third, the Energy, Environment, and
INFRASTRUCTURE PROGRAM feasibility of such a program. If implemented, the
Open Space Cabinet should recommend a toolkit of BWSC is well positioned to develop design these
In its 2009 Combined Sewer Overflow Long-
Term Control Plan, “Green City, Clean Waters,” green infrastructure financing strategies to support stormwater fee would charge property owners
guidelines following the completion of its studies
Philadelphia committed to invest $1.6 billion
both capital and operating and maintenance costs, based on the amount of impervious surface on
over 20 years to create a citywide network of to identify feasible locations and types of green
green stormwater infrastructure, as opposed to a recognizing that Boston may require new sources their property. BWSC’s feasibility study should
single, multi-billion dollar, 35-foot-diameter tunnel
infrastructure. The current trend in Boston has been
of funds to expand green infrastructure use. Fourth, include an evaluation of the fee’s economic impact
under the Delaware River. Philadelphia’s green for property owners to install dry wells, which are
infrastructure best practices include the following:
it should identify opportunities to create streamlined, on different types of property owners, particularly
expensive but need to be properly maintained to
• Establishing a large-scale program, focused on standardized green infrastructure maintenance low-income owner-occupants and affordable
function effectively. BWSC does not have retrofitting
converting one-third of Philadelphia’s existing housing providers.
impervious surface (about 4,000 acres) to processes that create cost efficiencies. The Energy, requirements for sites that were built prior to its
green infrastructure Environment, and Open Space Cabinet should requirements.
• Using a “triple bottom line” approach to review best practices from other cities that are
evaluate the benefits of green infrastructure
national leaders in the large-scale deployment of green STORMWATER REGULATION IN BOSTON The BPDA should evaluate the opportunity to
compared to gray infrastructure
infrastructure, such as New York City, Philadelphia,
BWSC issues stormwater permits for new private reinforce these design guidelines through changes to
• Setting up both regulatory requirements development in Boston, and has the authority to
and financial incentives (stormwater credits Washington, DC, Seattle, and Portland.6 require on-site stormwater retention and “other the Boston Zoning Ordinance. This approach has been
stormwater management measures” (Source: Section
for constructing and maintaining green
14, Article IV, “Regulations Governing the Use of
used successfully by the City of Portland. In Portland,
infrastructure) to promote private provision of
green infrastructure Sanitary and Combined Sewers and Storm Drains of the Stormwater Management Manual outlines design
the Boston Water and Sewer Commission”). In general,
• Developing a green infrastructure audit
5
Source: “A Triple Bottom Line Assessment of Traditional and Green Infrastructure
Options for Controlling CSO Events in Philadelphia’s Watersheds.” Stratus Consulting, BWSC requires property owners to infiltrate a volume guidelines, which are authorized by Portland City
program to help customers with high
August 24, 2009. of rainfall on-site equal to no less than one inch across Code Chapter 17.38, passed in 2008 and therefore
stormwater fees to reduce their fees through
6
Source: “Green City Clean Waters: The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined the surface. The Groundwater Conservation Trust
green infrastructure implementation
Sewer Overflow Control.” Amended by the Philadelphia Water Department, June 1,
2011. oversees stormwater management in the designated enforceable.7 In conjunction with development of the
Groundwater Conservation Overlay District (GCOD)
Source: “Green City, Clean Waters: The City of Philadelphia’s under Article 32 of the Boston Zoning Code. The GCOD
design guidelines, the BRA and BWSC should assess
Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control.”
Amended by the Philadelphia Water Department, June 1, 2011.
requires projects to infiltrate a volume of rainfall on-site the need to provide incentives to achieve specific
such that the project results in no negative impact
on groundwater levels. The Boston Planning and types of green infrastructure on private property.
Development Agency also is able to institute site plan
requirements as part of the Article 80 process.
7
Source: Chai, Shutsu K. “Managing Stormwater in Watertown: Overcoming Obstacles
to Change.” MIT Thesis. 2009.

126 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 127
INITIATIVE 8-5. DEVELOP AN ACTION The City should establish a Heat Overlay District INITIATIVE 8-7. CONDUCT A WETLANDS REGULATION IN MASSACHUSETTS
PLAN TO EXPAND BOSTON’S URBAN in neighborhoods with the highest need for trees COMPREHENSIVE WETLANDS INVENTORY Depending on their location and attributes, wetlands
have the opportunity to mitigate all three types of
TREE CANOPY to help coordinate the actions of public and private AND DEVELOP A WETLANDS PROTECTION climate risks that Boston is facing: extreme heat,
actors. The District could perform the following ACTION PLAN stormwater flooding, and coastal and riverine
Currently, the Parks and Recreation Department flooding. Coastal wetlands can help reduce the
is planning to conduct an inventory of Boston’s functions: The Conservation Commission should conduct speed and force of waves coming onshore during
storm surge events and can prevent water from
existing tree canopy to evaluate the current ◦ Set larger tree pit-size minimum requirements a comprehensive wetlands inventory to define coming inland if the wetlands have elevated
edges. Inland wetlands can help convey and filter
state of Boston’s urban forest. Using the findings and increase the use of structural soil and priority sites for wetlands restoration and inland stormwater runoff and reduce flow into stormwater
from this inventory, the Parks and Recreation permeable pavements where pit size is buffer areas that must be protected to enable treatment systems. Due to their vegetation, wetlands
can mitigate urban heat. Wetlands also absorb large
Department should set criteria to prioritize where constrained. The City’s Complete Streets habitats to migrate inland as sea levels rise. The quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
wetlands inventory should consist of mapping accumulated over hundreds and thousands of
the City plants street trees. Expansion of Boston’s Guidelines have set the minimum width of the years, and store it as carbon sinks, thereby helping
tree canopy should support the City’s green greenscape and furnishing zone necessary to all existing wetlands, analyzing the functions to mitigate global warming. Tidal wetlands are at
risk from sea level rise and need to have the ability
infrastructure efforts. Trees can help manage support street tree installation as 2.6 to 6 feet. (ecosystem services) performed by them, and to migrate inland, or they may be lost, even with
stormwater, mitigate heat in multiple ways, and identifying sites that are of high resource value restoration efforts. Wetlands loss not only prevents
future carbon capture but also releases stored
reduce air pollution. ◦ Require utilities and PWD to set protection of and are at high risk due to development or climate carbon, increasing greenhouse gas levels in the
existing trees as a primary goal in projects, so impacts. atmosphere.
The City should explore strategies to overcome that existing trees do not always lose out to Currently, the Boston Conservation Commission
physical barriers to the establishment of space for bike lanes, parking, or utilities. Following the completion of this inventory, the regulates activities in coastal and inland wetland
resource areas through the Commonwealth’s 1972
large trees in Boston. Large trees contribute Conservation Commission should develop an Wetlands Protection Act (WPA) and accompanying
significantly to Boston’s canopy and are less ◦ Establish a review process for removal of trees action plan for protecting wetlands to preserve regulations. The WPA recognizes eight important
public values or functions provided by wetlands
likely to die than smaller trees, but they require over a certain size on private properties. environmental quality and help in protecting and protects them in 12 types of Coastal Resource
against climate impacts. The action plan should Areas and 5 types of Inland Resource Areas. Coastal
space and a sufficient volume of soil for roots to
◦ Establish minimum lot shade coverage Resource Areas include Lands Subject to Coastal
thrive. The City must balance many priorities define the pathways that the City can use to Storm Flowage (LSCSF), which perform important
requirements for private properties. functions related to protecting from storm damage
when planning its sidewalks, such as safely protect wetlands, including regulation (e.g., a Local and assisting with flood control. Individuals performing
accommodating pedestrians and providing INITIATIVE 8-6. PREPARE OUTDOOR Wetlands Ordinance) and acquisition of key sites. any work that removes, fills, dredges, or alters any
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE resource area must obtain a permit, or Order of
space for needed furniture, but street trees This could include a Local Wetlands Ordinance Conditions, from the Conservation Commission that
(LWO) that enables the Conservation Commission defines requirements to be met before, during, and
should be an important part of this equation. In As an ICC member, the Parks and Recreation after the work.
its new Complete Streets Guidelines, the City Department should develop an adaptation plan, to protect additional wetlands types, protect
While the state WPA provides protection to many
has set standards for sidewalk construction that tied to a capital investment plan, to prepare its already-covered types to a greater degree, and take types of wetlands, it has some limitations. First, the
establish preferred and minimum widths for outdoor facilities for climate change. The Parks future climate impacts into account during project state WPA does not protect all types of wetlands.
Second, while it defines specific performance
the greenscape and furnishing zone, ranging and Recreation Department will identify facilities review. The LWO could give the Conservation standards for Inland Resource Areas, it does not
establish specific performance standards for
from 6 to 1.5 feet. The City should collaborate where resilience improvements are needed to Commission jurisdiction over a buffer area Coastal Resource Areas or buffer areas. Coastal
with private partners to implement the preferred address near-term flooding impacts, and evaluate adjacent to lands subject to current coastal storm Resource Areas have general standards or none
at all. Work done within buffer zones can have
standards in the development of new sidewalks whether the improvements are feasible to flowage, based on likely sea level rise, and establish significant impacts on Coastal Resource Areas. Third,
or retrofitting of existing sidewalks, while incorporate into existing planned capital upgrades performance standards for all protected areas. it does not allow the Conservation Commission to
take into account projected future or cumulative
still meeting American with Disability Act or will require a new work stream. To address effects of climate change, including sea level rise,
when reviewing project impacts. However, the
requirements for a minimum pedestrian zone of extreme heat, the Parks and Recreation Department Commonwealth allows municipalities to enact
4 feet, to support the establishment of large trees. will evaluate opportunities to increase shade trees
local wetlands ordinances that enable them to
protect more wetlands types; protect existing

In addition, as part of its climate readiness and structures, reduce heat-absorbing surfaces, and types to a greater extent, including by establishing
performance standards; and take into consideration
education campaign, the City should conduct add “spray” water features and water fountains as future conditions. The City should support state efforts
to develop performance standards for Coastal
outreach to private property owners about the part of all capital upgrades.
Resource Areas and evaluate the role of a local
wetlands ordinance.
importance of designing and constructing around
existing trees, avoiding tree removals, and
protecting large trees on private property.

128 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 129
 Layer 5
ADAPTED
BUILDINGS

130 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 131
Strategy 9. Update zoning The initiatives under this strategy follow three basic BACKGROUND: REGULATORY CONTEXT FOR BUILDINGS9
principles:
and building regulations to BUILDING CODE ZONING CODE

support climate readiness ◦ The City should prioritize areas in which it has In Massachusetts, the building code is established at
the state level by the Board of Building Regulations and
The Boston Zoning Code is shaped by the Boston Planning and
independent authority. While the City controls Standards (BBRS) and administered at the local level by
Development Agency (BPDA), adopted by the Boston Zoning
Commission (BZC), and enforced by the Inspectional Services
These initiatives build on the Boston Planning and its own zoning code and can directly amend it, the City of Boston’s Inspectional Services Department (ISD).
Department (ISD). The following articles of the Zoning Code are
The City does not have authority to establish building code
Development Agency’s Resiliency Policy, which it does not control the building code and will requirements that are stricter than the state building code
most relevant for climate readiness:

has required all large project proposals to analyze therefore need to work with the Commonwealth without approval from the Commonwealth Article 25 is Boston’s flood-resistant construction zoning
(see Initiative 9-5, p.138). requirement. The City adopted Article 25 in order to comply
and describe their climate preparedness through a (see Background: Regulatory Context for In the Massachusetts Building Code, flood-resistant construction with the National Flood Insurance Program, which requires
Climate Preparedness Checklist since 2013. Boston Buildings, p.133). standards apply to all new or substantially renovated structures municipalities to adopt flood-resistant construction standards
within the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA), as defined by the before any property owners in the municipality can buy
should now take the next step of incorporating federally backed flood insurance. Article 25 does not contain
currently effective FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs).
climate readiness across its building regulations. ◦ The City is the ultimate long-term investor The SFHA is the area exposed to a 1 percent annual chance any additional requirements beyond those included in the
flood, and most areas within the SFHA are assigned a base flood Massachusetts Building Code.
in all local properties. While individual and
elevation (BFE), the elevation to which floodwater is expected to
Current zoning and building codes do not yet institutional property owners have a limited rise during a 1 percent annual chance flood. FIRMs outline three Article 80 sets forth guidelines for four types of BPDA
development review: small projects (adding more than 20,000
institutionalize climate readiness: time horizon for owning certain properties subareas within the SFHA:
square feet), large projects (adding more than 50,000 square
and therefore may not want to invest in long- feet), planned development areas (new overlay zoning districts
◦ Current regulations do not consider future • Zone V, subject to wave action with wave heights of 3 feet
for project areas larger than 1 acre), and institutional master
term solutions or interventions where benefits or more; plans (projects relating to academic and medical campuses).
climate conditions. Building standards for The review process can include an assessment of a project’s
accrue to future owners, the City has a moral • Coastal Zone A, subject to wave action with wave heights
flooding refer to FEMA’s Flood Insurance Rate of 1.5 to 3 feet; and
impacts on transportation, the public realm, the environment,
and financial interest in making sure that and historic resources.
Maps (FIRMs), which are based on historical
buildings remain safe and maintain their value • Non-Coastal Zone A, subject to waves less than 1.5 feet in
Article 37 is Boston’s green building zoning requirement,
information. While a building constructed to height. administered by the Interagency Green Building Committee
for generations. This is especially true in Boston,
these standards may be climate ready today, The 8th Edition of the Building Code, which is currently in (IGBC). It requires all projects 50,000 square feet or larger to be
where approximately two-thirds of City revenues effect, requires the following for new or substantially renovated certifiable under the U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED process.
as sea levels rise, it will face continuously structures: Since 2013, the BPDA has also required all large projects to
come from the property tax.8 To continue to offer
increasing risk. complete a Climate Preparedness and Resiliency Checklist,
quality services, the City must protect its tax base • In Zone V, the lowest horizontal structural member is which is also reviewed by the IGBC. In the checklist, applicants
document the climate-preparedness measures incorporated
◦ Current regulations discourage adaptation. in both the short and the long term. required to be elevated at least two feet above the BFE
into the project’s design.
In order to become more climate ready, many • In Coastal and Non-Coastal Zone A, lowest floors are
Article 32 created Boston’s Groundwater Conservation Overlay
◦ Flexibility and adaptability are essential; there required to be elevated at least to the BFE.
buildings would need to elevate their first floors District. It is monitored by the Boston Groundwater Trust. The
is more than one way to prepare for climate In early 2016, the BBRS approved a draft of the 9th Edition of the purpose of the article is to ensure projects do not reduce
and mechanical systems. However, regulatory Building Code, which requires public review and final approval groundwater levels in specific areas to prevent wooden
change. Many buildings built today will still be
limits on height and bulk often discourage such before it takes effect. The draft update includes the following pilings under buildings from rotting. Developers are required
standing at the end of the century. At that time, new requirements for new or substantially renovated structures: to conduct a study of their project’s effect on groundwater
elevations. and install recharge systems for excavation, construction, and
as described in the Climate Projection Consensus • In Coastal Zone A, the requirements for Zone V apply; and rehabilitation of any area greater than 50 square feet.
◦ Current regulations foster a site-scale (see p.01), sea levels are likely to be three to
• In Non-Coastal Zone A, the lower floor is required to be WETLANDS PROTECTION ACT
approach to climate readiness. While seven feet higher. Given this range, it is possible elevated, and the building equipment is required to be The Massachusetts Wetlands Protection Act (M.G.L. Ch.
131, § 40) and Regulations (310 CMR 10.00) are designed to
individual new and renovated buildings have to build in ways that will allow adaptation elevated or flood-proofed to at least one foot above
ensure that the public’s interests in wetland resource areas
the BFE. Facilities essential for emergency response and
some requirements to build to certain climate- over time. For example, one approach for new recovery, or that contain hazardous materials, require
are preserved. In Boston, the regulations are administered
by the Conservation Commission. The jurisdiction of these
ready standards, there are no regulatory buildings would be to have high ground-floor elevation to two feet above the BFE or the 500-year flood regulations includes coastal beaches and dunes, intertidal flats,
elevation, whichever is higher. salt marshes, eelgrass, ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, and flood
mechanisms to build in a way that would ceilings so that the ground floor can be raised zones (defined as Special Flood Hazard Areas on the currently
provide broader district-scale flood risk as sea levels rise over time, without creating effective FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps) as well as 100-foot
buffer zones around wetlands.
reduction and address the impact of individual undesirably low floor-to-ceiling heights.
retrofits and adaptation projects on overall
flood risk and urban design. Regulations also
do not protect the beneficial functions of storm
damage prevention and flood control provided
8
Source: “Revenue Estimates and Analysis for Fiscal Year 2017.” Boston Office
9
Source: “Incorporating Improved Coastal Flood Resiliency Measures into Boston’s Waterfront Regulations.” Boston Harbor Now Climate Resilience Committee. 2016.
by the coastal floodplain. of Budget Management. 2016.

132 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 133
SUMMARY OF INITIATIVES TO UPDATE ZONING AND BUILDING REGULATIONS INITIATIVE 9-1. ESTABLISH A PLANNING As noted under Background: Regulatory Context
FLOOD ELEVATION FOR ZONING for Buildings (see p.133), Boston does not have
RELEVANT REGULATION
REGULATIONS IN THE FUTURE FLOODPLAIN the authority to mandate minimum elevations
# INITIATIVE RECOMMENDED CHANGES
OR PROCESS
The Boston Planning and Development for buildings. However, Boston can incorporate
Agency (BPDA) should petition the Boston the PFE into zoning regulations to both remove
Establish a planning flood
Establish a Planning Flood Elevation for Zoning Commission to revise the zoning code obstacles for existing buildings that want to
elevation to support zoning
9-1 Boston Zoning Code all buildings within the future 1 percent voluntarily adapt, and require new buildings to
regulations in the future to incorporate the extents and depths of future
annual chance flood zone.
floodplain
flooding, as documented in appropriate future be built to standards that would encourage future
flood maps (see Initiative 1-2, p.84). This would adaptation (see Initiative 9-2).
Using the Planning Flood Elevation
(Initiative 9-1), amend provisions of the
be a first step toward correcting a flaw in Boston’s INITIATIVE 9-2 . REVISE THE ZONING CODE
Revise the zoning code
9-2 to support climate-ready Boston Zoning Code
Zoning Code (allowable height, bulk, current floodplain regulations, which is that they TO SUPPORT CLIMATE-READY BUILDINGS
and use) to ensure they promote and
mechanical systems
do not discourage climate-ready new rely on FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps that
construction and retrofits. The Boston Planning & Development Agency
are based primarily on historical flood data and
(BPDA) should petition the Boston Zoning
Offer developers with already-approved therefore do not include risk due to a changing
project an opportunity to adopt climate Commission to revise the zoning code to ensure
climate.
Promote climate readiness for
Development Approval
ready new construction standards regulations on the use, height, and bulk of
9-3 projects in the development (Initiative 9-2) based on the Planning
Process In order to incorporate the extents and depths buildings promote and do not discourage climate-
pipeline Flood Elevation (Initiative 9-1) without
needing to undergo a completely new
City review process.
of future flooding, the BPDA should establish a ready new construction and retrofits. Under
planning flood elevation (PFE) for each project current regulations, property owners may avoid
Establish Flood Protection Establish a new overlay district in through the following steps: elevating their properties or mechanical systems
Overlay Districts and require potential flood protection locations and
5-1 potential integration with Boston Zoning Code require that development proposals do or taking other climate-readiness measures
◦ Institute standard planning time periods for
flood protection systems (see not prevent the future creation of flood because they would be violating the zoning code or
Protected Shores layer, p.98) protection infrastructure. new buildings, which may vary based on
sacrificing buildable area.
construction type. In the existing Climate
Advocate to the state to adopt a Change Preparedness and Resiliency The BPDA should also ensure that the zoning
Pursue state building code new minimum elevation for building Checklist, the BPDA generally requires that revisions encourage a quality streetscape and
Massachusetts Building
9-4 amendments to promote mechanical systems based on the future
Code large buildings in Boston consider climate pedestrian activity even as buildings are elevated
climate readiness 1 percent flood elevation at the end of a
system’s design life.
change for at least the next 60 years. and flood-proofed. The elevation or flood-proofing
of a building’s first floor could create a blank wall,
◦ Use future flood projections (see Initiative
Strategic Planning Areas, leading to an uninviting streetscape, but this effect
Planned Development 1-2, p.84) to determine whether each project
9-5
Incorporate future climate
Areas, Municipal Harbor
Incorporate future climate considerations can be counteracted through design solutions such
conditions into area plans into major neighborhood planning efforts. is expected to be within the future 1 percent
Plans, and Institutional as planters, raised yards, front steps, or latticed
Master Plans annual chance floodplain during the
walls.
applicable planning time period.
The following are potential revisions to the
◦ For each project within this future floodplain,
Boston Zoning Code that could support climate-
determine the 1 percent annual chance flood
ready buildings and desirable urban design. Each
elevation at the end of the planning time
requires further analysis to evaluate financial and
period. This is the planning flood elevation
design implications.
(PFE).

134 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 135
 INITIATIVE 9-3. PROMOTE CLIMATE INITIATIVE 9- 4. PURSUE STATE BUILDING
POTENTIAL ZONING REVISIONS
APPLICABLE FOR APPLICABLE FOR READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN THE CODE AMENDMENTS TO PROMOTE
EXISTING BUILDINGS? NEW BUILDINGS?
DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE CLIMATE READINESS

Measuring the maximum height of a building within a future floodplain Upon amending the zoning code to support The City should ask the Massachusetts Board of
from the building’s PFE, rather than from grade. This would allow owners
to build or retrofit to climate-ready standards without sacrificing buildable
area.
  climate readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the
BPDA should immediately notify all developers
Building Regulations and Standards to institute
stricter requirements for new or substantially
with projects in the development pipeline in improved buildings in Boston. The key new
Allowing first floors that are below the PFE to be converted to a use other the future floodplain that they may alter their requirement would be higher minimum elevation
than for human occupancy, wet flood-proofed, and removed from the
total floor area calculation. This could not only reduce the occupants’ plans in a manner consistent with the zoning of mechanical systems. Similar to Initiative 9-2 (see
flood risk and owners’ insurance costs, but it could also allow the addition
of new stories to buildings with the necessary structural capacity. The
revenues from the addition of new stories could help finance the building
 amendments (e.g., raising their first-floor ceilings
without violating building height limits) without
p.135), this would correct the current approach by
defining a building’s mechanical system elevation
retrofits.
needing to go through the entire BPDA permitting requirement based on the local Boston flood map
process again. The BPDA should notify the owner/ for the end of the equipment’s design life.
Allowing subgrade basements in the future flood zone to be filled in and
removed from the total floor area calculation.  developer, architect, engineer, and contractor of
record for each project. The BPDA would assess the
There are three potential pathways toward
incorporating future flood conditions into the state
legal bounds of instituting this expedited review
Allowing mechanical systems, cables, and other wiring equipment to be building code, and Boston should pursue the most
elevated above the PFE and removed from total floor area calculation,
process. Other local, state, or federal approvals
expedient pathway:
or allowing mechanical systems to be moved outdoors, if such a move is
required to achieve the elevation of systems without sacrificing buildable
floor area. The movement of mechanical systems outdoors must not
 may still be necessary.

There are currently hundreds of projects in Boston

◦ Under Massachusetts General Law Chapter
interfere with egress paths.
143 §98, the City may request that the
that have been approved for construction but not
BBRS allow higher standards to be applied
Explicitly permitting temporary flood control devices in setbacks and
yet built. Many of these projects are in areas that
public access areas in ways that reduce the potential for adverse
impacts to adjacent properties.   are either currently in the floodplain or will be
during the life of the building, and the buildings
specifically within Boston.

◦ The City can work with regional partners,

have not been planned to incorporate future flood such as the Metro Boston Climate
Requiring that the minimum ceiling height for ground floors be measured
from the PFE. This would result in additional ground-floor floor-to-ceiling risk. Many developers are not aware of the future Preparedness Task Force, to request that the
height so that, as sea levels and flood elevations rise, buildings can adapt
by raising the first floors while still maintaining desirable floor-to-ceiling
heights.
 risk, and even if they are, they might not want
to elevate their buildings and sacrifice buildable
BBRS adopt a Stretch Climate Readiness Code
with increased construction requirements. All
area. This proposed approach would encourage municipalities in the commonwealth would
Requiring that buildings raised significantly above grade feature ground- developers to make relatively small additional
level design elements that activate the street. This would prevent the then have the option of adopting the Stretch
negative impact on pedestrian experience that can occur when investments in climate readiness without Climate Readiness Code.
buildings are elevated and feature only blank exterior walls below the
first floor. Elevated commercial spaces can also retain their ground-floor
storefront and provide access (stairs and ramps) to the raised first floor as
  sacrificing buildable area or delaying project
timelines. ◦ The City can work with regional partners,
part of an indoor vestibule. such as the Metro Boston Climate
REL ATED INITIATIVE: Preparedness Task Force, to recommend that
INITIATIVE 5-1. ESTABLISH FLOOD
Increasing the total roof area that solar panels can cover without
counting as an additional floor.   PROTECTION OVERLAY DISTRICTS
AND REQUIRE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
the BBRS incorporate higher standards into the
building code throughout the commonwealth.
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Requiring or incentivizing design elements, such as planted green roofs or
high-reflectance cool roofs, which limit stormwater runoff or mitigate the
urban heat island effect.   The City should establish a new overlay district
in potential flood protection locations and require
that development proposals do not prevent the
future creation of flood protection infrastructure
(see p.106 for more details).

136 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 137
INITIATIVE 9-5. INCORPORATE Strategy 10: Retrofit and extreme heat. Through the Climate Ready
FUTURE CLIMATE CONDITIONS Buildings Education Program, the City should
INTO AREA PLANS existing buildings CURRENT AREA PLANNING INITIATIVES
encourage all at-risk property owners to evaluate
The BPDA works with communities throughout
The Boston Planning and Development Agency Context: The Challenge of Retrofitting their resilience. the city to create area plans that guide long-

(BPDA) should incorporate future climate Boston’s Buildings term growth in Boston’s neighborhoods. Three
To start, the City should prioritize the over 2,000 current planning initiatives are PLAN: Dudley
considerations into major neighborhood planning buildings that are exposed to coastal flooding
Square; PLAN: South Boston Dorchester Avenue;
Boston’s existing building stock is diverse. It and PLAN: Jamaica Plain / Roxbury. Among the
efforts across the city, including Strategic Planning at 9 inches of sea level rise under at least the 1 many community priorities addressed in these
includes a broad range of owner types that have and other plans, the BPDA should consider
Areas, Planned Development Areas, Municipal percent annual chance event. To further guide
different levels of both building management future climate conditions, including coastal
Harbor Plans, and Institutional Master Plans, prioritization within this group, it should take flooding, stormwater flooding, and extreme
expertise and access to financing to undertake heat, in order to help neighborhoods prepare.
which are ultimately codified in zoning. Long-term into account exposure under more frequent
building- and site-scale resilience improvements.
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, events (monthly high tide and the 10 percent
Many buildings are historic, and while still able
and coastal and riverine flooding must all be annual chance event), the criticality of functions
to adapt, such buildings face unique challenges in
considered as key variables for planning the future housed within the building, exposure of
doing so while maintaining their historic character
of Boston’s neighborhoods. socially vulnerable populations, and expected
and architectural significance. In the near term, A NOTE ON BUILDING REGULATIONS
For Municipal Harbor Plans, which set requirements over 2,000 buildings across Boston have at least a physical damages. A resilience audit should help AND INCENTIVES

for building dimensions, public access, and public 1 percent annual chance of inundation by coastal property owners identify cost-effective, building- Many of the regulatory changes included
here may increase the short-term costs of
benefits for waterfront areas, the consideration of and riverine flooding, and almost 9,000 are exposed specific improvements to reduce flood risk, real estate development in Boston, even

future coastal and riverine flooding is particularly to frequent stormwater flooding. Considering that such as backflow preventers, elevation of critical as they decrease risk and flood insurance
costs. An alternative approach the City may
important. Future plans should ensure that, as Boston has many older buildings not adapted for equipment, and deployable flood barriers; promote pursue is to raise some required minimum
standards, while offering incentives that
sea levels rise, public access areas are not reduced. flooding or extreme heat risks, the need for retrofits interventions that address stormwater runoff or
motivate developers to exceed minimum
Public access areas should be elevated above future is great. The City should work with property owners the urban heat island effect, such as green roofs standards. The City must think carefully
about what resilience actions should be
high tide elevations and either raised above the to promote access to the information and financial or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage incentivized, as opposed to required.

PFE or constructed to withstand future inundation, resources that they need to prepare their buildings owners to develop operational preparedness Developers may require incentives to
take resilience actions if some of the
including saltwater tolerant plantings, paving, and for climate change. plans and secure appropriate insurance coverage. benefits of such actions accrue to other
property owners, or outside the developers’
equipment. Municipal Harbor Plans should also The resilience audit program should include
timeframe for evaluating investments.
REL ATED INITIATIVE:
investigate the possibility of requiring the elevation a combination of mandatory and voluntary,
INITIATIVE 3-2 . LAUNCH A CLIMATE READY
market-based and subsidized elements. This
of entire waterfront sites, a strategy that can provide BUILDINGS EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR
flood risk reduction for inland areas but must be PROPERTY OWNERS AND USERS would be similar to the combination of energy
evaluated for each site to avoid increasing flood risk audit requirements for large buildings in the
The City should develop and run an education City’s Building Energy Reporting and Disclosure
for adjacent properties (see Initiatives 5-1 and 5-3,
program to inform property owners and other Ordinance (BERDO) and the subsidized, voluntary
pp.106 and 110).
groups about current and future climate risks facing energy audits offered through the Renew Boston
their buildings and actions they can undertake program.
to increase their preparedness (see p.95 for more
PRECEDENT: ALLOWING MUNICIPALITIES TO details). Audits offered through a City program could
ADOPT HIGHER BUILDING CODE STANDARDS include prequalified firms to conduct the resilience
(MASSACHUSETTS STRETCH ENERGY CODE) INITIATIVE 10 -1. ESTABLISH A RESILIENCE audits, reduced-cost audits for owners that
The Commonwealth adopted the Massachusetts AUDIT PROGRAM FOR PRIVATE PROPERTY
Stretch Energy Code in 2009. It is an alternative demonstrate high levels of risk and financial
stronger energy code that municipalities can OWNERS
choose to use instead of the base code. It increases
need, and efforts to combine climate resilience
efficiency requirements for all new residential and The City should establish a resilience audit audits with energy efficiency audits. Key internal
many new commercial buildings and for residential
additions and renovations that trigger building code program to help property owners identify potential partners for this effort include the Department of
compliance. The code was adopted by the City of building- and site-level resilience actions to address Neighborhood Development for at-risk affordable
Boston in November 2010.
coastal and riverine flooding, stormwater flooding, multifamily residential owners, the Boston

138 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 139
 Home Center and Renew Boston RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAMS
RESILIENCY IMPROVEMENTS: COST AND FEASIBILITY FACTORS
for at-risk low- to moderate-income Existing Models in Boston

owner-occupants, and the Economic The City can leverage its existing energy efficiency audit
FACTOR CONSIDERATIONS programs as models for resilience audits. Renew Boston is
Development Department’s Main a public-private partnership between the City, Eversource
Flood Risk Streets program for at-risk small (formerly NStar), National Grid, Mass Save, community-based
nonprofits, and Mass Save–certified contractors. The City
businesses. Finally, the City should launched the program in 2009, and it is funded by ratepayers
explore the creation of a system for through state requirements. Renew Boston offers free on-site
Annual chance Higher flood depths present greater risk to buildings and reduce the range of potential energy efficiency audits (home energy assessments) to owners
flood depths feasible solutions. disclosure of appropriate information of single-family homes and small multifamily buildings with up
to four units. Renters also are able to request audits. During the
from climate resilience audits, audit, the designated energy advisor may install energy-saving
modeled after BERDO. lightbulbs and power strips, low-flow shower and faucet heads,
and programmable thermostats. The advisor then sends a
follow-up report summarizing further recommended energy
Flooding frequency Intermittent floods require different design solutions than regular flooding at high tide. There are a number of factors that efficiency improvements and available funding sources.
drive the cost and feasibility of Through Mass Save, owners are eligible for a 75 percent
discount (up to $2,000) for insulation and air-sealing services,
resilience improvements. The table on with owners of two- or three-family buildings or condo owners
complete recommended improvements building-wide able
page 68 summarizes factors related
Wave action increases flood depths, adds force against buildings, and potentially to receive a larger “whole building” discount. In the first half of
Wave action
introduces debris. Wave action also impacts height and load requirements. to coastal and riverine and riverine 2016, Renew Boston completed more than 1,700 home energy
assessments for owners and renters. Renew Boston also works
flooding, which generally presents a with small businesses and large condominium associations and
greater risk of structural damage to cooperatives. It offers a direct-install program that can pay for
up to 70 percent of the total cost for retrofitting lighting and
Floodwaters can maintain significant momentum as they move landward, and can be buildings than do the other hazards mechanical systems.
Moving water and
channelization
channelized by solid foundations and other obstructions, resulting in increased velocity analyzed by Climate Ready Boston. To guide the types of resilience improvements recommended
and volume of flow directed onto adjacent properties and infrastructure.
under the audit program, the City can leverage existing
responses to the Boston Planning and Development Agency’s
Structural Climate Preparedness Checklist, plus two key reports by
the Green Ribbon Commission and A Better City, “Building
Resilience in Boston” (2013) and “Enhancing Resilience in
Structure type is an important factor in determining if dry flood-proofing, wet flood- Boston” (2015). The reports identified potential resilience
Structure type actions that can be undertaken at the building and site level,
proofing, or elevation is feasible.
their benefits, and their costs.

Location of critical The current location and required locations of critical systems are important in developing New York City Neighborhoods Multifamily-Specific
systems retrofit solutions. Resiliency Technical Assistance Program

In partnership with the New York State Governor’s Office of

Storm Recovery, the Center for New York City Neighborhoods
launched the Multifamily-Specific Technical Assistance
Structural reinforcement may be necessary but cost prohibitive or technically infeasible
Structural integrity Program (TAP) as a pilot program in 2016. The pilot program
depending on the building.
will provide 100 multifamily property owners serving low- to
moderate-income residents in Sandy-impacted communities
with on-site resilience audits by qualified engineering and
building services firms, followed by one-on-one counseling
Codes and Substantially altering a building may trigger additional code and regulatory requirements to provide a set of recommendations for building resilience
standards that increase project costs. improvements based on the audit findings. Under a separate
program, the Governor’s Office of Storm Recovery also is
working with community-based organizations to provide
resiliency counseling to single-family building owners.
The type of use may limit building layout options. For facilities that provide a public service,
Occupancy
maintaining continuity of existing services is important and may lead to prioritization of Source: “Request for Proposal for Resilience Counseling.” Center for New York City
and operational Neighborhoods, Inc. June 15, 2016. http://www.renewboston.org/.
mitigation actions that minimize impacts to current operations. ADA access and universal
requirements
design considerations must be incorporated into resilient retrofits of public facilities.

Historic status The historic status of the building may affect project design.

140 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 141
INITIATIVE 10 -2 . PREPARE MUNICIPAL expected damage to the facility relative to centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, and small
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE market value or replacement value BOSTON HOUSING AUTHORITY nonprofit offices, for example.
FACILITIES AND FUTURE FLOOD EXPOSURE
The Office of Budget Management (OBM), through ◦ Criticality, with highest priority for impacts on Boston Housing Authority facilities are among the
The Environment Department should leverage
its capital budget planning, will work with all life and safety municipal properties that Boston should adapt past analyses of high-potential locations for solar
to coastal and riverine flood risk. The City should
City departments to prioritize adaptation projects prioritize adaptation at facilities exposed to flooding to identify sites for backup installations. For
OBM may want to develop standardized risk scores
to prepare at-risk municipal facilities for coastal in the near term under 9 inches of SLR for high- example, the Community Energy Study identified
to quantify, understand, and communicate relative probability events (10 percent annual chance
and riverine flooding, stormwater flooding, and event or monthly high tide). The map above shows districts that are suitable for community solar
risk among facilities. The OBM should partner with Boston Housing Authority facilities and the extent of 1
extreme heat risks. It is recommended that OBM percent annual chance flooding in the late century.
projects based on a high density of rooftop solar
the Public Facilities Department to estimate the
use the findings from the Climate Ready Boston potential (i.e., the capacity to support large-scale
costs of adaptation projects. In addition, it should
Vulnerability Assessment (see p.12) and the City’s solar projects with a minimum 500 kW of solar
partner with Renew Boston Trust to evaluate the
2013 identification and prioritization of at-risk production). The City also has partnered with
opportunity for resilience improvements to be facilities that demonstrate both especially high
municipal facilities to identify at-risk facilities. Mapdwell to identify the rooftop solar potential of
combined with energy efficiency improvements. levels of criticality and high frequency of exposure
OBM should prioritize facilities for retrofits based all residential and commercial buildings in Boston.
on three factors: (e.g., exposed under the average monthly high tide
To address coastal and riverine flooding risks,
or 10 percent annual chance flood event). In addition, the Environment Department should
the City should prioritize adaptation at facilities
◦ Vulnerability, in terms of the timing and partner with Renew Boston Trust to evaluate the
exposed to flooding in the near term under 9 To address extreme heat risks, as well as other
extent of exposure opportunity for resilience improvements to be
inches of sea level rise (1 percent or greater annual causes of power outages, the City should prioritize combined with energy efficiency improvements.
◦ Consequences of partial or full failure, in chance) that demonstrate high levels of criticality. backup power installation at facilities that
terms of the number of users impacted, the In particular, the City should prioritize adaptation demonstrate high levels of criticality. The City INITIATIVE 10 - 4. DEVELOP TOOLKIT
likely duration of service interruption, and at police, fire, EMS, and Boston Housing Authority OF BUILDING RETROFIT FINANCING
should promote solar photovoltaic generation and
STRATEGIES
storage because this method supports reduced
greenhouse gas emissions. In particular, the City Because expanded access to financing will facilitate
KEY MUNICIPAL FACILITIES should prioritize backup power installation at resilient building retrofits, the City should identify
EXPOSED TO NEAR TERM FLOODING EXPOSURE emergency shelters, which include Boston Centers a toolkit of financing strategies that could be used
for Youth and Family and Boston Public School to fund retrofits for both municipal and non-
9 INCHES SLR 9 INCHES SLR
9 INCHES facilities that serve as such. The City should also municipal buildings. These financing strategies can
FOCUS AREA FACILITY NAME 10% ANNUAL 1% ANNUAL
SLR AMHT CHANCE STORM CHANCE STORM
evaluate the need for cooling capacity across its tap public, private, and nonprofit capital to make
Heritage Elderly Public facilities. The City is currently installing solar retrofits accessible to Bostonians with a range of
Housing photovoltaic battery storage to support critical incomes.
loads for at least three days in the event of an
EAST BOSTON Engine 9, Ladder 2 (Fire) The City should collaborate with firms conducting
extended power outage at four BCYF facilities that
resilience audits to develop profiles of retrofit costs
Police Department also serve as emergency shelters.
District A-7 by different building types. The profiles should
INITIATIVE 10 -3. EXPAND BACKUP be used to size the resilience financing need and
DOWNTOWN Ambulance 8 POWER AT PRIVATE BUILDINGS THAT guide financing strategy development for different
SERVE VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
building types. The City should then work with
EMS Harbor Patrol key partners, including Boston’s lending, asset
The City should support solar photovoltaic
SOUTH BOSTON
generation and storage in private buildings that management, and insurance communities, to
BPD Harbor Patrol
serve vulnerable populations. These buildings evaluate ways to quantify and monetize the
would receive outreach under Initiative 2-3 (see benefits of climate resilience improvements and
CHARLESTOWN EMS Station 15
p.92). Targeted facilities should include affordable create a market for resilience in Boston. These
housing complexes, substance abuse treatment benefits can include direct economic gains (i.e.,

142 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 143
incremental property tax increases), avoided Strategy 11. Insure buildings INITIATIVE 11-2 . JOIN THE NATIONAL
losses (i.e., avoided structural, contents, and FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM COMMUNITY
RENEW BOSTON TRUST against flood damage RATING SYSTEM
inventory damage), and cost savings (i.e., The City created Renew Boston Trust (RBT) in
savings from reduced energy and water usage). 2016 to expand financing for energy efficiency
improvements in Boston by monetizing future
Affordable access to appropriate levels of flood The City should work with FEMA Region I staff
savings. In theory, RBT offers a potential pathway insurance coverage is critical to protecting property and the Massachusetts Insurance Services Office to
Through Renew Boston Trust (see call-out to use the savings from energy efficiency
improvements to cross-subsidize resilience owners’ investments and neighborhoods’ stability. begin the process of participation in the National
box), the City should explore ways to subsidize improvements. Currently, the proposed RBT model Property owners with proper and affordable Flood Insurance Program’s (NFIP) Community
resilience improvements with energy efficiency is focused on energy efficiency improvements to
two types of buildings: insurance can more easily recover from their losses Rating System (CRS). The CRS is a voluntary
improvements. The City should also identify ways
after a flood event, while those without can face incentive program that recognizes and encourages
to incorporate resilience upgrades into planned • Municipal buildings: Under the proposed
model, City departments with responsibility severe financial distress. Furthermore, properties community floodplain management activities that
capital improvements for both public and private
for buildings will submit energy efficiency without adequate insurance may remain in a exceed minimum NFIP requirements. Based on the
buildings and realize cost efficiencies from doing capital projects to RBT. RBT will combine
projects to create aggregations that meet
state of disrepair, leading to negative economic extent of best practices used to reduce damage to
so. For example, the City may be able to incorporate
strict underwriting criteria ensuring their future and social impacts on their neighborhoods. insurable property, increase insurance coverage,
resilience upgrades into housing repair loan energy cost savings will cover repayment
The National Flood Insurance Program is the and take a comprehensive approach to floodplain
programs for low- to moderate-income owner- of their upfront capital costs. RBT then will
establish a performance-based contract primary source of flood insurance for owner- management, the CRS discounts citywide NFIP
occupants supported by the Boston Home Center. with an energy service contractor to design
occupants, smaller residential properties, and small flood insurance premium rates. The discount applies
The Boston Home Center offers permanently and install the aggregated project, with the
contractor guaranteeing that the project will businesses. Generally, large commercial businesses to both public and private purchasers of insurance.
deferred interest loans for critical repairs, where be done on time and deliver the promised carry flood insurance purchased from private In order to enter the CRS, Boston must enter a
the City recovers its costs when the home is sold. savings. The City will advance the cost of
the project, and be reimbursed over time insurers. formal application with NFIP, conduct an inventory
For non-municipal buildings, the City should using the savings or contractor guarantee
payments. INITIATIVE 11-1. EVALUATE THE CURRENT of at-risk assets and initiatives in place to address
prioritize developing retrofit financing pathways FLOOD INSURANCE LANDSCAPE risks, conduct a site visit with FEMA, and engage in
• Nonprofit institutions that are able to use state
for buildings that provide a public benefit, and City finance authorities for tax-exempt a 6- to 12-month evaluation process. Boston has
have high levels of exposure, and are likely to borrowing: Under the proposed model, groups The City should conduct a study of the current
a site visit scheduled with FEMA this year.
experience challenges accessing financing. These of smaller nonprofits will join together to submit flood insurance landscape in Boston for owner-
an aggregated energy efficiency project to
buildings include the following: RBT, which will review the project structure occupant and multifamily residential buildings to
and confirm that it meets strict underwriting identify affordability challenges created by recent
◦ Affordable housing projects criteria. The nonprofits will then request that
legal changes to the National Flood Insurance
a state or City finance authority pursue

◦ Non-municipal community facilities, financing for the project on their behalf and Program (NFIP)1 and the projected floodplain
hold title to it during the repayment period.
especially those that provide critical services expansion. The City should evaluate the level of
The authority then will partner with a lender,
to vulnerable populations (food pantries, who will advance the cost of the project, coverage in current and projected future high-risk
and establish a performance-based contract
daycare centers, substance abuse treatment floodplains (1 percent annual chance flood event)
with an energy services contractor, who will
facilities) do the project. The authority will provide the by number and type of buildings. It should use
improvement to the nonprofits, and they will NFIP policyholder and claims data provided by
repay the lender through passed-through
◦ Low- and moderate-income homeowners rent payments. At the end of the repayment FEMA to provide a baseline of existing coverage. It
period, the nonprofits will purchase the project should also conduct outreach to property owners,
◦ Small businesses, especially those serving from the authority.
managers, and industry practitioners to provide
low- to moderate-income communities
insight into current understanding of flood
◦ Historic buildings, where preservation insurance laws, level of coverage, understanding of
requirements, often important to building-level risk, and willingness to undertake
neighborhood character, may increase building- and site-level adaptations. The City
retrofit challenges and costs should evaluate strategies to help property owners
respond to major increases in insurance premiums.

144 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 145
INITIATIVE 11-3. ADVOCATE FOR Image courtesy of Sasaki

REFORM IN THE NATIONAL FLOOD

INSURANCE PROGRAM

The City should collaborate with leaders in other

major cities on the East Coast to support 2017
reforms to the National Flood Insurance Program
(NFIP) that promote flood insurance affordability
in Boston. Key items for advocacy include the
following:

◦ Taking into account alternative or partial

flood mitigation strategies—such as flood-
proofing mechanical systems or moving
some mechanical components above the base
flood elevation—when determining flood
insurance rates, instead of requiring buildings
in the 100-year floodplain to comply with all
NFIP guidelines in order to realize any rate
reductions.

◦ Considering expanding the types of non-

residential space that residential buildings are
permitted to maintain below the base flood
elevation beyond parking, lobbies, storage, and
crawl space to potentially include uses that
support residential dwelling units, such as
laundry rooms, building management offices,
or common spaces.10

◦ Establishing a district-scale NFIP Community

Rating System so that Boston and other cities
can receive credit for improving flood risk
management neighborhood by neighborhood.

10
Subsidies for certain NFIP policies are currently being phased out, resulting in
premium increases of 18 to 25 percent per year. Certain policies are also facing
increasing deductible limits and surcharges. The NFIP requires reauthorization by
Congress in 2017 and may be substantially changed.

146 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Climate Resilience Initiatives 147
MAYOR MARTIN J. WALSH

Focus
Areas

Eight Boston areas where the

results of the Vulnerability
Assessment and the climate
resilience initiatives are applied
in more detail to illustrate the
risks Boston faces and how
Boston can address them.

Image courtesy of Bud Ris

148 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 149

Charlestown
Charlestown, located on Founded in 1629, Charlestown is the oldest redevelopment for office, research, and residential Rehabilitation Hospital, and the Boston Autoport.
neighborhood in Boston. It was originally a uses and removal of the Charlestown Elevated rail The Boston Autoport is located on an 80-acre site
a peninsula just northwest
separate town before being annexed by Boston line (running along Main Street from City Square at the northeast corner of Charlestown, between
of Downtown Boston, is in 1874. Charlestown was originally surrounded to Sullivan Square). the Mystic River and the Little Mystic Channel. To
surrounded by water on three almost completely by water, with an inlet of the promote and protect water-dependent industrial
Today, Charlestown is a thriving residential
sides. It is bounded to the Charles River (Miller’s River) running along
community, with a mixed housing stock
uses along the Mystic River, the Commonwealth
its southwest edge before intersecting with the has established a Designated Port Area there.
south by the Charles River, to consisting of brick and wood-framed row
Charlestown Neck, a thin strip of land connecting Charlestown also has industrial and commercial
the north by the Mystic River, Charlestown Peninsula to East Somerville near
houses and waterfront condominiums and
uses concentrated south of Rutherford Avenue.
and to the east by Boston Sullivan Square. This inlet has since been largely
apartments. Charlestown also hosts the largest
It also includes a number of historic landmarks,
public housing development in Boston, the
Harbor. It is connected to filled.
Bunker Hill Apartments, with 1,100 units for
such as the Bunker Hill Monument/Monument

Downtown Boston by the In 1800, the U.S. Navy established a shipyard along low- to moderate-income households. Due to its
Square National Register District and the U.S.S.
Constitution and U.S.S. Cassin Young on the
Charlestown Bridge and the the eastern waterfront, promoting the growth proximity to Downtown and historic housing
waterfront.
Leonard P. Zakim Bridge, to of marine industrial uses in Charlestown, along stock, Charlestown has become attractive to young
with worker housing. The Charlestown Navy professionals. The City is currently planning roadway design
Chelsea by Maurice J. Tobin
Yard was extensively used during World War II. improvements to Rutherford Avenue and Sullivan
Bridge, and to Everett by the The neighborhood then experienced some decline
Charlestown’s main commercial corridors lie
Square to create a more pedestrian-friendly
along Bunker Hill Street and Main Street. It
Malden Bridge. before becoming subject to urban renewal efforts in environment and create opportunities for transit-
also has major employment hubs at Bunker Hill
the 1960s and 1970s, which led to the Navy Yard’s oriented development adjacent to Sullivan Square.
Community College, the Navy Yard, Spaulding

Image courtesy of Sasaki

150 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 151

FLOOD PROGRESSION

Charlestown is exposed to climate change

DEFINITIONS impacts including heat, increased precipitation
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 and stormwater flooding, and sea level rise and
inches of sea level rise coastal and riverine flooding. Exposure to heat and
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 stormwater flooding are addressed in the Citywide
inches of sea level rise Vulnerability Assessment (see p.12), while exposure
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, and consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
are further discussed in this section.
LEGEND
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within Charlestown’s exposure to
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may near-term impacts is limited to
prevent or limit impacts.
pockets of flooding near the
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a Charlestown Navy Yard, the
hazard. Requires site-specific information.
Boston Autoport near the Tobin
Bridge, and low-lying land east
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences of Sullivan Square.
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses. Significant coastal flooding is
Annualized losses: The sum of the
probability-weighted losses for all four
likely by later in the century, with
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea most of Charlestown’s waterfront
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times area extending from Cambridge 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
the probability of that event occurring in a
given year. to Somerville projected to be
*For a full list of definitions, refer to the inundated during major coastal
Glossary in the Appendix.
storms. Inland flooding would
be greatest through low-lying
land immediately east of Sullivan
Square, and flooding would also
extend through the Charles River
Basin if the Charles River Dam
were flanked.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

152 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 153
Land area in Charlestown Prior to fill placement, Charlestown was a
peninsula of relatively high ground, including
exposed to flooding is in
the Bunker Hill neighborhood. In the late 1800s,
the top three for all coastal Charlestown was built outward in all directions,
neighborhoods throughout the including along the Mystic and Charles Rivers. The
century. Over 50 percent of majority of Charlestown’s waterfront, composed
largely of fill, will be exposed to coastal flooding,
Charlestown will be exposed
especially late in the century.
to coastal flooding during low-
In the near term, coastal flood extents remain
probability storms expected as
largely along the waterfront edge, with the
soon as the 2070s (1 percent broadest flood extents near the Charlestown Navy
annual chance event). Yard, the Boston Autoport near the Tobin Bridge,
and low-lying land east of Sullivan Square. As
Climate resilience planning soon as the 2050s, the areas flooded in low-
must consider the broad flood probability storms will increase by over 150
extents near the waterfront percent, mostly due to a large expansion of

that may affect the diverse the floodplain inland via low-lying land near
Sullivan Square. Once coastal floods coming
mixture of buildings and from the Mystic River cross Rutherford Avenue,
industries, as well as the entry a large expansion of the floodplain is expected
points for inland flooding to the south, along low-lying area that was filled.
near Sullivan Square and the More frequent and expansive coastal flooding
in inland areas of Charlestown is expected in
Charles River Dam.
the late century, with a higher probability of
both flooding inland east of Sullivan Square and
flooding associated with flanking or overtopping
of the Charles River Dam. Areas exposed to low-
probability events in the near term will be exposed
to high tides later in the century, limiting access to
or causing damage in areas like the Charlestown
Navy Yard and Boston Harborwalk near Ryan
Playground and the Malden Bridge.

154 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 155

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY days. Charlestown has three senior housing percent annual chance), and 1,330 people live in close to 500 people may require emergency shelter
developments, one long-term care facility, and six areas expected to be flooded by a low-probability under low-probability events (1 percent annual
Charlestown is currently home to more than
public housing developments where concentrations flood event (1 percent annual chance), making chance), a number that outstrips Charlestown’s
16,000 people. Charlestown has relatively lower
of elderly, medically ill, and low- to no-income Charlestown the fourth most-exposed focus area, current 300-person shelter capacity. Furthermore,
concentrations of socially vulnerable populations
residents live. Portions of two Boston Housing behind East Boston, Downtown, and South Boston. Charlestown’s existing shelter capacity will be
than Boston at large. The exception is households
Authority developments, the Charlestown exposed to lower probability events later in the
with children, which make up 20 percent of In a significant expansion of risk, over 1,070 people
Apartments and Basilica Condos, are expected to century. The Charlestown Community Center
households in the neighborhood compared to currently live in areas expected to be flooded
be at risk for low-probability flood events later in and emergency shelter will be exposed to low-
17 percent citywide. The Seaport Academy and by monthly high tides as soon as the 2070s, an
the century. probability (1 percent chance) mid-century storms,
Sparrel Elementary School are exposed to low- increase of roughly three times over the near term.
potentially reducing the neighborhood’s current
probability events in the near term and low- In the near term, roughly 350 people currently live Over 3,920 individuals live in areas expected to
shelter capacity by about 175 people. Available
probability late-century events, respectively. in areas expected to be flooded by monthly high be flooded by high-probability events (10 percent
and accessible public shelters and effective
Impacts to schools may result in lost school tides, the second largest of all neighborhoods. In annual chance), and 5,180 people live in areas
communication regarding shelter alternatives will
days for children, and parents of small children addition, over 420 people live in areas expected to expected to be flooded by low-probability events
thus be critical to Charlestown residents.
may opt to miss work and stay home on these be flooded by a high-probability flood event (10 (1 percent annual chance). As soon as the 2070s,

CHARLESTOWN POPULATION EXPOSURE

Image courtesy of Sasaki

156 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 157

INFRASTRUCTURE Avenue near Sullivan Square, and the BWSC itself is not directly exposed to damage from All of Charlestown’s hospital and medical
Sullivan Square stormwater pump station that coastal storms and sea level rise, it is expected to research facilities will be exposed to
Exposure of Orange Line MBTA stations protects it, are also expected to be exposed to be surrounded by water during frequent storm high-probability flood impacts as soon
and I-93 to low-probability mid- century floodwaters in the near future. events late century, potentially causing damage as the 2050s, as well as late-century
storms and sea level rise may compromise tides, impacting access to healthcare as
to underground infrastructure that transmits
connectivity between Charlestown and The Mystic Generating Station and well as some of the neighborhood’s top
energy generated, as well as affecting safe access.
Downtown Boston. Charlestown Wind Turbine, which economic drivers.
Direct flood exposure is not expected at the
Charlestown is separated from the rest of Boston contribute to Greater Boston’s power Four hospitals and medical research facilities
DeLauri sewer pump station (where the wind
by the Charles River and the Boston Harbor. The supply and wastewater operations, will be are located on Charlestown’s waterfront: Beacon
turbine is located) during this century. The Little
neighborhood is connected to Downtown Boston exposed to low-probability storms in the Hospice, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, MGH
Mystic Combined Sewer Overflow facility may
by the MBTA Orange Line, I-93, and Rutherford second half of the century, and frequent
be exposed to frequent mid-century flooding Institute of Health Professionals, and the Martinos
Avenue. Flooding at both Orange Line stations in storms in the late century.
but is expected to be able to continue operations Center for Biomedical Imaging. Spaulding
Charlestown would not only restrict Downtown The Mystic Generating Station is one of Rehabilitation Hospital is a 132-bed rehabilitation
throughout the century, based on MWRA’s
access but also access to Bunker Hill Community Massachusetts’s major non-nuclear electricity teaching hospital owned by Partners HealthCare
assessment.3
College, especially for students who rely on the generating plants. The facility is expected to be that opened in 2013. It was designed to be resilient
light rail to attend class. If both the Community exposed to low-probability events by the second Charlestown may experience reduced and is expected to be protected in a low-probability
College and Sullivan Square Stations are rendered half of the century and more frequent (high- emergency response capacity as a result event in the near future. Existing flood mitigation
inoperable, over 15,000 individuals that enter at
1 probability) storms later in the century. The station of sea level rise. measures at the site are expected to cut late-
those stations would be in need of alternative has a sophisticated emergency response plan in Charlestown’s only EMS station, the Charlestown century annualized storm impacts in half.4
transportation options. This does not include place to protect public health and safety in case of a Police Station, and one of two fire stations
potential impacts and service disruption if flooding disaster. Nevertheless, liquid natural gas currently are expected to be exposed to flood impacts
3
Inferred from critical flood elevation data provided by MWRA.

from the Everett marine terminal, located across Based on Climate Ready Boston analysis.
4

penetrates into the transportation corridor. at various points throughout the century.
the Mystic River, is critical for operation.2 Maintaining operations at these essential facilities
I-93 and Rutherford Avenue are also two of
The Charlestown Wind Turbine generates three is critical in Charlestown to ensure that public
Charlestown’s three major evacuation routes.
million kilowatt hours of electricity per year, health and safety needs are met during and
Flooding of these areas presents complications to
and the power generated is net-metered to offset after a flood event, especially considering that
safe evacuation, and avoidance of flooded areas
MWRA electricity costs, savings ratepayers the neighborhood’s physical connections to the
can lead to overstressed and crowded side streets
approximately $350,000 a year. Though the turbine Boston mainland may also be compromised.
when drivers seek alternative routes. Rutherford

1
Based on 2014 MBTA ridership and service statistics. Number only captures station
entries and does not include all passengers traveling on the line as it passes through
the station.
2
Everett’s exposure to coastal storms and sea level rise are not considered within the
scope of this project.

158 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 159

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS CHARLESTOWN BUILDING EXPOSURE

While Charlestown is a smaller-scale
The majority of exposed buildings neighborhood than some of the other focus
in Charlestown are residential and areas considered, it is still in the top four focus
mixed-use structures. areas for expected annualized structure and
Charlestown is mostly residential in character;
content losses in the near term, with $8.5M,
residential-only properties make up nearly 60
percent of the neighborhood’s total number of
compared to $62.6M in South Boston, $42.7M
structures and 60 percent of the current real estate in Downtown, and $11.8M in East Boston.
market value.5 Charlestown’s housing stock is
made up of primarily low-rise row houses and
wood-framed two- or three-family buildings.
Though much of Charlestown’s housing is elevated,
structures typically have basements or below-grade
finished space and are often vulnerable through
windows at grade.

Charlestown faces risk from both coastal storms

and rising sea levels. In the near term, the
community can expect 20 structures exposed
during monthly high tides and 140 structures CHARLESTOWN MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE
exposed to flooding during a low-probability flood
event (1 percent annual chance). As soon as the
2070s, over 50 percent of the land area is expected
to be exposed to flooding from a low-probability
flood event (1 percent annual chance event), with
close to 700 structures potentially exposed. More
than half of the exposed structures are residential
or mixed-use in nature. In addition, as soon as the
2070s, over 130 existing structures are expected to
be exposed to monthly high tides.

5
These statistics do not include residential space in mixed-use buildings.

Image courtesy of Sasaki

160 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 161

RISK TO THE ECONOMY CHARLESTOWN ECONOMIC LOSSES
Charlestown is consistently
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
As of 2014, there are over 12,200 jobs in expected to be among the top
Charlestown, and associated industries contribute Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood five focus areas most at risk to
over $2.5 billion of output (sales and revenues) impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and coastal flooding throughout the
into the city’s economy annually. The Charlestown
economy is well balanced, as no single industry
induced results are those expected to be
felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
century in terms of land area,
comprises more than an 8 percent share of of changes in spending patterns. Results
for both job and output losses are the sum
people, and buildings exposed.
employment or output within the neighborhood. of annualized values for the four flood
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
Charlestown’s economy is most vulnerable in rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
estimate for several reasons. First, not all
medium- and long-term climate scenarios. Based probabilistic events are considered. Second, Due to the prevalence of
the analysis assumes that all impacted
on the neighborhood’s current economy and
businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA residential structures exposed
building stock conditions, $8 million in annualized estimates that almost 40 percent of small
businesses—and up to 25 percent of all to coastal flood impacts,
output loss and approximately 50 positions in
annualized employment loss are expected toward
businesses—never reopen after experiencing
flood impacts. Third, only building areas Charlestown’s economy is
the end of the century. Scientific research and
directly impacted by floodwater are
assumed to experience business interruption.
most vulnerable to medium-
development, accounting, and insurance-related This does not consider interruptions of
businesses due to loss of power or utility
and long-term sea level rise
services rank among top industries expected to functions. Finally, the analysis only considers
existing populations, businesses, and buildings
CHARLESTOWN ANNUALIZED LOSSES scenarios.
be impacted. Losses have been calculated strictly
and does not include projections for future
based on expected flooding to structures, as growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
opposed to egress and utility lines, and cascading detailed explanation of the exposure and
consequence analysis.
loss of function impacts are not considered in the
analysis.6 In the second half of the century, the site
of a current martial arts training center is expected
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
to be heavily impacted by floodwaters and joins top INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC OUTPUT
industries expected to be affected by coastal storm
Scientific research $500,000
events.
Accounting services $400,000

Insurance agencies $300,000

6
More-detailed analysis would be required to quantify expected loss of function Fitness and recreation $300,000
impacts to utilities and transportation outside of economic loss derived from direct
physical damage to structures.
Restaurants $200,000

All other industries $6,700,000

Total $78,900,000

162 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 163

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

CHARLESTOWN ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

164 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 165

CHARLESTOWN
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES The City should develop a local climate resilience plan for ESTABLISH FLOOD The Boston Planning and Development Agency (BPDA)
Charlestown to support district-scale climate adaptation. PROTECTION OVERLAY should petition the Boston Zoning Commission to create
DEVELOP LOCAL DISTRICTS AND REQUIRE
The plan should include the following: new Flood Protection Overlay Districts in areas that
CLIMATE RESILIENCE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION are strategically important for potential future flood
PLANS TO SUPPORT ◦ Community engagement through a local climate
DISTRICT-SCALE protection infrastructure (see Potential Flood Protection
resilience committee, leveraging existing community
CLIMATE ADAPTATION Locations below). Within a Flood Protection Overlay
organizations, and efforts such as Boston Harbor
District, a developer would be required to submit a study
Now’s series of adaptation planning workshops in
of how a proposed project could be integrated into a future
Charlestown.
flood protection system; options may include raising and
◦ Land-use planning for future flood protection reinforcing the development site or providing room for a
systems, including Flood Protection Overlay Districts future easement across the site.
in strategically important “flood breach points”
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
Locations). FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing
SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood entry
◦ Flood protection feasibility studies, evaluating
points in Charlestown (see Potential Flood Protection
district-scale flood protection, including at locations
Locations below for a preliminary identification of
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection
locations and potential benefits).
Locations).
These feasibility studies should take place in the context
◦ Infrastructure adaptation planning through
of local climate resilience plans, featuring engagement
the Infrastructure Coordination Committee. For
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
Charlestown, the Massachusetts Department of
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
Conservation and Recreation is a key partner, as it
protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood
controls the New Charles River Dam.
character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
◦ Coordination with other plans, including Imagine include the timing of flood risk, consequences for
Boston 2030, GoBoston 2030, Special Planning Areas, people and economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
and any potential Municipal Harbor Plan process. and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk
reduction.
◦ Development of financing strategies and governance
structures to support district-scale adaptation.

◦ Partnering with Cambridge and Somerville,

which are adjacent to Charlestown and connected to
Charlestown by inundation pathways.
166 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 167
 North
Charlestown

New Charles
River Dam
POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD LOCATIONS
PROTECTION LOCATIONS 7 ◦ The North Charlestown Location focuses
See the District-Scale Flood Protection Systems on a major flood entry point at low ground
Overview section (p.330) for a citywide perspective between I-93 and Bunker Hill Street, near DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS ◦ Many neighborhoods benefit from dam

on district-scale flood protection. District-scale Sullivan Square. Potential flood protection ◦ Modest near-term benefits for North flood protection: Flood protection at the New

flood protection is only one piece of a multilayered solutions could include the following elements: Charlestown protection: At 9 inches of sea Charles River Dam could simultaneously

solution that includes prepared and connected permanent boundary protection along Bunker level rise (SLR), flood protection at North protect parts of northern Downtown, southern

communities, resilient infrastructure, and adapted Hill Street; regraded and elevated streets near Charlestown provides modest benefits in Downtown, Charlestown, the Charles River

buildings. flood entry points; integrated flood protection terms of economic losses avoided for the neighborhoods, and the South End and
and transportation improvements at Sullivan 1 percent annual chance event. To protect Roxbury.
In the near term, exposure to coastal Square; a deployable barrier for the Route against near-term lower-probability events (0.1
flooding is limited to specific waterfront ◦ Requirement for multiple protection
99 trench; and temporary barriers at the percent annual chance event) in Charlestown,
areas. As soon as the 2050s, combined locations in the late century: A flood
intersection of Medford Street and Bunker Hill interventions at both North Charlestown and
flood protection at two key locations will protection system at the New Charles River
Street, the Engine 32/Ladder 9 entrance, and the the New Charles River Dam may be needed,10
become critical: Dam is expected to provide significant
Schrafft Center driveway. as flooding from the Charles River and Boston
protection in other neighborhoods against
◦ North Charlestown, addressing a major Harbor proceed inland. At 21 inches of SLR
◦ The New Charles River Dam Location, also the 1 percent chance event until later in the
flood entry point between I-93 and or above, protection at Locations 5 and 7 will
described in the Downtown focus area section century. However, to protect Charlestown
Bunker Hill Street, near Sullivan Square likely be necessary to provide protection
(see p. 216), addresses flooding by the Zakim from near-term to mid-century flooding,
◦ The New Charles River Dam, beyond high-probability flood events (10
Bridge / New Charles River Dam. Potential interventions at North Charlestown will likely
addressing future overtopping or percent annual chance).
flood protection solutions could include a tide be required.
flanking of the dam
barrier across the mouth of Miller’s River, a tide ◦ Industrial areas protected at North
gate and connecting flood protection system Charlestown: Since the area benefitting
just west of Littoral Way, or a deployable barrier from independent flood protection at North
While it is expected that flood protection that would not be independently effective
10

DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION would have some effect on flood loss, this effect could be positive or negative, and
SLR SCENARIO understanding the extent of the effect would require more detailed evaluation.
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD8 across the railroad right-of-way connecting Charlestown without the New Charles As such, any benefits or costs above the identified level of protection (the point
beyond which the flood protection measure can no longer maintain independent

9” SLR
Charlestown and North Station. River Dam protection is relatively small effectiveness) have not been evaluated.

None9
(2030s–2050s) and primarily industrial, direct impact on
7
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts build off of recommendations

21” SLR North Charlestown and New Charles

of the MassDOT-FHWA Pilot Project Report and are based on a high-level analysis
of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental conditions.
population is likely limited. Evaluation
Important additional factors, including existing drainage systems, underground
(2050s–2100s) River Dam Locations combined transportation and utility structures, soil conditions, and zoning as well as any potential of flood protection options may require
external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied in detail. As
described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3 (pp. 106, 110), detailed feasibility studies, including consideration of possible brownfield
appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in order to better
36” SLR North Charlestown and New Charles
(2070s or later) River Dam Locations combined
understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location.
mitigation and reduction of environmental
8
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the
1 percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on contaminants.
expected effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional
flood protection locations and flood frequencies.
9
Benefits of district-scale flood protection would be modest.

168 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 169

PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of facilities RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED in Charlestown that serve significant concentrations of INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for Charlestown’s
COMMUNITIES vulnerable populations and are not required to have key infrastructure systems, including transportation, water
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE and sewer, energy, telecommunications, and environmental
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. Targeted facilities will include COORDINATION COMMIT TEE assets. The City should support the MBTA in conducting a full
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE affordable housing complexes, substance abuse treatment asset-level vulnerability assessment of its system, including
FACILITIES THAT SERVE centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, and small the Orange Line. While Charlestown’s two Orange Line stops
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
nonprofit offices, for example. An illustrative example (Community College and Sullivan Square) are not directly
TO SUPPORT PREPAREDNESS
AND ADAPTATION of the type of facilities to which the City might conduct exposed to coastal flooding at 9 inches of SLR under the 1
outreach include Bright Horizons Preschool at the Schrafft percent annual chance event, flooding of tunnels and stations in
Center near Sullivan Square, which will be exposed to Downtown Boston could impede residents’ ability to access jobs
near-term damage from sea level rise and coastal flooding and essential services during flood events.
and access issues associated with near-term stormwater
flooding.11
PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management should work with the
PRIORITY EVACUATION Boston Transportation Department, Department of Public Works,
AND SERVICE ROAD
and private utilities to provide guidance on critical roads to
INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in prioritize for adaptation planning, including those that are part
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS Charlestown exposed to stormwater flooding risk in the of the city’s evacuation network and are required to restore or
PROGRAM
near term or coastal flooding risk under a 1 percent annual maintain critical services. With 9 inches of SLR under a 1 percent
chance event at 9 inches of SLR to help them develop annual chance flood event, Interstate 93, North Washington
business continuity plans, evaluate insurance coverage Street, and Alford Street will all be exposed to coastal flooding.
needs, and identify low-cost physical adaptations. While
Main Street, Charlestown’s primary commercial corridor,
CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified
is not exposed to flooding under a 1 percent annual chance STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY Charlestown’s Main Street corridor as a potential location for
event at 9 inches of SLR, there are 19 commercial buildings ENERGY SOLUTIONS
an emergency microgrid, based on its concentration of critical
and 16 mixed-use buildings potentially hosting small facilities. The study also identified an area near Sullivan Square
businesses exposed. as a location for an Energy Justice microgrid. Small portions of
the Main Street corridor site may be exposed to coastal flooding
from the 1 percent annual chance event in the near term. The
Sullivan Square site has a small area exposed under the 1
percent annual chance event with 9 inches of SLR, with exposure
significantly increasing with 21 and 36 inches of SLR. The
Environment Department can work with local stakeholders and
utility providers to explore these locations.

11
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.

170 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 171

ADAPTED Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready Buildings
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning Education Program and a resilience audit program to inform
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately property owners about their current and future climate
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE notify all developers with projects in the development RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM risks and actions they can undertake to address these risks.
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their To prepare for the most immediate risks, the City should
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments prioritize audits for buildings with at least a 1 percent annual
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating chance of exposure to coastal and riverine flooding in the
building height limits), without needing to restart the near term, under 9 inches of sea level rise. In Charlestown,
BPDA permitting process. this includes 142 structures, with 17 percent of these
consisting of residential and mixed-use buildings that house
Currently, 17 residential and 8 commercial buildings
residents. A resilience audit should help property owners
are under construction or permitted in Charlestown,
identify cost-effective, building-specific improvements to
representing 267 additional housing units and 1.8 million
reduce flood risk, such as backflow preventers, elevation of
square feet of new commercial space.
critical equipment, and deployable flood barriers; promote
interventions that address stormwater runoff or the urban
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should heat island effect, such as green roofs or “cool roofs” that
CLIMATE CONDITIONS incorporate future climate considerations (long-term reflect heat; and encourage owners to develop operational
INTO AREA PLANS AND preparedness plans and secure appropriate insurance
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and
ZONING AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning coverage. The resilience audit program should include a
efforts in Charlestown. These efforts include the planned combination of mandatory and voluntary, market-based and
transportation improvements to Rutherford Avenue and subsidized elements.
Sullivan Square and the redevelopment of the Bunker Hill
Apartments. PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with City
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal facilities in
CHANGE
Charlestown that demonstrate high levels of vulnerability (in
terms of the timing and extent of exposure), consequences
of partial or full failure, and criticality (with highest priority
for impacts on life and safety) from coastal flooding in the
near term. In the near term, at 9 inches of SLR, EMS Station
5 will be exposed to flooding under the 1 percent annual
flood event. The Charlestown Navy Yard, which is owned by
the BPDA, is also exposed in the near term under monthly
high tide. To address extreme heat risks, the City should
prioritize backup power installation at municipal facilities
that demonstrate high levels of criticality, including specific
Boston Centers for Youth and Family and Boston Public
School facilities that serve as emergency shelters.

172 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 173

Charles River Neighborhoods
The Charles River focus area Beacon Hill is located in the center of the Shawmut had significant industry, with stockyards, the same in Allston. The New Charles River Dam
Peninsula. The area originally had three hills, two slaughterhouses, and meatpacking operations in was completed in 1978.
consists of the neighborhoods
of which were leveled for Beacon Hill development. Allston and northeast Brighton.
that lie along the Charles River, Construction of the Massachusetts State House
Today, Beacon Hill and the Back Bay are among
The Charles River focus area is unified by the the most expensive residential neighborhoods
including Beacon Hill, Back occurred on the south slope in the 1790s.
Charles River. The first Charles River Dam was in Boston. Charles Street, which extends from
Bay, Fenway/Kenmore, and Residential squares were laid out according to the
completed in 1910, converting it from a tidal Massachusetts General Hospital to the Public
English model on the north slope.
Allston/Brighton. estuary into a freshwater basin. The dam served Garden, is Beacon Hill’s primary commercial
The Back Bay neighborhood was created through to control the surface water level in the basin and corridor. Back Bay has commercial corridors along
These neighborhoods have fill during the late nineteenth century, adding 450 upstream and to prevent seawater from the Boston Newbury Street, Boylston Street, St. James Street,
been grouped in a focus area acres to the city. In 1814, the Boston and Roxbury Harbor from entering. The Charles River Esplanade and Huntington Avenue. Fenway/Kenmore is a
because they are all expected Mill Corporation started building a dam blocking was constructed at the same time to take advantage mixed-use district, with a diverse housing stock

to be exposed to flooding upon the tidal Back Bay, which extended from Brookline of the new recreational possibilities created by of brownstones, brick row housing, and newer
to Boston Common. The dam was economically the basin. The Esplanade has been expanded and apartment and condominium towers. Allston is
overtopping or flanking of the unsuccessful, so Boston started filling in the tidal enhanced over time, with the present-day Hatch also a mixed-use district that has experienced
Charles River Dam. area in 1857, with the process completed by 1882. Shell added in 1940, although the Esplanade did conversion of industrial uses to commercial,
Back Bay became an elegant residential district, lose some land to the construction of Storrow Drive residential, and institutional uses over time and
with blocks of three- to four-story brownstones in 1949. Storrow Drive, a high-speed access road, has also become a site of recent expansion by
organized along linear boulevards (Beacon Street, separates Beacon Hill, the Back Bay, and Fenway/ Harvard University.
Marlborough Street, and Commonwealth Avenue), Kenmore from the river. Soldiers Field Road does
according to the Parisian model.

Fenway/Kenmore consists of land annexed from

Brookline during the 1870s, as well as land filled
in during the creation of the Back Bay Fens, the
first park in Frederick Law Olmstead’s Emerald
Necklace. Olmstead designed the Fens, a set of
constructed marshes, to address drainage and
sanitary challenges associated with the Muddy
River, which flows into the Charles River. While
originally intended as a high-end residential
district, Fenway/Kenmore subsequently attracted
a large number of educational and cultural
institutions. Fenway/Kenmore is connected to
Allston/Brighton through a small strip of land
along Brookline. Allston was annexed by Boston
in 1874. During the 1800s, Allston/Brighton
Image courtesy of Sasaki

174 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 175

FLOOD PROGRESSION

In the near-term and through The Charles River neighborhoods are exposed to Because of the presence of the Charles River Dam, In the near term and through
the middle of the century, climate change impacts including heat, increased the Charles River neighborhoods have limited
the middle of the century,
precipitation and stormwater flooding, and sea exposure to coastal flooding through the middle of
buildings and infrastructure level rise and coastal and riverine flooding. the century. By the end of the century, Beacon Hill,
buildings and infrastructure
in the Charles River focus Exposure to heat and stormwater flooding Back Bay, Fenway/Kenmore, and Allston/Brighton, in the Charles River
area have limited exposure are addressed in the Citywide Vulnerability Charlestown, and Cambridge are expected to be neighborhoods have or will
to coastal flooding. Assessment (see p.12), while exposure and exposed to flooding by flanking and overtopping have limited exposure to
consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk are of the dam for low-probability events. In low-
further discussed in this section. probability flood events (1 percent annual chance)
coastal flooding.
expected later in the century, flooding from the
The primarily flood pathway in the Charles River
dam is expected to enter inland Boston through
neighborhoods is around and over the Charles
DEFINITIONS
River Dam. The New Charles River Dam was
the Public Garden, contributing to the extensive Of the Charles River
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9
constructed in 1978 and is a complex sluice, lock,
flooding expected to collect in the South End from neighborhoods, Allston has
inches of sea level rise Fort Point Channel and Dorchester Bay during
and pump system used to manage freshwater
the same time frame (refer to the 36-inch flood
the greatest exposure in the
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21
inches of sea level rise
draining from the Charles River Basin, salt water
exposure map). Very low-probability events (0.1 near term due to low-lying
from the Boston Harbor, and vessel navigation.1
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, percent annual chance) are expected to have high open space. By the end of
In the event of a storm, pumps are activated to
the century, the Charles River
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise enough storm surge that lands along the majority
proactively reduce the water level to accommodate
of the Charles River will be exposed to flooding.
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within for surge. neighborhoods will begin to
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may
have some flood exposure to 1
prevent or limit impacts.
percent annual chance events
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a
and may have hundreds of
hazard. Requires site-specific information. acres exposed to very low-
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent probability events (0.1 percent
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of chance).
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses.

Annualized losses: The sum of the

probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times
the probability of that event occurring in a
given year.
1
MassDOT FHWA Report citation: Bosma, Kirk, et. al. “MassDOT-FHWA Pilot Project
*For a full list of definitions, refer to the Report: Climate Change and Extreme Weather Vulnerability Assessments and
Adaptation Options for the Central Artery.” Jun. 2015, https://www.massdot.state.
Glossary on p. Y. ma.us/Portals/8/docs/environmental/SustainabilityEMS/Pilot_Project_Report_
Image courtesy of Sasaki MassDOT_FHWA.pdf.

176 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 177

 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

LEGEND

Later in the century, exposure of the Charles River

neighborhoods to severe coastal storms with a low
probability of occurrence increases significantly
due to the possibility of overtopping and flanking 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

of the Charles River Dam.

Climate resilience planning must consider that

the primary flow pathway is over and around the
Charles River dam. Adaptation of or around the
dam would also benefit Charlestown, Downtown,
and Cambridge.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

178 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 179
EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

CHARLES RIVER POPULATION EXPOSURE

POPULATION & SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES As soon as the 2050s, parts of Storrow Drive connections from Back Bay and Beacon Hill to
are expected to be exposed to low-probability Cambridge may also be affected by flooding.
Residents of the Charles River neighborhoods
storms. Later in the century, additional sections of
comprise about 22 percent of Boston’s overall Charles River emergency response assets
Storrow Drive, as well as sections of Beacon Street
population, or about 142,000 people. The Charles are not expected to be exposed to flood
and River Street in Back Bay and Beacon Hill, may
River neighborhoods are relatively affluent impacts this century.
be impacted by low-probability flood events (1
compared to the city as a whole; it has just one
percent chance). Flooding along these roads will Areas adjacent to the Charles River neighborhoods
public housing development and 25 percent of
not only impact safe evacuation from the area, with emergency response facilities exposed to
the population in low- to no-income categories.
but potential damage and traffic interruptions coastal flood damage include Downtown, the South
Nevertheless, Back Bay and Beacon Hill have
may also affect crosstown connections and quick End, and northern Roxbury. If emergency response
among the highest percentage of people with a
access to Downtown. Delivery of resources such as facilities in these areas are impacted by flooding,
medical illness (42 percent) and older adults (12
food supplies and research materials may also be fire, police, and EMS stations in the Charles River
percent) throughout Boston.
disrupted in the case of flooded roads surrounding neighborhoods may be called upon for support,
Shelter needs in the Charles River neighborhoods the campuses, in addition to student commutes to in which case capacity, response times, and
are expected to be around 200 individuals for Boston University, Harvard’s Business School and transportation routes between neighborhoods must
the area for the low-probability (1 percent annual Stadium, and the Soldiers Field athletic area. Very be better understood.
chance) event later this century. Seven public low-probability flood events (0.1 percent annual
Very low-probability events expected later
emergency shelters are located within the Charles chance) later in the century have the potential
in the century may impact many colleges
River neighborhoods, with the capacity to shelter to impact Mass Pike, which may further limit
and universities in the Charles River
1,000 individuals. Only the Boston Arts Academy transportation connections Downtown. neighborhoods; colleges and universities
shelter will be exposed to the 0.1 percent annual provide the second-largest number of jobs
Portions of MBTA’s Green Line within Back Bay
chance event, which has a capacity of 151. The in the area.
and Beacon Hill, including the Arlington and
remaining shelters are not expected to be exposed
Prudential T Stations, are exposed to flood impacts The Charles River neighborhoods are home to
to flood impacts and may be able to shelter some
later in the century. The Green Line runs at grade many well-known colleges and universities,
residents from other neighborhoods in an event.
for much of the western portion of its route and also including Boston University, portions of Harvard
Unexposed colleges, universities, and hospitals in
has the potential to be interrupted by stormwater and Northeastern University, and other institutions
the Charles River neighborhoods may be able to
flooding between Packard’s Corner and Harvard associated with the Longwood Medical Area such
provide shelter as well.
Avenue Stations. Service interruptions at the as Simmons College and Emmanuel College. All of
INFRASTRUCTURE aforementioned stations could result in over 12,000 the aforementioned campuses have at least some
daily riders2 needing alternative transportation, portion exposed to the 0.1 percent chance event
Transportation systems within the Charles
especially affecting those who use the Green Line per the statistical expectation later in the century.
River neighborhoods are not likely exposed to
to commute from Boston’s inland neighborhoods Damages to campus assets or roads may not only
coastal flooding and sea level rise until later
to Downtown. Expected impacts to transportation disrupt class schedules and affect research, but the
in the century. Even so, major impacts are only
patterns will grow significantly with a 0.1 percent area’s economy may suffer if there is prolonged
expected for low-probability events.
chance event later in the century. Green Line interruption in operations. Site-specific reviews of
exposure will extend from Back Bay and Beacon each college and university asset are required to
2
Based on 2014 MBTA ridership and service statistics. Number only captures
station entries and does not include all passengers traveling on the line as is
passes through the station. Hill into Fenway/Kenmore, while Red Line assess expected impacts.

180 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 181

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS impacts in other focus areas. As soon as the 2050s, In the second half of the century, approximately
approximately $13,000 in annualized structure 700 structures are expected to be exposed to the
The Charles River neighborhoods
and content losses are expected under the low- low-probability flood event (1 percent annual
are generally less exposed than other
probability (1 percent annual chance) event. Mid- chance), with $4 million expected in annualized
Climate Ready Boston focus areas in
century losses are expected to be concentrated along structure and contents losses. Most of these losses
the near term and throughout the mid-
the Charles River Esplanade. may be concentrated in Back Bay, with over 60
century. Nevertheless, without mitigation,
structures expected to be impacted in Allston and
impacts may still be expected, Structures exposed in the Charles River
particularly for the lower-probability neighborhoods increase significantly from less than ten in Fenway. Very low-probability flood
flood events later this century. the 1 percent annual chance event (low events (0.1 percent annual chance) expected as
The Charles River neighborhoods are not probability) to the 0.1 percent annual soon as the 2070s may present significant risk, with
expected to experience structure and content chance event (very low probability) later nearly 3,640 structures expected to be exposed.
damage until mid-century. Even so, damages in the century. Overall, nearly $15 million in Considering all storm frequencies analyzed, nearly
may be comparatively low when considering annualized structure and contents losses $15 million in annualized structure and contents
could be expected as soon as the 2070s. losses are expected in the late century.

Image courtesy of Sasaki

CHARLES RIVER REAL ESTATE

MARKET VALUE EXPOSED CHARLES RIVER BUILDING EXPOSURE

182 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 183

RISK TO THE ECONOMY
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
The Charles River neighborhoods contribute over CHARLES RIVER ECONOMIC LOSSES
237,000 jobs and $46 billion in annual output Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood
(sales and revenues) to the Boston economy. Top impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
industries in terms of employment are hospitals, within a neighborhood, while indirect and
induced results are those expected to be
restaurants, and colleges, universities, and felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
of changes in spending patterns. Results
professional schools due to the presence of the
for both job and output losses are the sum
Longwood Medical Area and large institutions. of annualized values for the four flood
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
Hospitals, real estate, insurance, and financial rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
investment activities are the area’s current top- estimate for several reasons. First, not all
probabilistic events are considered. Second,
producing industries when considering sales and the analysis assumes that all impacted
revenues. In contrast to South Boston, many businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA
estimates that almost 40 percent of small
of the area’s top industries are vulnerable businesses—and up to 25 percent of all
to business interruption, as it is extremely businesses—never reopen after experiencing
flood impacts. Third, only building areas
difficult for many large institutions to operate directly impacted by floodwater are
remotely or relocate operations quickly in the assumed to experience business interruption.
This does not consider interruptions of
event of a coastal storm. Nevertheless, business businesses due to loss of power or utility
functions. Finally, the analysis only considers
interruption is not expected in the Charles River
existing populations, businesses, and buildings
neighborhoods in the near-term, and mid-century and does not include projections for future
growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
business interruption is limited in comparison detailed explanation of the exposure and
to other focus areas, though not insubstantial. In consequence analysis.
CHARLES RIVER ANNUALIZED LOSSES
the second half of the century, the Charles River
neighborhoods can expect close to $90,000 in
annualized output losses due to expected flood ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC OUTPUT
damage to structures. As soon as the 2070s,
3

Performers and
annualized output losses as a result of business Performing Arts $ 1,000,000
interruption are expected to be around $6.3 Companies

million with approximately 40 annualized jobs Restaurants $ 630,000

lost. These estimates include interruption from Entertainment and

Recreational Facilities,
businesses directly exposed to flood impacts, $ 940,000
including sports centers,
as well as the reverberations that impact may museums, and parks

have throughout Suffolk County’s economy.4 Real Estate $ 730,000

Industries expected to be most affected are the All other industries $ 2,900,000
performing arts, restaurants, and entertainment
Total $ 6,300,000
and recreational facilities, likely due to the
exposure at the Soldiers Field Athletic Area and Expected flood damages are calculated for the 10%, 2%, 1%, and 0.1% annual
3

chance flood events only.

other entertainment industries present along the 4

Losses to particular industries are based on current development and
economic activity in the area, and considering that South Boston is in a period
Charles River. of intense growth, may differ as development continues.

184 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 185

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

CHARLES RIVER ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

186 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 187

CHARLES RIVER NEIGHBORHOODS
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES
New Charles
River Dam
PROTECTED SHORES To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
points, the City should study the feasibility of
PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE South Boston
constructing district-scale flood protection at the primary Waterfront
FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT-
flood entry points for the Charles River neighborhoods
SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
(see Potential Flood Protection Locations below for a
Dorchester
preliminary identification of locations and potential Bay
benefits). As described below, flood protection systems
that would benefit these neighborhoods would likely be In the near term, coastal and riverine LOCATIONS
located by the New Charles River Dam, in South Boston, flood risk along the Charles River is ◦ The New Charles River Dam location,
and in Dorchester. modest and likely does not require district- described in the Charles River and Downtown
scale flood protection. focus areas (see pp. 174, 216), addresses
These feasibility studies should feature engagement
Later in the century, combined flood potential overtopping or flanking of the dam.
with local community stakeholders, coordination
protection at multiple locations will ◦ The South Boston Waterfront location,
with infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of
become critical:
how flood protection would impact or be impacted described in the South Boston focus area (see
by neighborhood character and growth. Examples of ◦ At the New Charles River Dam, p.282), addresses flood entry points along the
prioritization criteria include the timing of flood risk, addressing potential overtopping or edge of the district.
consequences for people and the economy, social equity, flanking of the dam.
◦ The Dorchester Bay location, described
financial feasibility, and potential for additional benefits
◦ At the South Boston Waterfront, in the Dorchester focus area (see p.194),
beyond flood risk reduction. addressing inland flood pathways addresses flood pathways from the Old
originating from Fort Point Channel, Harbor and Savin Hill Cove.
POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE Boston Harbor, and the Reserve
FLOOD PROTECTION LOCATIONS 5 Channel; and DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS
◦ Multiple neighborhoods protected:
See District-Scale Flood Protection Systems section for a ◦ At Dorchester Bay, addressing inland The largest flood protection benefit for
citywide perspective on district-scale flood protection. flood pathways originating from the neighborhoods along the Charles River comes
District-scale flood protection is only one piece of a multi- Old Harbor and Savin Hill Cove. from protection at the New Charles River
layered solution that includes prepared and connected
Dam. In addition, flood protection at the dam
communities, resilient infrastructure, and adapted
SLR SCENARIO
DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION is expected to have near-term benefits for
buildings. FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD6
portions of Downtown and Charlestown.
5
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level analysis of
existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental conditions. Important additional 9” SLR
None7
factors, including existing drainage systems, underground transportation and utility structures, soil
conditions, zoning, as well as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not
(2030s–2050s) ◦ Need for multiple alignments late century:
been studied in detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3, detailed feasibility studies, including
appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in order to better understand the Flood protection at the dam alone will not
costs and benefits of flood protection in each location. 21” SLR
The New Charles River Dam protect against late-century flooding from Fort
(2050s–2100s)
6
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the 1% annual
chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on expected effectiveness of
flood protection systems, including analysis of additional flood protection locations and flood
Point Channel, the Old Harbor, and Savin Hill
The New Charles River Dam, South
frequencies. 36” SLR
Boston Waterfront, and Dorchester Cove, for which interventions at the South
7
Benefits of district-scale flood protection would be modest. (2070s or later)
Bay Locations combined
8
While it is expected that flood protection that would not be independently effective would have
Boston Waterfront and Dorchester Bay will
some effect on flood loss, this effect could be positive or negative, and understanding the extent
of the effect would require more detailed evaluation. As such, any benefits or costs above the be needed.
identified level of protection (the point beyond which the flood protection measure can no longer
maintain independent effectiveness) have not been evaluated.

188 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 189

PREPARED & In the long term, the City should conduct outreach to RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED managers of facilities in the Charles River neighborhoods INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for Charlestown’s
COMMUNITIES that serve significant concentrations of vulnerable key infrastructure systems, including transportation, water and
populations and are not required to have operational ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE sewer, energy, telecommunications, and environmental assets. In
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH preparedness and evacuation plans under current COORDINATION COMMIT TEE the near term, the City should support the MBTA in conducting
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE regulations. Targeted facilities should include affordable a full asset-level vulnerability assessment of its system. While
FACILITIES THAT SERVE housing complexes, substance abuse treatment centers, the Charles River neighborhoods are not impacted by coastal
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
daycare facilities, food pantries, small nonprofit offices, and riverine flooding in the near term, flooding in Downtown
TO SUPPORT PREPAREDNESS
AND ADAPTATION and others. The City should conduct outreach in the long Boston could reduce mobility for residents who depend on the
term because there are no populations exposed under Red, Green, and Orange Lines to access jobs and critical services
the 1 percent annual chance flood event until 36 inches of in the area. In addition, in the later century under the 1 percent
SLR, meaning that the Charles River neighborhoods has annual flood event, the Green Line will be exposed to coastal
a longer adaptation window than other focus areas in the flooding, via the Arlington and Prudential Stations.
Boston. An illustrative example of the type of facilities to
which the City could do outreach is the Bright Horizons
PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management should work with the
Family Center, which will be exposed to damage later in PRIORITY EVACUATION Boston Transportation Department, Department of Public Works,
the century.9 AND SERVICE ROAD
and private utilities to provide guidance on critical roads to
INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
prioritize for adaptation planning, including those that are part
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City can reach out to small businesses in the Charles of the City’s evacuation network and are required to restore or
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS River neighborhoods exposed to stormwater flooding in maintain critical services. In particular, Storrow Drive will be
PROGRAM
the near term to help them develop business continuity exposed at 9 inches of SLR under the 1 percent annual chance
plans, evaluate insurance coverage needs, and identify flood event. Storrow Drive is an important cross-town route that
low-cost physical adaptations. The Charles River runs along the Charles River Esplanade, becoming Soldiers Field
neighborhoods have roughly 160 commercial buildings Road to the west and David G. Mugar Way to the east.
exposed to stormwater flooding in the near term. In
addition, the Brighton and the Allston Village Main Street
CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified four sites
Districts are expected to have isolated portions exposed to
STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY in the Charles River neighborhoods as potential locations for
stormwater flooding in the near term and throughout the ENERGY SOLUTIONS
emergency microgrids, based on their concentration of critical
century. The Charles River neighborhoods do not have any
facilities. The Environment Department can work with local
small businesses exposed to coastal flooding during the 1
stakeholders and utility providers to explore these locations.
percent annual chance flood event with 9 inches of SLR.
Two of the sites, adjacent to Fenway Park and Northeastern
University, are exposed to coastal and riverine flooding for very
low-probability events (0.1 percent annual chance) expected
9
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study. later in the century, with minimal and isolated exposure to
stormwater flooding in the near term.

190 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 191

ADAPTED BUILDINGS Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning BUILDINGS EDUCATION Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
PROMOTE CLIMATE and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately program to inform property owners about their current
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
READINESS FOR notify all developers with projects in the development and future climate risks and actions they can undertake
RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM
PROJECTS IN THE
pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their to address these risks. A resilience audit should help
DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE
plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments property owners identify cost-effective, building-specific
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating improvements to reduce flood risk, such as backflow
building height limits), without needing to restart the preventers, elevation of critical equipment, and deployable
BPDA permitting process. Currently, 121 residential and 45 flood barriers; promote interventions that address
commercial buildings are under construction or permitted stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect, such as
in the Charles River neighborhoods, representing 4,511 green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage
additional housing units and 360,000 square feet of new owners to develop operational preparedness plans and
commercial space. secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience audit
program should include a combination of mandatory and
voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should
CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO incorporate future climate considerations (long-term
AREA PLANS AND ZONING
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and REPARE MUNICIPAL FACILITIES To address extreme heat risks, the Office of Budget
AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning efforts FOR CLIMATE CHANGE Management should work with City departments to
in the Charles River neighborhoods. prioritize backup power installation at municipal facilities
that demonstrate high levels of criticality, including Boston
Centers for Youth and Family and Boston Public School
facilities that serve as emergency shelters. An illustrative
example of the type of facility that the City might
prioritize to protect the power supply within the Charles
River neighborhoods against heat impacts is the Jackson
Mann Community Center.

192 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 193

Dorchester
Dorchester is the largest Dorchester was founded in 1630 and remained streetcar and municipal water service, Dorchester’s Massachusetts Boston Harbor Campus opening on
a predominately agricultural community for population increased from only 12,000 residents in Columbia Point in 1974 and the John F. Kennedy
neighborhood in Boston in
200 years, although there was some waterfront 1870 to 150,000 by the 1920s. Presidential Library and Museum in 1979.
terms of both population industrial activity, especially in the Lower Mills
From 1950 to 1980, Dorchester experienced Today, Dorchester consists of a number of distinct
and geographic area. It is area along the Neponset River and at Commercial
disinvestment. In the 1950s, the Old Colony line residential neighborhoods, anchored by commercial
bounded by South Boston to Point. During the nineteenth century, Dorchester
was closed, and construction of the Southeast districts, including Uphams Corner, Fields Corner,
became a country retreat for wealthier Boston
the north, Dorchester Bay to Expressway (I-93), which separated Dorchester’s and Codman Square. Dorchester has benefitted
households, who built estates and second homes.
the east, the Neponset River In 1845, the Old Colony Railroad opened, with
residential areas to the west from the waterfront, from the recent expansion of the Fairmount Line,

to the south, and Mattapan stations along Crescent Avenue (near the current
was completed. In 1964, the Columbia Point public which runs from Downtown to Readville, with
housing complex, which included approximately three new stations in Dorchester (Newmarket, Four
and Roxbury to the west. JFK/U Mass Station), Savin Hill, and Harrison
1,500 low-income units, opened. By the 1980s, the Corners/Geneva Avenue, and Talbot Avenue). The
Square (near the current Fields Corner Station),
complex was in such disrepair that it was turned City is planning transit-oriented development along
thereby connecting Boston and Plymouth,
over to a private firm for redevelopment. However, the Fairmount Line. In addition, the University
Massachusetts. In 1870, Boston fully annexed
there was some modest institutional investment of Massachusetts Boston is planning a significant
Dorchester, and commercial and residential
during this time period, with University of expansion at Columbia Point on the former Bayside
development accelerated. Supported by new
Exposition Center site.

CC Image courtesy of dalecruse on Flickr

194 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 195

FLOOD PROGRESSION

In the second half of the Dorchester is exposed to climate change impacts

DEFINITIONS including heat, increased precipitation and
century, large areas of LEGEND
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 stormwater flooding, and sea level rise and coastal
inches of sea level rise Dorchester will be exposed and riverine flooding. Exposure to heat and
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 to high-probability flooding stormwater flooding are addressed in the Citywide
inches of sea level rise
(10 percent annual chance). Vulnerability Assessment (see p.12), while exposure
and consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later,
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise
During this time frame, coastal
are further discussed in this section
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
flooding in Dorchester will be
infrastructure, and other resources within
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
most prominent from Dorchester In the near term and in the second half of the
century, exposure to coastal flooding is primarily
Does not consider conditions that may Bay near Joseph Moakley Park due to the low waterfront edge along Dorchester
prevent or limit impacts.
and along the Neponset River.
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a
hazard. Requires site-specific information.

Consequence: Illustrates to what extent

9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE 36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses.

Annualized losses: The sum of the

probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times
the probability of that event occurring in a
given year.

*For a full list of definitions, refer to the

Glossary in the Appendix.

196 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 197

Bay and the Neponset River. Though exposure is The topography around Joseph
largely limited in the near term, approximately Moakley Park and I-93 is low lying,
10 percent of the land areas in Dorchester have a potentially allowing floodwaters to
high probability of flooding as soon as the 2050s propagate inland. Flood protection
(10 percent annual chance). Areas around Joseph solutions targeted toward this area
Moakley Park are additionally exposed to low- in northern Dorchester may provide
probability flood events (1 percent annual chance) benefits in South Boston, the South End,
and Roxbury.
as soon as the 2050s.
The greatest concentration of land
In the late century, Dorchester exposure will
area exposed is on the northern end
change significantly, with large areas exposed to
of Dorchester, due to coastal flooding
high-probability flood events (10 percent annual from Dorchester Bay through Joseph
chance). More critically, in the late century, Moakley Park.
Northern Dorchester is expected to become a
flood pathway to South Boston, the South End,
and Roxbury. Areas around Joseph Moakley Park,
created using fill in the late 1800s, tend to be low
lying, leading to the exposure in Dorchester and
surrounding areas.

In the late century, flooding

from Dorchester Bay will
extend from Dorchester into
South Boston, the South End,
and Roxbury.

198 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 199

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES shelters are located within Dorchester and have K–12 schools, affecting delivery of resources into In the near term, the Boston State Police Station H-6
the capacity for 1,000 individuals. McCormick the area, and affecting major transportation links will be exposed to low-probability storm events,
There are about 87,000 residents in Dorchester,
Middle School, located on Columbia Point, is between Downtown Boston, Dorchester, and the while the Engine 20 Fire Station will be exposed to
about 14 percent of Boston’s overall population.
northern Dorchester’s only emergency shelter, and South Shore. high-probability storm events (10 percent annual
In total, 24 percent of Dorchester households
as soon as the 2050s, it will be exposed to low- chance) as soon as the 2070s and may require
have children, compared to 17 percent citywide. In the second half of the century, the MBTA
probability flood events (1 percent annual chance). support from other stations in the neighborhood.
Dorchester also has a diverse population that is Red Line JFK/UMass Station will be exposed
If this shelter is impacted by flooding, all roads
72 percent people of color, compared to 52 percent to high-probability flood events, meaning that Commercial Point is exposed to low-
leading out of Columbia Point are also expected
citywide. approximately 8,000 riders may need alternative probability storms in the near term. This
to be flooded, potentially isolating residents in the
transportation options. In addition, portions is not expected to disrupt distribution of
Approximately 6,820 people live in housing that northern portion of Dorchester without shelter. As
of the Fairmount commuter rail line in South liquid natural gas to and from National
is projected to be at risk in a low-probability flood soon as the 2070s, the Leahy Holloran Community
Boston are exposed to high-probability storms, Grid’s storage tank.
scenario (1 percent annual chance) as soon as Center will also be exposed to high-probability
potentially limiting the transportation options Commercial Point, nested between Dorchester
the 2070s, generating need for shelter beds for an flood events (10 percent annual chance), which
of those who commute from Dorchester to Bay and the Neponset River, is home to a liquid
estimated 750 individuals. Seven public emergency would reduce the shelter capacity by an additional
South Boston or Downtown using this line. As natural gas (LNG) storage tank, solar panels, and a
140 individuals.
soon as the 2070s, sections of the Fairmount commercial marina. National Grid’s LNG storage
DORCHESTER POPULATION EXPOSURE INFRASTRUCTURE line in northern Dorchester and the Newmarket tank on Commercial Point is elevated to provide
Station will be exposed to flooding. Low- to protection against storm surge and is not expected
Damage to exposed roads and the MBTA no-income populations that might depend to be exposed to flood impacts this century.
Red Line could isolate Columbia Point
disproportionally on public transportation may Though other portions of Commercial Point and
from the rest of Dorchester and impact
also be disproportionally affected by the impacts surface roads that connect the plant inland are
transportation connections to North
for coastal flooding and sea level rise in the mid- to exposed to flooding in the near term, National Grid
Quincy.
late century. has operational contingencies and plans in place to
Within this century, all of Dorchester’s evacuation
keep the natural gas plant operational. The solar
routes, including I-93 South, Morrissey Boulevard, Dorchester’s emergency response facilities
power–generating facility on Commercial Point
Neponset Avenue, and Gallivan Boulevard, will are exposed to sea level rise and coastal
is not expected to be exposed to coastal flooding
be exposed to coastal flooding and sea level rise. flood impacts throughout the century.
during this century but may be at risk of wind
In the near term, portions of Morrissey Boulevard Private ambulance service providers have two
damage during storm events.
near the Dorchester Bay Basin and the Neponset facilities located in the Dorchester neighborhood.
Avenue/I-93 South junction are exposed to high- In the near term, one facility is exposed to flood
probability flood events (1 percent annual chance). impacts due to high-probability storms (10
As soon as the 2050s, all of Morrissey Boulevard, percent annual chance). As soon as the 2050s, it
as well as sections of I-93 South in the same area, will be exposed to monthly tides. If the station is
will be exposed to high-probability flood events damaged or has reduced response capacity, then
(10 percent annual chance). Road closures due to the remaining station may be expected to cover the
flood damage could isolate Columbia Point from service area. As soon as the 2070s, the remaining
the rest of Dorchester, impacting a major university station will become exposed to flooding from low-
(University of Massachusetts Boston) and three probability events (1 percent annual chance).

200 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 201

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES CC Image courtesy of dalecruse on Flickr

BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS DORCHESTER BUILDING EXPOSURE

In the near term, close to 170 structures in

Dorchester can expect some level of flooding from
a low-probability event (1 percent annual chance)
leading to $6 million in annualized direct physical
damage costs to structures and their contents. Loss
is expected to be concentrated most heavily in
commercial (including office) and industrial uses.
Exposure to high tide is also significant, with over
30 structures exposed in the near term (about $11
million in real estate market value).

As soon as the 2070s, close to 4,500 of Dorchester’s

structures can expect some level of flooding
from a low-probability event resulting in direct
physical damage costs of $86 million. Over half of
all annualized losses expected in the late century
are attributed to commercial and office buildings
averaging three stories tall.

In addition, close to 120 structures (close to $200 DORCHESTER MARKET

VALUE EXPOSURE
million in real estate market value) are expected to
be exposed to high tide later in the century. Also
expected to be exposed to high tide later in the
century is the former Bayside Exposition Center,
where University of Massachusetts Boston has
planned expansion and redevelopment.

Close to 4,500 structures can

expect some level of flooding
from a low-probability event in
the late century.

CC Image courtesy of docsearls on Flickr

202 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 203

Over $200 million in current real estate DORCHESTER ECONOMIC LOSSES
Direct physical damages to
market value is expected to be exposed to ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
structures are expected to
high tides in the late century. Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood be heavily concentrated in
RISK TO THE ECONOMY 1
impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and commercial and office use
Dorchester provides Boston with close to 35,000 induced results are those expected to be
felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
buildings.
jobs and over $7 billion in annual output. Top
of changes in spending patterns. Results
employers in the community include public for both job and output losses are the sum
of annualized values for the four flood
education, hospitals, and grocers, though no one
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
industry seems to dominate. The economy is rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
estimate for several reasons. First, not all
heavily service oriented. As with other service- probabilistic events are considered. Second,
oriented neighborhood economies, restaurants the analysis assumes that all impacted
businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA
are expected to be most heavily impacted in a estimates that almost 40 percent of small
flood event, particularly considering expected businesses—and up to 25 percent of all
businesses—never reopen after experiencing
loss of employment. This is expected to be the flood impacts. Third, only building areas
case throughout the century. As soon as the 2070s, directly impacted by floodwater are
assumed to experience business interruption.
coastal flood impacts to Dorchester are expected This does not consider interruptions of
businesses due to loss of power or utility
to result in 110 annualized jobs lost and about $15
functions. Finally, the analysis only considers DORCHESTER ANNUALIZED LOSSES
million in annualized output loss to the current existing populations, businesses, and buildings
and does not include projections for future
Boston economy. Restaurants are expected to
growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
comprise roughly 40 percent of job loss and 20 detailed explanation of the exposure and
consequence analysis.
percent of output loss. Restaurants tend to employ
low- to moderate-income personnel, and business
interruption to such assets can exacerbate impacts
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
to already vulnerable populations. INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC OUTPUT

1
Economic data is provided at the zip code level. One of the South Dorchester zip Restaurants $3,200,000
codes overlaps with Mattapan. As such, the base economic data, and thus annual
jobs and output production, for South Dorchester includes some of Mattapan. This is
expected to have minimal impact on calculated results, which are based on average Real Estate $1,400,00
output and employment by industry per square foot within neighborhood zip codes.
Recreation facilities,
including bowling
$790,000
centers, sports centers,
and parks
Wholesale trade and
$1,700,000
retail

All other industries $7,900,000

Total $14,900,000

204 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 205

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

DORCHESTER ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

206 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 207

DORCHESTER
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES The City should develop a local climate resilience plan for ESTABLISH FLOOD The Boston Planning and Development Agency (BPDA)
Dorchester to support district-scale climate adaptation. PROTECTION OVERLAY should petition the Boston Zoning Commission to create
DEVELOP LOCAL DISTRICTS AND REQUIRE
The plan should include the following: new Flood Protection Overlay Districts in areas that
CLIMATE RESILIENCE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION are strategically important for potential future flood
PLANS TO SUPPORT ◦ Community engagement through a local climate
DISTRICT-SCALE protection infrastructure (see Potential Flood Protection
resilience committee, leveraging existing local
CLIMATE ADAPTATION Locations below). Within a Flood Protection Overlay
organizations and efforts.
District, a developer would be required to submit a study
◦ Land-use planning for future flood protection of how a proposed project could be integrated into a future
systems, including Flood Protection Overlay Districts flood protection system; options may include raising and
in strategically important “flood breach points” reinforcing the development site or providing room for a
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection future easement across the site.
Locations).
PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
◦ Flood protection feasibility studies, evaluating FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing
district-scale flood protection, including at locations SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood entry
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection
points in Dorchester (see Potential Flood Protection
Locations).
Locations below for a preliminary identification of
◦ Infrastructure adaptation planning through locations and potential benefits).
the Infrastructure Coordination Committee. For
These feasibility studies should take place in the context
Dorchester, key partners include the Department
of local climate resilience plans, featuring engagement
of Conservation and Recreation, which controls
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
Morrissey Boulevard, and the Boston Parks and
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
Recreation Department, which controls Joseph
protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood
Moakley Park.
character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
◦ Coordination with other plans, including Imagine include the timing of flood risk, consequences for
Boston 2030, GoBoston 2030, Special Planning people and economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
Areas, the Morrissey Boulevard redesign, the and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk
Joseph Moakley Park master plan, and any potential reduction.
Municipal Harbor Plan process.

◦ Development of financing strategies and governance

structures to support district-scale adaptation.

208 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 209

POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE LOCATIONS DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS
DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
FLOOD PROTECTION LOCATIONS 2 SLR SCENARIO
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD3 ◦ The Dorchester Bay location focuses on flood ◦ Independently effective in the near term:
See District-Scale Flood Protection Systems section 9” SLR pathways along the Old Harbor and Savin Dorchester Bay flood protection is expected
None4
for a citywide perspective on district-scale flood
(2030s–2050s) Hill Cove. Potential flood protection solutions to be independently effective in protecting
protection. District-scale flood protection is only 21” SLR The South Boston Waterfront and
could include a landscaped berm or full portions of Dorchester in the near term
one piece of a multi-layered solution that includes (2050s–2100s) Dorchester Bay locations combined elevation of Joseph Moakley Park, a waterside until the 0.1 percent annual chance event.
prepared and connected communities, resilient The New Charles River Dam, South alignment along William Day Boulevard, an Nevertheless, impacts to Dorchester residents
36” SLR
infrastructure, and adapted buildings. (2070s or later)
Boston Waterfront, and Dorchester alignment along Harbor Point, a landscaped are modest in the near term, as the 1 percent
Bay locations combined
berm or alignment running along the annual chance event and higher probability
2
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level waterfront through Old Harbor Park, and an events are not expected to affect residential
In the near term, coastal flood risk analysis of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental
conditions. Important additional factors, including existing drainage systems,
underground transportation and utility structures, soil conditions, and zoning as well alignment along Old Colony Avenue. buildings.
Dorchester is limited to very low- as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied
in detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3 (see pp. 106,110), detailed feasibility
probability, severe events and likely does studies, including appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in
order to better understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location.
◦ The New Charles River Dam location, ◦ Multiple protection locations required in
not require district-scale flood protection. 3
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the described in the Charles River and Downtown the second half of the century: Dorchester
1% annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on expected
effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional flood focus areas (see pp. 174, 216), addresses and areas in South Boston surrounding
As soon as the 2050s, combined flood protection locations and flood frequencies.
potential overtopping or flanking of the dam. Joseph Moakley Park may be exposed to
protection at multiple locations will be 4
Benefits of district-scale flood protection would be modest.

critical: flooding from Fort Point Channel as soon as

◦ The South Boston Waterfront location,
the 2050s. At this point, flood protection at
◦ At Dorchester Bay, addressing inland described in the South Boston focus area (see
the South Boston Waterfront may be required
flood pathways originating from the p.282), addresses flood entry points along the
to supplement flood protection at Dorchester
Old Harbor and Savin Hill Cove edge of the district.
Bay. The combination of flood protection at
◦ At the South Boston Waterfront, South these two locations will benefit Dorchester,
addressing inland flood pathways New Charles Boston South Boston, Downtown, the South End, and
River Dam Waterfront
originating from Fort Point Channel, even northern Roxbury. Later in the century,
Boston Harbor, and the Reserve interventions at the New Charles River Dam
Channel will be required to protect the aforementioned
Dorchester neighborhoods against the 1 percent annual
◦ At the New Charles River Dam,
Bay chance event.
addressing potential overtopping
or flanking of the dam

210 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 211

PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of facilities RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED in Dorchester that serve significant concentrations of INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for Dorchester’s
COMMUNITIES vulnerable populations and are not required to have key infrastructure systems, including transportation,
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE water and sewer, energy, telecommunications, and
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. Targeted facilities should include COORDINATION COMMIT TEE environmental assets. In the near term, the City will
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE affordable housing complexes, substance abuse treatment ADAPTATION PLANNING. support the MBTA in conducting a full asset-level
FACILITIES THAT SERVE centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, small nonprofit vulnerability assessment of its system, including the Red
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
offices, and others. Illustrative examples of the types of Line. The JFK/UMass Red Line Station will be exposed
TO ENSURE THAT THEY
ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY facilities to which the City should conduct outreach are the under a 10 percent annual chance flood event with 21
PREPAREDNESS AND Harbor Point mixed-income development and Columbia inches of SLR.
ADAPTATION PLANNING. Point Infant Toddler Daycare. These facilities will be
exposed to damage from mid-century sea level rise and
PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management should work
coastal flooding, in addition to access issues related to PRIORITY EVACUATION with Boston Transportation Department, Department of
stormwater flooding in the near term.5 AND SERVICE ROAD
Public Works, and private utilities to provide guidance
INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
on critical roads to prioritize for adaptation planning,
including evacuation routes and roads required to restore
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in or maintain critical services. Under 9 inches of SLR, four
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS Dorchester exposed to stormwater flooding risk in the evacuation routes are exposed under a 1 percent annual
PROGRAM chance flood event. These evacuation routes include
near term or coastal flooding risk at 9 inches of SLR to
help them develop business continuity plans, evaluate I-93 South, Morrissey Boulevard, Neponset Avenue, and
additional insurance coverage needs, and identify low- Gallivan Boulevard.
cost physical adaptations. In Dorchester, there are 34
commercial or mixed-use buildings that could host small CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified five
businesses exposed to flooding under 1 percent annual STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY sites in Dorchester as feasible locations for emergency
chance flood event with 9 inches of SLR. Furthermore, ENERGY SOLUTIONS
microgrids due to their concentration of critical facilities.
three Main Street districts, Upham’s Corner, Bowdoin/ These sites are the intersection of Gallivan Boulevard
Geneva, and Field’s Corner, are expected to have isolated and Neponset Avenue, Fields Corner, Codman Square,
portions exposed to stormwater flooding in the near term Four Corners/Geneva, and along Blue Hill Avenue.
and throughout the century. The Environment Department should work with local
stakeholders and utility providers to explore this location.
The proposed Gallivan Boulevard and Fields Corner sites
are exposed to extensive stormwater flooding in the near
term. The Gallivan Boulevard site also may be exposed to
5
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.
the 1 percent annual chance event as soon as the 2050s.

212 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 213

ADAPTED Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately program to inform property owners about their current
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE notify all developers with projects in the development RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM and future climate risk and actions they can undertake
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their to address these risks. To prepare for the most immediate
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments risks, the City should prioritize audits for buildings with
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating at least a 1 percent annual chance of exposure to coastal
building height limits), without needing to restart the and riverine flooding in the near term, under 9 inches
BPDA permitting process. Currently, 39 residential and 18 of sea level rise. In Dorchester, this includes almost 170
commercial buildings are under construction or permitted structures, 35 percent of which are exclusively residential
in Dorchester, representing 3,067 additional housing units and 24 percent of which are industrial. A resilience audit
and six million square feet of new commercial space. should help property owners identify cost-effective,
building-specific improvements to reduce flood risk, such
PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with City as backflow preventers, elevation of critical equipment,
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal facilities and deployable flood barriers; promote interventions that
CHANGE address stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect,
in Dorchester that demonstrate high levels of vulnerability
(in terms of the timing and extent of exposure), such as green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and
consequences of partial or full failure, and criticality encourage owners to develop operational preparedness
(with highest priority for impacts on life and safety) from plans and secure appropriate insurance coverage. The
coastal flooding. Exposure to municipal facilities located resilience audit program should include a combination of
in Dorchester is minimal in the near term. Later in the mandatory and voluntary, market-based and subsidized
century, the McCormack Middle School, Paul A. Dever elements.
School, Boston Collegiate Middle School, and Engine 20
Fire Station will be exposed to flood impacts during the INCORPORATE FUTURE The City should incorporate future climate considerations
1 percent annual chance event. To address extreme heat CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO (long-term projections for extreme heat, stormwater
AREA PLANS AND ZONING flooding, and coastal and riverine flooding) into major
risks, the City should prioritize backup power installation
AMENDMENTS
at municipal facilities that demonstrate high levels of planning efforts in Dorchester. The City is conducting a
criticality, including specific Boston Centers for Youth and planning process for Glover’s Corner and plans to update
Family and Boston Public School facilities that serve as the Joseph Moakley Park master plan. The Department
emergency shelters. of Conservation and Recreation is planning redesign and
reconstruction of Morrissey Boulevard.

214 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 215

Downtown
Image courtesy of Sasaki

The Downtown focus process of a development boom that is revitalizing

the residential and commercial components of
area comprises several
the neighborhood. The neighborhood will look
neighborhoods that lie in very different over the next ten years. In addition,
the northern part of Boston, this area has a strong institutional presence due
including the West End, to Massachusetts General Hospital and affiliated
facilities. The North End is a vibrant mixed-use
the North End, the Financial
neighborhood, with historic brick apartments
District, Chinatown, and intermingled with infill, and main commercial
the Leather District. corridors along Hanover and Salem Streets. The
Financial District is a commercial center, with
The West End lies across the Charles River from
a number of high-rise buildings; a retail and
Cambridge, between the Longfellow Bridge and
recreational hub, with shopping at Downtown
the Charlestown Bridge. The North End sits at
Crossing and the Theater District; and Government
the northernmost corner of the Boston mainland,
Center. Chinatown is a densely populated mixed-
surrounded on two sides by the Boston Harbor,
use district, with Tufts Medical Center located at
across from East Boston. Prior to the 2000s,
its southern edge. The Leather District contains
the North End was cut off from the rest of the
residential and commercial tenants attracted to
mainland by the elevated Central Artery (I-93),
historic brick warehouses that offer “loft” space.
placed underground during the “Big Dig.” The
Financial District lies between the West End and Reflecting its status as a center of commerce,
North End and covers the largest extent of the government, and recreation, Downtown is home
focus area. Chinatown sits on the southern edge of to extensive transportation infrastructure, a
Downtown, and the Leather District occupies nine significant part of which is underground. This
blocks east of Chinatown. infrastructure is critical for residents of the entire
region to access jobs and essential services. It is
Over the last three centuries, the Downtown focus
anchored by South Station and adjacent to Fort
area has been dramatically expanded through fill,
Point Channel and North Station.
as more land was needed to support population
and industrial growth. The Downtown focus area Downtown is highly exposed to sea level rise
was heavily impacted by urban renewal in the (SLR) impacts due to its extensive low-lying
1950s to 1970s, as evidenced by the construction of coastline, with multiple paths for inundation, and
the Central Artery and clearing of sections of the its exposure to flooding from the Charles River,
West End. Boston Harbor, and Fort Point Channel. Downtown
is challenging for flood protection because
Today, the Downtown focus area hosts a broad
activities on the waterfront are highly related to,
range of uses, reflecting the diverse neighborhoods
and economically dependent on, direct visual and
that sit within it. The West End is currently in the
physical access to the waterfront.

216 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 217

FLOOD PROGRESSION

Downtown is exposed to climate change impacts

DEFINITIONS including heat, increased precipitation and
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 stormwater flooding, sea level rise, and coastal
inches of sea level rise and riverine flooding. Exposure to heat and
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 stormwater flooding are addressed in the Citywide
inches of sea level rise Vulnerability Assessment, while exposure and
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk are
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
further discussed in this section.
LEGEND
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within In the near term, low-lying
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may waterfront areas between the
prevent or limit impacts.
Sumner Tunnel, which carries
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a traffic across Boston Harbor
hazard. Requires site-specific information.
from Route 1A in East Boston;
the Financial District; and areas
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences near the Charles River Dam
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses.
are most at risk. The lowest-
Annualized losses: The sum of the
lying areas are near the New
probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
England Aquarium and are
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times
exposed to high-probability
the probability of that event occurring in a storm events (10 percent annual 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
given year.
chance) in the near term.
*For a full list of definitions, refer to the
Glossary in the Appendix.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

218 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 219
Much of the Downtown up the lowest lying and most vulnerable areas to
coastal and riverine flooding within Downtown.
waterfront will be exposed to
coastal flooding by the end In the near term, low-lying waterfront areas near
the Charles River Dam and the New England
of the century. High tides are
Aquarium are the source of the most significant
expected to impact inland flood risk Downtown. The land near the aquarium
areas near Faneuil Hall and is the lowest-lying in all of Downtown, leading to
the New England Aquarium. the greatest exposure to high-probability coastal
floods in the near term. Expected exposure to the 10
In addition, other parts of the
percent annual chance storm events in the near term
waterfront that are out of the extends as far inland as Faneuil Hall.
1 percent annual chance
In the second half of the century, large areas near
floodplain earlier in the century the aquarium and Faneuil Hall are expected to be
are expected to be at risk by exposed to flooding under high-probability storm
the end of the century. events. In addition, the floodplain is expected
to expand toward the West End and along the
Though Downtown’s total waterfront edge between the Sumner Tunnel and
land area at risk from coastal Charles River Dam.
and riverine flooding is small Areas exposed to flooding only under low-
compared to some focus areas, probability events (1 percent annual chance
the land areas that are exposed or greater) in the near term are expected to be
exposed to flooding during monthly high tides
are densely developed, likely
later in the century. This includes the aquarium and
leading to significant impacts in Faneuil Hall. Furthermore, most waterfront edges
terms of structural damage and will be exposed to high-probability storm events (10
economic losses. percent annual chance) by the end of the century,
exposing densely developed areas during relatively
The topography of the Downtown focus area is frequently occurring storms.
shaped both by natural landforms and areas that
were filled in the early and mid-1800s. The North Waterfront areas near the Charles River
End, for example, is largely naturally occurring Dam and the New England Aquarium
high ground. On the other hand, the Mill Pond require resilience planning in the near term.
area, at the northern edge of the West End, was Sections of the North End and Financial
filled in the early 1800s, while the fill areas east and District require planning to mitigate loss
south of the North End were separately filled in the before the end of the century.
early to mid-1800s. These fill areas generally make

220 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 221

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY in public transportation service, as well as loss River neighborhoods, the South End, East Boston,
Image courtesy of Sasaki
of electricity and other utilities, particularly and South Boston may have viable sheltering
Residents of Downtown comprise about 5 percent
during summer or winter months, when climate options for Downtown residents, though these
of Boston’s overall population, or about 30,000
regulation indoors is necessary for resident neighborhoods are all expected to require more
people. Compared to the citywide average,
well-being. shelter space for their populations, and there may
Downtown has a smaller share of children, adults
be access challenges associated with reaching
with low to no income, people with disability, In the near term, 630 people are expected to
them.1
and people of color, although one-third of the be exposed to flooding during monthly high
Downtown population still consists of people tide, the highest of any focus area. In addition, INFRASTRUCTURE
of color. The population has a larger share of approximately 2,190 people live in areas expected
older adults and a significantly larger share to be flooded by a high-probability flood event Various transportation connections from
of renters and people without vehicles, as is (10 percent annual chance), and 4,680 people live
Downtown to Charlestown, East Boston,
and South Boston across waterways may
typical of a downtown area. For this reason, the in areas expected to be flooded by a low-probability
be exposed to flood impacts at some
population residing within this area could be flood event (1 percent annual chance), making
time this century.
disproportionately affected by any disruptions Downtown the second-most-exposed focus area
Tunnels and bridges that lead out of Downtown
(in terms of people) after East Boston for these
may be exposed to near-term sea level rise and
events in the near term. The Austonia Public
coastal storms, particularly the I-93 North corridor
DOWNTOWN POPULATION EXPOSURE Housing development, with approximately 100
that connects Downtown and Charlestown. Other
units for the elderly, is expected to be exposed to
evacuation route tunnels and bridges expected
near-term, low-probability flood events (1 percent
to be exposed in the near term include the North
annual chance event) and more frequent storms
Washington Bridge entrance next to Lovejoy Wharf
throughout the century.
that connects the North End and Charlestown,
Throughout the mid- to late century, for both I-90/Ted Williams Tunnel entrances near Fort
high- and low-probability events, Downtown Point Channel (Seaport District exposure in the
can consistently expect to have the second- or near term may impact bridge travel), and Sumner/
third-highest population affected by flooding of Callahan Tunnel entrances in the northern end of
any Boston focus area, behind East Boston and Downtown. Two stormwater pumps that protect
South End, depending upon the coastal storm the I-90 portals are also exposed to mid-century
condition and sea level rise scenario. Later in the flooding from low-probability storm events (1
century, Downtown shelter needs are expected percent annual chance), although site-specific
to be around 1,000 individuals under the low- evaluations should be conducted to assess true
probability flood event (1 percent annual chance vulnerability and consequences of impact.
event). Since there are no emergency shelters Two of the three MBTA stations that support
located Downtown, those needing shelter will have connectivity from Downtown to East Boston and
to travel to other neighborhoods. This is especially
critical for Downtown’s concentrations of older 1
Vehicle ownership is not a factor considered in shelter-need calculations and, as
such, the estimate may be conservatively low. A resident without a personal vehicle
people and those without vehicles. The Charles may find it more difficult to evacuate and find access to a shelter than a resident
with a personal vehicle.

222 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 223

Charlestown may be exposed to flooding from sea The South Station Intermodal specific evaluation of this facility is necessary to equipment cool. Loss of air conditioning may cause
level rise and coastal storms within this century. Transportation Center is expected to be understand vulnerabilities and consequences of such assets to overheat and shut down, resulting in
In particular, the Blue Line’s Aquarium Station exposed to low-probability coastal and impacts. lost work productivity. Loss of heating and cooling
may be exposed to high-probability flood events riverine flooding later in the century. capacity across the city could have detrimental
(10 percent annual chance) in the near term. If the Redevelopment of the station and location Heating and cooling of Downtown office impacts to residents, particularly if storm events
Downtown Aquarium Station and East Boston’s of a new train yard must consider sea level buildings may be compromised by low- coincide with heat waves or cold weather.
rise and coastal flood impacts to ensure probability mid-century storms and sea
exposed MBTA stations lose service due to flood
that investments are protected in the long level rise. Low-probability late-century Tufts Medical Center campus, including
impacts, Blue Line service could be interrupted
term. One-third of Downtown’s emergency storms are expected to render Boston’s the Floating Hospital, Dental Center, and
from Downtown through Revere. This situation
response services may be exposed to late- steam system inoperable.3 Rehabilitation Center, could be exposed to
could lead to approximately 18,500 riders in need
century flood impacts. The Veolia Kneeland Street steam plant provides low-probability mid-century coastal storms.
of alternative transportation options, leading to
In the near term, State Police Station H-4, which Downtown office buildings with heat and hot Portions of the Tufts campus may be exposed
strains on other public transportation systems
has within its jurisdiction the Museum of Science, water in the winter and air conditioning and cold to the low-probability (1 percent annual chance)
and affecting traffic patterns on a large scale. In
the Esplanade and Hatch Shell, and some of water in warmer months. If substantial flooding is storm event in the second half of the century.4 The
addition, late-century storms and sea level rise
Boston’s major hospitals,2 is expected to be exposed experienced at the facility in the near term, it may frequency of Tuft’s exposure to coastal storms can
may also impact Orange Line service between
to monthly high tides. While site-specific review is be rendered inoperable. Steam will then have to be be expected to increase with sea level rise and could
Charlestown and Downtown. The two stations
required to assess vulnerabilities to sea level rise, exported from the Kendall Station in Cambridge potentially affect the facility’s emergency center. Any
(Community College and North Station) that
access interruption can be expected at the least. and the Scotia plant in Fenway/Kenmore, reducing full or partial service interruption at Tufts will likely
connect these neighborhoods are exposed to the
In addition, one of the three EMS stations located Boston’s steam capacity by at least 50 percent. have an effect on Massachusetts General Hospital,
low-probability flood event (1 percent annual
Downtown may experience exposure to low- Though the distribution system is expected to also located Downtown. Though Massachusetts
chance). North Station is a major hub for Amtrak
probability (1 percent annual chance) storm events return to normal operation shortly after flood General Hospital is not likely to be exposed to flood
and MTBA, and exposure to low-probability flood
in the near term. levels recede, customers within the flood extent impacts during this century, potential overcrowding
events and sea level rise in the late century may
will likely experience temporary curtailments at the facility can lead to swift resource depletion
cause large scale impacts to transportation systems In the second half of the century, one of two Boston
or isolations in their steam supply, in addition and a delay in necessary emergency care post-event.
in Downtown, Charlestown, and East Boston. Fire Department facilities located Downtown may
to select customers south of Kneeland Street,
be exposed to low-probability storm events. Both
MBTA’s Red Line also services the Downtown area Northwest Boston, Quincy Market area, and Long
facilities are exposed to high-probability storm
and connects Cambridge to South Boston. Portions Wharf area. Late-century flooding at Kneeland, 4
Source: “Station H-4, SP Boston.” The Massachusetts Executive Office of Public

events later in the century (10 percent annual Safety and Security. http://www.mass.gov/eopss/law-enforce-and-cj/law-
of the Red Line that run through Downtown Kendall, and Scotia Stations are expected to result enforce/msp-troops/troop-h/station-h-4-sp-boston.html.

chance). Exposure of emergency services such as 3

Flood impacts are based on existing conditions of Veolia facilities. Near-term
remain largely unexposed to flood impacts until in system failure, which will not be normalized flood impacts may be managed through the potential upcoming replacement
fire, police, and medical may hinder Downtown’s of Kneeland Station.
later in the century; sections of the line proximate until steam supply points can be repaired. 4
Site-specific review of Tufts Medical Center assets is necessary.
internal emergency-response capacity.
to the Charles River and the Charles/MGH Stations
Loss of heating and cooling services in Downtown
are exposed to the 1 percent chance event. In addition, in the second half of the century,
commercial buildings could potentially affect work
the Suffolk County Jail could be exposed to
Planned expansion of MBTA’s South Station productivity. Employees that work in facilities
low-probability storm events. The facility has
must consider effects of sea level rise and without heat capabilities may choose to stay
650 beds. Evacuation and relocation of inmates
coastal storm flooding while choosing the home on extremely cold days. Alternatively, air
in the case of a forecasted coastal storm could
location of a train yard. conditioning is often necessary to keep computer
result in overcrowding at other facilities. Site-
systems, data centers, and other electrical

224 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 225

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS South Boston for the same event. Downtown has DOWNTOWN BUILDING EXPOSURE
390 structures exposed to flooding during a low-
In the near term, Downtown is expected to have
probability flood event (1 percent annual chance),
approximately 60 structures exposed to flooding
behind only East Boston and South Boston.
during monthly high tides—the largest number
of exposed structures, ahead of Charlestown and In the late century, Downtown is expected to have
East Boston. Downtown has more than double 300 structures exposed during monthly high tides,
the current real estate market value exposed to five times as many as in the near term, and 1,240
monthly high-tide flooding compared to any structures exposed to flooding during a low-
other focus area in Boston. However, Downtown’s probability flood event (1 percent annual chance),
near-term high-tide exposure is concentrated in more than 35 times as many as in the near term.
a relatively small area—17 acres, compared to 90 Roughly 25 percent of the structures exposed to
acres in Dorchester. Mixed-use and residential uses the 1 percent annual chance event are commercial,
together account for approximately 70 percent of roughly 35 percent are mixed-use, and roughly
the real estate market value exposed. 30 percent are residential. Land acreage exposed
in Downtown is relatively low when compared
Additionally, low-probability coastal flood events
to other high-exposure neighborhoods under
in the near term lead to an exposed market value
all flood scenarios. For example, the Downtown
in Downtown that is roughly half of that for
land area exposed to high-tide flooding late in the
century is roughly 20 percent of acres exposed
Expected annualized losses in South Boston and only 15 percent the exposed DOWNTOWN MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE
for Downtown make up about area in East Boston. This speaks to the high
one-third of all those expected concentration of structures in Downtown Boston.
citywide in the near term and A detailed evaluation would need to be conducted
to determine whether waterfront shoreline
over 20 percent of all expected
protections or building-level adaptations would
citywide losses toward the end have a greater effect on reducing loss in this area
of the century. over the near and long term.

226 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 227

RISK TO THE ECONOMY DOWNTOWN ECONOMIC LOSSES
Over $700 million in current real
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
As of 2014, there are over 12,200 jobs in estate market value is exposed
Charlestown, and associated industries contribute Job and output loss include direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood to high-tide flooding in the near
over $2.5 billion of output (sales and revenues) impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and term, the highest amount of any
into the city’s economy annually. The Charlestown
economy is well balanced, as no single industry
induced results are those expected to be
felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
neighborhood.
of changes in spending patterns. Results
comprises more than an 8 percent share of
for both job and output losses are the sum
employment or output within the neighborhood. of annualized values for the four flood
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
Charlestown’s economy is most vulnerable in rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound Projected losses Downtown
estimate for several reasons. First, not all
medium- and long-term climate scenarios. Based probabilistic events are considered. Second, are concentrated in a smaller
the analysis assumes that all impacted
on the neighborhood’s current economy and
businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA area than other neighborhoods
building stock conditions, $8 million in annualized estimates that almost 40 percent of small
businesses—and up to 25 percent of all expected to experience
output loss and approximately 50 positions in
annualized employment loss are expected toward
businesses—never reopen after experiencing
flood impacts. Third, only building areas comparable direct damage
the end of the century. Scientific research and
directly impacted by floodwater are
assumed to experience business interruption.
impacts through the century.
development, accounting, and insurance-related This does not consider interruptions of
businesses due to loss of power or utility
services rank among top industries expected to functions. Finally, the analysis only considers DOWNTOWN ANNUALIZED LOSSES
be impacted. Losses have been calculated strictly existing populations, businesses, and buildings
and does not include projections for future Restaurant and retail industries
based on expected flooding to structures, as growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
opposed to egress and utility lines, and cascading detailed explanation of the exposure and will be particularly hard hit by
consequence analysis.
loss of function impacts are not considered in the flood impacts due to inherent
analysis.6 In the second half of the century, the site impediments to temporary
of a current martial arts training center is expected
INDUSTRY
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF relocation for such businesses,
to be heavily impacted by floodwaters and joins ECONOMIC OUTPUT

top industries expected to be affected by coastal

as well as their roles in
Restaurants $15,400,000
storm events. Hospitals and Other
supporting the area. As these
industries are known to support
$8,600,000
Medical Services

Retail $4,200,000
low- to moderate-income
6
More-detailed analysis would be required to quantify expected loss of function
impacts to utilities and transportation outside of economic loss derived from direct
Real Estate $5,200,000
employees, special planning
considerations will be needed
physical damage to structures.
All Other Industries $34,900,000

Total $68,300,000 to mitigate loss to vulnerable

populations.

228 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 229

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

DOWNTOWN ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

230 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 231

DOWNTOWN
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES The City should develop a local climate resilience plan for ESTABLISH FLOOD The Boston Planning and Development Agency (BPDA)
Downtown to support district-scale climate adaptation. PROTECTION OVERLAY should petition the Boston Zoning Commission to create
DEVELOP LOCAL DISTRICTS AND REQUIRE
The plan should include the following: new Flood Protection Overlay Districts in areas that
CLIMATE RESILIENCE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION are strategically important for potential future flood
PLANS TO SUPPORT ◦ Community engagement through a local climate
DISTRICT-SCALE protection infrastructure (see Potential Flood Protection
resilience committee, leveraging existing local
CLIMATE ADAPTATION Locations below). Within a Flood Protection Overlay
organizations and efforts.
District, a developer would be required to submit a study
◦ Land-use planning for future flood protection of how a proposed project could be integrated into a future
systems, including Flood Protection Overlay Districts flood protection system; options may include raising and
in strategically important “flood breach points” reinforcing the development site or providing room for a
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection future easement across the site.
Locations).
PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
◦ Flood protection feasibility studies, evaluating FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing
district-scale flood protection, including at locations SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection
entry points Downtown (see Potential Flood Protection
Locations).
Locations below for a preliminary identification of
◦ Infrastructure adaptation planning through locations and potential benefits).
the Infrastructure Coordination Committee. For
These feasibility studies should take place in the context
Downtown, the Massachusetts Department of
of local climate resilience plans, featuring engagement
Conservation and Recreation is a key partner, as it
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
controls the New Charles River Dam.
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
◦ Coordination with other plans, including Imagine protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood
Boston 2030, GoBoston 2030, Special Planning Areas, character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
the Downtown Waterfront Municipal Harbor Plan, include the timing of flood risk, consequences for people
and any future Municipal Harbor Plan processes. and the economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk
◦ Development of financing strategies and governance reduction.
structures to support district-scale adaptation.

232 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 233

 New Charles
River Dam

DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION

SLR SCENARIO
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD7

9” SLR Downtown Waterfront and

Downtown Waterfront
(2030s–2050s) the New Charles River Dam

21” SLR Downtown Waterfront and

(2050s–2100s) the New Charles River Dam
South Boston
Downtown Waterfront, the New
Dorchester Waterfront
36” SLR Charles River Dam, South Boston
Bay
(2070s or later) Waterfront, and Dorchester Bay
locations combined

POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD LOCATIONS include a tide barrier across the mouth of ◦ Large number of waterfront commercial
PROTECTION LOCATIONS 6 ◦ The Downtown Waterfront Location is Miller’s River, a tide gate and connecting flood buildings protected at the Downtown
focused on flood entry points along the low- protection system just west of Littoral Way, or Waterfront location: The majority of buildings
See District-Scale Flood Protection Systems
lying eastern edge of Downtown, starting in a deployable barrier across the railroad right- protected by flood protection at this location
Overview section (page Y) for a citywide
the North End and extending to the mouth of of-way connecting Charlestown and North are commercial buildings.
perspective on district-scale flood protection.
Fort Point Channel. Flood protection solutions Station.
District-scale flood protection is only one piece of ◦ Many neighborhoods benefit from dam
a multilayered solution that includes prepared and could include a series of barriers, potentially
◦ The South Boston Waterfront Location, flood protection: Flood protection at the New
connected communities, resilient infrastructure, encompassing floodwalls, greenways, or
described in the South Boston focus area, Charles River Dam could simultaneously
and adapted buildings. berms. Potential alignments include along
is focused on flooding from Fort Point protect parts of northern Downtown, southern
the path of the Rose Kennedy Greenway,
In the near term, flood protection at two Channel that would affect the southern areas Downtown, Charlestown, the Charles River
connecting high ground near Hanover Street
locations is critical: of Downtown such as Chinatown and the neighborhoods, and the South End and
in the north with high ground near Oliver
Leather District. Roxbury.
◦ The Downtown Waterfront, addressing Street in the south, or closer to the waterfront,
flood entry points along the low-lying with potential integration with Christopher ◦ The Dorchester Bay Location, described ◦ Requirement for multiple protection
eastern edge of Downtown; and Columbus Park. in the Dorchester focus area, is focused on locations in the late century: Though flood
flooding from Dorchester Bay, which could protection at the New Charles River Dam
◦ The New Charles River Dam, ◦ The New Charles River Dam Location, also
reach parts of Downtown if not addressed. is expected to be able to protect northern
addressing potential overtopping or described in the Charlestown focus area, is
sections of Downtown throughout the century,
flanking of the dam, which would focused on flood pathways by the Zakim DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS
additional interventions at the South Boston
inundate areas around North Station Bridge / New Charles River Dam, which would ◦ Independent protection at the Downtown
Waterfront and Dorchester Bay are necessary
and the West End. inundate the northern section of Downtown. Waterfront location throughout the century:
to protect southern portions of Downtown,
While flood protection at the waterfront Potential flood protection solutions could The flood pathway around the Downtown
the South End, South Boston, and portions of
would stay independently effective Waterfront location is relatively isolated
Roxbury and Dorchester from flooding later in
through the end of the century, protection
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level
from other flood pathways, so no additional
6

analysis of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental

conditions. Important additional factors, including existing drainage systems,
the century.
at the dam would eventually need to be underground transportation and utility structures, soil conditions, and zoning, as well alignments are necessary to protect this area.
as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied
combined with interventions addressing in detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3, detailed feasibility studies, including
appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in order to better

flood risk from South Boston and Dorchester understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location.
7
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the
Bay in order to provide flood risk reduction 1 percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on
expected effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional
to Boston’s interior neighborhoods. flood protection locations and flood frequencies.

234 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 235

 RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of facilities
INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for Downtown’s
CONNECTED in Downtown that serve significant concentrations of key infrastructure systems, including energy, transportation,
COMMUNITIES vulnerable populations and are not required to have ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE water and sewer, and environmental assets. The City should
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under COORDINATION COMMIT TEE support the MBTA in conducting a full asset-level vulnerability
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. Targeted facilities will include assessment of its system, including the Red Line. The MBTA is
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE affordable housing complexes, substance abuse treatment currently conducting a vulnerability assessment of the Blue Line.
FACILITIES THAT SERVE and rehabilitation centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, The Blue Line Aquarium Station will be exposed to flooding at 9
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
small nonprofit offices, and others. The City should inches of SLR under a 1 percent annual chance event.
TO ENSURE THAT THEY
ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY also conduct outreach to hotel and tourism attraction
PREPAREDNESS AND operators, given the role that they play in serving transient PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management should work with Boston
ADAPTATION PLANNING populations. An illustrative example of the type of PRIORITY EVACUATION Transportation Department, Department of Public Works, and
facilities to which the City might conduct outreach is the AND SERVICE ROAD
private utilities to provide guidance on critical roads to prioritize
Kinder Care Learning Center.8 This facility is exposed to INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
for adaptation planning, including evacuation routes and roads
near-term damage from sea level rise and coastal flooding, required to restore or maintain critical services. With 9 inches of
in addition to access issues related to near-term stormwater SLR, under a 1 percent annual chance flood event, Interstate 93,
flooding. Atlantic Avenue, Summer Street, Congress Street, and Nashua
Street are exposed to coastal flooding.
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS Downtown exposed to stormwater flooding in the near
PROGRAM CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified the North
term or coastal flooding under a 1 percent annual chance STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY End as a potential location for an emergency microgrid, based
event at 9 inches of SLR to help them develop business ENERGY SOLUTIONS
on its concentration of critical facilities. The Environment
continuity plans, evaluate insurance coverage needs, and
Department should work with local stakeholders and utility
identify low-cost physical adaptations. Under a 1 percent
providers to evaluate this site. The proposed location is expected
annual chance event at 9 inches of SLR, 185 commercial
to remain largely unexposed to both coastal and stormwater
buildings and 131 mixed-use buildings that could host
flooding throughout the century.
small businesses are exposed to flood risk. Furthermore,
the Chinatown Main Street District is expected to have
isolated portions exposed to stormwater flooding in the
near term and throughout the century. The Chinatown
Main Street District also will be significantly exposed to
coastal flood impacts by low-probability storms in the mid-
century.

8
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.

236 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 237

ADAPTED Upon amending the Zoning Code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready Buildings
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2), the Boston Planning and Education Program and a resilience audit program to inform
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately notify property owners about their current and future climate risks
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE all developers with projects in the development pipeline RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM and actions they can undertake to address these risks. To
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN in the future floodplain that they may alter their plans address the most immediate risks, the City should prioritize
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments audits for buildings with at least a 1 percent annual chance
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating of exposure to coastal and riverine flooding in the near
building height limits), without needing to restart the term, under 9 inches of SLR. Downtown, this includes
BPDA permitting process. Currently, 39 residential and 18 almost 400 structures, with 42 percent of these consisting of
commercial buildings are under construction or permitted residential and mixed-use buildings that house residents. A
Downtown, representing 3,067 additional housing units resilience audit should help property owners identify cost-
and six million square feet of new commercial space. effective, building-specific improvements to reduce flood
risk, such as installing backflow preventers, elevating critical
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should equipment, and obtaining deployable flood barriers; promote
CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO incorporate future climate considerations (long-term interventions that address stormwater runoff or the urban
AREA PLANS AND ZONING heat island effect, such as green roofs or “cool roofs” that
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and
AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning reflect heat; and encourage owners to develop operational
efforts in Downtown. The City is currently drafting the preparedness plans and secure appropriate insurance
Downtown Waterfront Municipal Harbor Plan. In addition, coverage. The resilience audit program should include a
the State Department of Conservation and Recreation is combination of mandatory and voluntary, market-based, and
evaluating options for Storrow Drive Tunnel repair or subsidized elements.
reconstruction.
PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with City
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal buildings
CHANGE
in Downtown exposed to stormwater flooding in the near
term or to flooding at 9 inches of SLR under a 1 percent
annual chance flood event. EMS Station Ambulance 8 will
be exposed to coastal flooding at 9 inches of SLR under a 1
percent annual chance flood event. The South Postal Station
on Atlantic Avenue will be exposed to stormwater flooding in
the near term and coastal flooding from the 1 percent annual
chance event in the second half of the century. To address
extreme heat risks, the City should prioritize backup power
installation at municipal facilities that demonstrate high levels
of criticality, including specific Boston Centers for Youth
and Family and Boston Public School facilities that serve as
emergency shelters.

238 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 239

East Boston
East Boston, located to in 1836. From 1840 onward, it experienced rapid connecting South Boston to Logan Airport and East Boston is currently a neighborhood in
growth, fueled by marine industrial activity along providing a route for the Silver Line. The East transition, as demonstrated by strong recent
the northeast, across from
the waterfront, particularly the construction of Boston Tunnel carries the Blue Line from the income growth and development activity. It has
Charlestown and Downtown clipper ships. Logan Airport was built in the early Aquarium MBTA Station in Downtown to the experienced an influx of young professionals,
Boston, is bounded by tidal 1920s and has experienced significant expansion Maverick Station in East Boston. especially in Maverick Square, along Jeffries
portions of Chelsea Creek, the over time, especially during the 1960s and 1970s.
East Boston includes four major commercial areas,
Point, and along the Eagle Hill waterfront. The
waterfront has been evolving into a mixed-use
Mystic River, and Boston Harbor. Today, East Boston is home to a mix of residential including Maverick Square to the south, Central
environment, with new residential and open-
neighborhoods, commercial areas, and major Square at the edge of the Inner Harbor, Day Square
East Boston is composed of five separate islands space development. Since 2000, almost 300 new
regional transportation assets, including Logan near the Chelsea Street Bridge, and Orient Heights
connected by fill. The first two islands, Noddle’s residential units have been built, with over 2,000
Airport. East Boston is bisected by Route 1A/ to the north. In addition, East Boston includes some
and Hog’s Islands, were joined during the more either under construction or in the pipeline.
McClellan Highway and Interstate 90 and has industrial areas along the waterfront, particularly
eighteenth century, and the others, Governor’s, The greatest concentration of new development has
four major tunnels. The Sumner and Callahan Chelsea Creek. The community also includes
Bird, and Apple, were connected during the 1940s been along the waterfront, south of Central Square.
Tunnels carry Route 1A under Boston Harbor, important recreational and natural areas, including
to support the growth of Logan Airport. In 1833, Logan Airport also has experienced a significant
connecting Downtown and East Boston, with the the East Boston Greenway, Constitution Beach, and
William Sumner established the East Boston expansion of international flights.
Callahan carrying northbound traffic and the Belle Isle Marsh, the largest remaining salt marsh
Company to develop East Boston as a planned
Sumner carrying southbound traffic. The Ted in Boston.
community. East Boston was annexed by Boston
Williams Tunnel carries I-90 under Boston Harbor,

Image courtesy of Sasaki

240 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 241

FLOOD PROGRESSION

East Boston is exposed to climate change impacts

DEFINITIONS including heat, increased precipitation and stormwater
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 flooding, and sea level rise and coastal and riverine
inches of sea level rise flooding. Exposure to heat and stormwater flooding are
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 addressed in the Citywide Vulnerability Assessment
inches of sea level rise (see p.12), while exposure to and consequences of
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, coastal and riverine flood risk are further discussed in
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
this section.
LEGEND
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within East Boston has the most land
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may area of all Boston neighborhoods
prevent or limit impacts.
exposed to coastal storms in the
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a coming decades, with exposure
hazard. Requires site-specific information.
concentrated near the East Boston
Greenway, Maverick Square, and
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences the Sumner and Callahan Tunnels.
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses.
Nearly 50 percent of East Boston’s
Annualized losses: The sum of the
land area will be exposed to
probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
coastal flooding at the 1 percent
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times
annual chance event as soon as
the probability of that event occurring in a the 2070s. 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
given year.

*For a full list of definitions, refer to the

Glossary in the Appendix.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

242 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 243
By the end of the century, Throughout the century, the majority of the East
Boston waterfront, parts of Logan Airport, and
land area exposed to flooding
some inland residential areas are expected to be
from coastal storms will more exposed to sea level rise and coastal storms. In
than triple as additional entry total, 16 percent of the land area in East Boston
points for flooding become may be exposed to low-probability flooding in the
near term, increasing to almost 50 percent of the
present. Along the East Boston
neighborhood exposed to low-probability events
Greenway, frequent flooding later in the century.
from high tides will be likely.
There are two critical low-lying entry points
Climate resilience planning along the coast that allow for inland flooding in
the near term. High-tide flooding expected later
must consider East
in the century may use these same pathways. First,
Boston’s multiple low-lying the southern end of East Boston is exposed via the
waterfront edges to address East Boston Greenway (see 1 on map to left). Second,
neighborhood exposure as the area south of Bennington Street is exposed by a

a whole. Nevertheless, the low point to the west of the Sumner and Callahan
tunnel entrances (2). The two pathways expose
waterfronts near the East the strip adjacent to the East Boston Greenway to
Boston Greenway and the inland flooding throughout the century, from the
Sumner and Callahan Tunnels neighborhood’s southern waterfront to the Wood
are exposed in the near term Island MBTA Station in the north (3). Later in the
century, flood exposure expands from this area
and should be addressed
west toward Bennington Street and east toward
earliest. Logan Airport. In addition, waterfront areas near
Harborwalk Park (4) and between Logan Airport
and Constitution Beach Park (5) are also projected
to be exposed to flooding by many coastal storm
events late in the century.

Further north in East Boston, between Orient

Heights and Wordsworth Street, both sides of
the neighborhood are expected to be exposed to
O’Donnell
flooding from high-probability storms in the second Elementary, East
half of the century (6). Constitution Beach Park (7) Boston High School,
Bradley School not
and the Chelsea River waterfront (8) will both be exposed.
exposed during the same time period.
Orient Heights BHA
Housing not exposed.

244 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 245

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

As soon as the 2070s, almost 50 percent of Close to 300 residents in East Boston could be
current East Boston residents and parts of exposed or displaced by frequent flooding (high
Logan Airport will be directly exposed to tides) in the near term, a number that is expected to
high-probability coastal flood events (10 skyrocket to over 6,200 people exposed to high tides
percent annual chance). by the end of the century. This is compared to over
POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES 19,000 people exposed to low-probability storms
later in the century, almost half of East Boston’s
East Boston is currently home to over 40,500 people. population.
East Boston has high concentrations of different
types of socially vulnerable populations, some Only 14 percent of East Boston’s low-income
of the densest within Boston. The neighborhood residents own cars, indicating that these
is racially diverse, with people of color comprising populations depend disproportionately on
63 percent of residents, compared to the citywide public transportation. The limited availability of
average of 53 percent, and over 50 percent of vehicular transportation options to East Boston
residents are Latino. In particular, 44 percent of residents indicates a strong need to harden local
residents have limited English proficiency, higher emergency services and shelter operations against
than Boston as a whole. flood impacts. When only flood depths, resident
income, and age are considered, East Boston can
EAST BOSTON POPULATION EXPOSURE expect over 1,800 residents to require shelter during
and after low-probability storms later in the century.
This is second only to South End, whose entire
neighborhood will be exposed to coastal storms
during the same period. Around 1,300 people are
expected to require shelter for low-probability
events (1 percent annual chance) expected as soon as
the 2050s. East Boston’s emergency shelter capacity,
517 people and 96 animals, may not be adequate for
the scale of flooding expected in the second half of
the century. Furthermore, all of the neighborhood’s
existing emergency shelters will be exposed to high-
probability flood impacts later in the century (10
percent annual chance).

As soon as the 2070s, Boston Housing Authority’s

Heritage Development along Sumner Street will
be exposed to high-probability (10 percent annual
chance) flood events.
Image courtesy of Sasaki

246 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 247

INFRASTRUCTURE is rendered inoperable, Blue Line service could emergency response capacity, and site-specific
be interrupted from Downtown through Revere. evaluations must be conducted to assess potential Logan Airport is operated by Massport.
Massport has a detailed operational
East Boston includes many significant Flooded MBTA stations or inundated roads that vulnerabilities and impacts. resilience plan for all its assets to ensure
transportation assets, including Logan limit bus mobility represent a concern for East safety and continuity of critical operations
Airport, Interstate 90, Route 1A, and While the pump station serving East in the event of a flood. Should a service
Boston’s physical disconnection from the rest of interruption occur, Massport’s level of service
the MBTA Blue and Silver Lines. Critical Boston’s sanitary sewage needs is itself planning goal is to restore operations during
the City, especially for the low-income population
evacuation routes are exposed to a major protected against storm surge, inundation and after disruptive events as soon as
without vehicle access. of access roads may result in repair delays possible in a safe and economically viable
storm in all sea level rise scenarios. time frame, based on asset criticality. The
East Boston’s police and fire services will be and periods of interrupted sanitary sewer rental car center, portions of Airport Way,
Since East Boston is separated from other and Terminal A are exposed to the high-
exposed to severe, lower-probability coastal
service.
neighborhoods by Boston Harbor, Boston needs probability flooding expected as soon as the
The Caruso pump station, located to the southwest 2070s, while Terminal E, airport service roads,
transportation connectivity to enable access to storms and sea level rise in the late century. East
and portions of runways fall within the flood
of the Chelsea Street Bridge along the Chelsea
Logan Airport from other neighborhoods and to Boston has four fire stations; half will be exposed extents for a low-probability event (1 percent
River, serves all of East Boston’s sanitary sewage annual chance) in the same time period.
enable access to healthcare from East Boston. Eight to low-probability flood events expected as soon Specific assets critical for recovery operations
needs. The facility itself is protected against
I-90 and Route 1A tunnels’ exits and entrances are as the 2050s, and three will be exposed to low- have been protected against flood impacts;
storm surge, but local access roads to the facility protections include redundant generators,
located within the flood extent for low-probability probability flood events expected as soon as emergency pumps, and backup fuel sources.
are expected to experience flooding during low-
events in the near term. Flooding of I-90 and the 2070s, including the Fire Headquarters. Two As a key player of East Boston’s economy,
probability mid-century events (1 percent annual the resilience of Logan Airport will heavily
Route 1A would present complications to safe exposed law enforcement stations make up the influence East Boston’s recovery after a flood
chance). If the pump station were rendered event. Massport’s robust planning efforts at
evacuation, and avoidance of flooded areas can entire law enforcement capacity in East Boston,
inoperable, inundated or damaged roads may delay Logan Airport in an attempt to address such
lead to overstressed and crowded side streets when including the Massachusetts state police station dependence can serve as an example for
response time of repair crews and result in longer other organizations.
drivers seek alternate routes. at Logan Airport. The state police station will not
periods of interrupted sanitary sewer service in
be exposed until later in the century under low-
Four MBTA Blue Line stations and a Silver Line East Boston.
probability flooding conditions, though the District
station are also located within future flood extents. Exposure to petroleum storage facilities in East
A-7 station is exposed to lower-probability events
If exposed Blue Line stations were rendered Boston may impact Logan Airport operations and
in the near term. A proposed multiuse municipal
inoperable, nearly 14,000 individuals that enter other fuel users.
facility—shared by Emergency Medical Services
the stations to use the line on an average weekday East Boston shares the Chelsea River Bulk
and the Boston Police, Public Works, and Parks and
would be in need of alternative transportation Petroleum Storage Facilities site with Chelsea,
Recreation Departments—will be located just east
options.1 The Blue Line’s Airport and Wood across the river. Portions of the Sunoco East Boston
of the American Legion Playground. While the
Island Stations both lie along the low-lying East facility on this site appear to be exposed to high-
exact location of the various buildings within the
Boston Greenway and will be exposed to high- probability (10 percent annual chance) flooding in
site is still being studied, the adjacent intersection
probability (10 percent annual chance) floods as the near term and may be exposed to monthly tides
of E. Eagle Street and Eagle Square will be exposed
soon as the 2050s. Although the Maverick Station later in the century. The Sunoco facility provides
to very low-probability flood events in the late
is not exposed to coastal and riverine flooding jet fuel to Logan Airport for daily operations and
century (0.1 percent annual chance). As East
during this century, the Aquarium MBTA Station home heating fuel for other areas throughout the
Boston is relatively isolated from the rest of Boston,
Downtown is also exposed to high-probability city. Nevertheless, Massport has identified backup
fire and police assets are essential to maintain
events in the near-term. If the Aquarium Station fuel sources for use in emergency situations.
1
Based on 2014 MBTA ridership and service statistics. Number only captures
station entries and does not include all passengers traveling on the line as it
passes through the station.

248 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 249

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

EAST BOSTON BUILDING EXPOSURE

RISK TO BUILDINGS events in the near term is a relatively low share More than half of East Boston’s
of Boston’s exposed real estate for the same time
Throughout the century, about two- building stock will be exposed
frame (9 percent).
thirds of structures and half of the to flooding from low-probability
building footprint that are expected to The number of buildings expected to flood at the
events as soon as the 2070s. With
be impacted by coastal flooding are 1 percent annual chance event triples between the
residential or mixed-use in nature. near term and the end of the century. Moreover,
3,000 buildings exposed, East
Like Charlestown, the majority of structures in East East Boston is consistently one of the top Boston is second only to South
Boston are one or multifamily residential buildings neighborhoods with regard to expected physical End for this period.
averaging around three stories tall. Exposure to damage and other flood losses to structures.
buildings in East Boston increases rapidly with Expected annualized losses to structures jump
sea level rise and event severity. For example, from about $11 million to over $80 million between
in the near term, East Boston represents just 16 the near term and the second half of the century
percent of all buildings expected to be exposed to and could double again in the late century. The
high-probability flood events throughout Boston extensive amount of inland flooding within East
(10 percent annual chance) but increases to 50 Boston, which enters through specific pathways
percent of all of Boston’s buildings exposed to low- at the coast, implies that mitigation planning and EAST BOSTON MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE
probability events. Even with East Boston’s high flood solutions may need to be concentrated at
volume of exposed buildings, the neighborhood’s flood entry points on the coast.
real estate market value exposed to low-probability

250 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 251

RISK TO THE ECONOMY EAST BOSTON ECONOMIC LOSSES
Tremendous recent and
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
As of 2014, East Boston’s local economy produces planned residential
over $6 billion annually in sales and revenues Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood development activity has
(output) and sustains over 28,000 jobs. The impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and contributed to population
neighborhood’s economy is heavily dependent
on Logan Airport and the air transportation
induced results are those expected to be
felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
growth in the neighborhood,
industry, which generate almost $2.5 billion in of changes in spending patterns. Results
for both job and output losses are the sum
especially along the vulnerable
output within East Boston. Logan Airport is New of annualized values for the four flood
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
waterfront.
England’s largest transportation center and is a rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
major employment hub for Boston, employing estimate for several reasons. First, not all
probabilistic events are considered. Second,
approximately 12,000 people. Industries related to the analysis assumes that all impacted
air travel, including service-based industries, car businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA Two of the top ten structures
rental operations, and hotels, also have a strong
estimates that almost 40 percent of small
businesses—and up to 25 percent of all with the most annual damages
presence within East Boston and are responsible businesses—never reopen after experiencing
flood impacts. Third, only building areas expected for later in the
for 9 percent of the area’s total output. directly impacted by floodwater are
assumed to experience business interruption.
century include recent or
Direct annualized impacts to output in East This does not consider interruptions of
businesses due to loss of power or utility
planned developments for
Boston expected for later in the century are $30.7 functions. Finally, the analysis only considers
existing populations, businesses, and buildings
EAST BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES high-occupancy mixed-use
million and 270 jobs (see Appendix for detail on
methodology). These impacts reflect business
and does not include projections for future buildings.
growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
operations interrupted after flooding while detailed explanation of the exposure and
consequence analysis.
structures are repaired or businesses relocate.
With indirect and induced annual economic 41 percent of East Boston’s
impacts included, covering interrupted operations
INDUSTRY
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF building stock is projected
to businesses tied to East Boston’s economy, ECONOMIC OUTPUT

losses could increase by another $12.6 million

to have a 10 percent annual
Restaurants $10,800,000
and 63 jobs. Totaling direct, indirect, and induced chance of being impacted. Of
Insurance activities $7,400,000
impacts, the total annualized effect associated those buildings, almost 2,300
are residential or mixed-use
with flooding expected later in the century is $43.3 Transportation $3,800,000

million and 330 jobs, 19 percent of total losses

and house approximately
Remaining industries $21,300,000
for the neighborhood. Key industries affected by
18,500 people.
Total $43,400,000
these losses include the food services sector, the
transportation sector, and the accommodations
sector, which provide 47 percent of East Boston’s
jobs and employ predominantly middle- and low-
income workers.

252 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 253

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

EAST BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

254 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 255

EAST BOSTON
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES The City should develop a local climate resilience plan for ESTABLISH FLOOD The Boston Planning and Development Agency (BPDA)
East Boston to support district-scale climate adaptation. PROTECTION OVERLAY should petition the Boston Zoning Commission to create
DEVELOP LOCAL DISTRICTS AND REQUIRE
The plan should include the following: new Flood Protection Overlay Districts in areas that
CLIMATE RESILIENCE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION are strategically important for potential future flood
PLANS TO SUPPORT ◦ Community engagement through a local climate
DISTRICT-SCALE protection infrastructure (see Potential Flood Protection
resilience committee, leveraging existing community-
CLIMATE ADAPTATION Locations below). Within a Flood Protection Overlay
led organizations and efforts in East Boston, including
District, a developer would be required to submit a study
the ClimateCARE effort being led by Neighborhood of
of how a proposed project could be integrated into a future
Affordable Housing (NOAH).
flood protection system; options may include raising and
◦ Land-use planning for future flood protection reinforcing the development site or providing room for a
systems, including Flood Protection Overlay Districts future easement across the site.
in strategically important “flood breach points”
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
Locations). FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing
SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood entry
◦ Flood protection feasibility studies, evaluating
points in East Boston (see Potential Flood Protection
district-scale flood protection, including at locations
Locations below for a preliminary identification of
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection
locations and potential benefits).
Locations).
These feasibility studies should take place in the context
◦ Infrastructure adaptation planning through the
of local climate resilience plans, featuring engagement
Infrastructure Coordination Committee. For East
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
Boston, the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
is a key partner, and it has already undertaken
protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood
significant adaptation planning for its buildings,
character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
infrastructure, and operations related to Logan.
include the timing of flood risk, consequences for
◦ Coordination with other plans, including Imagine people and economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
Boston 2030, GoBoston 2030, Special Planning Areas, and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk
and any updates to the East Boston Municipal Harbor reduction.
Plan.

◦ Development of financing strategies and governance

structures to support district-scale adaptation.

256 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 257

 Orient
Heights

POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD LOCATIONS Jeffries Point

PROTECTION LOCATIONS 2 to Central
◦ The Jeffries Point to Central Square location Square
See the District-Scale Flood Protection Systems focuses on flood entry points along the Wood
western and southern edges of the waterfront. Island
Overview section (p.330) for a citywide perspective
on district-scale flood protection. District-scale Potential flood protection solutions could
flood protection is only one piece of a multilayered consist of a north/south alignment connecting
solution that includes prepared and connected high points near Central Square and LoPresti
Park and an east/west alignment connecting Porzio
communities, resilient infrastructure, and adapted Park
buildings. high points at Maverick Square and Jeffries
Point. The north/south segment could
In the near term, flood protection between potentially tie into existing green space at
Jeffries Point and Central Square is critical
LoPresti Park and could help create new (0.1 percent annual chance) storms expected
to address flood entry points along the
waterfront access points along East Boston’s mid-century may require interventions
western and southern edges of the East ◦ The Orient Heights location focuses on
western edge. The east/west segment could by Wood Island to prevent flood pathway
Boston waterfront. flood entry points near Constitution Beach
potentially tie into existing and planned open connections from Logan Airport. Considering
As sea level rise (SLR) progresses, additional and along Chelsea Creek. Potential flood
spaces along the southern waterfront, such as 36 inches of LR, flood protection from Jeffries
locations, which would provide modest protection solutions could consist of two
Piers Park, Brophy Park, and Porzio Park. Point to Central Square, by Porzio Park,
flood protection in the near term, will segments: an eastern segment by Constitution
and by Wood Island will be necessary to
become critical: ◦ The Porzio Park location focuses on a flood Beach, connecting high points near Byron
protect large portions of East Boston from
entry point near where Jeffries Point meets Street and Barnes Avenue, and a western
◦ By Porzio Park, addressing flood entry high-probability events (10 percent annual
Logan Airport. Potential flood protection segment by Chelsea Creek, connecting high
points near where Jeffries Point meets solutions could connect high points at
chance). Nevertheless, stronger events with
points near Boardman Street and Eagle Street.
Logan Airport lower probability of occurrence may find a
Sumner Street and Harborside Drive, near the
DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS possible flood pathway from Constitution
◦ By Wood Island, addressing flood entry entrance to the Ted Williams Tunnel, with the
◦ Multiple alignments likely needed in the Beach. Interventions by Orient Heights may be
points along the northern edge of potential to tie in to existing green space along
second half of the century: With 9 inches of necessary to prevent flooding in the southern
Logan Airport, just east of the Wood Massport’s Harborwalk Park.
Island T Station sea level rise (SLR), flood protection between portion of East Boston for the 2 percent annual
◦ The Wood Island location focuses on flood Jeffries Point and Central Square may provide chance event with 36 inches of SLR.
◦ By Orient Heights, addressing flood entry points along the northern edge of Logan substantial protection against severe, low-
entry points near Constitution Beach ◦ Protection of Logan Airport: Portions
Airport, just east of the Wood Island T Station. probability floods (1 percent annual chance).
and along Chelsea Creek of Logan Airport may also benefit from
Potential flood protection solutions could Adding protection by Porzio Park would be
combined flood protection at the four locations
connect high points along Belle Isle Inlet to necessary to protect against low-probability (1
identified above. Additional flood protection
DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION the northern part of Logan Airport, with the percent annual chance) events with 21 inches
SLR SCENARIO
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD3 along the Boston Inner Harbor and Boston
potential to tie into existing green spaces at of SLR, meaning that they do not provide
Main Channel would serve to protect the
9” SLR Constitution Beach or Wood Island Bay Edge substantial protection from floodwaters
Jeffries Point to Central Square
(2030s–2050s) majority of flooding expected at Logan later in
Park. on their own. Flood pathways from these
the century.
21” SLR
Jeffries Point to Central Square 2
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level locations become connected at the 1 percent
and Porzio Park combined and analysis of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental
(2050s–2100s)
Orient Heights
conditions. Important additional factors, including existing drainage systems,
underground transportation and utility structures, soil conditions, and zoning, as well
annual chance event with 21 inches of SLR,
as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied
in detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3, detailed feasibility studies, including necessitating review to determine whether
36” SLR appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in order to better

(2070s or later)
All locations combined understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location. both measures would be required to prevent
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the
extensive flooding. Very low-probability
3

1 percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on
expected effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional
flood protection locations and flood frequencies.

258 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 259

PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of facilities RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED in East Boston that serve significant concentrations of INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for East Boston’s key
COMMUNITIES vulnerable populations and are not required to have infrastructure systems, including transportation, water and
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE sewer, energy, telecommunications, and environmental assets. In
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. Targeted facilities will include COORDINATION COMMIT TEE the near term, the City should support the MBTA in conducting
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE affordable housing complexes, substance abuse treatment its planned asset-level vulnerability assessment of the Blue
FACILITIES THAT SERVE centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, small nonprofit Line, which is highly exposed to flooding. At 9 inches of SLR,
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
offices, and others. Illustrative examples of the types of the Wood Island, Orient Heights, and Suffolk Downs stops are
TO ENSURE THAT THEY
ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY facilities to which the City might conduct outreach include exposed to flooding under the 1 percent annual chance event.
PREPAREDNESS AND the East Boston YMCA, East Boston Head Start/Elbow At 21 inches of SLR, four of East Boston’s five Blue Line stops are
ADAPTATION PLANNING child care facility, and East Boston Neighborhood Health exposed to flooding at the 1 percent annual chance event. The
Center. These facilities are exposed to near-term damage City also should support MassDOT in pursuing adaptation plans
from sea level rise and coastal flooding, in addition to for Central Artery and tunnel assets developed under the 2015
access issues related to near-term stormwater flooding. 4
FHA/MassDOT vulnerability assessment.
The City may be able to partner with the Neighborhood of
Affordable Housing (NOAH) on this outreach, given their CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified Central
extensive resilience education efforts to date. STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY Square as a potential location for an emergency microgrid,
ENERGY SOLUTIONS
based on its concentration of critical facilities. The Environment
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in East Department should work with local stakeholders and utility
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS Boston exposed to stormwater flooding in the near term or providers to explore this location, recognizing that portions
PROGRAM
coastal flooding under a 1 percent annual chance event at of the proposed site are exposed to high-probability coastal
9 inches of SLR to help them develop business continuity flooding in the near term, as well as stormwater flooding.
plans, evaluate insurance coverage needs, and identify The Environment Department also should work with the
low-cost physical adaptations. All four of East Boston’s Massachusetts Port Authority to evaluate opportunities for an
major commercial districts (Maverick Square, Central expansion of the existing solar power capacity at Logan Airport,
Square, Day Square, and Orient Heights) lie within the given that the 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified
9-inch floodplain. Under a 1 percent annual chance event it as having high solar generation potential.
with 9 inches of SLR, 83 commercial buildings and 133
mixed-use buildings that could host small businesses are
exposed to flood risk.

4
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.

260 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 261

ADAPTED Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready Buildings
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning Education Program and a resilience audit program to inform
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately property owners about their current and future climate
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE notify all developers with projects in the development RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM risks and actions they can undertake to address these risks.
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their To prepare for the most immediate risks, the City should
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments prioritize audits for buildings with at least a 1 percent annual
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating chance of exposure to coastal and riverine flooding in the
building height limits), without needing to restart the near term, under 9 inches of sea level rise. In East Boston, this
BPDA permitting process. Currently, 56 residential and 18 includes 1,069 structures, with 74 percent of these consisting
commercial buildings are under construction or permitted of residential and mixed-use buildings that house residents. A
in East Boston, representing 2,111 additional housing units resilience audit should help property owners identify cost-
and 85,000 SF of new commercial space. effective, building-specific improvements to reduce flood risk,
such as backflow preventers, elevation of critical equipment,
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should and deployable flood barriers; promote interventions that
CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO incorporate future climate considerations (long-term address stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect,
AREA PLANS AND ZONING such as green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and
AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning efforts encourage owners to develop operational preparedness plans
in East Boston. and secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience
audit program should include a combination of mandatory
and voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.

PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with City
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal facilities in
CHANGE
East Boston that demonstrate high levels of vulnerability (in
terms of the timing and extent of exposure), consequences of
partial or full failure, and criticality (with highest priority for
impacts on life and safety) from coastal flooding in the near
term. In the near term, at 9 inches of SLR, Fire Department
Engine 9 (Ladder 2), Boston Police Department District
A-7, Mario Umana Academy, and BHA’s Heritage housing
complex are exposed to flooding under the 1 percent annual
flood event. To address extreme heat risks, the City should
prioritize backup power installation at municipal facilities
that demonstrate high levels of criticality, including specific
Boston Centers for Youth and Family and Boston Public
School facilities that serve as emergency shelters.

262 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 263

Roxbury

71,600
Roxbury, at the geographic center of Boston, began as
a farming town on the outskirts of Boston and then
transitioned to industrial and residential uses in the
has over 24,000 jobs concentrated in the healthcare,
local government, and education sectors. Roxbury
Community College and Boston Public Schools are
22,000
CURRENT RESIDENTS OLDER ADULTS & CHILDREN*
early nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century, key neighborhood employers. However, many of

10,000 29%
Roxbury experienced waves of immigration, and in the Roxbury’s lower-income residents work in service
1940s and 1950s, it became a center for African Americans industry jobs and may depend on public transit to
migrating from the American South. commute to jobs all over the city and region. Dudley
LOW-TO-NO INCOME RESIDENTS
BUILDINGS Square has long been a commercial hub for the area

950
Today Roxbury is home to a diverse community. Roxbury
and serves as a transit hub for a number of MBTA

24,800
is a center for families, with more households with
buses and the Silver Line.
children under five than any neighborhood in Boston. In
addition, compared to other neighborhoods in the city, While Roxbury includes several parks that offer BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO
JOBS Roxbury has disproportionately high concentrations of residents substantial green space, including Franklin STORMWATER FLOODING**
people of color, low- to no-income residents, and people Park, its status as a dense, urban neighborhood with

$4.2 Billion
with disabilities.

Today, Roxbury has almost 28,000 housing units, about

a lack of tree coverage in some areas contributes to
urban heat island effect. Its inland location away
from cooling coastal breezes also adds to higher
180 acres
half of which are subsidized housing, and about 400 LAND AREA FLOODED BY
ANNUAL ECONOMIC OUTPUT new units under construction or approved. Roxbury has
summer temperatures. Heat island analysis reveals
STORMWATER**
that Roxbury has some of the hottest daytime
active neighborhood groups who engage the community
temperatures in the City of Boston during summer *HEAT VULNERABLE **LATE CENTURY SCENARIO
in both development and preservation efforts. Roxbury
months.
ROXBURY ROXBURY IMPACTS
TODAY & RISK FACTORS

Image Source: Roxbury Historical Society

COASTAL
FLOODING
Roxbury, like many neighborhoods
in Boston, is at the convergence of
several future climate hazards and STORMWATER
vulnerabilities. FLOODING

URBAN HEAT
ISLAND

SOCIAL
VULNERABILITY

264 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 265

CLIMATE HAZARDS

URBAN HEAT ISLAND - 2015 SOCIAL VULNERABILITY OVERLAP

Roxbury faces multiple LEGEND

vulnerabilities and is MBTA Silver Line Station

exposed to coastal and MBTA Station

stormwater flooding Roads

and extreme heat.

Major Roads
Evacuation Routes
Parks
Roxbury Boundary
Roxbury has some of the highest
School
poverty rates in all of Boston.
College or University
Roxbury’s road infrastructure faces
significant risk for disruption by H Hospital
stormwater flooding in a 10 year, 24
hour storm in the future. HC Health Clinic

180 acres of land (6% of total land 1 Grove Hall Community Center
area) are at risk for flooding in the
2 Shelburne Community Center
long-term.
3 Vine Street Community Center

BHA Public Housing

Senior Housing

LEGEND DCR Spray Deck or Pool

Heat Island
More Extreme Heat Island
Most Extreme Heat Island

Roxbury faces risk from several climate hazards. more often. Roxbury is one of the neighborhoods Roxbury is at risk for stormwater flooding; even Areas on both sides of Melnea Cass Boulevard
Today and in the future, stormwater flooding that experience some of the hottest temperatures today the drainage system can be overwhelmed and surrounding Boston Medical Center are also
can cause damages and nuisances that create in the city during summer months. Lack of tree by heavy rains. More frequent intense storms anticipated to experience stormwater flooding in
localized challenges for neighborhood mobility canopy, a high percentage of impervious surface, will cause this type of flooding to increase. The a 10 year, 24 hour storm. However, this flooding
and function, and extreme heat endangers and lack of coastal breezes contribute to heat island Lower Roxbury and Hampton George areas are analysis evaluates capacity of the existing drainage
residents with vulnerable health. With 36 inches effect in the neighborhood. Within the heat island expected to experience significant flooding in system; BWSC is upgrading pipes and expanding
of sea level rise, coastal storm flooding could reach areas live many concentrations of populations that low-lying areas. Key areas of potential impact system capacity, which will reduce the expected
areas north of Melnea Cass Boulevard are vulnerable to heat including older residents include the northern edge of Malcom X Park in flooding.
and children. Washington Park North as well as the area north of
As average temperatures and frequency of heat
King Towers Public Housing on MLK Boulevard.
waves rise in the future, people across Boston
will need to seek relief from dangerous extremes

266 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 267

 EXPOSURE & CONSEQUENCES
PEOPLE

Roxbury’s population faces Roxbury is a stressed neighborhood in many Roxbury has high concentrations of
ROXBURY STATISTICS
ways. Lack of high quality transportation and vulnerable populations, but also many
multiple vulnerabilities % %
fewer redundancies in transportation options community organizations and non-profits TOTAL POP 71,600
ROXBURY BOSTON
Roxbury has a richly diverse population; 83% of in many areas of the neighborhood can strain that serve residents. Several Boston Centers
OLDER ADULTS 5,800 8% 10%
residents are people of color, the second highest Roxbury’s households in getting to and from for Youth and Families (BCYF) connect
concentration of people of color in the entire city CHILDREN 16,690 23% 17%
employment and in accessing healthcare resources. residents to resources and information and act
and much higher than Boston as a whole. The vast The Orange Line runs along the neighborhood’s as cooling centers. Community development PEOPLE OF COLOR 59,160 83% 52%
majority of the population of this neighborhood western border and the Silver Line provides high corporations advocate for the neighborhood LIMITED ENGLISH 11,400 16% 15%
falls into at least one vulnerable category and most quality service to Dudley Square; however, heavy and develop affordable housing. These
LOW-TO-NO INCOME 27,690 39% 28%
fall into several categories described below. rail or rapid bus service does not penetrate into organizations help supplement the resource
the southern portions of the neighborhood. Much network for residents who have special needs MEDICAL ILLNESS 24,010 34% 37%

of Roxbury is also designated as a food desert by and vulnerabilities and enhance resilience in DISABILITY 10,420 15% 11%
the USDA which creates challenges in accessing
1
the community in hazard events
healthy food and supplies on a daily basis and for
sheltering in place in a climate event. 1
Source: USDA Economic Research Service-Food Access Research Atlas

VULNERABLE
POPULATIONS

OLDER ADULTS CHILDREN PEOPLE OF COLOR LIMITED ENGLISH LOW-TO-NO INCOME MEDICAL ILLNESS DISABILITIES
Roxbury has a lower percentage (8%) Roxbury has a relatively high Roxbury’s population is 83% Over 11,000 residents (16% of 39% of Roxbury’s population is Medically ill residents in Roxbury 15% of Roxbury’s population has a
of older adults than the city at large concentration of children; 23% people of color. 35% of residents Roxbury’s population) have limited low-to-no income, and Roxbury has may have symptoms worsened by disability. That is over 10,000 people
(10%), but has ten senior housing percent of households have at are black, and the neighborhood English proficiency and may need five public housing developments, the physical stress of a heat wave. who may find it more difficult to
developments and three nursing least one child under 5 years is also home to significant Hispanic targeted information campaigns including the King Towers (100 units) The Washington Park South area evacuate or seek shelter in an
homes within the neighborhood. Care old. Children are at risk to the (22%) and Asian (9%) populations. to increase awareness about which is projected to experience has a very high concentration of extreme weather event (like the
should be taken to educate seniors stress of hot temperatures if they Roxbury is a rich confluence of climate risks. These residents are stormwater flooding from a 10 year, medically ill. For residents without 2014 snow storms). Many of this
who live in these developments about do not have adequate access to many different cultures, but also fairly spread out throughout the 24 hour storm as early as 2030. Low air conditioning, the cooling center population already face mobility
the risks of hot weather to their health air conditioned spaces or green faces a legacy of racial inequities. neighborhood. Among those with income residents dependent on at Grove Hall Community Center is challenges that could be worsened
and to ensure all developments have spaces to help stay cool. Children limited English proficiency, the most public transportation in southern likely the most convenient center. by stormwater flooding on
adequate air conditioning. Shady also suffer the mental stress of other common languages spoken are areas of the neighborhood are The entire census tract that has the sidewalks. Concentrations are fairly
outdoor locations like public parks can flooding and other emergencies Spanish or Spanish Creole (24%), only served by buses. HUD housing highest concentration of medically evenly distributed across Roxbury.
also provide respite during hot days. more than adults. Many children Chinese (10%), African languages projects as a policy do not include ill is within a 3/4 mile radius of the
in Roxbury are already bearing (4%) and Portuguese (3%). air conditioning in housing units, cooling center.
the stress of living in an under which increases health risks in a
resourced neighborhood. heat wave.
268 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston
Source: USDA Economic Research Service-Food Access Research Atlas
Focus Areas 269
 10 -YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM

EXPOSURE & CONSEQUENCES

Road disruption by stormwater

DEFINITIONS
flooding threatens neighborhood
mobility; residential structures face
Near-term: Beginning 2030s, assumes
9 inches of sea level rise

Mid-term: Beginning 2050s, assumes

the greatest exposure to flooding
21 inches of sea level rise
Road flooding can be caused by even a few inches
Long-term: Beginning 2070s or later,
of rain in a short period and can block access to
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise
Exposure: Can refer to people, services, force businesses to close, and leave cars
buildings, infrastructure, and other
resources within areas likely to
and transit riders stranded. Furthermore, flooded
experience hazard impacts. Does roads can be a safety risk when cars attempt to cross
not consider conditions that may
prevent or limit impacts. flooded areas and become stranded. Melnea Cass
Boulevard is already impacted today in heavy rains
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected and is projected to experience significant flooding at
by a hazard. Requires site-specific the intersection with Harrison Ave and onto South
information.
Bay Harbor Trail. South of Melnea Cass Boulevard,
Consequence: illustrates to what
mold, with potential to exacerbate asthma and Flood progression into Roxbury
Hampden and Gerard Streets are also at risk. Melnea other health risks. Stormwater flooding is also
extent people or assets can be
expected to be affected by a Cass flooding will also impact the BWSC headquarters takes place through the South
projected in areas where new development is
hazard, as a result of vulnerability
and fueling center. proposed, including a Northeastern University
End and is described within the
and exposure. Consequences can
often be communicated in terms of
property slated for new student housing and vulnerability assessment for
economic losses . Projected road flooding impacts several bus routes on
Massachusetts Avenue and Melnea Cass Boulevard. commercial buildings between Tremont and that focus area.
Annualized losses: The sum of the
probability-weighted losses for all Dale Street adjacent to Malcom X Park serves as the Columbus Avenue southwest of Douglass Park.
four flood frequencies analyzed
access road for the Sojourner House food pantry and
for each sea level rise scenario.
Probability-weighted losses are the could be blocked in a flooding event.
losses for a single event times the ROXBURY BUILDING EXPOSURE
probability of that event occurring in
The Amtrak/MBTA rail lines between Tremont and BUILDINGS EXPOSED TO STORMWATER FLOODING TO STORMWATER FLOODING BY TYPE
a given year.
Columbus Avenue are exposed to flooding. The rail
*For a full list of definitions, refer to
lines serve the Amtrak Shore Line and the Orange Line.
the Glossary in the Appendix.
Suspended service or lack of access to transit could
have serious consequences for Roxbury residents who
may not be able to get to work or access healthcare; it
also hurts businesses in the area.

The majority of stormwater impacts to buildings.

occur in residential buildings. Stormwater flooding
could have strong impacts on indoor air quality from

270 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 271

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITIES INFRASTRUCTURE computerized systems , including work order
ROXBURY POPULATION EXPOSURE
management, and major building functions such
Roxbury’s population is not expected to be Damage to exposed roads and the MBTA Red
as vehicle fueling. Such functionality disruptions
exposed to coastal flooding until a very low Line could isolate Columbia Point from the
at the Headquarters building may result in delayed
probability event (0.1 percent annual chance) rest of Dorchester, and impact transportation
repair of BWSC assets throughout Greater Boston.
mid-century. Nevertheless, exposure increases connections to North Quincy.
significantly later in the century, and rises to over Facilities which support Roxbury’s police and
The Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC)
1,800 persons currently living in areas exposed fi re services are exposed to sea level rise and
Headquarters, located in the northern portion
to the 1 percent annual chance event. Roxbury’s coastal storms.
of Roxbury, will be exposed to high-probability
current shelter capacity is 1,300 persons across
flooding later in the century (10 percent annual In northern Roxbury, the Suffolk County Sheriff,
eight shelters.
chance event). As a critical facility, BWSC MBTA Transit Police Headquarters, and two of three
Headquarters employs system redundancies. fire stations are exposed to the high-probability
Roxbury’s population remains Notwithstanding backup power supply, loss storms expected by later in the century (10 percent
largely unexposed to coastal of power to the structure would disable all annual chance event).

flood impacts until later in

the century. The focus area is
consistently among the least
exposed in terms of land area,
population, and buildings
when compared to other
neighborhoods.

272 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 273

 ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES Job and output loss includes direct, indirect, and
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY induced consequences of flood impacts. Direct
results are impacts felt within a neighborhood, while
indirect and induced results are those expected
to be felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
RISK TO BUILDINGS RISK TO THE ECONOMY ROXBURY ANNUALIZED LOSSES of changes in spending patterns. Results for both
job and output losses are the sum of annualized
Almost 80 structures in Roxbury are expected Dorchester provides Boston with close to 35,000 jobs values for the four flood frequencies analyzed
for each sea level rise scenario. This represents a
to be exposed to mid-century coastal flooding and over $7 billion in annual output. Top employers lower-bound estimate for several reasons. First, not
for the 0.1 percent annual chance event. This in the community include public education, hospitals, all probabilistic events are considered. Second,
the analysis assumes that all impacted businesses
number increases to 450 buildings exposed to and grocers, though no one industry seems to eventually reopen, though FEMA estimates that
high-probability flooding later in the century (1 dominate. The economy is heavily service-oriented. almost 40 percent of small businesses—and up to
25 percent of all businesses—never reopen after
percent annual chance event). Of the buildings As with other service-oriented neighborhood experiencing flood impacts. Third, only building
areas directly impacted by floodwater are
exposed later in the century, 40 percent of them economies, restaurants are expected to be most
assumed to experience business interruption. This
are residential or mixed-use in nature, followed heavily impacted in a flood event, particularly does not consider interruptions of businesses due to
loss of power or utility functions. Finally, the analysis
by commercial buildings (20 percent). Though considering expected loss of employment. This is only considers existing populations, businesses,
these buildings are only a fraction of Roxbury’s expected to be the case throughout the century. By and buildings and does not include projections
for future growth. Refer to the Appendix for a
total building stock, the neighborhood can still late-century, coastal flood impacts to Dorchester are more detailed explanation of the exposure and
expect over $30 million in annualized damage to expected to result in 110 annualized jobs lost and consequence analysis.

buildings and other related costs with 36 inches about $15 million in annualized output loss to the
of sea level rise. current Boston economy. Restaurants are expected
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
to comprise roughly 40 percent of job loss and 20 INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC OUTPUT
percent of output loss. Restaurants tend to employ
Restaurants $442,000
low- to moderate-income personnel, and business
Healthcare and
$188,000
interruption to such assets can exacerbate impacts medical services
ROXBURY BUIILDINGS EXPOSURE
to already vulnerable populations. Real estate $98,000

Other industries $672,000

ROXBURY ECONOMIC LOSSES
ROXBURY REAL ESTATE MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE Total $1,400,000

EAST BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

274 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 275

ROXBURY In the near term, coastal flood risk in Dorchester focus area (see p.194), addresses
Roxbury is minimal and likely does not flood pathways from the Old Harbor and Savin
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES
require district-scale flood protection. Hill Cove.

As soon as the 2050s, the northern edge of • The New Charles River Dam location,
Roxbury will be exposed to flooding from described in the Charles River and Downtown
Fort Point Channel and other inland flood focus areas (see pp. 174, 216), addresses
pathways, so combined flood protection potential overtopping or flanking of the dam.
at multiple locations will be critical:
PROTECTED SHORES To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS
points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing • At the South Boston Waterfront,
PRIORITIZE AND STUDY
• Flood protection at multiple locations likely
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood addressing inland flood pathways
THE FEASIBILITY OF required to accommodate later-century flood
entry points for Roxbury (see Potential Flood Protection originating from Fort Point Channel,
DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD event scenarios: Late century, flood protection
PROTECTION Locations below for a preliminary identification of Boston Harbor, and the Reserve
solutions at the South Boston Waterfront and
locations and potential benefits). As described below, flood Channel
Dorchester Bay may not be independently
protection systems that would benefit Roxbury would
• At Dorchester Bay, addressing inland effective for the 1 percent annual chance
likely be located outside of Roxbury, in South Boston,
flood pathways originating from the event and events with lower probability of
Dorchester, and by the New Charles River Dam. Old Harbor and Savin Hill Cove occurrence and may require an intervention
• At the New Charles River Dam, at the New Charles River Dam to impede
addressing potential overtopping or flooding from the Charles River. While
These feasibility studies should feature engagement
flanking of the dam investments at all three locations may be
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
significant, losses avoided are expected to be
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
substantial because an integrated system could
protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood SLR SCENARIO
DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD3 protect Downtown, South Boston, Dorchester,
character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
the South End, Roxbury, and neighborhoods
include the timing of flood risk, consequences for 9” SLR
(2030s–2050s)
None along the Charles River.
people and economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk 21” SLR The South Boston Waterfront and New South
reduction. (2050s–2100s) Dorchester Bay locations combined Charles Boston
River Dam Waterfront
The New Charles River Dam, South
36” SLR
Boston Waterfront, and Dorchester Bay
POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION (2070s or later)
locations combined
LOCATIONS 2
LOCATIONS
See the District-Scale Flood Protection Systems Overview
• The South Boston Waterfront location,
section (p.330) for a citywide perspective on district-scale
described in the South Boston focus area
flood protection. District-scale flood protection is only one
(see p. 282), addresses flood entry points Dorchester
piece of a multilayered solution that includes prepared Bay
along the edge of the district.
and connected communities, resilient infrastructure, and
adapted buildings. • The Dorchester Bay location, described in the

2
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level analysis 3
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the 1
of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental conditions. Important percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on expected
additional factors, including existing drainage systems, underground transportation and effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional flood protection
utility structures, soil conditions, zoning, as well as any potential external impacts as a locations and flood frequencies.
result of the project have not been studied in detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and
5-3 (see pp. 106,110), detailed feasibility studies and appropriate public and stakeholder
engagement are required in order to better understand the costs and benefits of flood
276 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston protection in each location. Focus Areas 277
PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of RESILIENT In the near term, the City will support the MBTA in conducting
CONNECTED facilities in Roxbury that serve significant concentrations INFRASTRUCTURE a full asset-level vulnerability assessment of its system, including
COMMUNITIES of vulnerable populations and are not required to have the Orange Line. Stormwater flooding is projected to impact bus
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE routes on Massachusetts Avenue and Melnea Cass Boulevard
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. The City will inform these facilities COORDINATION COMMIT TEE and Orange Line rail lines between Tremont and Columbus
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE about the need to prepare for climate change impacts, Avenue.
FACILITIES THAT SERVE especially stormwater flooding and extreme heat in the
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management will work with the
near term. Targeted facilities will include affordable
TO ENSURE THAT THEY PRIORITY EVACUATION
housing complexes, substance abuse treatment centers, Boston Transportation Department, Department of Public
ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY AND SERVICE ROAD
PREPAREDNESS AND daycare facilities, food pantries, small nonprofit offices, Works, and Roxbury’s private utilities to develop a list of critical
INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
ADAPTATION PLANNING and others. Illustrative examples of the types of Roxbury roads to prioritize for adaptation, given that Roxbury’s road
facilities to which the City might conduct outreach include infrastructure faces significant risk from stormwater flooding
the American Red Cross/Boston Pantry, the Sojourner in all future conditions. Melnea Cass Boulevard is already
House Food Pantry, and Tartt’s Day Care Center.4 impacted today under heavy rains.

EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in Roxbury CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified several
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS that are exposed to stormwater flooding in the near STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY locations in Roxbury as potential locations for energy justice
PROGRAM ENERGY SOLUTIONS
term to help them develop business continuity plans, microgrids. This summer, the DOE Combined Heat and Power
evaluate insurance coverage needs, and identify low-cost (CHP) Technical Assistance Partnerships analyzed municipal
physical adaptations. In particular, the City will reach facilities and affordable housing in Roxbury, concluding
out to businesses along Melnea Cass Boulevard, which that CHP is economically feasible. The City will work with
experiences stormwater flooding impacts today. the community to explore options for microgrids in this
neighborhood. The Community Energy Study also found that
UPDATE THE CITY’S HEAT The City should pilot components of its heat emergency Roxbury has high solar power generation potential relative to
EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN plan in Roxbury, given the high concentration of socially other Boston neighborhoods.
vulnerable populations there. The City can partner with
Renew Boston and the Boston Home Center’s repair
program to provide energy-efficient air conditioners for
physically homebound people who cannot leave their
homes without assistance. The City also can partner with
Roxbury nonprofits to establish a network of neighborhood-
level volunteers to check in on neighbors during heat
events. In addition, the City can partner with community
nonprofits and healthcare providers to register disabled
residents who lack cooling capacity in their homes register
for THE RIDE, if interested, in advance of heat events.

4
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.

278 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 279

ADAPTED Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately program to inform property owners about their current
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE notify all developers with projects in the development RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM and future climate risks and actions they can undertake
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their to address these risks. A resilience audit should help
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments property owners identify cost-effective, building-specific
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating improvements to reduce flood risk, such as backflow
building height limits), without needing to restart the preventers, elevation of critical equipment, and deployable
BPDA permitting process. Currently, 31 residential flood barriers; promote interventions that address
buildings are under construction or permitted in Roxbury, stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect, such as
representing 434 additional housing units. To the extent green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage
that these buildings are at risk for coastal flooding, the owners to develop operational preparedness plans and
City will reach out to property owners so that they can secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience audit
make necessary adjustments without re-permitting. program should include a combination of mandatory and
voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should
CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO incorporate future climate considerations (long-term PREPARE MUNICIPAL The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
AREA PLANS AND ZONING
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning efforts CHANGE
program to inform property owners about their current
in Roxbury. and future climate risks and actions they can undertake
to address these risks. A resilience audit should help
property owners identify cost-effective, building-specific
improvements to reduce flood risk, such as backflow
preventers, elevation of critical equipment, and deployable
flood barriers; promote interventions that address
stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect, such as
green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage
owners to develop operational preparedness plans and
secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience audit
program should include a combination of mandatory and
voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.

280 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 281

South Boston
Of all Boston focus areas, South Boston is a peninsula located to the the South Boston Waterfront was the fastest- The historic residential neighborhood to the south
southeast of Downtown Boston, bounded by growing urban area in the commonwealth, has experienced significant real estate appreciation,
South Boston consistently faces
Fort Point Channel and Dorchester Bay. The adding approximately ten million square feet of with an influx of young professionals. The area’s
the greatest or near-greatest community includes the South Boston Waterfront development. The waterfront has become a hub commercial district is centered around East and
exposure and potential losses to the north, also referred to as the Seaport or the for recreation and culture, with the expansion or West Broadway. South Boston contains several
to coastal flooding across all Innovation District, and the Fort Point Channel opening of numerous attractions, including the large Boston Housing Authority (BHA) housing
sea level rise conditions and Landmark District and a historic residential Boston Convention and Exhibition Center (opened developments, including West Broadway, West
flood events. district to the south. 2004), Institute of Contemporary Art (opened Ninth Street, Old Colony, and Foley.
2006), and Boston Children’s Museum (renovated
High ground within South Boston, such as Due to the rapid changes occurring in this area, the
2007), among others. The South Boston Waterfront
Telegraph Hill, illustrates the original landforms of City recently has begun the planning process for
is expected to increasingly become a mixed-use
Boston waterfronts before land filling began in the several key projects focused on transportation and
neighborhood with a large residential population.
early 1800s; significant portions of the community public realm improvements. Examples include the
Seaport Square and Fan Pier are examples of large
are filled-in mudflats. South Boston was annexed South Boston Waterfront Plan, the 100 Acres Master
mixed-use development projects. The area still
to the city in 1804 to accommodate Boston’s need Plan process for the areas around the Procter &
maintains marine industrial uses to the northeast,
for additional residential and commercial land. The Gamble Gillette plant, and the Dorchester Avenue
tied to the Port of Boston, the Raymond L. Flynn
Old Colony Railroad opened in 1845. Corridor Plan, which is focused on supporting
Industrial Park (former Boston Marine Industrial
a diversity of mixed uses between Andrew and
In recent years, South Boston has experienced Park), and the Fish Pier.
Broadway Red Line MBTA Stations.
rapid transformation as the result of a development
boom and significant investment. From 2010–2013,

Image courtesy of Sasaki

282 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 283

FLOOD PROGRESSION

South Boston is exposed to climate change

DEFINITIONS impacts including heat, increased precipitation
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 and stormwater flooding, and sea level rise and
inches of sea level rise coastal and riverine flooding. Exposure to heat and
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 stormwater flooding are addressed in the Citywide
inches of sea level rise Vulnerability Assessment (see p.12), while exposure
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, and consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
are further discussed in this section.
LEGEND
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within In the near term, a significant
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may portion of the South Boston
Waterfront is exposed to high-
prevent or limit impacts.

Vulnerability: Refers to how and why

people or assets can be affected by a
probability coastal storms (10
hazard. Requires site-specific information. percent annual chance events),
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent particularly near Fort Point
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of Channel and to the north along
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences
can often be communicated in terms of Boston Harbor.
economic losses.

Annualized losses: The sum of the

South Boston’s exposure will
probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
increase significantly over the
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted course of the century, with a
losses are the losses for a single event times
the probability of that event occurring in a substantial portion of the South 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

Boston Waterfront exposed to

given year.

*For a full list of definitions, refer to the

Glossary in the Appendix.
both chronic high-tide flooding
and more severe flooding
during coastal storms. Over
the century, flooding from Fort
Point Channel and Dorchester
Bay will increase, exposing
residential areas.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

284 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 285
South Boston is the most- In the first half of the century, expected exposure
to coastal flooding is primarily due to the low
exposed1 neighborhood in
waterfront edges along Fort Point Channel, Boston
Boston, with nearly 25 percent Harbor, and the Reserved Channel. During this
of its land area exposed under time, nearly a quarter of South Boston’s land area
9 inches of sea level rise, 50 will be exposed to 1 percent annual chance flood
percent under 21 inches, and events, with some heavily developed areas along

60 percent under 36 inches at the Fort Point Channel also exposed to higher
probability events (10 percent annual chance).
the 1 percent annual chance
event. Nearly 20 percent of the In the second half of the century, flood exposure

neighborhood’s land area will will increase due to flood entry points at Joseph
Moakley Park in the southeast and along the
be exposed to high tides with
Fort Point Channel that impact inland, largely
36 inches of sea level rise. residential areas in South Boston. With 21 inches of
sea level rise, much of the land area north of West
First Street and East First Street will be exposed to
Resilience planning requires 10 percent annual chance floods. The probability
consideration of the South of flooding across the neighborhood will increase
by an order of magnitude by the second half of
Boston Waterfront’s long, low-
the century.
lying waterfront edges and
flood pathways through Fort Toward the end of the century, considerable
portions of the South Boston Waterfront will be
Point Channel and Joseph
exposed to flooding from high tide, and many
Moakley Park, which create residential areas are exposed to 10 percent annual
challenges for local flood chance
defenses.

1
Based on the percentage of the land area in the neighborhood exposed to coastal flooding

286 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 287

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY widespread overland flooding. This flooding is INFRASTRUCTURE EXPOSURE 2 Flooding of evacuation routes and local roads could
expected to displace residents, interrupt electrical affect safe evacuation for residents and potentially
South Boston is currently home to over 31,000 South Boston has important transportation
and water service of flooded buildings with isolate South Boston during a storm event. With
people. Overall, South Boston has lower numbers assets located in the future floodplain,
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing assets in the major roadways blocked by floodwaters within and
and percentages of socially vulnerable groups than including I-90 (Massachusetts Turnpike), the
basement or first floor, and result in employment along the outskirts of the neighborhood, it may
other Boston neighborhoods. The neighborhood is Ted Williams Tunnel entrances and exits,
and sales losses, most significantly to industries be difficult to bring in resources by automobile
less racially diverse than neighboring Dorchester the South Boston Bypass/Massport Haul
that support low- to moderate-income populations during an emergency situation. In addition, road
and the South End, with people of color comprising Road, and William J. Day Boulevard.
(see Risk to the Economy, below). In the near term, closures and flooded tunnels may have an impact
just 22 percent of its population (compared to 52 In the near term, I-90 and the Ted Williams Tunnel
roughly 100 people currently live in areas expected on Silver Line operations; eight Silver Line stations
percent citywide). Twenty-six percent of South are expected to be exposed to low-probability
to be flooded by high tides, and over 1,600 people are exposed to lower-probability events in the near
Boston residents are those with low to no income coastal flooding (1 percent annual chance). The
currently live in areas expected to be flooded by term (1 percent chance event) and may be exposed
(compared to 28 percent citywide). In contrast to Ted Williams Tunnel links South Boston to East
high-probability flood events (10 percent annual to high tides later in the century. Rail options in
other Boston neighborhoods that demonstrate Boston (Logan International Airport) by carrying
chance event). In a significant expansion of risk, South Boston are also limited by flood exposure;
widespread social vulnerability, South Boston has I-90 under the Boston Harbor, allowing direct
over 2,200 residents currently live in areas expected the Franklin and Greenbush commuter rail lines
vulnerable groups in concentrated pockets in and access to Route 1A in East Boston. Congress Street
to be flooded by high tides toward the end of the that run through South Boston will be exposed to
around public housing projects in the area. and Summer Street, which connect South Boston
century. This represents an increase of roughly 22 low-probability flooding in the second half of the
to Downtown, have portions exposed to a high-
In both the near and long term, South Boston can times from the near term. With 36 inches of sea level century, and the MBTA’s Red Line may experience
probability coastal flood event in the near term.
expect negative impacts to its population from rise, between 10,000 and 12,000 people could face difficulty in maintaining operations at the Andrew
As soon as the 2050s, South Boston’s remaining
displacement under a 1 percent annual chance event. Station later in the century during the 1 percent
DORCHESTER POPULATION EXPOSURE evacuation routes, including the South Boston
annual chance coastal flood event.
In the near term, one of South Boston’s emergency Bypass, (linking the South Boston waterfront to
shelters (the Curley Center) is expected to be South Bay), Dorchester Avenue, I-93, and William Impacts to transportation infrastructure and
exposed to high-tide flooding. If the Curley Center J. Day Boulevard (along the southeastern edge of services in South Boston could have ripple
is compromised, South Boston will lose a quarter South Boston) will all be exposed to low-frequency effects on other neighborhoods—for example, by
of its sheltering capacity (62 people). Further, South storm events (1 percent annual chance), in preventing East Boston residents from traveling
Boston’s current sheltering capacity may not be addition to many local roads, such as Old Colony down I-90. Tourism may also be affected if
adequate for the scale of flooding expected toward Avenue and streets around Joseph Moakley Park. conventioneers or cruise travelers are unable to
the end of the century, when roughly 1,200 people MassDOT’s Stormwater Pump Station 3, which access the Boston Convention and Exhibition
are expected to require public shelter during a 1 protects the South Boston Bypass, is also exposed Center or the Black Falcon Cruise Terminal. The
percent annual chance flood event. to high-probability storm events expected as soon Black Falcon Cruise Terminal itself may experience
as the 2050s. impacts in lower probability events as soon as the
In the second half of the century, BHA’s Mary Ellen
2050s (1 percent annual chance).
McCormack Development, the first and still largest
public housing development in New England
with 1,016 units in 22 buildings, will be exposed to
relatively low-probability events (1 percent annual
chance). As soon as the 2070s, the development will 2
This evaluation is preliminary. Site-specific analysis and detailed cascading

be exposed to more frequent (10 percent annual impact mapping is necessary to fully understand facility-level and neighborhood
vulnerabilities, as well as the extent of potential consequences.

chance) floods.
288 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 289
Widett Circle, an area that Boston seeks remediation, any remaining contamination at the Local access roads to the facility are exposed to
to redevelop, will be exposed to high- site could present a threat to public health and mid-century low-probability flooding as well,
probability flood impacts expected from safety with flooding. which may inhibit repair crews from addressing
mid-century storm events. potential facility damage.
Widett Circle has been a focus of several South Boston’s sanitary sewage system
redevelopment initiatives proposed by the MBTA
is exposed to coastal flooding and South Boston is expected to experience
sea level rise in the near term. Planned reduced emergency response capacity
and the BRA. Though the site is no longer the
improvements to the sanitary sewage as a result of sea level rise.
primary recommended location of a train yard
system could mitigate service interruption Of South Boston’s two Emergency Medical Services
to accommodate South Station expansions,
due to expected flooding. (EMS) facilities, the EMS Harbor Unit is expected to
redevelopment of the area must consider sea
South Boston’s sanitary sewage system is largely be exposed to low-probability flooding in the near
level rise and coastal flood impacts to ensure that
dependent upon two pump stations, one of which term (1 percent annual chance). Furthermore, five
investments are protected in the long term.
will be exposed to a 1 percent annual chance flood law enforcement facilities are expected be located
Several power assets in South Boston are event in the near term and a 10 percent annual within the 1 percent annual chance floodplain in
expected to be exposed under mid- to chance flood event by the second half of the the late century, potentially reducing emergency
late- century sea level rise and coastal century. While the sewage system and pumps have response capacity within South Boston. South
storm conditions, including four existing the capacity to handle large flows in dry weather Boston may also become islanded under a late-
substations and a cogeneration facility. conditions, overflows are likely during storm century storm event, which would limit the ability
Eversource Energy has constructed a new events, causing sewage backup into streets, homes, of outside emergency response vehicles to travel
substation in the South Boston Waterfront to and businesses. Since roads surrounding the pump into South Boston. Delayed or reduced emergency
relieve the strain imposed by rapid waterfront station are also expected to flood, repair crews response would exacerbate any potential flood
development on power and electric systems in might not be able to remedy loss of function right impacts.
the area. Though Substation 99 is expected to be away if the pump station were to fail. A redundant  
exposed to low-probability flooding in the near force main is being constructed in order to limit
term (1 percent annual chance event), it sits on a service disruption; these improvements may also
15-foot-high elevated steel platform with reinforced mitigate flood impacts.3 Image courtesy of Sasaki

cast-in-place concrete at its base. Sitting almost 26

The Columbus Park Headworks facility, which will
feet above current mean sea level, this substation
be exposed to low-probability storms in the mid-
is expected to withstand storm surge and flood
century, screens wastewater for inorganics and
scenarios throughout this century.
removes sticks, stones, grit, and sand to protect
In addition, the former Boston Edison power and reduce wear on the Deer Island Wastewater
plant at the corner of Summer and First Streets, Treatment Plant. The facility currently services a
near the Reserved Channel, will be exposed to tributary area of approximately 13 miles.4
flooding from high-probability storm events in
the mid- to late century. While the plant is no 3
A detailed analysis is needed to understand coastal storm impacts to South Boston’s
sanitary sewage system.
longer operational, and the 18-acre site is being 4
Impacts to Boston’s wastewater infrastructure due to flood impacts at this facility
require detailed analysis.
offered for redevelopment following environmental

290 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 291

EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS SOUTH BOSTON REAL ESTATE While exposure and expected damage While high-rise buildings5 occupy close to 10
MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE
costs in South Boston are the most percent of the building footprints within South
South Boston comprises close to 60 percent of
dramatic across the city, these losses Boston, they represent close to 15 percent of grade-
Boston’s total real estate market value exposed to
are limited to relatively few, very level exposure within this neighborhood. (In East
coastal flooding associated with low-probability
large structures when compared to Boston, high-rise structures occupy less than 1
events (1 percent annual chance) in the near
other relatively high expected loss percent of the current building stock and just over
term. South Boston is second only to Downtown neighborhoods. 1 percent of grade-level exposure.) Though South
with total real estate market value expected to
Compared to other neighborhoods that occupy Boston has a smaller number of buildings exposed
be exposed to flooding during high tides in the
large shares of Boston’s total expected losses, to flooding under coastal storm events, it has more
near term. In the late century, the community will
South Boston has a comparatively small number buildings and grade-level square footage exposed
continue to have the largest share (25 percent) of
of buildings exposed to flooding across all coastal to high-tide flood events in the near term than in
Boston’s total real estate market value exposed.
storm event scenarios. For example, East Boston any other neighborhood, except Downtown. As a
Perceived or actual flood risk can affect the value of has roughly three times as many buildings result, flood-related initiatives in South Boston, in
existing assets as well as insurance and operating exposed to low-probability events in the near term the near term, might effectively focus on building-
costs and the feasibility of future development. as South Boston and ten times as many buildings specific retrofits, though area-wide measures will
This is particularly the case for areas exposed to later in the century. South Boston has a relatively be necessary over the long term to address high-
frequent flood impacts, such as those associated high proportion of large, high-rise buildings tide flooding.
with high tides or high-probability coastal flood exposed, which are expected to experience greater
SOUTH BOSTON BUILDING EXPOSURE
events (10 percent annual chance). losses than buildings of low and medium height.
5
High-rise buildings are defined for the purposes of this study as
structures with greater than ten floors.

South Boston represents almost

half of the city’s expected
losses to buildings in the near
term and will maintain its
position as the single most-
vulnerable neighborhood,
as measured by projected
damage costs through the end
of the century.

292 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 293

RISK TO THE ECONOMY SOUTH BOSTON ECONOMIC LOSSES
Despite occupying a relatively
As of 2014, industries in South Boston contributed
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
small share of the South Boston
more than $20 billion in annual output (sales and Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood
economy and employment,
revenues) to Boston’s economy. Legal, financial, impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and
restaurant and retail industries
real estate, and insurance industries made up more
induced results are those expected to be could be hardest hit by flood
than half of that value and close to half of the felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
neighborhood’s 78,000 jobs. of changes in spending patterns. Results impacts in the near and long
term. These industries are
for both job and output losses are the sum
of annualized values for the four flood
As soon as the 2070s, based on preliminary frequencies analyzed for each sea level
rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
sensitive to residential and
and conservative-modeled6 evaluations, Boston
could face close to $80 million in annualized lost
estimate for several reasons. First, not all
probabilistic events are considered. Second,
business activity within an area
output and close to 600 annualized lost jobs due the analysis assumes that all impacted and must be local to operate.
businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA
to expected flood damage to structures in South estimates that almost 40 percent of small
businesses—and up to 25 percent of all
Boston.7 This estimate includes interruption from businesses—never reopen after experiencing
businesses directly exposed to flood impacts, as flood impacts. Third, only building areas
directly impacted by floodwater are
South Boston’s top-producing
well as the reverberations that impact may have assumed to experience business interruption. industries are considered
throughout Suffolk County’s economy.8 Except This does not consider interruptions of

for the real estate industry, South Boston’s other

businesses due to loss of power or utility relatively resilient to disasters,
functions. Finally, the analysis only considers SOUTH BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES
top-producing industries—legal, financial, and existing populations, businesses, and buildings as they are generally expected
to have built-in system
and does not include projections for future
insurance industries—are considered resilient growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
industries. These industries often maintain secure detailed explanation of the exposure and
consequence analysis.
redundancies, data storage,
data redundancies and are usually able to operate
and the capability to operate
remotely or relocate operations quickly.
remotely.
As in other neighborhoods, restaurants and retail INDUSTRY
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
ECONOMIC OUTPUT
are hit hard by flood impacts, representing over 30
Restaurants $150,000,000
percent of lost economic output and 50 percent of Economic loss calculations consider only impacts to floors expected to flood, only
6

consider potential losses within the City (as opposed to regional or national losses),
lost jobs from expected future flood conditions in Retail $9,700,000 and assume all businesses eventually reopen. Please see the Appendix for a full list of
assumptions.

the near term and later this century. Restaurants Real estate $4,000,000
Expected flood damages are calculated for the 10%, 2%, 1%, and 0.1% annual
7

chance flood events only.

and retail establishments are often small
Insurance and legal Losses to particular industries are based on current development and economic
8

$5,900,000
businesses, and tend to employ low- to moderate- services
activity in the area, and considering that South Boston is in a period of intense growth,
may differ as development continues.

income personnel, which makes them important All remaining industries $44,500,000

to considering impacts to socially vulnerable Total $78,900,000

populations.

294 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 295

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

SOUTH BOSTON ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

296 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 297

SOUTH BOSTON
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES The City should develop a local climate resilience plan for ESTABLISH FLOOD The Boston Planning and Development Agency (BPDA)
South Boston to support district-scale climate adaptation. PROTECTION OVERLAY should petition the Boston Zoning Commission to create
DEVELOP LOCAL DISTRICTS AND REQUIRE
The plan should include the following: new Flood Protection Overlay Districts in areas that
CLIMATE RESILIENCE POTENTIAL INTEGRATION
WITH FLOOD PROTECTION are strategically important for potential future flood
PLANS TO SUPPORT ◦ Community engagement through a local climate
DISTRICT-SCALE protection infrastructure (see Potential Flood Protection
resilience committee, leveraging existing local
CLIMATE ADAPTATION Locations below). Within a Flood Protection Overlay
organizations and efforts.
District, a developer would be required to submit a study
◦ Land use planning for future flood protection of how a proposed project could be integrated into a future
systems, including Flood Protection Overlay Districts flood protection system; options may include raising and
in strategically important “flood breach points” reinforcing the development site or providing room for a
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection future easement across the site.
Locations).
PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation
◦ Flood protection feasibility studies, evaluating FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- points, the City should study the feasibility of constructing
district-scale flood protection, including at locations SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
district-scale flood protection at the primary flood entry
identified below (see Potential Flood Protection
points in South Boston (see Potential Flood Protection
Locations).
Locations below for a preliminary identification of
◦ Infrastructure adaptation planning through the locations and potential benefits).
Infrastructure Coordination Committee. For South
These feasibility studies should take place in the context
Boston, the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)
of local climate resilience plans, featuring engagement
is a key partner because they control significant
with local community stakeholders, coordination with
land and assets. Massport is currently working
infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of how flood
with their tenants in South Boston to do operational
protection would impact or be impacted by neighborhood
preparedness planning.
character and growth. Examples of prioritization criteria
◦ Coordination with other plans, including Imagine include the timing of flood risk, consequences for
Boston 2030, GoBoston 2030, Special Planning Areas, people and economy, social equity, financial feasibility,
and any updates to the South Boston Municipal and potential for additional benefits beyond flood risk
Harbor Plan. reduction.

◦ Development of financing strategies and governance

structures to support district-scale adaptation.

298 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 299

 DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION New Charles
SLR SCENARIO
FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD10 River Dam

9” SLR
South Boston Waterfront South Boston
(2030s–2050s)
Waterfront
POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD
PROTECTION LOCATIONS 9 21” SLR South Boston Waterfront and
(2050s–2100s) Dorchester Bay locations combined

See the District-Scale Flood Protection Systems South Boston Waterfront, Dorchester
36” SLR
Overview section (p. 330) for a citywide (2070s or later)
Bay, and the New Charles River Dam
locations combined
perspective on district-scale flood protection.
Dorchester
District-scale flood protection is only one piece of Bay
a multilayered solution that includes prepared and LOCATIONS
connected communities, resilient infrastructure, ◦ The South Boston Waterfront location
and adapted buildings. focuses on flood entry points along the
West Broadway, perimeter protection near the DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS
edge of the district, including flooding from
Because the entire South Boston Waterfront Reserve Channel, or a gate across the Reserve ◦ Significant near-term benefits within a
Fort Point Channel, Boston Harbor, and the
is low lying, without high ground for a flood Channel. Deployable gates would be required single neighborhood: Given the South Boston
Reserve Channel. The low-lying nature of
protection system to tie into, preventing at intersections. As an alternative to flood Waterfront’s high level of exposure to coastal
the South Boston Waterfront likely requires
inundation in this area is particularly protection for the entire South Boston Waterfront, flooding, flood protection at this location
flood protection connections to high ground
challenging. a flood protection system along the southwestern would provide meaningful protection at 9
across Fort Point Channel. Potential flood
portion of the Fort Point Channel could provide inches of SLR for the 1 percent annual chance
In the near term, district-scale flood protection solutions include a floodgate aimed
flood protection benefits for parts of South Boston, event and more frequent events. In the near
protection is critical to address flood entry at preventing storm surge from flowing into
points around the entire edge of the as well as other areas, from Fort Point Channel term, flooding expected from very low-
the South Boston Waterfront from Fort Point
South Boston Waterfront, from Fort Point flooding. However, since protection for the entire probability events (0.1 percent annual chance)
Channel. The gate could be placed at a number
Channel to Boston Harbor and the Reserve South Boston Waterfront would provide much may require interventions at Dorchester Bay,
of locations, including the Northern Avenue
Channel. greater benefit in both the near term and the though further analysis is required to confirm
Bridge, Seaport Boulevard Bridge, Congress
long term, this Fort Point Channel alternative is the nature of this risk.
To prevent inundation from inland flood Street Bridge, or Summer Street Bridge. The
unlikely to be necessary. Flood entry points from
pathways, flood protection for the elevation of Summer Street on either side of ◦ Need for multiple alignments in the second
the southwestern portion of the Fort Point Channel
South Boston Waterfront will need to be the bridge is higher than the 1 percent annual half of the century: In the mid-century, South
should still be considered among planning and
combined with the following: chance flood event elevation with 36 inches of Boston Waterfront protection may need to
redevelopment projects in the area and potentially
sea level rise (SLR), although other portions of be combined with Dorchester Bay protection
◦ Protection from flood pathways from addressed in order to provide multiple lines of flood
Summer Street are lower. In addition to a gate to provide protection for South Boston, the
Dorchester Bay expected during very protection for inland areas.
low-probability events in the near term across Fort Point Channel, flood protection South End, and Dorchester, due to flooding
and high-probability events expected solutions would require either a barrier ◦ The Dorchester Bay location, described in from the Boston Harbor, Fort Point Channel,
by the 2050s system to connect to high ground south of the Dorchester focus area (see p.194), addresses the Reserve Channel, and Dorchester Bay. As
flood pathways from the Old Harbor and soon as the 2070s, additional interventions at
◦ Protection at the New Charles River 9
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level Savin Hill Cove. the New Charles River Dam will be necessary
Dam, addressing potential overtopping analysis of existing topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental
conditions. Important additional factors, including existing drainage systems,
to protect the aforementioned neighborhoods
or flanking of the dam expected for underground transportation and utility structures, soil conditions and zoning as well
as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied in ◦ The New Charles River Dam location,
the 1 percent annual chance event
detail. As described in Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3 (see p.106,110), detailed feasibility studies, from Charles River flooding expected at the 1
including appropriate public and stakeholder engagement, are required in order to described in the Charles River and Downtown
later in the century
better understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location.
percent annual chance event.
10
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than
focus areas (see pp. 174, 216), addresses
the 1 percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on
expected effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional potential overtopping or flanking of the dam.
flood protection locations and flood frequencies.

300 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 301

PREPARED & The City should conduct outreach to managers of facilities RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED in South Boston that serve significant concentrations INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for South Boston’s
COMMUNITIES of vulnerable populations and are not required to have key infrastructure systems, including energy, transportation,
operational preparedness and evacuation plans under ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE water and sewer, and environmental assets. The City should
CONDUCT AN OUTREACH current regulations. Targeted facilities will include COORDINATION COMMIT TEE support the MBTA in conducting a full asset-level vulnerability
CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE affordable housing complexes, substance abuse treatment assessment of its system, including the Red Line and Silver Line.
FACILITIES THAT SERVE and rehabilitation centers, daycare facilities, food pantries, Though neither of South Boston’s two Red Line stops (Broadway
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
small nonprofit offices, and others. Illustrative examples and Andrew) are exposed to coastal flooding at 9 inches of
TO ENSURE THAT THEY
ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY of the types of facilities to which the City might conduct SLR under the 1 percent annual chance flood event, flooding of
PREPAREDNESS AND outreach include the Tiny Tots daycare facility on tunnels and stops in Downtown Boston could impede the ability
ADAPTATION PLANNING Columbia Road, the Harborview Children’s Center, Bright of residents to access jobs and essential services. The Silver Line
Horizons at Seaport, and South Boston Head Start. These has significant exposure to flooding at 9 inches of SLR under the
facilities are exposed to near-term damage from sea level 1 percent annual chance flood event
rise and coastal flooding or can expect access issues related
to near-term stormwater flooding. PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE The Office of Emergency Management should work with the
FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- Boston Transportation Department, Department of Public Works,
SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
and private utilities to provide guidance on critical roads to
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL The City should reach out to small businesses in South
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS prioritize for adaptation planning, including evacuation routes
Boston exposed to stormwater flooding in the near term
PROGRAM and roads required to restore or maintain critical services. South
or coastal flooding under a 1 percent annual chance
Boston has four evacuation routes that are exposed at 9 inches
event at 9 inches of SLR to help them develop business
of SLR under the 1 percent annual chance flood event, including
continuity plans, evaluate insurance coverage needs, and
Haul Road, Summer Street, Ted Williams Tunnel, and Congress
identify low-cost physical adaptations. Under a 1 percent
Street. It is important to prepare roads in South Boston to avoid
annual chance event at 9 inches of SLR, 88 commercial
islanding in the later century.
buildings and 131 mixed-use buildings that could host
small businesses are exposed to flood risk. Though South
Boston’s primary commercial corridor along Broadway
CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified East
is located along high ground and is not exposed to STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY Broadway near Emerson Street as a potential location for an
flooding under the 1 percent annual chance event even ENERGY SOLUTIONS
emergency microgrid, based on its concentration of critical
with 36 inches of SLR, substantial numbers of small
facilities. The Environment Department will work with local
businesses in City Point, Telegraph Hill, and the South
stakeholders and utility providers to explore this location. The
Boston Waterfront adjacent to new office developments are
site is not exposed to expected coastal storm impacts in this
exposed under 9 inches of SLR.
century. The City also has been exploring the opportunity for a
pilot microgrid project at Ray Flynn Marine Park. The proposed
site is significantly exposed to coastal and stormwater flooding
in the near term, and the City should consider climate change
impacts in its planning process.
11
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.

302 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 303

ADAPTED Upon amending the zoning code to support climate ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
BUILDINGS EDUCATION
BUILDINGS readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately program to inform property owners about their current and
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
PROMOTE CLIMATE notify all developers with projects in the development RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM future climate risks and actions they can undertake to plan
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their for these risks. To address the most immediate risks, the
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments City should prioritize audits for buildings with at least a 1
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating percent annual chance of exposure to coastal and riverine
building height limits), without needing to restart the flooding in the near term, under 9 inches of sea level rise. In
BPDA permitting process. South Boston, this includes 353 structures, with 41 percent
of these consisting of residential and mixed-use buildings
The South Boston Waterfront is one of the most active
that house residents. A resilience audit should help
development locations in Boston. Currently, 91 residential
property owners identify cost-effective, building-specific
and 34 commercial buildings are under construction or
improvements to reduce flood risk, such as backflow
permitted in South Boston, representing 3,900 additional
preventers, elevation of critical equipment, and deployable
housing units and 1.4 million square feet of new
flood barriers; promote interventions that address
commercial space. In addition, General Electric is building
stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect, such as
a new headquarters facility adjacent to Fort Point Channel,
green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage
the Massachusetts Convention and Exhibition Center has
owners to develop operational preparedness plans and
been proposed for expansion, and the Massachusetts Port
secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience audit
Authority is offering a 23-acre site for development in the
program should include a combination of mandatory and
Massport Marine Terminal, making it critical to focus on
voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.
building resilience now.

PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with

INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should
FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE City departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal
CLIMATE CONDITIONS incorporate future climate considerations (long-term CHANGE
INTO AREA PLANS AND facilities in South Boston that demonstrate high levels
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and
ZONING AMENDMENTS of vulnerability (in terms of the timing and extent of
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning efforts
exposure), consequences of partial or full failure, and
in South Boston. The City and state are funding a $100
criticality (with highest priority for impacts on life and
million redesign and reconstruction of the Northern
safety) from coastal flooding in the near term. In the near
Avenue Bridge. In addition, the state is dedicating $25
term, at 9 inches of SLR, the EMS Harbor Unit, Boston
million to improve pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure
Police Department Harbor Patrol Unit, and the Boston
in South Boston and considering building an underground
Marine Industrial Park, which is owned by the BRA, are
tunnel for buses at D Street. The City is currently leading
exposed under the 1 percent annual chance flood event.
a planning effort for the Dorchester Avenue Corridor
In addition, the Boston Housing Authority Old Colony,
between the Andrew and Broadway MBTA Stations. The
Mary Ellen McCormack, and West Ninth Street housing
City also is pursuing implementation of the 100 Acres
developments will be exposed to coastal flooding in the
Plan, completed in 2006.
second half of the century.

304 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 305

ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
BUILDINGS EDUCATION Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY
program to inform property owners about their current
OWNERS, SUPPORTED BY A
RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM . and future climate-related risks, and actions they can
undertake to address these risks. To address the most
immediate risks, the City should prioritize audits for
buildings with at least a one percent annual chance
of exposure to coastal and riverine flooding in the
near term, under nine inches of sea level rise. In South
Boston, this includes 353 structures, with 41% of these
consisting of residential and mixed-use buildings that
house residents.

A resilience audit should help property owners identify

cost-effective, building-specific improvements to reduce
flood risk, such as backflow preventers, elevation of
critical equipment, and deployable flood barriers;
promote interventions that address stormwater runoff or
the urban heat island effect, such as green roofs or “cool
roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage owners to develop
operational preparedness plans and secure appropriate
insurance coverage.

The resilience audit program should include

a combination of mandatory and voluntary,
market-based and subsidized elements.

306 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 307

South End
The South End is located to the During the late nineteenth century and early With the construction of the Prudential Center Today, the South End remains a primarily
twentieth century, the South End received an influx tower in 1964 and the Copley Place retail, office, residential neighborhood. The housing stock
southwest of Fort Point Channel,
of working-class immigrants. In the early 1900s, and hotel complex in 1983, market pressures consists of historic brick row houses, several
southeast of the Back Bay the Washington Street Elevated rail line opened, started to bleed over into the South End. The public housing developments, and some infill,
neighborhood, and north of running from Chinatown to Dudley Square and neighborhood experienced reinvestment from the including the recent Ink Block project, a reuse
Roxbury and Dorchester. then ultimately to Forest Hills. 1970s onward, intensifying over time. Reflecting of the Boston Herald site. The South End has
market pressures, the neighborhood has been main commercial corridors on Tremont Street,
The South End was built on fill starting in 1849. During the 1960s and 1970s, the area became
the site of several innovative projects to preserve Columbus Avenue, and Washington Street,
Washington Street, which extends through the subject to urban renewal efforts. The state acquired
affordable housing. The Villa Victoria project, the last of which is a Main Streets district. The
South End, was the original street connecting land along a 4.6-mile route in the South End,
consisting of 435 low-income housing units, was neighborhood has major employment hubs at the
Boston (the Shawmut Peninsula) to Roxbury, Roxbury, and Jamaica Plain, with the intent of
completed during the 1970s, by the Inquilinos Boston Medical Center and Boston University
along the narrow “Great Neck.” The South End building a new section of I-95 (the Southwest
Boricuas en Acción community development School of Medicine and has experienced an
was designed to be a residential district for upper- Expressway) into Downtown Boston along the
corporation, using land provided by the Boston expansion of biotech light manufacturing. The
middle-class households, with brick row houses former Penn Central/New Haven Railroad right-
Redevelopment Authority. The Tent City project, area is primarily served by the Orange Line, as
organized around small parks, to relieve housing of-way. Community protests caused the project
consisting of 269 units of mixed-income housing, well as the Silver Line, which opened in 2002
pressures in Downtown and Beacon Hill. The to be halted. From 1979 to 1987, the land was
was completed in 1988, on land originally planned and runs along Washington Street and connects
majority of the construction occurred between used to reroute the MBTA Orange Line, and the
for a parking garage. Downtown Crossing to Dudley Square.
1850 and 1880. With the development of the Back Southwest Corridor Park was constructed on top.
Bay in the 1880s, the South End experienced new The Washington Street Elevated rail line, the last
competition for upper-middle-class households. remaining elevated section of the Orange Line, was
subsequently removed.

CC Image courtesy of pacoseoaneperez on Flickr

Image courtesy of Sasaki

308 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 309

FLOOD PROGRESSION

The South End is exposed to climate change

DEFINITIONS impacts including heat, increased precipitation
Near term: Beginning 2030s, assumes 9 and stormwater flooding, and sea level rise and
inches of sea level rise coastal and riverine flooding. Exposure to heat and
Midterm: Beginning 2050s, assumes 21 stormwater flooding are addressed in the Citywide
inches of sea level rise Vulnerability Assessment (see p.12), while exposure
Long term: Beginning 2070s or later, and consequences to coastal and riverine flood risk
assumes 36 inches of sea level rise 9 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
are further discussed in this section.
LEGEND
Exposure: Can refer to people, buildings,
infrastructure, and other resources within The South End will have
areas likely to experience hazard impacts.
Does not consider conditions that may limited exposure to coastal
prevent or limit impacts.
flooding until the second half
Vulnerability: Refers to how and why
people or assets can be affected by a of the century, when very low-
hazard. Requires site-specific information.
probability coastal storms
occur (0.1 percent annual
Consequence: Illustrates to what extent
people or assets can be expected to
be affected by a hazard, as a result of
vulnerability and exposure. Consequences chance event). Exposure to
can often be communicated in terms of
economic losses.
these storms and the 1 percent
Annualized losses: The sum of the
annual chance event later in
probability-weighted losses for all four
flood frequencies analyzed for each sea
the century is significant due
level rise scenario. Probability-weighted
losses are the losses for a single event times
to a flood pathway through
the probability of that event occurring in a Fort Point Channel. Flooding is 21 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE
given year.
expected to be severe enough
*For a full list of definitions, refer to the
Glossary in the Appendix. to flood portions of Roxbury.

36 INCHES SEA LEVEL RISE

310 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 311
Until the middle of the century, the South End Though not as significant of a flood pathway
is expected to have limited exposure to coastal as Fort Point Channel, there is some potential
flooding. Flooding originates from the coast for flooding from Dorchester Bay through
through relatively narrow and few penetration Joseph Moakley Park as soon as the 2070s. The
points. Nevertheless, a topographic threshold topography around Joseph Moakley Park and I-93
is expected to be breached as a result of coastal is continuously low lying, potentially allowing
storms later in the century. In this case, the floodwaters to propagate inland to the South
topographic threshold refers to the point at which End and Roxbury for coastal storm events with
water overtops grade and descends into lower lower probability of occurrence (1 percent annual
topography to inundate a large area of typically chance). This is particularly the case for long-
dry land. This threshold exists at the railroad duration events, like nor’easters.
crossing on the western side of Fort Point Channel 1
Resilience planning must consider that the
and will expose vast areas of the South End and
primary flood pathway for the South End is
some northern reaches of Roxbury as soon as the
through Fort Point Channel. Opportunities
2070s. Over 70 percent (450 acres) of the South may exist for flood protections that defend
End neighborhood alone will be exposed to low- the South End and Roxbury, while also
probability flood events during this time period. benefiting South Boston and Downtown.

Of all Boston focus areas,

the South End has the
greatest percentage of land
area per neighborhood
exposed to low-probability
storms expected by the end
of the century.
1
MassDOT FHWA Report citation: Bosma, Kirk, et. al. “MassDOT-FHWA Pilot Project Report:
Climate Change and Extreme Weather Vulnerability Assessments and Adaptation Options
for the Central Artery.” Jun. 2015, https://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Portals/8/docs/
environmental/SustainabilityEMS/Pilot_Project_Report_MassDOT_FHWA.pdf.

312 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 313

EXPOSURE
POPULATION & INFRASTRUCTURE

POPULATION AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY INFRASTRUCTURE In the South End, the Union Park pump station
also may be exposed to high-probability flood
The South End is home to 38,600 people. While the Late in the century, the South End’s major
SOUTH END POPULATION EXPOSURE impacts later in the century (10 percent annual
South End boasts high residential real estate values and roads and evacuation routes, in addition chance event). The pump station is a combined
is generally considered an affluent area, it is home to to the Orange and Silver Line routes
sewer facility and has redundant pumps and
more than 11,600 low-to no-income residents, 30 percent in the neighborhood, will be exposed
generators in place to cover both mechanical and
of the neighborhood population (higher than Boston’s to flooding, potentially compromising
electrical failures, should they occur.
28 percent average). Vulnerable populations in the South connectivity between Downtown and
End are mostly concentrated in its more than 3,300 units inland neighborhoods.
The South End may experience reduced
of subsidized and public housing developments. The As soon as the 2050s, portions of the Orange Line emergency response capacity later in
following public housing developments in the South End routes through the South End will be exposed to the century.
have at least some portion exposed to low-probability flooding from low-probability events (1 percent Throughout the South End, the EMS Headquarters,
flood impacts later in the century: Cathedral, Torre annual chance); high-probability events expected one Boston Police station, and two of three fire
Unidad, West Newton, Rutland, Frederick Douglas, later in the century (10 percent annual chance) will stations will be exposed to high-probability flood
Washington Manor, Hampton House, Camden, and expose large sections of the Silver Line that run events as soon as the 2070s (10 percent annual
Lenox. Together, they make up almost half of the South through the South End. The MBTA’s Albany Street chance). Widespread exposure in the area will also
End’s public housing stock. Garage is also exposed to flood impacts from low- impact roads and complicate traveling for response
probability events expected later in the century, vehicles, as described above.
As soon as the 2070s, almost 70 percent of the
which may affect the bus fleet that serves local
South End’s population, 27,000 residents, will
be exposed to flooding under low-probability
routes, Mass Pike Express routes, and crosstown Some of the area’s top economic
events (1 percent annual chance). routes. These potential transportation impacts industries, the Boston Medical Center and
could hinder evacuation and disaster response Boston University Medical Campus, will be
Over 4,700 South End residents are expected to require exposed to late-century flooding.
operations in not only the South End but also in
shelter for this scenario. Current shelter capacity in
Downtown and South Boston. In the longer term, In the late century, the entire Boston Medical
the South End is 250 people. The South End’s shelter
extended repairs to these systems could disrupt Center and Boston University Medical campus
capacity is likely to be further reduced in the case
commutes back into these two economic centers. could be exposed to flood impacts, including the
of a flood event. In the late century, the Blackstone
Menino Pavilion. The emergency room at the
Community Center and McKinley Elementary Furthermore, important transportation corridors
Menino Pavilion has the greatest volume of any
School, which serve as emergency shelters for the in the South End, including Tremont Street,
trauma program in the Northeast, with more than
neighborhood, will be exposed to flooding from Massachusetts Avenue, Albany Street, I-93 South,
100,000 patients treated each year.2 Full or partial
high-probability events, potentially reducing the and Melnea Cass Boulevard at the border with
service interruption at Boston Medical Center will
neighborhood’s current shelter capacity by more than Roxbury, all will have some portion exposed to
likely have an effect on the nearest emergency
60 percent. There are two emergency shelters in the flood impacts from high-probability flood events
medical facilities, including New England Baptist
northern portion of Roxbury, which are not expected to (10 percent annual chance) later in the century.
2
Source: Boston University. “The Menino Pavilion – Boston Medical
Center.” Website. Accessed August 2016. http://www.bumc.bu.edu/
Hospital (which has announced that it is planning
surgery/miscellani/bmc-menino-pavilion/ be exposed to flood impacts and may be able to shelter
Boston Water and Sewer Commission to relocate) or the VA Hospital, both in Mission
3
A site-specific review of the Boston Medical Center is necessary. residents from South End and South Boston, as needed.
operations depend upon uninterrupted Hill, as they endure the surge of relocated and
power service in the South End and redirected patients.3
northern Roxbury areas.
314 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 315
EXPOSURE AND CONSEQUENCES
BUILDINGS AND ECONOMY

RISK TO BUILDINGS SOUTH END BUILDING EXPOSURE

Residential buildings located along

Chandler Street are mostly split-level,
three-story row houses and could
experience significant flooding once
waters are high enough to reach
above grade.
In the near term, approximately 50 buildings in
the South End are at risk to very low-probability,
yet severe, coastal storms (0.1 percent annual
chance event). The first structures expected to
be impacted are located along Chandler Street,
east of Clarendon, as well as just north of the
Massachusetts Turnpike adjacent to Frieda Garcia
Park. As soon as the 2050s, broad swaths of the
South End neighborhood can be expected to be
exposed to coastal flooding for the same event
scenario.

The South End is in the top three exposed SOUTH END MARKET VALUE EXPOSURE
focus areas in Boston toward the end of
the century, with close to $200 million in
annualized structure damage and related
losses possible.
As soon as the 2070s, high-probability coastal flood
events (10 percent annual chance) may impact
over 3,000 structures in the South End. The South
End is also expected to experience the highest
average flood depth inside structures citywide for
the 1 percent annual chance flood event in the late
century. The scale of loss to coastal flood impacts
could potentially be mitigated through relatively
inexpensive and focused projects to cut off
flooding into the low-lying areas of the community.

Image courtesy of Sasaki

316 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 317

RISK TO ECONOMY SOUTH END ECONOMIC LOSSES
South End could experience
ECONOMIC RISK ASSUMPTIONS
The South End alone currently contributes over the deepest average flood
20,000 jobs and $3.6 billion in output to the city’s Job and output loss includes direct, indirect,
and induced consequences of flood depth to flooded structures
annual economy. Healthcare is the top industry in impacts. Direct results are impacts felt
within a neighborhood, while indirect and late in the century if flood risk
terms of both employment and output. Economic
impacts to the communities are expected to be light
induced results are those expected to be
felt throughout Suffolk County as a result
goes unmitigated (1 percent
until later in the century, when the topographic
of changes in spending patterns. Results
for both job and output losses are the sum
annual chance flood event).
threshold described above is breached. As soon as of annualized values for the four flood
frequencies analyzed for each sea level
the 2070s, unmitigated flood impacts could yield rise scenario. This represents a lower-bound
annualized output loss in excess of $60 million and estimate for several reasons. First, not all
probabilistic events are considered. Second,
annualized job loss around 330. The top affected the analysis assumes that all impacted
industries at that point are expected to be real businesses eventually reopen, though FEMA
estimates that almost 40 percent of small
estate (due to the large areas of residential property businesses—and up to 25 percent of all
businesses—never reopen after experiencing
impacted), hospitals, and restaurants. Restaurants
flood impacts. Third, only building areas
are expected to experience the largest job impacts directly impacted by floodwater are
assumed to experience business interruption.
as a result of flooding late in the century. This does not consider interruptions of
businesses due to loss of power or utility
Though flooding originates from the functions. Finally, the analysis only considers SOUTH END ANNUALIZED LOSSES
coast through relatively narrow and existing populations, businesses, and buildings
and does not include projections for future
few penetration points, a topographic growth. Refer to the Appendix for a more
threshold is expected to be breached detailed explanation of the exposure and
consequence analysis.
sometime mid- to late century as a result
of coastal storms. This would lead to over
$200 million in annualized expected direct
ANNUALIZED LOSS OF
physical damage to structures and their INDUSTRY
ECONOMIC OUTPUT
contents late in the century.
Real estate $12,100,000

Restaurants $5,800,000

Hospitals and other

$7,600,000
medical facilities
Wholesale trade and
$1,700,000
retail

All other industries $36,100,000

Total $61,600,000

318 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 319

EXPECTED ANNUALIZED LOSSES TO STRUCTURES AND CONTENTS Probable annualized losses are based on generalized
36 INCHES OF SEA LEVEL RISE AT 10%, 2%, 1%, 0.1% ANNUAL CHANCE COASTAL FLOOD EVENTS. assumptions, as opposed to site-specific assessment of
structures. Site-specific evaluations of vulnerability are
beyond the scope of this assessment and should be
reserved for detailed evaluation of specific resilience
initiatives or a next phase of this project.

SOUTH END ANNUALIZED LOSSES

36 INCH SEA LEVEL RISE CONDITION

Each circle represents annualized losses suffered by an

individual building. Larger circle size indicates higher contents
and structures losses. Annualized losses take into consideration
the annual probability of an event occurring, as well as the
projected impacts of such an event.

320 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 321

SOUTH END
APPLICATION OF RESILIENCE INITIATIVES

PROTECTED SHORES To reduce the risk of coastal flooding at major inundation In the near term, coastal flood risk in the DISTRICT SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION
SLR SCENARIO
points, the City should study the feasibility of South End is modest and likely does not FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD5

PRIORITIZE AND STUDY THE constructing district-scale flood protection at the primary require district-scale flood protection.
9” SLR
FEASIBILITY OF DISTRICT- flood entry points for the South End (see Potential (2030s–2050s)
None6

SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION Later in the century, the South End

Flood Protection Locations below for a preliminary
will be exposed to flooding from Fort 21” SLR The South Boston Waterfront and
identification of locations and potential benefits). As Point Channel and other inland flood (2050s–2100s) Dorchester Bay locations combined
described below, flood protection systems that would pathways, so combined flood protection The New Charles River Dam, South
36” SLR
benefit the South End would likely be located outside of at multiple locations will be critical: Boston Waterfront, and Dorchester
(2070s or later)
Bay locations combined
the South End, in South Boston, Dorchester, and by the
◦ At Dorchester Bay, addressing inland
New Charles River Dam. 5
Additional flood protection may be required for flood events more severe than the
flood pathways originating from the 1 percent annual chance flood. See Appendix for more detailed information on
expected effectiveness of flood protection systems, including analysis of additional

These feasibility studies should feature engagement Old Harbor and Savin Hill Cove. flood protection locations and flood frequencies.

with local community stakeholders, coordination

◦ At the South Boston Waterfront, 6
Benefits of district-scale flood protection would be modest.
with infrastructure adaptation, and considerations of
addressing inland flood pathways
how flood protection would impact or be impacted
originating from Fort Point Channel,
by neighborhood character and growth. Examples of Boston Harbor, and the Reserve
prioritization criteria include the timing of flood risk, Channel
consequences for people and economy, social equity, New Charles
financial feasibility, and potential for additional benefits ◦ At the New Charles River Dam, River Dam
beyond flood risk reduction.
addressing potential overtopping or
flanking of the dam.
South Boston
Waterfront

POTENTIAL DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION

LOCATIONS 4
See District-Scale Flood Protection Systems section for a citywide
perspective on district-scale flood protection. District-scale
flood protection is only one piece of a multi-layered solution Dorchester
that includes prepared and connected communities, resilient Bay

infrastructure, and adapted buildings.

4
These preliminary coastal flood protection concepts are based on a high-level analysis of existing
topography, rights-of-way, and urban and environmental conditions. Important additional factors, including
existing drainage systems, underground transportation and utility structures, soil conditions, zoning, as well
as any potential external impacts as a result of the project have not been studied in detail. As described in
Initiatives 5-2 and 5-3, detailed feasibility studies, including appropriate public and stakeholder engagement,
are required in order to better understand the costs and benefits of flood protection in each location.

322 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 323

 PREPARED & In the long term, the City should conduct outreach
CONNECTED to managers of facilities in the South End that serve
COMMUNITIES significant concentrations of vulnerable populations and
LOCATIONS DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS are not required to have operational preparedness and
◦ The South Boston Waterfront location, ◦ Multiple locations required to address flood CONDUCT AN OUTREACH evacuation plans under current regulations. Targeted
described in the South Boston focus area (see risk: For very low-probability events (0.1 CAMPAIGN TO PRIVATE facilities will include affordable housing complexes,
FACILITIES THAT SERVE substance abuse treatment centers, daycare facilities,
p.282), addresses flood entry points along the percent annual chance) in the near term
VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
edge of the district. As an alternative to flood and into the second half of the century, food pantries, small nonprofit offices, and others. The
TO ENSURE THAT THEY
protection for the entire South Boston Waterfront, flood exposure from both Fort Point ENGAGE IN EMERGENCY City should conduct outreach in the long term because
a flood protection system along the southwestern Channel and Dorchester Bay are expected PREPAREDNESS AND widespread flooding in the neighborhood is not expected
portion of the Fort Point Channel could provide to impact portions of the South End, ADAPTATION PLANNING for the 1 percent annual chance flood event until later
flood protection benefits for parts of South Boston, requiring district-scale flood protection in the century, meaning that the South End focus area
as well as other areas, from Fort Point Channel solutions. Later in the century, flood has a longer adaptation window. Illustrative examples
flooding. However, since protection for the entire protection solutions at the South Boston of the types of facilities to which the City might conduct
South Boston Waterfront would provide much Waterfront and Dorchester Bay may not be outreach include the Ellis Memorial Early Education and
greater benefit in both the near term and the independently effective for the 1 percent Care Program, Eagle’s Nest Learning Center, and Pine
long term, this Fort Point Channel alternative is annual chance event and events with Village Preschool. These facilities will be exposed to long-
unlikely to be necessary. Flood entry points from lower probability of occurrence, requiring term damage from sea level rise and coastal flooding or
the southwestern portion of the Fort Point Channel interventions at the New Charles River Dam can expect access issues related to stormwater flooding in
should still be considered among planning and to impede flooding from the Charles River. the same time frame.
redevelopment projects in the area and potentially While investments at all three locations may
addressed in order to provide multiple lines of flood be significant, losses avoided are expected
7
The City did not review the extent of existing preparedness planning as part of this study.
protection for inland areas. to be substantial because an integrated
system could protect Downtown, South
◦ The Dorchester Bay location, described in the
Boston, Dorchester, the South End, Roxbury,
Dorchester focus area (see p.194), addresses
and neighborhoods along the Charles River.
flood pathways from the Old Harbor and
Savin Hill Cove. ◦

◦ The New Charles River Dam location,

described in the Charles River and Downtown
focus areas (see pp. 174, 216), addresses
potential overtopping or flanking of the dam.

324 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 325

PREPARED & The City should reach out to small businesses in South RESILIENT The Infrastructure Coordination Committee (ICC) should
CONNECTED Boston exposed to stormwater flooding risk in the near INFRASTRUCTURE support coordinated adaptation planning for the South
COMMUNITIES term to help them develop business continuity plans, End’s key infrastructure systems, including transportation,
evaluate additional insurance coverage needs, and identify ESTABLISH INFRASTRUCTURE water and sewer, energy, telecommunications, and
EXPAND BOSTON’S SMALL low-cost physical adaptations. In the South End, there are COORDINATION COMMIT TEE environmental assets. In the near term, the City should
BUSINESS PREPAREDNESS approximately 30 commercial buildings and 180 mixed- support the MBTA in conducting a full asset-level
PROGRAM use buildings that could host small businesses exposed to vulnerability assessment of its system.
stormwater flooding in the near term. It is important to note
that, in the near term, Tremont Street and Massachusetts PROVIDE GUIDANCE ON The Office of Emergency Management should work with
Avenue, which are both key commercial corridors, will be PRIORITY EVACUATION the Boston Transportation Department, Department of
AND SERVICE ROAD
exposed to stormwater flooding. The Washington Gateway Public Works, and private utilities to provide guidance
INFRASTRUCTURE TO THE ICC
Main Street District will also have portions exposed to on critical roads to prioritize for adaptation planning,
stormwater flooding in the near term and will be exposed including evacuation routes and roads required to restore
to coastal storm and sea level rise impacts during high- or maintain critical services. With 21 inches of sea level
probability storms later in the century. rise, under the 1 percent annual chance flood event,
portions of I-93 near Tremont Street, Arlington Street, and
Berkeley Street will be exposed to coastal and riverine
flooding.

CONDUCT FEASIBILITY The 2016 Boston Community Energy Study identified

STUDIES FOR COMMUNITY three potential locations for Energy Justice or emergency
ENERGY SOLUTIONS
microgrids: along Massachusetts Avenue, along Tremont
Street, and at Public Alley 706. The Environment
Department should work with local stakeholders and
utility providers to explore these locations. All three
locations have significant exposure to flooding under the
1 percent annual chance event with 36 inches of SLR.

326 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 327

ADAPTED BUILDINGS Upon amending the zoning code to support climate PREPARE MUNICIPAL The Office of Budget Management should work with City
readiness (see Initiative 9-2, p.135), the Boston Planning FACILITIES FOR CLIMATE departments to prioritize upgrades to municipal facilities
CHANGE
PROMOTE CLIMATE and Development Agency (BPDA) should immediately in South End that demonstrate high levels of vulnerability
READINESS FOR PROJECTS IN notify all developers with projects in the development (in terms of the timing and extent of exposure),
THE DEVELOPMENT PIPELINE
pipeline in the future floodplain that they may alter their consequences of partial or full failure, and criticality (with
plans in a manner consistent with the zoning amendments highest priority for impacts on life and safety) from coastal
(e.g., elevating their first-floor ceilings without violating flooding in the near term. Later in the century, there are a
building height limits), without needing to restart the number of Boston Housing Authority developments that
BPDA permitting process. are expected to be exposed to coastal flooding, as well as
access issues related to stormwater flooding. These sites
INCORPORATE FUTURE The Boston Planning and Development Agency should include Camden, Cathedral, Frederick Douglas, Hampton
CLIMATE CONDITIONS INTO incorporate future climate considerations (long-term House, Lenox, Rutland/West Newton, Torre Unidad, and
AREA PLANS AND ZONING
projections for extreme heat, stormwater flooding, and Washington Manor. The City will also prioritize adding
AMENDMENTS
coastal and riverine flooding) into major planning efforts backup power to emergency shelters that do not yet have
in the South End. power system redundancies. By later in the century, there
will be a strong need for shelter capacity in the South
ESTABLISH A CLIMATE READY The City should develop and run a Climate Ready
End unless flood risk is mitigated, which will require all
BUILDINGS EDUCATION Buildings Education Program and a resilience audit
PROGRAM FOR PROPERTY existing shelters to be prepared.
program to inform property owners about their current
OWNERS AND ESTABLISH A
RESILIENCE AUDIT PROGRAM and future climate risks and actions they can undertake
to address these risks. A resilience audit should help
property owners identify cost-effective, building-specific
improvements to reduce flood risk, such as backflow
preventers, elevation of critical equipment, and deployable
flood barriers; promote interventions that address
stormwater runoff or the urban heat island effect, such as
green roofs or “cool roofs” that reflect heat; and encourage
owners to develop operational preparedness plans and
secure appropriate insurance coverage. The resilience audit
program should include a combination of mandatory and
voluntary, market-based and subsidized elements.

328 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 329

District-Scale Flood Methodology
Protection Systems Based on ex isting topog raphy, r ights-
A CITYWIDE PERSPECTIVE of-way, and ur ban and envi ronmental
conditions, Climate Ready Boston
identif ied locations where g reen or
g ray flood protection systems could
protect populations and reduce
Based on the citywide KEY FINDINGS damage to buildings, infrastr ucture,
vulnerability assessment The Progression of Flood Protection The Locations of Flood Protection and the economy from the projected

and the focus-area analyses, one percent annual flooding. This

analysis is prelimina r y. A s descr ibed
In the near term, with nine inches of sea level ◦ A flood protection system that addresses the
Climate Ready Boston rise, four flood protection systems, independent overtopping or flanking of the New Charles
in Initiatives 5 -2 and 5 - 3, detai led

proposes nine locations of one another, could protect against widespread River Dam can reduce flood risk Downtown,
feasibilit y studies and publ ic and
stakeholder engagement a re requi red
for flood-protection one percent annual chance flooding: East Boston; in Charlestown, and along both sides of the to better understand the costs and
interventions. As sea level the New Charles River Dam; the Downtown Charles River. benef its of flood protection in each
location.1
rises over the century, the Waterfront; and the South Boston Waterfront.
◦ In East Boston and in Charlestown, targeted
number of interventions As sea level rise progresses to 36 inches (2070s flood protection systems can address relatively
needed increases, and their or later), preventing one percent annual chance narrow flood pathways. The th ree maps and accompanying

cumulative effectiveness flooding would require additional interventions:

◦ The low-lying portion of the Downtown
tables on the following pages
cor respond to the th ree levels of
becomes more important. ◦ An expansion of the East Boston flood Waterfront is very broad and densely built, sea level r ise —9, 21, and 36 inches —
protection system; which makes it challenging to identify a assessed in this repor t. There a re 9
potential inter vention a reas, descr ibed
specific location for a flood protection system.
◦ A Charlestown system near Sullivan Square; in more detail in the va r ious focus
◦ Nearly the entire South Boston Waterfront is a rea sections. 2 The accompanying
◦ A Downtown Waterfront system; and tables provide prel imina r y, order-
low-lying and exposed to flooding from three
of- magnitude estimates of cer tain
◦ A combined flood protection system for edges, presenting significant challenges to a benef its 3 that could result from the
the New Charles River Dam, the South flood protection system. A system that prevents implementation of the flood protection
Boston Waterfront, and Dorchester Bay. flooding from Fort Point Channel can also systems. They do not estimate
benefit areas as far inland as the South End, potential costs.
This combined system will become necessary
because low-lying inland areas and below- Roxbury, Newmarket, and Widett Circle.
grade roads can bring floodwaters from the This set of potential locations for
◦ Along Dorchester Bay, The broad, low-lying
waterfront across the city. distr ict-scale flood p rotection is
waterfront areas from Joseph Moakley Park
not comp rehensive, and additional
1
Important factors, including existing drainage systems, underground transportation
and utility structures, soil conditions, zoning, as well as any potential external impacts
to Savin Hill Cove also expose inland areas to infrastructu re may be neces sa r y to
as a result of the project have not been studied in detail.
flooding but do not present obvious, targeted p rotect specif ic sites. Additional ly,
2
See Appendix for more detailed information on expected effectiveness of flood
protection systems, including analysis of additional flood protection locations and
flood frequencies.
solutions for flood protection systems. distr ict-scale flood p rotection is
3
Annualized benefits can be used to determine project cost effectiveness by only one piece of a multi - layered
applying a discount rate to benefits, capital costs, and maintenance costs over
the expected project useful life and evaluating the ratio of the net present value solution that includes p repa red and
of benefits over costs. A ratio of one or greater typically indicates that a project
is cost effective. A ratio less than one, for an evaluation that is based entirely on connected communities, resi l ient
avoided damage costs, does not necessarily mean that a project is not worthwhile.
Cost effectiveness is one lens through which to evaluate the merits of a project. infrastructu re, and adapted bui ldings.
These estimates consider current resident and structures in the study area, not future
growth. For methodology see Appendix.

330 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 331

9 INCHES SLR (2030 –2050S)
DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD
Jeffries Point to Central Square Downtown Waterfront
(See East Boston Focus Area for more information) (See Downtown Focus Area for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Benefiting Area4 Benefiting Area6

People 10,700 People 1,100

Jeffries Point
to Central Structures 1,580 Structures 170
Square
Land Area 260 acres Land Area 40 acres

Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

New Charles River Dam
From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual
Downtown $186 million $219 million
chance flood chance flood
Waterfront South Boston
Waterfront Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $6 million multiple flood $21 million
probabilities5 probabilities7

New Charles River Dam South Boston Waterfront

(See Downtown and Charlestown Focus Areas for more information) (See South Boston Focus Area for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Benefiting Area8 Benefiting Area10

People 1,500 People 2,300

Structures 110 Structures 290

Land Area 90 acres Land Area 320 acres

Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

$314 million $978 billion
chance flood chance flood
Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $13 million multiple flood $62 million
probabilities9 probabilities11
4
Area protected through the 1% annual chance flood event. Additional flood 8
Area protected through the 1% annual chance flood event. Additional flood
protection would be necessary to protect against the 0.1% annual chance flood protection would be necessary to protect against the 0.1% annual chance flood
event. 9
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance flood
5
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance flood events. Additional flood protection would be necessary to protect against the 0.1%
events. Additional flood protection locations would be necessary to protect against annual chance flood event.
the 0.1% annual chance flood event. 10
Area protected through the 1% annual chance flood event. Additional flood
6
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event. protection would be necessary to protect against the 0.1% annual chance flood
event.
7
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events. 11
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance flood
events. Additional flood protection locations would be necessary to protect against
the 0.1% annual chance flood event.

332 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 333

21 INCHES SLR (2050S–2100S)
DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD
Jeffries Point to Central Square Orient Heights
(See East Boston Focus Area for more information) (See East Boston Focus Area for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Orient
Benefiting Area12 Benefiting Area14
Heights
People 10,500 People 2,700
North Charlestown Jeffries Point
to Central Structures 1,560 Structures 470
Square
Wood Land Area 270 acres Land Area 120 acres
Island
Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

Porzio
$541 million $227 million
Downtown chance flood chance flood
Waterfront Park
Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $36 million multiple flood $23 million
probabilities13 probabilities15

North Charlestown and New Charles

River Dam Locations Combined16 Downtown Waterfront
(See East Boston Focus Area for more information) (See Downtown Boston Focus Area for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Benefiting Area17 Benefiting Area19

People 21,200 People 1,100

Structures 4,310 Structures 200

Land Area 140 acres Land Area 50 acres

Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

$103 million $383 million
chance flood chance flood
Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $3 million multiple flood $39 million
probabilities18 probabilities20

12
Area protected through the 1% annual chance flood event. Additional flood 16
Only includes benefits in Charlestown. See table for New Charles River Dam for
protection would be necessary to protect against the 0.1% annual chance flood additional benefits citywide.
event. 17
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
13
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance flood
events. Additional flood protection locations would be necessary to protect against
18
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
the 0.1% annual chance flood event. flood events.

14
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
19
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.

15
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
20
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events. flood events.

334 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 335

21 INCHES SLR (2050S–2100S)
DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD
South Boston Waterfront and
New Charles River Dam21 Dorchester Bay Locations Combined
(See Downtown and Charlestown (See South Boston and Dorchester Bay
Focus Areas for more information) Focus Areas for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Benefiting Area22 Benefiting Area24

People 23,600 People 41,700

Structures 4,360 Structures 4,990

New Charles
River Dam Land Area 290 acres Land Area 1,580 acres

Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

$543 million $3 billion
chance flood chance flood
South Boston
Waterfront Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $24 million multiple flood $218 million
probabilities23 probabilities25

Dorchester
Bay 21
Does not include benefits in Charlestown, which are dependent on flood protection
in North Charlestown. See table for North Charlestown and New Charles River Dam
Locations Combined.
22
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
23
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events.
24
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
25
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events.

336 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 337

36 INCHES SLR (2070S OR LATER)
DISTRICT-SCALE FLOOD PROTECTION FOR 1% ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD
North Charlestown and New Charles
All Four East Boston Locations Combined River Dam Locations Combined28
(See East Boston Focus Area for more information) (See Charlestown Focus Area for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Orient Benefiting Area26 Benefiting Area29

Heights
People 14,800 People 1,300
North Charlestown Jeffries Point
to Central Structures 2,430 Structures 370
Square
Wood Land Area 650 acres Land Area 170 acres
New Charles Island
River Dam Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

Downtown Waterfront $1.2 billion $238 million
Porzio chance flood chance flood
Park
Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $122 million multiple flood $20 million
South Boston
probabilities27 probabilities30
Waterfront
New Charles River Dam, South Boston
Waterfront, and Dorchester Bay
Locations Combined33
Dorchester Downtown Waterfront (See Downtown, Charlestown, South Boston and Dorchester
Bay (See Downtown Focus Area for more information) Focus Areas for more information)

Estimated Benefits Estimated Benefits

Benefiting Area31 Benefiting Area34

People 1,100 People 114,100

Structures 230 Structures 10,620

Land Area 60 acres Land Area 3,370 acres

Avoided Economic Losses Avoided Economic Losses

From a single 1% annual From a single 1% annual

$680 million $9.4 billion
chance flood chance flood
Annualized across Annualized across
multiple flood $71 million multiple flood $912 million
probabilities32 probabilities35
26
Area protected through the 0.1 percent annual chance flood event. 31
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
27
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1 percent, 1 percent, 2 percent, and 32
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
10 percent annual chance flood events. flood events.
28
Only includes benefits in Charlestown. See table for Locations 7, 8 and 9 Combined 33
Does not include benefits in Charlestown, which are dependent on flood protection
for additional benefits citywide. in North Charlestown. See table for North Charlestown and New Charles River Dam
Locations Combined.
29
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
34
Area protected through the 0.1% annual chance flood event.
30
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events. 35
Probability-adjusted economic losses for the 0.1%, 1%, 2%, and 10% annual chance
flood events.
338 City of Boston: Climate Ready Boston Focus Areas 339