Earth, Moon, Mars or Beyond?: Being The Space Debate of The Times

Earth, Moon, Mars or beyond?
Earth, Moon, Mars or beyond? Page | 1

The debate
By Billy Chilongo Sichone
1st Edition
July 2009
Page | 2
© Billy C Sichone 2009
All rights reserved. No copy or part of this book may be printed or published in any form
imaginable without the express written consent of the copyright owner. You may contact him on:
Billy.Sichone@gmail.com
Or
+260977429521
+260966325998
Acknowledgements
This book was born out of a desire to contribute to the debate in “Space circles” as to where
humans head to next in the quest to conquer and explore space frontiers, hoping to reach the far
reaches of the universe some day. Naturally, I am indebted to whatever sources I drew my
materials during the writing of this work.
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Special thanks are due to the National Geographic edition of January 1980 that opened my eyes
to the Voyager “twin space travellers” as well as William Sheehan for his classic book, “Worlds
in the sky” (1992). These two documents as well as other internet sites really enriched my
appreciation and comprehension of the world beyond our planet.
I would also like to salute the 1992 Rio Earth summit with its declarations. That was a land mark
meeting with powerful resolutions whose token fruit and effect we are beginning to see now.
Acronyms
STS-Shuttle Transport System
ISS-International Space Station
ETA-Expected Time of Arrival

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ET-Extra Terrestrial
AU-Astronomical Unit (1 Au=93 million miles)
SETI-Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

Contents
CONTENTS.........................................................................................................5 Page | 5
Introduction......................................................................................................................8
The Earth.......................................................................................................................39
The Moon.......................................................................................................................57
Mars...............................................................................................................................67
Beyond...........................................................................................................................72
Whither from here?........................................................................................................89
General Bibliography......................................................................................................91
Sheehan William, Worlds in the sky, University of Arizona Press, 1992..........................93
Appendix........................................................................................................................94
6. MINING ACTIVITIES- ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES SUCH AS MINING ARE AS OLD
AS THE WORLD PROBABLY. TODAY, HOWEVER, THIS ACTIVITY RANKS AMONG THE
HIGHEST POLLUTERS IN THE WORLD. SMOKE AND DUST COME FROM THE MINERAL
PROCESSING ACTIVITIES ESPECIALLY FROM THE METAL SMELTERS. IT IS NO
WONDER THAT THE SURROUNDING AREAS OF THE MINES DO NOT HAVE
VEGETATION AND ACID RAIN IS A COMMON FEATURE IN NEARBY LOCALITIES......96
THIS IS HOW ACID RAIN IS FORMED AS THE GASES REACT WITH RAINWATER ....................................................100
THIS REACTION TAKES PLACE ON A LARGE SCALE AND SO FORMS A LAYER THAT
IS AN EFFECTIVE BARRIER AGAINST THE LETHAL GAMMA PARTICLES.
UNFORTUNATELY, THIS SELFSAME GAS IS EASILY DESTROYED BY CERTAIN
ELEMENTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE WHICH LEADS TO THE SITUATION WE SITED-THE
OZONE HOLE. THE MAJOR CAUSE OF THE RAPID BREAK DOWN OF THE LAYER IS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE USE OF AEROSOLS. THESE AEROSOLS CONTAIN INERT
PROPELLANT GASES SUCH AS CHLOROFLORO CARBONS OR CFCS. AFTER BEING
RELEASED FROM SPRAYING CANS AND FRIDGES, THESE ASCEND TO THE HIGHER
ORBS WHERE, IN THE PRESENCE OF UV LIGHT THEY SPLIT TO GIVE FREE CHLORINE
RADICALS......................................................................................................102
THESE FREE CHLORINE RADICALS THEN GO AND “ATTACK” THE OZONE IN A
SPONTANEOUS CONTINUOUS MANNER. IN THIS WAY, THE DESTRUCTION RATE OF
OZONE IS FAR HIGHER THAN THE FORMATION, THUS LEADING TO THE GAPS OR
OZONE HOLE. THE FOLLOWING IS THE REACTION THAT PROBABLY TAKES PLACE
WHEN THE OZONE IS BROKEN:........................................................................102
CL + O3  CLO + O2.......................................................................................102
Bibliography.................................................................................................................109
Index............................................................................................................................110
About the author..........................................................................................................113
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Preface
From infancy, I always dreamed of becoming an Astronaut and then travel the worlds far
beyond my wildest dreams. As early as my second grade, I was already drawing rockets, space
suits and aliens from other galactic bodies who visited our planet. As years rolled on, I
increasingly talked about my ambitions as my fascinations for rockets increased. I was ten years
old when the Space shuttle first made its maiden voyage into space, how it blew my mind! My
interest increased all the more and read whatever my eyes could find relating to space and
cosmic travel. That intrigue has never left me to this day.
However, as the years rolled on, I increasingly became aware of the fact that I was born and
raised in a context that was far removed from such things! People were either ignorant or simply
not care about life beyond their immediate environment, let alone their planet! Over the years, I
have come to painfully accept that I probably will not visit space or live on the moon. But
although I may not reach the stars physically, I can certainly get there in my imagination as well
as contribute in some way towards the quest to reach the outer reaches of space. The venerable
CS Lewis once wrote much about space in the 1930s but his thoughts were viewed as pure
fantasy. Today, not everything he said and dreamt may be classified as such. In a few
generations from now, he may even be better venerated and vindicated. Perhaps he lived outside
his time. Many others have laboured in the areas we now tread and we simply build on what they
saw from afar.
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Thus this book is born out of a deep personal interest I have had for nearly three and a half
decades and hope I can win some more “space freaks” over to our camp. It is also a treatise
hoping to contribute to the fiery debate that engulfed the world when commemorating the 40th
Anniversary of the Apollo 11 landing of 20th July 1969, a year before I first landed on planet
earth from worlds unseen.
Billy Sichone
Dedication
To all space exploration lovers: Past, present and future.

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Introduction
For many generations, man has wondered at the greatness and vastness of space. The wide
starry skies and expanse have held people in awe as to who designed or from where the
extremely magnificent, orderly and glorious universe has come from1. Could things have
accidentally evolved? Or could an intelligent mind, far removed from his works have fashioned
and let things work randomly?2 Many pundits of either side have spent their entire lives arguing
for or against a given theory without a conclusive answer. The question still lingers, from where
did this wonderful piece of art emerge? In this book that we begin to explore together, the writer
does not enter the polemics surrounding the origins per se but rather focuses on the wonder of
1
At least three theories have been propagated as to the Universe origin: 1. The Steady state
theory 2. The evolutionary or ‘Big Bang’ theory and 3. The ‘cyclic’ universe theory (which
assumes that the universe is in a state of alternate expansion and contraction)-Moon Flight
Atlas pp 4 by Patrick Moore. As to the origins of life, at least three have been forwarded: 1.
The supernatural (or creationist) 2. The Panspermia hypothesis (life came by spores which
drifted through space to Earth, also the ‘Garbage theory’ that life begun when some space
travelers from another world visited the earth and contaminated it leading to life springing
up. 3. Chemical evolution which states that life originated in some ideal conditions
consisting of chemicals and right temperatures etc. Most scientists hold this view. Refer to
Brandt & Maran’s book, ‘New Horizons in Astronomy’ pp85
2
This is the deist view as championed by big names like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas
Jefferson and many other big names past and present.
this great piece we have in our laps, or better still, we ride on in the universe. From ancient
times, humanity has marvelled at the beauty displayed in the upper reaches of the sky and has
developed a lot of belief systems or uses of the sky. For instance, some civilizations have
worshipped the planets or stars3. Others have delved into astrology while others have used the
stars to navigate their way through confusing geographical dilemmas. The stars have been used Page | 9
as bearings on journeys as well as help foretell ones’ destiny. All these and many others have
resulted from the quiet but amazing “emptiness” of space. There is always a song that is heard
and seen from all parts of the universe which cannot be denied or ignored. For those that have
ventured into astronomy, progressive powerful instruments for studying and mapping the skies
have been developed, having first been invented by Galileo in the 1600s. From using the
telescopic naked eye, people have invented better telescopes until today when humans have
placed the Hubble Space Telescope which can see many times better (at least seven times better)
than any earth stationed telescope. Put in orbit about April 1991, the telescope continues to get
magnificent hitherto unseen cosmic pictures into the far reaches of the universe. But humans
have not been content to merely see things from afar, which in many instances are light years
away, there has been an inner urge to send unmanned probes to search out the hidden riches of
deep space as well as the outer planets and beyond. Many probes have travelled and continue to
go “where no man has gone before” and send back informative data from gigantic distances
stretching millions, yea, billions of miles away, taking an electronic instruction over twelve
hours to reach the probe. But man has also been investigating the nearer neighbours in the inner
solar system via unmanned probes to the planets nearest to the earth with a view of possible
colonization. As though that were not stunning enough, man has made spectacular leaps in
technological advancement allowing humans to regularly travel within the atmosphere at
supersonic speeds, reaching places that would have ordinarily taken many months or years
perhaps to traverse. Aeroplanes are no longer as amazing as they once were in 1903 and
afterwards. Today, humans can travel outside the regular atmosphere into lower earth orbit and at
times relatively deep space though still within the earth’s orbital influence. The pinnacle of
manned space flight arrived on 20th July 1969 when the first human set foot on the moon. It was
the first time humans had set foot on another body in space and safely returned to earth. The
momentous and exciting epoch was to be followed by ten other men that traversed the lunar
surface and safely returned home. That was the end of that epic human voyage and the initial
euphoria subsequently died for several decades. It is now 40 years4 since the first human “took
the giant step for mankind”. It would appear that in the forty year period, a lot of ideas developed
in people’s minds, which have been aired in these latter days. It would also appear that after the
“race to the moon” was won by the USA, attention seems to have shifted to the lower earth orbit
which saw the construction of the Skylab and now the International Space Station (ISS). Movies,
stories and reports have been written as to which way the space adventure should go in the quest
to conquer the next frontier. One school of thought has forcefully advanced the unmanned space
3
For Example, in Acts 14:11,12
4
As at 2009
probe investigation basing their argument largely around costs while the other school strongly
contends that humans should be part of the adventure because they actually do a better job,
despite the costs and all. The arguments relentlessly rage on. Yet another school thinks it is high
time humans switched off altogether about this pointless ‘space craze’ and focus on the
immediate needs of humans and the struggling planet. These go right against the grain of others Page | 10
that would like to see more action and work into manned deep space exploration on the scale of
Star Trek, Space 1999 and Star Wars. This latter group strongly believes in the possibility of
extra terrestrial life (such as ET) some place somewhere in the universe and thus have set up
antennas specifically positioned to capture alien communication from some civilisation out there.
Dr Carl Sagan was one such ardent proponent of this view and devoted most of his life to the
search for life on planets like Mars (i.e. through the SETI project). The countless arguments roll
on without end but the bottom question is, what should humans do with space and where should
they go next? This question is precisely what this treatise seeks to investigate, comment on and
hopefully give some general guidance on the hot debates that will engage the human mind for
generations to come, long after many of us are gathered to our fathers in the dust of the earth. In
attempting to handle such a grand subject, the author does not pretend to have the competence to
deal in detail with everything on the huge topics of the day but merely scratches on the surface
and leaves the reader to investigate further. The internet is replete with information on past and
present space travel all waiting to be read. For now, we briefly highlight some issues bugging the
human mind at the moment, especially after celebrating the 40th anniversary of manned flight to
the lunar surface.
The pressing issues
For some time after the conquest of space and the moon, people from all corners of the globe
were excited and naturally wanted to see more speedy action to set up a permanent base on the
moon. Movies like Star Trek (1966) and Space 1999 (of the seventies) really helped to push this
agenda for humans longed to live and work in space or the lunar surface. But alas, with the
passage of time, economic recessions, wars and change of governments, the euphoria was soon
eclipsed by other things. For a while, people talked less about space exploration and more about
improved quality of life here on the earth to the extent that people are now questioning the
relevance of space exploration! The basic question is “Is space travel and exploration necessary
or not?” Further still, we could put the hypothesis as “Space exploration is not necessary and a
sheer waste of time and resources.”! Many people today do not mince their words and simply
trash the subject, including some serious policy makers in the developed world. Thus, NASA and
other space agencies must continuously come up with new strategies to convince their
governments to remember them, if not increase the budget allocation. With the passage of years,
NASA has suffered budget cuts or reductions signalling a decline in space interest by the once
enthusiastic American public. The Shuttle disasters of 1986 and 2003 both indicated that the
security and safety standards were compromised in the quest to rationalise the limited resources.
The Russians (especially USSR) have not done any better although they have innovatively
brought in innovative ways to finance their budgets by encouraging ‘space tourism’ where
individuals cough up as much as $ 20 million to get a ride into space , visiting the ISS in the
process. But how sustainable and safe is this strategy? While commendable and encouraged,
there is need for serious reinvestment by the already cash strapped Governments. The necessity
of space exploration question has hit at the core and root of the entire adventure. Page | 11
But there are other issues hovering around the race to colonise the celestial bodies. There is
evident fear, especially by the USA and Russia that the emerging nations will eventually
overtake them in space technology and travel. At the moment, while people are focussing on
Mars, there is a possibility that the Chinese, Japanese or Indians will swiftly outwit them to the
moon, set up a permanent base and colonise large chunks of territory that has valuable mineral
deposits. We shall dwell on this issue in more detail in a later chapter but suffice it to say that
new ‘space race entrants’ are threatening to change the rules of how space exploration and
exploitation is handled. Coupled with this is the concern of increasing space junk now crowding
the planet making it dangerous for future space crafts.
There is still another issue: The Earth and its inhabitants. As the planet has progressively become
crowded, the resources are reducing in an inversely proportional manner. In keeping with what
Malthus of old once postulated, the 6+billions earth inhabitants pose a greater pressure on the
world’s meagre and limited resources. Today, very few have good quality life, let alone access to
good clean and hygienic water. The evolution of human settlements, technological development,
improved travel and communication all have a telling effect on how people live and conduct
business. A decision that once took many months to make can now be done within seconds at the
click of the mouse. Thus, the argument is: “Why waste so much tax dollars on space exploration
when myriads, yea, countless souls go to bed hungry? Why take billions to “empty space” when
the money could have been profitably channelled to save a dying child somewhere in Africa or
Asia?” These are not small questions which must be trivialised but given due attention. This
book however is not primarily about justifying this position or other but will touch on some of
these areas with a view to stimulate debate.
Manned space flights, whilst being exciting and motivating have proved far too costly to
maintain. To keep people safe and sound up there in space for any extra hour costs thousands of
Dollars because each movement must be meticulously monitored both from space and on the
ground (Mission control centre). For instance, to keep a space shuttle one day longer in space
entails over a million dollars gobbled. Thus, a fourteen day voyage will suck in many millions.
Imagine that same amount was channelled towards President Obama’s Health care plan, things
would be far better. There is also another side to this question that begs answering-the safety of
the astronauts or cosmonauts. Why hazard their lives when a machine would do as well if not far
much better. Why keep a human suspended for over three months in the orbiting space station
when a robotic satellite could have equally done equally at a cost effective rate? Robots can carry
out most experiments was as well as humans, provided they are designed and programmed to do
that. Look at the Mars Rovers (Opportunity and Spirit), they did a fantastic job while they lasted.
Can’t we just improve on this and do much better at a far cheaper price? They well ‘geologists’
par excellence.
Environmental degradation and its attendant effects are also another point of contention though
to a lesser degree. As the planet plunges into peril resulting from the continued indiscriminate
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reckless anthropogenic activity, there is an increase in concern surrounding pollution matters
(air, water, dust, noise etc) because the equilibrium that enables the earth to renew itself has been
over stretched by far. The planet is now giving its back lash as seen in rising global temperatures
and sea tide, erratic weather pattern, frequent natural disasters, increased disease burden among
many others. Thus, voices of concern are heard from across the globe relating to the pollution
resulting from frequent rocket flights through the atmosphere, although the other school argues
that this degradation is minimal, if not negligible. To the contrary, most spacecrafts use Liquid
Hydrogen, deposit chlorine which significantly pollutes the atmosphere in the long run.
The other issue worth pondering over involves agreed space pundits who do not for a moment
question the need for space exploration. They think and know it is crucial both for the present
and future generations. For instance, should the earth become overcrowded some day, part of this
population can be safely and conveniently “exported” to another world, allowing the earth to
recover and regenerate itself. However, this group is in two camps as to where to go next. The
first group argues that humans have “unfinished business” with the moon, to colonise and exploit
it. They contend that the thrill of walking on lunar surface is alive still and must be pursued from
where the Apollo project left off in 1973. They further contend that a permanent moon base must
be established by as early (or is it “late” because Man should have been resident there by 1999)
as 2020-24. There is considerable debate around the time line and frame. They further argue that
the moon could be a powerful outpost for interplanetary travel. A space craft could take off from
earth, visit the space station (or by pass it), land on the moon to refuel, refresh and then hurtle out
into deep space. This looks perfectly reasonable, they argue, not mentioning the mining and
exploration prospects on the planet terrain! The second group of space farers asserts that the
moon is “boring” and not as exciting as it once was. There is need for a new thrill, Mars! They
argue this for several reasons which include the following: The Planet holds more promise for
some potential organic life form. Secondly, the planet probably closest resembles the earth in
terms of features and conditions. The polar caps most likely have ice of some sort while the
terrain shows evidence of having had liquid flowing on its surface, not forgetting the winds
there. They further argue that the planet is not too far out in space and humans can safely make a
round trip, given the right technology and positioning. In that way, more can be learnt and planet
colonization can progress hence. They also argue that a lot of research has already gone into
surveying the planet and much already is known unlike the moon. Lastly, they argue that going
back to the moon will be like “reversing” instead of driving full speed ahead. Why spend
valuable scarce resources on a ‘dead rocky body’ when there is one that holds more promise?
After all, Mars would be a more reasonable “stopover” base in the quest to conquer the outer
reaches of space rather than the moon. In other words, they argue that Mars should be a “one
stop shop” where space farers can get all they need to survive on the planet or on their
interplanetary travel. They postulate that massing resources on one planet is better than slicing
resources thinly all over the solar system. The debate rages on endlessly.
We scarcely have time to talk about atmospheric pollution, space junk and a whole host of other
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interesting issues of our times.
Thus, in coming to handle this amazing subject, we must bear in mind the touchy points raised
above and many others that have not been documented here.
Having dealt with some issues, it is fitting to give a birds’ eye view of the issues that have
generated such debate and contention across the world. We shall briefly consider them one after
the other.
The Solar system
Image removed
An artist’s impression of the known Solar system
In talking about manned space travel, we usually and naturally limit ourselves to the solar
system. And this is for the simple reason that we are part of it. There is so much that presently
needs to be discovered about the solar system alone before we consider the enormous distances
between planets. Crossing the systems’ radius, or tracing its circumference is presently
impossible with the human eye because fresh data keeps flowing in. The diameter of the solar
system is so vast that travelling less than a third of it, humans, in their present condition and form
would have long expired, decayed and mutated into something else perhaps, unless appropriate
technology is discovered that “hibernates” the brain and effectively retards metabolism whilst
keeping the body alive for several millions of years only to be reactivated at the right time. Such
technology or techniques are not presently available. Be that as it may, our focus here is to
introduce the solar system. By basic description, this is a systematic and orderly interlinked
system with its core being the sun. Every other body in this system revolves around the sun using
centripetal forces to catapult the planetary bodies right round the sun. From what we presently
know, there are at least nine planets although some postulate by way of calculation that others
could exist. The known planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune and Pluto. Most of these planets have satellite bodies or “moons” that orbit them
although Pluto has long been suspected to be a “runaway” moon of the planet Neptune (despite it
having a moon of its own). Considerable debate surrounds this planet whether it actually
qualifies to be one (i.e. a planet). Each of these bodies pursues a unique orbit relative to the sun
and may range from a few days (88 days for Mercury) to several centuries (e.g. 248 years for
Pluto). The Earth takes 365 days while Mars takes over 700+ earth days whereas Jupiter takes
about 12 earth years to revolve once around the sun. The distances from the sun therefore affect
the length of time a planet takes to revolve round the sun once though this same distance may not
necessarily determine the conditions in the interior of the planet. For instance, Neptune is
considered the ‘Windiest’ planet in the solar system while Pluto is obscure, relatively quiet and
far out of reach. The Voyager space probes shed a lot of light on some of these planets. The
planets all have different morphological structures and different conditions prevail on the planets
as well as their satellites (if they have any). Venus is the brightest planet in the sky (on earth) Page | 14
while Jupiter is the largest and probably busiest with frequent ‘volcanic activity’ evident on its
surface/atmosphere (e.g. Jupiter flares). It also emits some heat, despite its distance from the sun.
Jupiter is many times larger than the earth and was worshipped in ancient times. But then there is
the sun, many times larger5 than the earth. It is a huge ball of fire which is believed to thrive on
hydrogen reactions at its core which give rise to extreme high temperatures (about 26 million
degrees)6 as well as what is known as “Solar winds” affecting all the solar bodies in their path.
The sun, although extremely hot has a spot popularly known as the “sun spot”. It is not known
exactly what this spot is about or how it arises although various theories exist on this. This huge
hot ball of fire rotates on its axis radiating heat, energy and light to all the cosmic bodies that
revolve round it. The sun is a star like others and is part of a bigger galaxy (collection of billions
of stars) called the Milky Way. In fact, it is believed to be one of the average stars and relatively
young, although scientist believe that it will eventually burn up and turn into a black hole. What
is dumbfounding about the solar system is that it is very vast (relative to humans!), orderly and
meticulously well positioned. Everything works in an amazing fashion to maintain the system
equilibrium and stability. One day when humans reach the edge of this system where the sun’s
influence ceases, maybe they will be able to better explain just how vast and potent the suns’
influence extends. The Voyager probes are reaching those regions about now and should give
back valuable data.
Space vehicles, satellites & deep space exploratory probes
Humans have always wanted to connect with the universe in various ways and one such way is
to build space vehicles. After many attempts, in 1957, an object was made that went into low
orbit for the first time. Then came the Russians who sent Laika the Dog into orbit in 1957. A
monkey would be next and lastly, the first Human (Yuri Gagarin) went into orbit in 19617. This
feat would generate a race that culminated in a human walking on the moon almost a decade
later (1969). In this section however, we focus on the various vehicles that have been developed
and enabled manned or unmanned flights to take place. We give brief notes on each vehicle or
probe.
Mariner 1-4
The Marina series were designed to explore and investigate the terrestrial planets as well as find
out some details related to the suns’ influence on the planets. There were ten Mariner space
5
Others say 110 times bigger than the earth! Refer to Space Mysteries pp 5
6
Source: Katherine Kenah, Space Mysteries, pp5
7
Alexei Leonov was the first person to walk in space, March 1965
crafts, some of which were lost, destroyed or malfunctioned soon after launch. For instance,
Mariner 1 (aimed at Venus) was destroyed soon after launch (1962) and immediately replaced by
Mariner 2 which flew to Venus that same year discovering the solar winds in the process.
Mariner 3 was aimed at Mars in 1964 attempting a flyby but ceased some nine hours after launch
and is believed to have entered solar orbit. Mariner 10 did a Venus/Mercury flyby in 1973-1975. Page | 15
As can be seen, the series had some success as well as challenges but enabled a lot of
information to be learnt and thus engrafted into future space programming.
Voyager 1 & 2
JPL
In August and September 1977, the USA sent two deep space probes with a mission to visit all
the outer solar system planets. The twin Voyagers would visit the asteroid belt, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto after which they would exit the solar system. During the fly
bys and intermittent travels, the probes would collect as much data, analyse and transmit back to
earth. The further the probe, the longer the messages/instructions would take to travel the
immense space distances. Presently, an instruction from to a Voyager Craft takes over twelve
hours to reach and vice versa. The Voyager crafts are now millions of miles away from earth and
signals from them progressively get weaker. Fitted with nuclear energy, they will travel forever
and never return. Estimates are that between 2012 and 2045, they will be too far away to be
detected and cease to communicate with earth.
The Voyager crafts scored profound successes in many senses. For instance, the Voyager probes
revealed hitherto unknown facts about the planets Jupiter and Saturn. Prior to the 1980 visit, it
was not known that Jupiter had a ring that surrounds it while Saturn more than 20 satellites that
circle it than previously known. Presently, the probes are about to leave the solar system as we
know it and enter an area that is devoid of solar influence (Interstellar space) and intersects with
other Universe influences (heliopause).
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JPL
It is not known exactly the fate of the Crafts beyond the solar system but the crafts continue to
transmit valuable data as long as the signal remains, although its parts are dying out with time as
energy levels drop in the deep cold environment of space. Will another advanced alien
civilization ever intercept Voyager? We have no telling.
Viking Orbiters & Viking Landers
The Viking Lander crafts probably derive their names from the Vikings who landed in Europe
many thousands of years ago, invaded and ruled for a long time. They were a warrior like tribe
with great power and might and would not stop at anything until they conquered. In like spirit,
the Viking crafts went with a mission to “invade” another world, in this case, Mars. Viking 1 was
launched on August 20, 1975 while Viking 2 followed a few weeks later on September 9, 1975.
They arrived in June and August of 1976 respectively. They remained in Mars orbit preparing
the way for the Viking Landers that would eventually safely land on the Martian surface on July
20th & Sept 3rd, 1976 respectively. These Landers’s main mission was to explore the Martian
surface, rock structure and conditions. The crafts remitted thousands of pictures back to earth,
did some experiments (3 Biology experiments), with a view to establish the presence of any
signs of life. No clear signs of living organisms were found but some profound discoveries were
made on the conditions on the planet. Although designed to work for a 90 day life span, the
landers far exceeded expectation to over 4 years. The last transmissions from these crafts reached
earth in April 11th, 1980 (Viking lander 2) and November 11, 1982 (Viking lander 1) respectively
having worked remarkably well.
Pioneer 1…..138
The Pioneer series were some of the earliest deep space probes to be launched by NASA with a
view to explore the far reaches of space. The Pioneer crafts were the first man made (unmanned)
probes to travel beyond the earth’s orbit. First created in 1958, and carried on by NASA (created
October 1958), at least nine crafts were designed for interplanetary exploration. The crafts
explored Venus, Jupiter and Saturn before veering off into deep space at incredible speeds. Four
8
This section largely indebted to Joseph N. Tatarewicz, Ma., PhD, on:
http://encarta.msn.com
of these explored the space between Earth and Moon while the rest went further sending back
valuable data which would eventually feed into future probes and manned flights. Here is a
summary of the Pioneer series:
Year in Space Owner Craft (Pioneer) Exploration area (in

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space) and
achievement
1958 I Measure temperatures,

radiation & Meteorites
in Moon vicinity.
Largely unsuccessful
but provided critical
data on radiation
surrounding the Earth.
1958 II “
1959 NASA III “
1959 NASA IV “
1960 NASA V Successfully explored

the space between
Earth & Venus. Also
transmitted first data
on Solar Flares
(explosions of energy
on the sun’s surface)
from space.
1965 NASA VI To explore the solar

influence on the inner
solar system planets.
The crafts were to
detect solar magnetic
fields and particle
detections leading to
spiral mapping of the
solar flares etc.
Pioneer 6,7 & 8 are
still functioning today.
Successful series as a
build up on the earlier
mariner series.
1966 NASA VII “
1967 NASA VIII “

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1968 NASA IX “
1972 NASA X Designed to be outer

planetary regions.
Pioneer 10 carried a
plaque with pictorial
information about the
Earth’s location,
inhabitants and other
relevant data just in
case it encounters
alien intelligent life
during its odyssey
among the stars.
Pioneer X was the
first craft to navigate
through the asteroid
belt. In December
1973, flew past Jupiter
returning the first
close up pictures of
the Jovian Planet and
then catapulted
outside the solar
system, being the first
craft to leave the Solar
system. Fastest
manmade object to
leave the earth @
32,400 mph from
earth increasing to
82,000mph after the
Jupiter trajectory.
1973 NASA XI Much like Pioneer X

in design but travelled
at a slower speed than
its predecessor (X)

and came three times
closer to Jupiter
(December 2, 1974).
Using the sling shot Page | 19
effect, pioneer was
flung towards Saturn
which it reached in
September 1979. New
rings were discovered
as well as moons.
With the passage of
time, power declined
and Pioneer 11 died in
1995. Pioneer X
ended its mission in
1997 though still with
some power. Was
tracked until 2003.
1978 NASA XII (or Pioneer Venus To explore

1) (atmosphere)and map
the surface of Venus
1978 NASA XIII (Pioneer Venus Sent into the

2) atmosphere of Venus
Both contributed to a
tremendous amount of
information about
Venus such as the
extreme temperature
variations between
day and night (-170*C
and 40*C)
Spirit & Opportunity (2003-2004)
In 2003, NASA sent two probes, Spirit and Opportunity whose mission was to continue the
survey of the Martian terrain as well as establish the probability of water having been on the
planet in the past. They were launched on June 10 and July 7, 2003 respectively. The probes
safely navigated through the Asteroid belt and arrived at and entered Martian orbit in 2004.
When the optune time arrived, they left their respective orbiters and landed on opposite sides of
the planet where it was suspected that water had once flowed. What made headlines around the
world was the classic successful landing modes that they used. They fell through the thin
atmosphere and at a right altitude, released small parachutes coupled with huge balloons that Page | 20
sandwiched them. Having reduced the velocity, the probes bounced off the surface and
eventually came to a standstill. There was jubilation across the planet (earth) as space enthusiasts
watched the machines smoothly unravel the insulating packages, roam to life onto the Martian
surface, where they were to work. It was amazing watching the machines come to life and
commence their work. They were rightly called “twin robot geologists” because they were
designed to excavate the soil, test the samples and transmit data back to earth for as long as they
had life in them. They were also to traverse the terrain, “Hibernate” during the winter season and
then resume the work until they had completed their missions. These machines were equipped
with cameras, “Labs”, solar panels and powerful communication equipment that would allow
them to receive instructions from Earth to carry out designated instructions. These were to
succeed the Beagle probe that had been lost earlier on. Although they were both designed to
work for only 90 earth days, these probes have smashed all the records and have scaled the 2,000
sols mark. What were the successes of the probes?9 They had both successes and failures but in
general, they achieved their main objective, to find out the possibilities of water in the past. From
their findings, there was evidence of some fluid (most probably water10) having flowed on the
surface but they could not exactly ascertain whether the fluid that once flowed was water or
whether any life form existed. New and interesting data was made available which will inform
future space programming directed at Mars.
With declining power, software glitches and unfavourable weather, the Rovers finally gave up
their ghosts, one after the other though they had amazing “powers” to regenerate and repair
themselves. They were amazing rovers that no doubt have paved the way for future “robotic
expeditions” to the Red planet. Some have coined them as one of the best and magnificent deep
space explorers of all time.
Galileo (1989)
Galileo, probably derived from the great scientist of old who invented the telescope (around
1610), was a probe sent to Jupiter to study its gaseous properties and its moons. The craft arrived
9
Interestingly, Some people claim that crafts found forests and timber fragments on Mars as
well as a frozen “lake”. The writer accuses NASA of not telling the truth about Mars!!! Refer
to Tom Arbino: www.ufo-secret-files.net. Also refer to www.livescience.com/space/080716-
mars-water.html or www.marsdaily.com/reports/frozen_water_confirmed_on)Mars_999.html.
Article title: Opportunity Rover Finds Timber on Mars (4th August, 2008) Accessed on
05/10/2009
10
See article in New Scientist by David L Chandler, May 2007 which suggests that the
presence of silica on Mars suggest water availability probably in the past.
in the Jovian planet’s orbit and begun an extensive survey of the planet and at some point
sending down an atmospheric probe which descended into the Jupiter atmosphere. Galileo also
studied Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons and established the satellite has a subsurface ocean
making it is a probable place to search for life forms. Galileo completed its task and was
“deliberately” plunged into the Jupiter’s atmosphere. Thus ended the voyage to the giant planet. Page | 21
Future probes will investigate Europa to establish whether water and life forms exist there.
Venera 9 to Venus (1975)
The Venera series was a Russian set of probes that had different objectives in space. They went
far and wide visiting the planets but perhaps the greatest of these probes in the series was Venera
9. This probe made historic trip to Venus, mapped the planet, entered its “hellish” atmosphere
and landed on 22 October 1975. This was no doubt a first although it is soon stopped
transmitting data, probably because of the harsh conditions there. It was none the less a feat of
the times.
Magellan to Venus (1989)
Venus appears to have intrigued astronomers for a long time, probably because of its
illuminating brightness in the sky. Its sparkle lures people to it. Magellan, was probably a result
of such interest although it was designed to establish something specific. Its name probably
derived from the venerable Ferdinand Magellan who sailed around the world in the 1500, the
space probe was a “space farer” of sorts. The probe was sent to further map the planet’s surface
using cloud-penetrating radar and thus provided the most complete view of the planet landscape
ever obtained. Magellan did a splendid job and ended its mission with distinction, adding on to
what Venera 9 did way back in 1975.
NEAR (1996)11
This probe was sent to investigate the asteroid belt and particularly 433 Eros. After a tour of duty
in space, the craft finally landed on Eros on February 12, 2001. This was one of science’s
greatest feats in recent times.
Cassini-Huygens to Saturn (1997)
The European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA came together and sent the Cassini-Huygens
probe to Saturn with a specific mission to survey the planet, it is amazing rings and moons. The
probe left in 1997 and has been in Saturn orbit since July 2004. It has carried out its functions
with distinction and has the following accolades tied to its name: The main craft sent a lander to
Titan, one of Saturn’s moons which landed/touched down12 (the first ever on a moon of another
planet apart from the earth). Second feat is the discovery of plumes of water vapour, giving hope
11
Great insightful notes from David Shiga, the online reporter (Permalinkdel.icio.us)
for the existence of some life form on Enceladus, another Saturn moon and finally, the main craft
continues to observe the planet, transmitting valuable data to earth. Since the Voyager visit of the
eighties, this craft has been instrumental in affording humans to get a better glimpse of what the
brilliantly ringed planet has to offer. Saturn has about 30 moons and these keep the rings in
planet orbit. Could there be life in that far flung place? We are yet to discover. Page | 22
Hubble space telescope
The Hubble space telescope was launched into orbit in 1990 with the objective to enable
astronomers to peer into deep space, at least seven times more than the most powerful earth
based telescope. Due to the aberration and effects caused by the earth’s atmosphere, some
objects are not clearly visible as well as they should. The Hubble Telescope therefore escapes all
this “interference” and thus zooms in hitherto unseen wonders of space. From the time of its
launch, humans have learnt and see far much more in a short time than all the generations before
combined. For instance, we can now see the other galaxies much better and in some instances
even witness some phenomenal activity happening somewhere in the far flung reaches of the
Universe. The telescope has been repaired and upgraded over the years, the last being in 2009
when it had the seventh patch up. The Space shuttle did the honours in launching this great
object into orbit. As mapping continues and more potent upgrades are installed, we expect to
zoom into a greater number of hitherto unseen things, who knows, we may even be able to visit
other planets with the penetrating telescopic eye of the Hubble!
Rockets
Both the USA and Russia (USSR) developed and used different generations and versions for
both manned and unmanned space flights. The most common of these rockets were the “three
stage” rockets which consumed a lot of fuel as they blasted away from the earth to escape the
planet’s gravitational grip on them. Usually, the first and second stages would harmlessly fall
away back to the earth into the oceans after the fuel had been exhausted. The final stage would
usually complete the task in the upward ascent into space. But then came along the Apollo series
that would eventually have slightly more “stages” to cater for the trip to and from the moon. The
first two stages would be the same as before but then a further few more stages would be used to
orbit the moon (main craft) while the Lunar module lander would descend to the surface from
where it would leave a “platform” to launch back into orbit to reunite with the orbiter for the
long journey home. There was also the Gemini series that preceded the Apollo missions although
they were designed for manned flights into lower orbit around the earth as opposed to the “space
faring” Apollo crafts. The three stage rocket design is still widely in use today but may be
eclipsed some day by a better design, much like what the space shuttle did while it lasted,
although it also relied on three large “rockets” in its initial stages whenever it ascended into
space on a mission.
12
Refer to Stephen Battersby’s article in The New Scientist # 2531 for 24th December 2005.
Space Shuttle
Image removed
The Space Shuttle in space against the back drop of space and Earth
Page | 23
The Space Shuttle idea was hatched in the seventies but became a reality in 1981 when the first
Shuttle emerged from the skies to majestically land on earth. In between 1973 and 1981, a lot of
tests and experiments were done to find out the feasibility of developing a reusable space craft
that would land on earth like any other aeroplane. After many tests, the Enterprise, probably
derived from Star Treks’ NCC enterprise, successfully flew on the back of a 747 jumbo jet, took
to the skies from the Jet’s back and landed safely. This would open the door for the famous
Shuttle Transport System (STS).
The glorious Shuttle Columbia proved that a reusable craft would work and proved cheaper in
the long run. The shuttles were designed for manned flights into orbit around the earth and could
carry a maximum seven member crew on each voyage. From that time, there has been no turning
back. The USA built and owned five shuttles namely Challenger, Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis
and Endeavour which would grace the skies for the next 30 years or so to 2010 when the shuttle
fleet will be retired. What have been the successes of the shuttle fleet? By and large, the shuttles
have been extremely successful and to some extent exceeded expectations of many. The ships
have been used to carry out all sorts of experiments, ferry cargo into space and back, promoted
international cooperation, used to repair ailing satellites and finally the building of the
international space station which should be completed by end of 2010. The Shuttles have had
their down side as well, largely revolving around huge maintenance costs (both in space and on
earth) as well as some security concerns as the fleet ages as well as depreciation takes its toll.
The Shuttle disasters of 1986 & 2003 raised serious questions of their safety and suitability. For
human beings who care for space travel, the Shuttle epoch has certainly been one of their best
moments.
It would be interesting to note that the USSR also once designed a Space Shuttle (though focused
for the Mars trip) called the “Buran shuttle” on similar lines as the US space shuttle in 1983 there
about. One wonders who ‘stole’ the design from the other?
Aires
NASA
After the magnificent Shuttles era closes in 2010, another fleet is in the offing to succeed it
(Shuttle). This fleet has been named “Aires/Oris” and is yet to be completely unwrapped to the
world after its design, test and commission has been done. As things stand, there will be a time
lag or gap between the Shuttles retiring and Aires commissioning some time beyond 2012. In the
mean time, the Astronauts will be “hiking” from the Russian built Soyuz to the International Page | 24
Space Station. The Aires will differ from the shuttle in the sense that it will be designed
differently and land/plunge into the sea or ocean as opposed to landing like a plane. This might
render the landing strips in the Californian desert obsolete, unless another shuttle like craft is
developed in the future. The second difference is that the craft will use the Saturn V rockets,
similar to the ones that took the Apollo astronauts to the moon and back as they have proved
very powerful and versatile. In a sense, we are returning to the past but with better ideas. Finally,
the Aires will be far cheaper to maintain and will also have capacities to probably go to the moon
and back, all things being equal. There is much in the offing that has not yet been unwrapped but
let us eagerly wait to see. Meanwhile, will it be best to retire the shuttles before Aires becomes
operational? That is another debate altogether and we dare not stir the waters further!
Mir space station and Salyut space station program
The Russians have consistently used what is known as the “Soyuz” rockets for many
generations. These rockets have been of various versions but principally, this consists of a three
stage rocket that blasts off from the earth and drops its different parts/stages as fuel empties until
the third and final craft gets into lower orbit around the earth. This third stage is the craft that
goes in rendezvous and can be used to perform all sorts of experiments and then re-enters the
atmosphere at an angle, using its heat shield until it splashes down in the ocean or uses a
parachute to gently land on the earth in some designated place. As empty shells of the rockets
were accumulating in space, the Russians decided to “connect” these parts to build a mini Space
Station to which any new rocket would dock or undock on its onward journey home. At times,
the “space station” would remain unmanned but usually, there would always be a person on
board. This initial stage is what is now being assembled together to make the International space
station now that the cold war is past and gone. In that sense, the Russians have proved a point, it
is cheaper to stick to the tried old ways of low orbit space faring.
Sky lab (1973-79)
The Americans have not always used the STS throughout. They for a long time effectively used
the three stage rocket approach and only discarded this mode in 1981 when the Shuttle came
around. Now things are changing trekking back to the three stage rockets or something similar.
As the race to the moon (space race) heated up, a lot of debris and “junk” parts were left
spiralling around space with practically no use, even posing a danger to future space travellers as
well as satellites.
The relics of the Apollo hardware was made good use of when the parts were docked together in
space to form what has come to be known as the “Sky lab”. The idea was that when these parts
were joined together, it would form a habitable station that would function as a space laboratory
for future experiments. For a while, this grand idea worked well and delivered on expectation
until some things went wrong. The Solar panels malfunctioned and subsequently failed to Page | 25
generate power for the station. Without power, the station begun to lose orbit and was eventually
pulled by gravity to the Earth. The sky lab plunged uncontrollably out of space into the Indian
Ocean (near Australia) although there were fears that it would have crashed any where especially
central Africa. Thankfully, it fell far away and removed the horror we had way back in 1979. I
was a young lad then and have never forgotten that episode. As a result of that problem, the
Americans seem to have trashed the idea of a Sky laboratory until the ISS idea came about.
International Space Station (ISS)
Image removed
Fig. A sketch of the International Space Station
The International Space station idea was muted and born out of a desire for humans to have a
floating presence in Space probably akin to the Star Trek arrangement. This station was to be a
multipurpose arrangement with various countries collaborating in construction of the same. The
idea is that the station will not only unite the nations but will be used as a research laboratory as
well as a place where space travellers can lodge and work from. Thus, after recovering from the
sky lab loss of 1979, the Americans have joined hands with Russia, Europe, Japan and a few
other powerful nations to construct this gigantic outpost in space. The plan is to progressively
expand this station with components specially made and designed from the earth and transported
to space using the Space shuttle. As things stand, the Shuttle will and has transported most of the
critical components to the station, carried out repairs and should complete the task by 2010 when
the Shuttles retire. The space station presently has sections for USA, Europe, Japan, Canada and
probably a “no man’s land” section where space tourists will lodge and visit. The design of this
station appears something like the fig above although there might be some modifications and
additions such as more solar panels etc. The station will allow for exercise, research and as a
stopover for future near and deep space expeditions. The orbiting station is continuously tracked
from the earth as well as meticulously examined to ensure nothing goes amiss. Some of these
things regularly checked are: The temperature, pressure, power (and solar panels), the health of
the residents, weight/gravitational effects on the station among many. It would appear that
artificial gravity can or has been created on the station emanating from the stations’ rotation on
its axis and orbit relative to the earth, although most of the pictures we see are people in a zero
gravity situation. Perhaps, we still need to unravel the mysteries of the Star ship enterprise...With
this scenario, we may well add another feature to our starry skies, a slowly moving star in our
skies which may either be a satellite or the ISS!
The construction of the ISS has been planned in three phases as follows13. It will take a total of
34 space flights 21 of which will be by Shuttle while 13 by Russian launch vehicles:
Phase 1: Shuttle makes a series of flights to the Mir 1 Space station. Both Astronauts and
cosmonauts combine activities on shuttle, Soyuz and Mir 1 Space station. Up to ten such flights
Page | 26
planned to Mir.
Phase 2: Actual assembly of space station commences. First element launch slated for Dec 1997.
A total of ten flights scheduled (4 by Shuttle while 6 by Russian Launch vehicles). The core of
station should be in place by 1998.
Phase 3: The final phase should finish the construction of station. 17 shuttle flights and six
Russian launch vehicles should complete the job by October 2003. As things stand, this end date
has been scheduled to 2010 when the shuttles fleet retires.
Tragic events and challenges
-Apollo disaster 1961
During the race to the moon of the 1960s, much activity took place, much of which was positive
and progressive. However, one memorable tragedy occurred, here on earth and not in space. This
tragedy involved three Apollo 1 candidates namely Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Ed White and Roger
B. Chaffee, during one of the test and training exercise on January 27, 1967 on pad 34 at the then
Cape Kennedy. The crew were the selected for the first manned Apollo Program mission. The
Command module, atop the Saturn rocket, got gutted by fire and subsequently the trainee
astronauts perished. This was a sad development/dent but the race to the Moon still continued,
probably in their honour and many others after them. The exact cause of that infernal was never
conclusively determined but suspicions pointed to the use of 100% oxygen atmosphere in the
module for the test creating fertile environment for a wild fire. The command module was
accordingly redesigned.
Images removed
Before After
The Apollo 1 Astronauts in the Command module shortly before the fire. Far right, after the erupted and within very few second had done the
damage...
-USSR cosmonaut14
13
Source: Scientific American, May 1994 issue
14
This section largely from the Wikipedia site on Soyuz 1 (Komarov)
The Russians also have had a fair share of space related disasters though to a lesser scale
compared to the Americans. While the USA has recorded a 4+% fatal accident cases, the
Russians have less than 0.9%, though some argue that even they could have a higher figure
owing to past secrecy. However, a case in point involved a cosmonaut Komarov in 1967 while
returning from a successful but troubled (mission bugged with multiple technical Soyuz craft Page | 27
malfunction) trip in space. As the capsule entered the earth, turning into a fire ball as it
descended through the atmosphere, it eventually turned out right poised for a safe landing rather
than splashdown. But then something went badly wrong, the first (drogue) parachute worked but
the main chute did not come out and your guess is as good as mine, the capsule came down and
slammed the earth and breaking apart in the process. The cosmonaut (Vladimir Komarov)
obviously died on impact. Vladimir was honoured by both the Apollo 11 & 15 astronauts who
left plagues in his honour on the moon. But there are other cases where the cosmonaut survived
miraculously, when the capsule entered the atmosphere the wrong way up. As though that were
not bad enough, it failed to separate with another component and nosedived with it. Just when it
was about to burst open with heat to instantly consume the man, the capsule turned the right way
up and was thus shielded from destruction. Thankfully, the parachutes worked normally and he
landed safely in an ice cold area far away from target. He was later rescued.
Gemini VIII15
Gemini 8
Credit - NASA
In the quest to improve manned flights and subsequent conquest of the moon, the USA launched
the Gemini 8 craft into space carrying Astronauts Neil Armstrong & David Scott to attempt a
docking in space, the first of its kind. For awhile, the rendezvous and all indications looked fine
as the craft came in to dock with another module (Agena) with precision, things worked
perfectly. People were jubilant and excited. After some time, due to some problems, the craft
undocked and disengaged when something strange happened in the process. The module veered
backward and begun to spin uncontrollably due to some malfunction (A thruster got stuck). Neil
& Scott tried to slow the rapid spinning firing retro thrusters without much success and nearly
blacked out but thankfully, things normalised and they eventually safely returned to Earth. It was
an emergency landing. Had things not worked, the capsule risked falling out of orbit and
15
Source: Wikipedia site
plunging them to a fiery death. The other option is that they would have run out of fuel and stuck
in orbit. Neil would eventually become the first man to walk on the moon years later.
Apollo 13
Page | 28
NASA
Engineers on earth brainstorming how to save Apollo 13 and how to bring the Astronauts safely home
Apollo 13 is probably the best known story among the Apollo missions apart from the moon
landing Apollo 11. The reason is simple, it was one of the most dangerous/hazardous missions
that humans have ever engaged in. The rocket blasted off on April 11, 1970 carrying Astronauts
James Lovell, Fred Wallace Haise Jr and John L Swigert Jr. Their mission was to land on the
moon and return to earth. Somewhere in between the earth and the moon, an oxygen tank
exploded rendering the craft unsafe for humans. But they were fast towards the moon and could
not turn back. They went round the moon and used its force in a centripetal fashion to ‘sling
shot’ back to the earth. As they approach the earth, things progressively got worse with oxygen
and other vital life support systems almost exhausted. Thankfully, they splashed down safely in
the South Pacific Ocean. The mission has rightly been dubbed “the successful failure” as no life
was lost.
-Challenger Jan 1986
Perhaps one of the most traumatic accidents that shook the world in recent times is the Space
Shuttle Challenger explosion (disintegration) 73 seconds after liftoff. On 28th January, 1986, the
Shuttle Challenger perfectly cleared the tower as people cheered when from nowhere the craft
suddenly broke apart in mid air instantly killing the entire 7 member crew(although some
authorities argue that the Astronauts did not all die immediately). The Shuttle was scheduled for
probably an eight day mission carrying the following crew: Sharon Christa McAuliffe (civilian),
Ronald McNair, Ellison Onizuka, Gregory Javis, Francis “Dick” Scobee, Michael J. Smith,
Judith Resnik. The exact cause of the disaster was not immediately established until later when a
hydrogen gas leak was suspected. It would appear that as the Shuttle was blasting off, a small
leak (invisible to the human eye) in the fuel tank wall cause the liquid hydrogen probably to seep
out as a result of the enormous pressure from the lift off. Others say that it was a seal (O-ring)
failed causing a breach in a joint thus allowing gas to escape with consequences. As the Shuttle
ascended to the skies, the fire quickly ignited the hydrogen (probably vaporised) and eventually
gutted the entire craft to its destruction. That horrifying experience before a crowd of space
enthusiasts affected many and led to improved safety precautions on the ensuing Shuttle flights.
-Columbia Feb 1, 2003
Like the Challenger disaster of 1986, the Columbia shuttle disintegration was totally unexpected.
Having learnt many lessons from the earlier disaster, NASA had effectively tightened their safety
record around the prior identified weak points but there was danger lurking elsewhere which
Page | 29
would eventually kill some other astronauts. In February 2003, after what appeared a successful
mission in space, the shuttle positioned itself to re-enter the earth’s atmosphere. By all
indications and readings, everything was perfect...but there was a surprise in store. The shuttle
took the usual routines and dived into the atmosphere on the way home, ceasing all contact with
mission control for some minutes due to the high friction that attends re-entry. It was expected
that after about seven minutes or so, communication should have been restored but when this
time elapsed, the panic button was pressed within the space control circles that were monitoring
the orbiter’s descent. On the outside, the enthusiastic funs, relatives and friends were spooked
when the shuttle did not appear majestically from the skies as it had always done. Naturally, they
begun to enquire but no straight forward answers came forth. It was only later that it became
apparent that the orbiter had disintegrated on entry and everyone died. The world mourned once
again, but what could have caused this tragedy? After a painstaking enquiry, it was established
that on lift off, a piece of the fuel wall tiles (Bipod foam) that shield the tanks from extreme heat
fell off and struck the orbiter’s wing. At the time it occurred (striking of Shuttle wing by peeling
off heat shield), experts ignored it as insignificant or posing no risk, since “such a thing had
happened before”. Little did they know that this little thing would doom the flight. According to
what has been reported, as the shuttle was entering the atmosphere and friction increasing, heat
must have seeped through the point where the shield had struck (creating a tiny invisible crack)
on the wing and subsequently doomed the orbiter. No one survived. After it was discovered that
the shuttle had been lost, the search begun until as much debris (around southeast Dallas/Texas,
USA) as possible was found and collected. This tragic loss caused more safety checks to be
instituted including scanning the orbiter before, during and after it reaches orbit. One hopes no
other surprises are in store before the great shuttles eventually retire in 2010.
The crew of the doomed of the Columbia Shuttle:
1. Rick D. Husband
2. William C McCool
3. Micheal P. Anderson
4. David M Brown
5. Kalpana Chawla ( From India)
6. Laurel Blair Salton Clark
7. IIan Ramon (from Isreal)

These venerable men and women were honoured by NASA as well as by other important
dignitaries.
The wonders of space
A. The Universe Page | 30
The Universe is not fully comprehensible. This is because no one knows its exact bounds and all
its contents. With the human mind, we can safely say that it is infinite, wherever infinity extends
to or ends. That said, it continues to fascinate the finite human mind because of its amazing
features that characterise it. The vast distances between places, the complexity of its constitution,
the order that attends it as well as the continuous activity that frequently happens are among the
many things that amaze even the most hardened heart. The knowledge that some of the light
reaching the earth today probably started off millions of light years ago is simply unfathomable!
How can light travelling at 186,000 miles per second (approximately 300,000 km per second)
take that long? If that be true, then just how vast is the universe? And if that light took such an
incredible amount of time to travel, how or what are those respective stars like today? Further,
the Sun (Sol) itself is mind blowing, although considered a small16 star in a galaxy of stars called
the Milky Way. If the sun is indeed a small star, then how big must be the biggest star? If our
galaxy is one of the many billions out there hurtling towards a specific direction, just how big is
the universe? Some argue that the Universe is actually expanding17, but to what and where?
Talking about the solar system planets, how many are there exactly that circle this star? Are they
nine or more? How many asteroids are there? Are there other “solar systems” in the universe? If
so, is there life on some of those planets, in the far flung areas of the Universe? What about in
our solar system, does life only exist only on the Earth? Why not elsewhere? Since people
believe in evolution, some form of organisms could have surely evolved! What is unique about
the earth to merit evolution of species? Could it be that some intelligent being called God
created18 and put them there? Why didn’t that being place organisms on other planets too? What
about the big bang19 theory, is it true, can it be proved? Where did that bang first come from?
The matter that exploded, where did it come from? All these and many more questions bug the
mortal mind and ultimately evoke wonder and praise (for the religious).
The universe will continue to spark imagination and a desire to connect with other parts of the
known world (as in universe!). The age of the Universe, the forces that sustain it, the waves and
undetected motions/activity that attends it are still being explored. It will certainly take many
generations and years to map the entire universe, if one small section of the sky takes
16
Some term our sun as an average star
17
Refer to Science Explorer, pp774
18
Refer to the Holy Bible Genesis I verse 1
19
Refer to Science Explorer, pp 774
astronomers many years to convincingly map! The Hubble space telescope has enhanced our
view into the outer reaches of our universe by more than seven times and hopefully should
further improve over the years. The other point worth mentioning about the universe is its great
variety from place to place. In the ensuing section, we attempt to zero in on some salient features
of our universe: Page | 31
B. Size
The first point that we consider is the sheer size of the Universe. As earlier alluded to, no one
knows the exact dimensions. The best we can do is to estimate those incredible distances which
our conventional units may not adequately contain or measure up to. In astronomical terms, they
have devised measurements such as ‘AU’ which is equivalent to many million miles. Instead of
writing 93,000,000 miles for instance, they simply write 1AU. This in itself suggests that we
cannot fully comprehend the size of the universe. Consider one galaxy with billions of stars all
scattered by millions of light years apart. But we are told that there are billions of such galaxies
out there...and they are said to be moving a terrific speed in a specified direction! How huge
must the universe be! No wonder some people believe that the Universe is expanding. Were
humans to undertake a trip to the nearest star, they would have long died hundreds, yea
thousands of years before their ship arrived there, if at all it has sufficient energy to reach that
far. Unless new technology is developed that enables humans’ to hibernate and awake after the
entire journey is done! The Voyager space probes have been moving in space at terrific speeds
for nearly 30 years but they have hardly left the known solar system! This size is
incomprehensible!!!
C. Enormous distances apart
Closely connected to the point above, the distances between places in the universe are far
between. For instance, a journey to Mars takes no less than six months with current technology.
A journey to Pluto may take far more years, what more a trip to the nearest “solar system”.
Consider the distance travelled by the planets around the sun. One “Pluto year” equals nearly 248
earth years! Jupiter takes 12 earth years to complete one revolution round the sun. What about if
the Universe revolves around one central point, how long does it take for one ‘Universe year’ to
complete a cycle? What if things move in a linear direction, how “broad” must the Universe be?
D. Variety
As we gaze at the starry host at night, many of us are literary spell bound by what we see. Star
differs from star as planet differs from planet both in brilliance, appearance and size! Yet all
these add up to make one beautiful universe! What different things make up our world! You just
need to sit and pause a while gazing at the sky telling its story and I am sure your mind will be
blown up with wonder!
E. Order
Although we do not know the exact structure and design of the universe, we certainly know that
there is some remarkable ‘chaotic’ order out there. Scientists have come up with varying theories
as to how things came about but none has successfully and convincingly explained the
meticulous order of things as to why things are the way they are. Isaac Newton discovered and
identified the laws of nature including gravity but he could not explain the source of these forces. Page | 32
Today, with more enlightenment, science attempts to explain the forces attributed to the sun’s
action relative to the planets but again, the question that begs answering is how and why?
Consider the sun itself, it is a ball of fire with continuous reactions and explosions every second
probably from hydrogen reactions. But how does it hold together and continue to react while
radiating heat, light, solar winds and all? How can a star millions of miles away affect a planet as
far away as Pluto for thousands, if not millions of years?
F. Galaxies20
A Galaxy by simple definition is a collection of stars or star systems in a given locality of the
Universe bound together by gravity21. According to what has been established, billions of
galaxies exist in the universe though very few are discernible with the human eye. At best two or
three can be seen from the earth but a whole host of them can be seen using powerful telescopes,
better still those outside the earth’s atmosphere such as the Hubble space telescope. Our sun,
which itself is a star belongs to what is known as the Milky Way. This is a collection of over 200
billion stars which are “crammed” together although with the human mind, they have incredible
distances between them. There is also the Andromeda galaxy which composed of many stars as
well. Recent evidence shows that each of these stars also has a planetary system revolving
around it, and if that be the case, how many earth like planets must be in existence? Further,
could it be possible that only the earth can support life in this grand universe? Questions still
linger for now. It is worth mentioning also that different types of galaxies exist based on their
nature, structure and shape. The startling thing to us is that galaxies are fast moving away from
each other, proving the expanding universe theory. But it is still not known what is causing this
accelerating departure from each other. Some scientists like Vera Robin have suggested that this
is attributed to what has come to be known as “dark energy”22
G. Stars
The building blocks of a galaxy are stars and the constituent elements of these galaxies are
known as Stars. Stars by description are shining light sources in the universe that continue to
give out light for many years. These stars go through different stages from infancy right through
20
The Milky Way has a sister Galaxy called the Andromeda spinning in space some 2.1
million light years away. The Andromeda’s hub glows yellow with some two smaller galaxies
hovering in the vicinity.
21
22
Refer to Science Explorer pp 778
to their death and extinction. In keeping with the laws of nature stating that matter is never
destroyed but just changes form, stars mutate to something else after their energy reactions at
their core ceases. A star radiates light and beautifies our skies. Perhaps a good question worth
pondering over is why starts exist and where they are from. Various people give different
answers but surely they must have a purpose other than just shinning out there. Astronomers Page | 33
estimate that there could be well over 10, 000 billion billion stars in the universe23, that is a
whooping large number!
H. Black holes
As stars decay and die, astronomers tell us that they create what has come to be known as “black
holes”. A black hole is believed to have a powerful force that draws things into its central core.
We do not know exactly what this core is composed of and what happens when something is
‘sucked in’. Observations have been conducted to see what becomes of a star once it explodes
and fizzles out. They postulate that this could explain the existence of the black holes. Someone
has defined a black hole as “an object with gravity so strong that nothing, not even light, can
escape”24 This definition implies that a black hole is a gravity centre and can ‘pull’ things to its
core, whether light or not. This also implies that a black hole cannot be seen directly but by
proxy, the things it draws to its core. The hair raising fact about black holes is that once anything
gets trapped in them, they cannot possibly escape!
I. Asteroids25
As astronomers continued to scan the skies to see what is there, they came upon across a mass of
smaller rocky bodies which could not qualify to be called planets. Their size and probably shape
has generated endless debate as to whether some of them are planets or not. What was startling
about this find was that it was a region beyond planet Mars of what appeared to be fragmented
rocks in a ring around the sun. These rocks have different sizes and some have now been
identified to have some “earth like” properties. This has sparked another debate altogether. But
what is an asteroid exactly? Simply stated, it is a huge rock mass of some considerable
dimension (say a kilometre in diameter) but far smaller than a planet. That definition is what has
repeatedly revived endless debates as to whether Pluto qualifies to be a planet or simply a
‘runaway’ moon of the planet Neptune. There is no conclusive answer to the Pluto question but
those found in the region immediately beyond Mars are clearly not planets in the main. Some
think they could be debris from a smashed planet which collided with a meteorite years ago
while others feel it has always been like that by design (who designed this?). Still others think
these fragments are left over relics of the big bang as the universe evolved. We have no telling
exactly but whatever the case, this is a fascinating belt that has and continues to intrigue the
23
Source: Rhoda Nottridge, Sky Watch, pp 6
24
Science Explorer pp 766, The word “asteroid” is derived from Greek denoting “star like”
25
mind. More and more are discovered every day, from four in 1807 to over 100,000 to date. The
count continues. It is worth mentioning that each of these asteroids has a unique orbit around the
sun, sometimes coming closer to the sun than the Earth. Some evolutionists think that an asteroid
once collided with the earth 65 million years ago leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs.
Whether this is fact or fiction, we simply have no telling! Page | 34
J. Planets
Another feature that spooks the mind is the existence of the planets in and out of our solar
system. These rocky26 bodies have each got unique features differentiating them from the
neighbour planet. For instance, Jupiter is so different from Mercury, probably because of its
proximity to the sun but Mars is totally different from the Jovian planet or asteroids within the
‘neighbourhood’. A planet is a large body mass with density, size and features which make it
exists on its own, have satellites revolving round it while it hurtles along around its ‘sun’ or core
star. Each of these is in constant motion and is affected by its sun in relation to its distance from
the core. Most planets have a form of gravity and an atmosphere blanketing them, at least in the
solar system. The atmospheres are of varying degrees, densities and types. Some are gaseous
while others are moist. The chemical make ups of these also differ considerably although
Hydrogen is often found anywhere in the universe according to what we know (believed to be
the most abundant element in the universe). As for the planets in the solar system, nine so far are
well known and documented while others are extrapolated to exist, much like what happened to
the Pluto discovery in the 1930s. For a long time before the planet was identified from among the
stars, mathematicians had calculated its path probably because of its effect upon other space
bodies but was only discovered in 1931 thereabout. Similarly, the tenth planet could exist, if not
already discovered. For now, we list those that we know:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
26
Although the Science Explorer suggests that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune do not
have solid surfaces no wonder they are often referred to as “the Gas giants”. Refer to pp
721 of Science Explorer
Pluto
The planets have been classified as inner and outer planets, probably separated by the asteroid
belt. The other thing is that the inner planets may have some similar properties while the outer
are completely different from the inner. Sizes differ but each has its own properties.
Page | 35
K. Solar winds and other rays
The sun is so powerful in the solar system and sends out many waves that affect activity in the
system. One of those are invisible ‘particles’ called ‘Solar winds’ which emanate from or are
catalysed by the solar flares (magnetic energy from the sun) and go out like rippling waves akin
to what we see in the ocean. These particles reach the upper atmosphere of our planet and
beyond. Voyager, which is now billions of kilometres away also had recorded some solar wind
activity meaning that these winds travel fast across the solar system. There are other waves and
rays in the solar system not discernible to the eye as well as fields/belts around each planet that
counter these waves or temporarily decelerate their speed in the universe. In the heliopause
region and beyond, it is believed the suns’ influence in terms of solar winds drastically declines
while other interstellar forces take over. There is no proof for this yet but the voyager’s
deceleration has brought some puzzles to astronomers because it is slowing down faster than
expected when it should have maintained its velocity if not increased. One thing is certain for
sure, some form of forces or waves exist out there.
L. Comets27
Comets are believed to be a gaseous body that has a unique elliptical orbit around the sun.
Usually, a comet has a gaseous core with a long tail facing away from the sun. They are cloudy,
fuzzy patches of glowing light with somewhat irregular shapes. Derived from the Latin word
“comet” denoting ‘hair’, comets are a spectacular sight, though become less so at every
encounter with the sun. For some reason, they appear periodically around the sun in their never
ending orbit, with each advent appearing less spectacular. Some think, the comets wear out as
they take their orbit and eventually die. Some comets are visible from earth while others can only
be seen by the aid of a telescope. The best known comet is the Halley’s Comet that appears every
76 years and usually gives a spectacular view to the onlooker. The last time it appeared was in
April 1986 and many of us saw this night beauty for a few weeks and then it vanished behind the
sun probably only to be seen next in 2062, if we shall be there! The Halley’s Comet is named
after famed astronomer Edmund Halley who spotted it in 1682.
He most probably calculated its orbit and predicted that it would return after 76 years in 1758,
and it did! It would next return in 1834 before it showed up in 1910. Other comets do exist as
well but the Halley’ comet is probably the most spectacular from the earth’s perspective. The
European space probe Giotto attempted to get to its core with modest results.
27
Some aspects of this section derived from Patrick Moore & Mason John’s work, The Return
of the Halley’s comet, pp48 where they trace the comet as far back as 240 BC!
Briefly, here are three of the well known comets and when they return:
Comet Returns after:
Rigollet’s 156 years

Page | 36
Encke’s 3.30 years
Halley’s 76 years
M. Orbits and years
An orbit is a path taken by something revolving around another. In this context, we refer to
planets revolving around the sun which is at the centre of the solar system. For instance, the earth
revolves around the sun and the path it takes or maintains is called its orbit. Similarly, the moon
revolves around the earth and never leaves that path called its orbit. When we consider all the
planets and objects in space, there is an amazing precision about the route. These heavenly
bodies, if we may call them each have a unique path that keeps them what they are. In other
words, if the earth veered a little closer or further from the sun than it is supposed to at that
particular time, the earth’s inhabitants would roast or freeze, or at least the planet would be
affected in some way. Amazingly though, the planets maintain their orbits from age to age.
Another thing that baffles the mind is just how the particular planet years vary. While planet
Mercury takes only 88 days to complete one revolution round the sun, Neptune takes 164 years
to complete one revolution! What a vast difference! Yet these journeys round the sun never end!
N. Satellites
A satellite is any object, probably rocky in nature that revolves around a given planet. It is within
its gravitational pull and moves with the said planet as it journeys round the sun. A case in point
is our moon or one of Pluto’s moon, Charon. Each planet has a number of satellites or moons
that revolve round it and are usually barren rocky bodies, although recent findings show that not
every moon is rocky. Some like Jupiter’s Europa are believed to have an ocean of liquid water
underneath the icy crust that covers it. Some have even suggested that some life form could exist
there. Be that as it may, satellite differs from satellite. It is prudent also to mention that satellites
are of two types. The first set is what we have just described, natural ones while the second set
are artificial. The artificial ones have been made by man for a specific purpose. Nearly every
planet of interest has an artificial satellite that orbits it, observing and collecting information
which is analysed on earth. This data is critical to feed into future space programming. Have you
taken time to wonder, that in the same way humans observe other planets, someone or aliens out
there could be watching us as well?
O. Atmospheres
Each planet and indeed the sun have some form of gaseous atmosphere which envelopes that
particular body. Some atmospheres are extremely thin and almost none existent while others
have thick heavy ones. The earth has a unique atmosphere that is suited for organisms to exist
and flourish while Mars has a very thin atmosphere that is believed to have vaporised when the
planet collided with an asteroid28 or comet, we have no telling exactly. Whatever the case, the Page | 37
atmosphere exerts some influence on the planet and shields it from solar winds and potentially
deadly rays, in the case of the earth. It is indeed a wonder that our atmosphere could do so much
to protect us from the harmful UV or gamma rays which would result in terrible cancers or
render some organisms extinct. We have no time to talk about the tides, planet temperatures as
well as the weather pattern. Suffice it to say that we have an amazing atmosphere up there!
P. Why are we here?
Finally, we come to a close of our brief excursion in the universe, the question that still bugs our
minds is: where did we come from and why are we here? There must be an answer somewhere
because things cannot just randomly occur or exist. Perhaps it should be called “random order”!
But then, is there a purpose for our existence in this vast universe? Are we alone in this grand
world? Is there no other planet which approximates to the earth somewhere in the Universe? If
there is, is there life there and where did it come from. We are back from where we started I
guess. That said, I hope this introduction has given you sufficient overview over the issues we
are to discuss in this dossier. It is time to adjust our gears as we start from where we live, the
Earth!
Bibliography
Dupuis L Diane & Engelbert Philis, The Handy astronomy & Space GK Book, Jaico Publishing
House, 2006
Gitt Werner, Stars and their purpose, Master Books, 2006
Griswold Ferrel, Evolution 1, 2 & 3 (tapes), Ferrel Griswold tape Ministry
Hartmann K William, Astronomy the cosmic Journey,
Hayden Kate, Astronaut: Living in space, Dorling Kindersley, 2000
Kenah Katharine, Space Mysteries, Waterbird books, 2004
Man’s conquest of Space
Morris M Henry, Many Infallible Proofs: Evidences for the Christian Faith, Master Books, 1974
28
The Earth is also said to be bombarded by at least 19,000 meteorites annually each
weighing over 100g. Refer to Rocks & Minerals by Dr R.F Symes pp 40. It’s a wonder indeed
that the earth remains unscathed thus far.
NASA, Results of the Third U.S. manned orbital space flight, October 3, 1962, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Nottridge Rhoda, Skywatch, Harper Collins publishers Ltd, 1991
Padilla J Michael, Muaoulis Ioannis, Cyr Martha (Program Authors), Prentice Hall Science Page | 38
Explorer, Pearson Prentice Hall Inc, 2006
Symes R F, Rocks & Minerals, Dorling Kindersley, 1988

Chapter one
Page | 39
JPL
Voyager 1 picture of Earth with moon
“We are all passengers on spaceship Earth and therefore must do all we can to preserve it for longer use/space voyages yonder”
BS (2007)
The Earth
The Earth has been circling the Sun since the ‘Big Bang’ or Creation depending on which side
you lean. The Earth has been beautiful and glorious over the centuries unique and small among
the planets. The tiny ‘blue marble’ in the solar system has evolved from being a quiet and
relatively primitive silent space ship around the sun to a place bustling with activity. It is now a
hive of activity at literary every point that one chooses to zoom in, although admittedly some
parts, look more “alive” than others. Astronauts have long marvelled at the planet as they make
their rendezvous’ in their orbiting space crafts. From space, all looks calm, nice and neat on the
earth but as one lands, they suddenly realise that there is chaos down there! Wars, acrimony, turf
fights, threats, planet degradation and all have bugged the planet from virtually every angle and
location. There is now talk around a new economic order guised under “globalisation” which has
its ardent adherents as well as its serious fundamental opponents. As anthropogenic activity has
escalated, the planet is suffocating and so are other ‘lesser’ beings, such as species of instinct.
There is a marked reduction in biodiversity while humans dominate the planet. Some pundits
argue and question whether humans have the right to claim to be ‘masters’ of the planet at the
expense of other equally important species that contribute to the planet eco-equilibrium and
diversity. The other school of thought unreservedly asserts that God gave dominion to humans to
“work and manage” the planet. Everything else therefore is subservient to human wants and
desires. By implication, this school claims that humans determine what is right and good for the
entire planet regardless. If some form of degradation say, air pollution is taking place, as long as
humans are not inconvenienced, then that is fine! It only becomes a problem when human lives
are adversely affected. In this world view, biodiversity, variety and species extinction does not
matter! The debate rages on. But there are other issues that confront the planet. The advent of
technological advancement has brought much good for humans but has in some instances
adversely affected other parts of the ecosystem. For instance, planes, cars, industries and modern
life styles have greatly affected the planet. Whilst being good and improving on the quality of Page | 40
life, the backlash is now clearly showing in different ways. The planet is now barer than it was
say 100 years ago. There are fewer “oxygen machines” or trees in many parts of the world which
are fast being replaced by the concrete jungles or commercial farm lands. An improved quality of
life translates into a higher life expectancy and reduced mortality rate leading to an exponential
population explosion. As at 1999, the planet had close to 6 billion humans alone and one
wonders what it could be now, ten years down the line. This 6+billion population means the
burden on the health care system has increased, the pressure on natural resources and social
amenities has also sky rocketed by that token. While the richer and more advanced north is
recording population decline (although they are already too many!), the developing nations are
struggling to come out of the poverty woodworks so that they can industrialise many times using
what is now dubbed “dirty technologies” because of their damaging effects on the planet.
Conference after conference has been hosted attempting to solve the planet dilemma because the
planet is literary on its knees, it is in peril as some have rightly observed. That said, poverty is on
the increase right across the world. There are fewer people who have access to safe drinking
water as well as live on less than $ 1 per day. Ironically, about $ 2 or more is spent on feeding an
animal in the developed north because they can afford it and probably have mastered the art of
generating wealth. There are other dimensions that bug the planets such as international
relations, an unequal world in terms of relations, treatment and trade, the threat of nuclear wars
that have the potential to obliterate the planet many times over. The emerging nations now are
asserting their rights to develop while the already richer nations are urging a middle ground
dubbed “sustainable development” which in all probability will not deliver the high standards of
living that the richer north have already attained. Some think this contestable and unclear
concept is yet another ploy to inhibit the emerging nations/markets so that the Developed north
remains in the dominating factors. All these and many more problems continue to hound the
planet and yet are not visible from space.
In this chapter however, our focus is not on the politics that bug the nations but rather the debate
that surrounds the exploration of space with respect to what is obtaining on the planet. The basic
question we seek to explore in this chapter is what people say about space exploration and why
they say it.
Pervasive and excruciating poverty
Although the planet has experienced unprecedented amounts of development by leaps and
bounds in the past few decades, poverty remains a bugging problem is not worsening. As
exponential population explosion sky rockets resulting from the improved quality of living, the
planets’ resources are increasingly unevenly and thinly spread out. Another aspect is that the
scarce resources are excessively “lumped” in the developed north while the poorer south
continues to wallow in abject poverty. The poverty level and degree is so excruciating to the
extent that it basically does not make sense to “waste” billions of dollars on profitless space
pursuit. How can a person in their right mind elect to spend nearly all they have on buying high
cost mineral (bottled) water when fresh, free and safe spring water flows in their backyard? Do Page | 41
you think people will hear their cry for help from neighbours asking for bottled safe drinking
water once they have exhausted all their money? In all probability, they will be pointed to the
backyard spring that has all the while been pouring out clean water that is free! In the same way,
development practitioners question both the relevance and reasonability of spending colossal
sums of money on space exploration at the cost of the majority world’s poor. The religious also
add their voice. They question the morality and wisdom of neglecting a fellow human being who
has been created in the image of God in preference for empty space, important as it might be.
They argue that we first sort out the excruciating poverty mess on the earth before venturing out,
but the question that begs answering is, when will this be feasible, in 2015? Perhaps in 2030.
Environmental issues
Since humans broke loose from the forest cocoons that once enveloped them, they have been
making frantic efforts to cut down trees and get out of the forest woodworks. This brought about
an unprecedented uplift of the social life quality on many of the world’s citizenry. The North
discovered the formula of breaking their bounds much quicker than the rest of the world and thus
engaged on voyages around the world. These trips had their own ramifications, some positive
and others devastatingly negative. The positive side is that it brought about good changes in the
way people lived and got by. The downside of this among many is that it unleashed wanton
destruction of the planet to the extent that it is itself gasping for survival breath! The industrial
revolution, whilst good and applauded, can be principally be pointed out as the time when
anthropogenic activities begun to take their toll. Today, the planet is now throwing its backlash
to this relentless abuse and degradation. Environmental issues have now entered the political
realm and could easily cost one the vital vote to clinch political office. Environmental issues
have now taken a nigh religious tone with people taking serious sides to the point of martyrdom!
Thus, anything that suggests further messing up the planet or degrading it faces much opposition
from all corners of the globe. Gone are the days when one would freely light a fire in the
backyard without the neighbour voicing concern or raising the red flag. The once perfectly blue
and healthy planet is now crying out for help, if life is to be sustained in its present form. To
appreciate this point better, we high light some of the present problems confronting the planet.
-climate change
The planet once had stable predictable climate and weather pattern. At one time, it was possible
to plan activities accurately and see the desired results but this has changed drastically in the last
few years. From a 35 year lag time to determine the local climate, climate and weather changes
far more frequently and faster. For instance, the planet has experienced unprecedented floods,
extreme temperatures (such as heat waves or extreme freezing spells) and droughts leading to
adverse consequences. A place may be warm in this minute but freezing the next. The air may be
good, healthy and clean this minute but chokes and kills people the next. All these and many
others are almost common place and increasingly hardly surprising.
Page | 42
-Global warming
Closely connected to climate change is the issue of Global warming. The planet’s temperature
has steadily been rising over the last century triggering other processes. The increasing trapped
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is leading to the entire planet warming up. This has
repercussions. Some of them include the melting ice bergs, reducing polar caps, rising sea tide,
disappearance of some lands as well as the reduction in biodiversity. Global warming has a
bearing on the erratic weather patterns that the planet experiences. As more fossils are disturbed,
due to the acidifications of the seas, more previously trapped carbon is released to the
atmosphere thereby increasing the carbon load.
-Pollution (air, dust, water, noise etc)
Planet degradation takes various forms. Today, it has become possible to isolate the respective
problems as well as their effects on the planet. Pollution is one of the elements of planet
degradation. This selfsame pollution is of different forms that include air pollution, fresh water
pollution, ground water pollution, noise pollution among many. Noise pollution was not
recognised as such until much later. People are now clamouring for a quieter world where Jet
engine booms, car engines, machines noises are reduced. For the patient, noise can be such a
nuisance! Hearing problems are not uncommon these latter days.
-Species extinction
As the planet gets more poisoned and poisonous, some species are either disappearing or simply
dying off. Their disappearance could be explained by indiscriminate poaching or the clearing of
land and forest for development. Humans, claiming to be masters of the universe have gone to all
lengths to plunder the planet of its once rich biodiversity. Plants also have not been spared in this
scourge.
-Mutations
To survive, according to genetics, mutations take place in organisms. They mutate in order to
survive within their environments. Whether this is true or not, there is some evidence that has
been adduced by evolutionists and paraded as science to the world. Debates abound about this
but the point is, change is constant. If these changes take place in the cell nucleus, the change
must be major. Perhaps the planet changes may have a bearing on the frequent cancer
incidences?
-Reduction in biodiversity
As earlier alluded to in the species extinction above, reduction in diversity on the planet is
evidently taking its toll. The coral reefs for instance which harbour a lot of organisms are
dissolving in the acidifying seas and with them go some organisms. The animals that once
roamed the planet are killed off and replaced by humans whose prime occupation is to gratify
ego desires. But that is not all, the vegetation is also changing. Some weaker species die off Page | 43
while those that survive are cleared for commercial farming or some other anthropogenic
activity. Genetically modified Organisms (GMO) now feature prominently on the planet and
threaten to take the lions’ share if not already, in food matters. The diversity that once beautified
the planet is now drastically on the decline and steadily replaced by a “uniform” kind of
vegetation. The increasingly harsh and poisonous planet has and will kill off the fragile diversity.
-Frequent natural disasters
As an off shoot of climate change, there has been an increase in natural disasters and adverse
conditions as the planet gives its backlash. For instance, flood (including flush floods), heat
waves, extreme freezing temperatures, torrential rainfall and drought increasingly mark our
world. Humans now have to plan and manage these extreme conditions around them.
-Melting Polar caps
As the planet disintegrates due to relentless wanton degradation, the polar caps are slowly but
steadily melting. The warmer temperatures account for this. As things stand, about 10.4% of the
earth’s land surface is permanently covered by ice but with global warming, some of this ice
melts releasing water into the oceans which in turn have tide rise. This rise spells doom to the
islands which “drown” with their bio-diverse organisms. The icebergs are now adrift and pause
grave dangers to sea farers.
-Potential atmospheric gas ratio changes
Although this point has probably not been documented yet, there is a probability that the gas
concentrations and ratios in the earth’s atmosphere is or has been changing. Historically, we
know that the normal ratios (by volume) revolve at 78.08% Nitrogen, 20.95% Oxygen, 0.038%
Carbon dioxide, 0.93 Argon as well as trace elements which make up the balance. This composes
a healthy gas mixture but the industrial revolution triggered a process where different gases were
emitted to the upper atmosphere and thus effectively poisoning the air or at least altering its
composition. This development has probably triggered other processes which may eventually
affect the planet quality.
-Nitrogen loading
As more commercial farming takes centre stage, various fertilisers have been used to improve
crop yield and production. While this is helpful and necessary, the down side to this trend is that
the nitrogen load on the soils is having a telling effect up the food chain as well as polluting the
atmosphere ultimately. The nitrogen released through fossil fuels, fertiliser and so forth finds its
way into the fresh water systems and ultimately into the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides contribute
to global warming as well.
-Ozone depletion
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Image removed
The continued degradation resulting from CFC29 emissions which rise into the upper atmosphere
and break up Ozone (o3) opens the door for the lethal gamma rays from the sun to reach the
planet. Ordinarily, the ozone layer acts as a shield to the planet and bounces off the deadly rays
into space. But with its destruction and emergence of holes in this shield, skin cancers increase
while some organisms are killed off. An ozone hole has been spotted over Southern Australia in
recent years which changes in size from time to time. As these holes become a permanent feature
on the planet, there is likely to be an upswing in the adverse effects mentioned above.
-Disease burden
The problem(s) affecting the earth, such as global warming, has also triggered some problematic
organisms to be active. These pathogens and viruses have come alive and cause diseases that
were once thought eliminated. Other diseases such as skin cancer have found their way on many
bodies because the planet is failing to protect humans, especially those with less melanin.
Thus, it is evident that environmental issues are a big problem enough to keep humans at home
rather than wondering among the stars. Some of these problems cannot be solved in a short time
and thus concerted efforts by all stake holders are needed. The rockets that blast through the
atmosphere frequently actually may significantly contribute to the planet destruction.
-Globalisation
The word ‘Globalisation’ or ‘Globalism’ has taken the centre stage in recent times. In the quest
to unify and develop the global economy, there has been a push towards harmonising financial
systems, approaches as well as the removal of any impediments to international trade and
interactions among nations. The idea is to develop one global market whose tenets abhor any
limitations in terms of trade restrictions for instance as well as foster global unity, perceptions,
tastes and values. Globalisation is more than a movement that pervades trade boundaries, it also
affects how people view things, value and treat each other as well as how important things such
as the Environment are viewed. Principally, globalisation aims at improving trade relations,
integrating systems, uniting peoples of the world as well as driving the development agenda by
29
The main source of this ozone damaging chlorine has been domestic fridges etc but the
Popular science magazine once reported that “NASA estimates that about 75 tons of
Chlorine are deposited in the Ozone layer each time a shuttle is launched”. That’s a lot of
Chlorine, given the frequency of these flights! The Awake magazine of December 22, 1994
also had some useful information relating to Ozone depletion/destruction.
globalisation seems to favour the privileged few located in the developed north, although things
may change in the long run. With globalisation therefore comes collective responsibility and
acting. For instance, what may have been perfectly acceptable and expected in Spain may not be
allowable in the new integrated setting (EU). The world will eventually probably unify these
integrated economic blocks scattered across the globe. Page | 45
-Revolutions
Different revolutions come and go at every turn and time period. Some are big and affect a large
section of the world’s population. Others are small and localised impacting only a negligible
circle of contexts. A revolution can take place in about anything such as IT, Industry, social
setting and religion to mention but a few. One of the greatest revolutions to have an indelible
mark on the human race was the industrial revolution of the 1700s. From about that time, a lot of
leaps in development have been recorded leading to what obtains today. Cumulative
developments have had a lasting impact on how humans live, interact or do business. For
instance, the industrial revolution gave us the factories, mechanical engineering and promoted
large scale production but the Technological revolution has given birth to Information
Technologies, electronic among many. Yet another revolution is taking place, the Green
Revolution. This has promoted efficiency, alternative fuel sources or what is termed ‘cleaner
technologies’ which may eventually lead to the planet having some respite, hoping things are not
too late. There are other revolutions but our scope does not cover them.
-Scarcity of non renewable assets
The planet has developed to an extent where available energy sources are proving to be
inadequate. The rising population as well as improvement in the quality of life have laid a
serious burden on the resources that the planet is able to offer. For instance, the use of coal is
now almost largely discouraged but in the earlier years of the Industrial revolution, Coal was the
main energy source. One just needs to visit some districts of the UK to see what we are talking
about. While it was extremely helpful and cheaper to utilise, it is now considered a relatively
“dirty” fuel especially if the process system is not refined. But there are other non-renewable
sources such as minerals and energy sources which are fast being depleted and if not carefully
managed may spell doom for the world.
-Imbalances between the rich and poor
For a long time, few have dared voice out or talk about the imbalances that exist between the
nations. Things are however beginning to change with Dambiso Moyo’s daring book “Dead Aid”
took its place on the world’s book shops. It is a book that has ruffled many feathers and tackled
things that few academics and development practitioners dare to question. Statistics and
observation clearly show that the disparity between the rich and poor nations is ever widening.
The question that begs answering is why? Dambiso attempts to answer this and offers some
pragmatic solution that centre around empowerment rather than hand outs. There is a stronger
call in Development circles to revisit the systems and practices of things that affect the world if
anything tangible is to be recorded.
-‘Sustainable development’30
For some time now, the developed and developing worlds have been at dangers drawn, busy Page | 46
pointing at and accusing each other. The one (Developed world) insists that there should be a
limit on the development extent and a mandatory use of relatively more expensive cleaner
technologies while the other retorts and claims that they have a right to develop at whatever rate
and means they like. They further claim that the developed world should limit its development
agenda since they are the major culprits of planet degradation. Having developed themselves
using cheaper “dirtier” technologies and wrecking the world, what morality do they have to
lecture others when they pursue their paths? These and many other controversies surround the
term “sustainable development”31 which some people dismiss as spurious and misleading.
By definition, ‘sustainable development’ aims at tackling a number of ideas and concepts as

relates to the planet. We offer some definitions below:
(a) The first idea that the term propagates is that development should be ongoing and self
sustaining. It should be self sustaining in the sense that this development is contextual and yet
bring about the greater good of humanity as things improve for them. The Development agenda
should be owned and pushed by the local context and yet ultimately contributes to global
development.
(b) The second idea, which was reflected and echoed in the Rio Earth summit is that
development should not only be spontaneously ongoing but should be cautiously handled with an
eye towards the future. In other words, as development processes take place today, they must
take into consideration the repercussions on future generations as to what planet they will inherit,
whether it will be a damaged, destroyed world or it will be a thriving and revived world able to
refresh itself? Sustainable development does not compromise progeny’s world tomorrow while
fostering innovation, ingenuity and progress.
-Green Business
In recent times, resulting from the harm being inflicted on the planet, there has been a call to
stop and re-examine our ways of doing business. During the change over, some processes have
30
Karpagam M’s book on Environmental Economics has an interesting chapter on
Sustainable Development worth perusing through.
31
The World Commission on Environment & Development (WCED) defined sustainable
development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This definition is contestable and
has attracted a lot of criticism. Some claim that the definition is open to wide interpretations
and at times even contradictory!
been developed while others have fallen by the way side. Critically analysed, green business is
another industry that focuses on the development and use of ‘cleaner technologies’ which may
eventually help the planet in peril. Apart from the development of technologies, there is also talk
about helping to restore the planet to its healthy state where organisms can flourish as they once
did prior to proportions predating the Industrial revolution. Some examples include the Page | 47
following:
-Carbon quarters. As the planet struggles to control and get a hold on the carbon released to the
atmosphere, there is need for industries to limit the amount of carbon emitted. This limitation
allows the planet to regenerate and renew itself. These carbon quarters are quantifiable amounts
of carbon which are meticulously monitored by some independent agency and if for some reason
an industry or country exceeds their ration, they must pay a penalty or “buy” smoke quarters
from countries that use less of their allocation. Whichever way, there is some transaction
somewhere, though meticulously monitored by someone.
-CO2 ‘harvesting’. Then there is another aspect worth pondering over. Clearly, the planet is
ailing and needs drastic measures to cure it from its life threatening illness. The planet needs to
recover its self renewing stamina which has evidently by and large been weakened and in some
cases lost. One of the strategies is to harvest as much carbon dioxide from the atmosphere being
a green house gas and thus contributing to global warming. There is need to reduce fossils or
carbon emitting dead organisms from dissolving. This implies ensuring less pollution into the
fresh water bodies which ultimately pour into the larger water bodies such as seas and oceans. If
the pollution is nipped in the bud, it will not flow all the way to the sea and thus reduce the ocean
acidification which in turn will not dissolve the carbon retaining fossils. Another strategy is to
plant more “oxygen machines”-Trees. If more trees are around a given area, chances are that
they will “suck in” more Carbon dioxide and give oxygen in return as the process of
photosynthesis takes place. Thus, the environmental bodies are increasingly encouraging
individuals and nations to plant more trees. While the developed nations have made a killing
with their concrete jungles, the developing nations have an opportunity to cash in as they put
their vast idle lands to good use by simply planting trees. In years to come, nations and
individuals may be rewarded for harvesting as much CO2 from the atmosphere as possible. They
may be paid say $ 2 per living tree on their estate. If that were the case, then an individual with a
1000 trees may rake in a cool $ 2000 dollars per given period. If they have 10,000 then $ 20,000
may be their lot and so forth.
In the distant future, they may be rewarded per tree or plant species they have because some may
harvest more CO2 than others. The question of CO2 emission at night is an issue many will have
to grapple with though. This is because the plant reverses its metabolism process as CO2 is
released instead.
-Rising disease burden

As a consequence partly of the warming up planet, new diseases are on the rise in addition to the
already besting ones of the past. With the exponential population explosion on the planet, there is
increased pressure both of the earth’s resources as well as the services to be provided. The health
institutions are far outstretched to the adequately cater for all humans, worse still for those in the
poorer south nations. Having relocated from where they originally lived and adopted new ways Page | 48
of existence, most of them have lost connection with health remedies and depend on the modern
remedies. The population boom coupled with lower mortality rates (due to improved quality of
life) increasingly mean that problems will invariably be the order of the day. A diseased
population is definitely counter or less productive compared to one whose critical mass of
population is healthy. Viewed globally, the planet and its inhabitants are generally less healthier
than they were decades ago. Thus, there is need to invest more in health related matters rather
than zooming off to wonder among the stars!
-Polarised world
The cold war divided the world into two opposing sides although the non aligned nations sought
to stick to the middle ground, which in reality was the case because each of these had a leaning.
For instance, although Zambia claimed to be non-aligned, it effectively was socialist effectively
leaning towards the communist USSR or China. As 1991 came around, the tables turned towards
the western world. Since then, things have drastically changed although the face of international
relations is ever in flux. Today, Russia is the super power sparring with the USA, next it is Iran,
China, Venezuela or some other countries. Today, a capitalist inclined government is in power
but tomorrow, the socialist or communist bounces back where it once reigned and lost power.
Things are volatile and people invariably take sides. Recently, the once sleeping giant China has
awakened from its serious sleep and is now flexing its financial/technological muscle on the
international scene while the once unrivalled capitalist king, the USA is forced to stop in its
tracks and reconsider its ways. No one can ignore China today as was once the case. There is
therefore need to harmonise this world to avert another world war or anything that threatens
global peace and therefore the globalisation tenets.
-Religion
Religion was once a seriously private matter and localised in some one’s heart and context but
with the globalisation advent, the various religious ideologies and convictions are in constant
collision. The stronger religious beliefs suppress and crush the weaker and vulnerable ones.
There is considerable debate over the validity of this assertion but one thing is true, every
adherent to each faith is convinced that theirs is the true religion and blessed by God. Religion,
in some sense has become a global commodity and brand that people either buy into or discard
but may not entirely ignore. One can scarcely do successful global marketing of their product for
instance without taking into account the religious concerns and values of different people across
the world. Thus aggressive marketing will ensure it strives towards homogeneous customer taste
and perception lest they raffle some feathers! It is important to state also that religion is such a
powerful force today which must be meticulously handled because of the rise of the religious
fundamentalist or extremists. A fundamentalist by definition is one that claims to adhere to the
original truth of that particular religion and strives to proselyte others as well as polices others
within the same faith to stick to those particular tenets failure to which one is not considered a
true worshipper but one that associates and in so doing ‘desecrates the holy things’. A Page | 49
fundamentalist does not tolerate ambiguities but demands one is either a full adherent or clearly
not one. In that way, the line is clearly drawn on how far the two groups will relate hence. But
there is another group-The ones dubbed ‘Terrorists’. These terrorists actually branch from the
Fundamentalists and go a step further into fanaticism or pure extremisms. They are dubbed
“terrorists” because in the name of being faithful to their deity, they persecute and attack anyone
else who holds a contra view or position. A terrorist has no time to reason or negotiate. Its either
you join them or they slaughter you, and thus “purify” the world. Then they feel fulfilled and
acceptable to their God. Terrorists are found in practically every religion only that they methods
of terrorism vary. For Instance, ‘The Lord’s Resistance army’ of Uganda reigned terror in
northern Uganda for a long time. If asked, they claimed to have been obeying instructions from
their God, to slaughter, maime or defeat anyone that was opposed to the Bible’s Ten
Commandments. Others recently claimed to have engaged in drug trafficking in the lord’s name!
There are other terrorists some of which even die as martyrs!
-Culture
The way people live, behave and view things constitutes what we term as culture. The culture
therefore motivates and fosters certain behaviour patterns emanating from some inherent value
systems. The value system therefore shapes one’s world view and to some extent orientation.
Exposure, upbringing and context greatly impacts on one’s values and thus their cultural
practices. If in an organisation, people spend the first twenty minutes before they commence
work each day, then that could be part of their corporate culture. Similarly, different contexts
across the world have different cultures which confluence when one trends the international
scene with the globalisation advent. What matters is how they conduct themselves in a given
situation so as to remain objective and relevant. Admittedly, culture is also always mutating
though values may not change that fast. What often changes is the mode and approach of doing
something not necessarily the conviction.
-Politics
Politics takes different forms and shades. In about every context, some form of politics takes
place whether at church, in the organisation, village, society or nation. However, one type of
politics has take prominence and is frequently referred to. This type of politics is one that
revolves around organised political parties that jostle for power with a view to gain control of or
philosophy that a group of people or cross section of society believe in or adhere to. For instance,
one political party may strongly believe in pure capitalism while another is a socialist and abhors
capitalism in all its forms. The respective parties must “market” themselves to as many members
of the electorate as possible and scoop the elections. Democracy is increasingly being heralded
as the best mode of political governance although pockets holding a radically contra position still
exist around the world. In some places, party politics are at the root of turmoil, acrimony and
civil wars while in other contexts, they have brought about harmony and development. The
planet has a mixed blend of these. Page | 50
-Legal aspects
The world has various legal systems which dictate how countries and individuals operate. Laws
are derived from different backgrounds and in a sense reflect the thinking and culture of people.
As the world goes global, homogeneity and relativity in many matters abound. The perceptions,
values and principles therefore affect the enactment of laws. Their implementation is another.
Historically, the English, Roman and Islamic law have been the foremost sources of law but
these also are in flux. The Martial law for instance is implemented in military regimes while
Islamic (Sharia) law is largely observed and upheld in Islamic republics. The English and Roman
laws exist in democratic states around the world. It is worth mentioning that each of these laws
claims to be objective, fair and ideal for their respective settings. Within a global economic
context though, these variations can pose as challenges because if a multinational has a litigation
issue in an Islamic setting where Islamic law is upheld, it may be “trapped” because it probably
relies on the English law in the country of origin. Thus, as part of its international strategy, these
issues must be borne in mind so as to minimize international outrage or acrimony.
-Relativity of issues
Relativity has to do with different perceptions and views over the same issue. What may be
perfectly acceptable and desirable for one person may not necessarily be for the next person.
What may be expected and good for one person may be repulsive and offensive for the next
person. This generates a lot of problems for the unexposed international traveller as they
intermingle with people from other regions of the world. Cultures, background orientation,
exposure, education and values all affect the way people perceive and interpret things. In short,
their world view is shaped by what they have known or been exposed to. Thus, hard line
dogmatic stances on certain things startle and appear surprisingly shocking for the global worker
whose mind is highly tolerant to relativity. The world somehow abhors absolutes relative to the
past.
-Undiscovered/unconquered frontiers on the earth
A good portion of the earth has been investigated and a lot discovered. Humans have been to the
far flung places of the earth, studied them and adapted to them. People work and live around the
Arctic Circle as well as the middle of the hot deserts. As the early explorers set out to discover
“the edge of the earth”, they carried with them a pioneering spirit, facing the unknown. Some
returned safely home but many others vanished never to be seen again. Those that made it
became heroes and opened up routes to other parts of the world. Now people are planning to visit
Mars and in a few decades from now, Mars may become a piece of cake! However, there are
lone voices scattered across the world that see the earth as an intriguing place to explore still. For
instance, the wonders of the deep seas and oceans remain largely unexplored or dominated by
man. People can scarcely journey to the deepest oceans as tourists because as yet, very few deep
sea/ocean worthy vessels exist. Further, not only should humans tour or explore the deep seas, Page | 51
they are yet to “colonise” those territories in a way that they can control what goes on. For
instance, when the French Air line (from Rio) crashed into the Atlantic Ocean in June 2009, only
part of the wreckage was discovered while the vital black boxes never were. The reason is that
humans do not have the technical knowhow to handle the undersea world. Proponents of this
view further assert that the air space above the land is also yet to be exploited and productively
used. Apart from aeroplanes flying about, there is need to invent ways of building suspended as
well as subterranean cities. The underground, the undersea and free air space still needs to be
effectively utilised. We do not have time to talk about drilling to the earth’s core past the extant
theories, developing newer energy sources away from the hydrocarbon fuels, waveless
technologies as well as cures for menacing diseases such as cancer or other presently terminal
diseases whose cure lies hidden somewhere in those forests which are rapidly and
indiscriminately being destroyed rather than preserved. In short, there is a lot more to discover
here on earth before running off to be experts of another world or space body out there.
-Urban challenges
People’s settlement patterns and ways of living have been evolving over the years. From hunters,
gathers and subsistence farmers in sparse settlements, humans have moved on to erect cities in
which they live. Although good and plausible a mode of existence, this has brought a fresh
challenge to the fore. One of these challenges is the increased pressure on social amenities as
well as concentrating the earth degrading actions that include pollution (i.e. water, air & noise
etc), deforestation, reduced biodiversity and reduction of vegetation cover in preference for the
concrete jungles. This development has also other attendant problems such as higher stress
levels, depression as well as other mental disorders resulting from a “compacted” life style.
-Earth summit declarations
A number of summits have been held across the world with their classic “declarations” at the end
of the conference but how many have really been effectual and implemented. The world has had
the Tokyo protocol, the Rio declaration, The Johannesburg world development summit among
many have taken place but most of them have ended up to be talk shops with little action after
that. What has lacked largely in these summits has been the political will in the respective
countries represented. While the technocrats have seen the need and urgency of something, the
actual people with power may have not bought into it and thus not run with the ball. That said,
these declarations have progressively begun to worm their way into the policy documents and
may eventually be implemented some day, assuming things are not too late.
-Energy problems
As the Earth population exponentially explodes, the resources the earth can offer decline by that
token. To keep in step with the need of the times, greater exploitation of wasting assets is the
only reasonable course of action. However, this cannot be done without harming the planet.
Page | 52
Hence, there has been a move to discover or invent alternative energy sources. There have been
hydro, solar and nuclear energy sources. Other sources are daily being found though the stress on
the planet’s resources remains a source of concern. The alternative sources so far adduced also
have their own down sides as well as limitations. For instance, nuclear energy exploitation
posses a long term threat should something go wrong. The Chernobyl disaster32 of April 1986
comes to mind. Today, that area in Ukraine remains a dangerous place to living organisms.
Image removed
Nuclear power station in the developed world
A large geographic area remains contaminated for hundreds of years to come, unless of course
new technology is able to avert disaster or clear the mess once it occurs. On the other hand,
hydro power depends on the availability of water in appropriate levels. Should a drought strike
and rivers dry up, problems ensue. Solar and wind power sources are perhaps some of the best
sources currently although the initial capital expenditure is exceedingly forbidding.
Recent space related tragedies & space exploration feats
The Challenger disaster of 1986 brought into sharp focus the wisdom, relevance and cost
effectiveness of manned space flights. The world paused a while and ferociously debated this
question seriously after many years of relative safety. Since Apollo 1 disaster on the launch pad
(January1967). The security issues seem to have been paramount but as the years rolled on
coupled with the complex STS and budget cuts, security concerns seem to have slipped into the
background.
Space exploration is a mixed bag. On the one hand, it is dangerous but on the other it is
delightful and exciting. Humans have been travelling into space since the early sixties and
continue to conquer more space frontiers around the planet. Most of the manned flights have
been restricted to the space between the earth and moon. In fact, most of it has been around the
earth itself rather than further a field. Below are some pictures depicting human conquest of
space using various space vehicles:
Image removed
32
Refer to Cunningham Saigo’s Environmental Science text pp 364
The Earth remains an enigmatic place somewhat because of its complexity. It has an envelope
around it called its atmosphere. Interestingly, this envelope is graduated into various gaseous
components in addition to the solid part called land or Biosphere in earth science circles. The
said atmosphere is composed of various gases, water vapour and other elements which combine
in an interesting fashion making it habitable to for organism. Despite the atmosphere being thick Page | 53
and dense, it none the less is just the right pressure coupled with gravity which keeps things
“attached” to the earth33. It is this atmosphere that is presently under threat because the vices
mentioned earlier own take place there and in the process destroy the various layers of the same.
We briefly illustrate the atmosphere as well as give some notes about this beautiful blanket
(Redfern calls it ‘the fragile veil’).
Image removed
Layers of Earth’s atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere structure
1. The Troposphere: 8 miles
2. The Stratosphere:
3. The Mesosphere: 60 miles with a high concentration of ozone and strongly absorbs
ultraviolet light from the sun. This protects living tissues from UV’s destructive effects.
4. The Ionosphere or thermosphere: Up to 220 miles where gases are ionised by the sun’s
radiations.
5. The Exosphere: Beyond 220 miles where the atmosphere is rarefied. Intermolecular
collisions rarely occur and travel round the Earth in satellite like orbits. At this stage, the
atmosphere gradually thins out into space.
At times, the sun light causes some amazing sights in the northern regions of the planet. The
exact cause for this aura is not known but some scientists suggest that it could result from
sunlight rays encountering some the atmosphere at an angle causing reactions and thus giving the
beautiful sight.
Aura caused by solar rays colliding with the earth’s atmosphere

33
Martin Redman says similar sentiments on pp5 of his book “The Earth: A very short
introduction. He says: “Unlike the giant stormy gas bags of the outer planets, cold, dry Mars,
or the acid stream-bath of Venus, the Earth has everything just right. Water exists in all
three phases-Liquid, ice and steam”
Proto types
The proponents of space exploration have also expressed themselves in different ways that
encourage humans to tackle new and exciting frontiers away from the earth. These expressions Page | 54
have come out in many ways that often were many decades ahead of their time. For instance, the
cell phone which appears mundane and obvious today was not so a few years ago. In fact, not
even the military had it but then, out of the woods of Finland, the cell phone concept was
developed into the Nokia brand that we have today. But where did this wireless phone idea first
find its expression? Opinions vary but Star Trek was probably the first to popularise the cell
phone. Others have expressed themselves in other motion pictures such as:
Jason of Star Command (1978-81)
(c) Peter Brown TV
There is a station somewhere in space whose mission is to carry out specific assignments. The
mission station is called ‘Star command’ and the star actor is called Jason, hence “Jason of Star
command”. This eventful little thriller portrays the adventures of Jason to different worlds, his
space ship and triumphs over evil. He often encounters Dragos who tries by all means to bring
about destruction against all those that oppose him. Jason gets instructions from star command
centre and then ventures out giving feed back once the mission is complete. This is a thrilling 30
minute episode and gives one the ‘warmth’ of space exploration. He also works in collaboration
with the pocket size robot (Wiki) and a Professor to counter Dragos’ machinations.
Buck Rogers
This is a story which seeks to bring to the fore the possibilities of space exploration. This is a
story of a person who falls into a deep sleep and wakes up in the 25th century armed with
advanced technology which enables him to fly and do many antics that are presently impossible
although some of these things are slowly becoming achievable. This person has abilities to fight
off evil schemes and can travel to space and back. Buck Rogers was a popular comic strip
initially in the 1929s and has been credited with encouraging human space exploration. The
Universal Pictures company ran a 12 part Buck Rogers series in 1939 onwards. The Buck Rogers
series took different forms across the years but one thread flows through all of them, the ability
to fight evil whether on earth or in space. For instance, in 1979, Buck Rogers is taken as a US
Airforce Pilot commanding space faring Ranger 3, built on the space shuttle concept. The series
was abruptly cancelled in 1981 but remains a favourite in many minds.
Battle of the Planet (Cartoon)

Page | 55
©Julieann Adolf 1997-2004
This is a 1978 cartoon with a theme revolving around good versus evil tussles. The evil is
scheming to overthrow a planet and rule it with evil motives. On the planet (probably earth) lives
a team of individuals who know about this evil scheme and thus set out to defend the planet
using their space ship, hence the title, “Battle of the Planet”. It is a thrilling cartoon which brings
out the beauties and complexity of space planet, earth and planes.
Conclusion
As has been observed, the Earth is an exceedingly delicate place. There is much at stake which
needs to be meticulously & cautiously handled if life is to continue in its present form. We have
also established that the diversity is on a drastic decline and only drastic measures will turn the
tide. The quest to explore greater and loftier frontiers far afield will only be reasonable and
plausible once the earth localised hurdles are effectively handled and managed. As things stand,
it does not make any sense to some people why humans should rush outside the planet whilst the
planet is dying, unkempt due to wanton negligence. The deepening and pervasive poverty levels
cry out for the few dollars that are committed to space fantasy whilst myriads live in increasingly
languid and deplorable conditions. They languish and grope around in the poverty trap with no
conceivable respite in sight in the immediate or far future. The planet has been crying for help
for such a long time and is now gasping for breath. It is now giving its backlash in various ways
that include climate change, global warming or the depletion of the critical ozone layer. Space
travel needs stronger justifiable reasons why it should be supported apart from the fun that it
gives a few individuals or rich nations. There is also need to revisit the use of “dirty
technologies” even in the space industry. Every time a rocket blasts into space, it deposits some
significant amount of pollutants that eventually impact on the planet in one way or other. As
space tourism becomes the norm rather than the exception, atmospheric degradation will be
heightened by that token. In this chapter therefore, we have sought to high light some of the
salient points that rational individuals and groups push forward as they consider the issue of
space exploration. While their assertions may not entirely hold water at every turn, they none the
less deserve serious attention in the quest to build a better world for everyone. That the Earth
deserves better and needs urgent attention is beyond debate. That space exploration is totally
irrelevant is quite debatable but what is needed is a healthy blend of both which attempts to be
encapsulated in the controversial term “Sustainable Development”. In the ensuing chapter, we Page | 56
proceed to consider the moon as we move further into deep space. What is your take on this
matter?
====================================================================
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Page | 57
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Chapter two
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The Moon
For thousands of years, the moon has intrigued the human mind. Men and women have
exercised their imagination as to how and why the moon exists the way it does. Until it was
discovered that the moon merely reflected the sun’s rays rather than produced its own light,
humans were amused by the “lesser light” that governed the night sky. The moon looked far
more glorious than the far flung stars because it was nearer to earth rather than other celestial
bodies. Many dreamed of visiting this mysterious heavenly body as well as worshipping it. By
that token, many legends and fantastic imaginary stories were made about the moon. All sorts of
things were imagined from mysterious monsters, civilisations to a dead and deserted lifeless
body were propagated. The early civilisations used the naked eye to admire and map the moon,
imagining pictures, designs, seas and oceans on the lunar surface. Then came the telescope, first
invented by Galileo. This telescope zoomed the moon into sharper focus and people’s
appreciation increased. It was not until in the 1950s when humans begun making space faring
rockets that the possibility of humans visiting the moon became a reality. In 1957, Laika the dog
went into earth orbit and later Yuri Gagarin would be the first human in space in 1961. This was
a high point for humans but gave further impetus to the race to the moon between the USA and
USSR. Both countries made frantic efforts to get as many people into space poised towards the
moon landing. In 1963, the US President J F Kennedy would make a pronouncement that an
American would walk on the moon before the end of that decade. It was a tall order at the time Page | 58
because the Americans did not possess the technology to land a human on the moon but putting
their heads together, the Apollo series was developed. Although Kennedy never leaved to see his
dream realised in his life time, the dream definitely outlived him and became a reality six years
later in July 1969.
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Apollo 8 Astronaut and commander, Frank Borman quoting the famous Genesis words “In the beginning, God created the heaven and earth…and
the earth was without form…”
To get to the moon was not a one day affair nor was it without its challenges or failures. What
kept humans fast at work was the desire to outwit each other and thus prove superior as well as
conquer space. The Gemini series focused on lower space orbit with a view to test how humans
would survive as well as some procedures in space such as the Rendezvous, docking and
undocking. The Apollo series was specifically designed to prepare the path to the moon, land
humans and bring them back safely. At least 17 Apollo missions were actioned with varying
challenges and successes. For instance, Apollo 1 had its fatal accident on the launch pad in which
three valiant Astronauts perished. The Apollo series preceding 11 were trial runs to space, to the
moon, orbit and back without landing on the lunar surface. Apollo 8 captured the iconic “Earth
rise” picture for instance.
Apollo 11 had three humans, Armstrong, Collins and ‘Buzz’Aldrin who embarked on a four day
journey to and back from the moon. On arrival in the moons’ orbit, the Eagle lunar module
separated from the mother ship and descended to the lunar surface carrying Armstrong and
Aldrin while Collins orbited around the moon in the mother ship. As they landed, for a moment,
the whole world stood still as they fixed their gaze on their screen. It was a hair raising and
extremely daring adventure to visit another space body outside the earth. The ship landed on the
surface and Armstrong stepped out of the lunar module to become the first human to set foot on
another celestial body outside the earth.
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‘Buzz’ descending from the space craft
He uttered those famous words “This is one small step for a man but one giant step for
mankind”.
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Famous foot print
Buzz also followed shortly after that and the men planted the American flag on the moon as well
as leaving other information packs such as the plaque exhibiting the spirit in which the astronauts Page | 59
came.
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Plague left on the moon
After a day on the moon, the two adventurers blasted off and reunited with their colleague and
then headed back home to a heroic welcome. Ten other astronauts would walk on the moon after
them, the last being Apollo 17 in December 1973. All the other Apollo missions after 11
successfully achieved their objectives except Apollo 13 which nearly turned out into a night
mare. Apollo 13 had a perfect take off like any other mission and headed towards the moon
almost flawless. Suddenly, somewhere in mid flight to the moon, an explosion occurred in one of
the space ship compartments. On investigation, it was discovered that one of the oxygen tanks
had exploded. The craft continued all the way to the moon but returned using the moons’
centripetal force to catapult the ailing craft back home. A lot of physics and innovative thinking
was involved to safely get the astronauts back home alive. After much painstaking calculations
and acting, the capsule finally splashed down and astronauts were safely home. Although Apollo
13 never achieved its objective of landing a human on the moon, it was none the less extremely
successful in one regard: returning the astronauts safe and sound back home.
Apollo 14, 15, 16 and seventeen had their own high points such as gathering a lot of data about
the moon, its conditions as well as samples from the lunar surface. Apollo 15 even had a rover
that transported the astronauts on the moon as they carried out their experiments.
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Picture from the moon
For some reason, the Apollo missions ended at the end of 1973. Reasons vary but probably
global economic conditions dictated or enthusiasm declined from the general public. Some felt
the Apollo series had achieved its objective and thus no need to continue. It was time to change
focus towards a space station (sky lab) as well as begin designing the space craft of the future,
which would turn out to be the Space Shuttle which became operational in 1981.
It is worth mentioning that when all these achievements were taking place in the USA, the
USSR was not idle. They developed on their earlier space crafts and largely focused on the space
station, satellites as well as other feats which probably have not been as publicised as the
American achievements were. Although the USSR lost the race to the moon, they were clearly
not underdogs and still remain giants in the space industry today. As the shuttles are retired in
2010, the Russians will offer improved launch vehicles to space and back for they are clearly
champions in the three stage rocket for now. Even their record attests to this.
As the industry has been maturing, other nations are increasingly coming on board such as
Japan, China and India. These nations cannot be ignored and chances are that they may come up
Page | 60
with cheaper innovative ways to get into space and eventually to the moon. While the Americans
and probably Russians have their eyes fixed on Mars, the new industry entrants have their eyes
on the moon which they probably might visit and colonise. By that token, they may exploit the
moon closer to home much faster than the industry incumbents would with their lofty dreams
and targets.
Conspiracy theory
A human walking on the surface of the moon was certainly a remarkable achievement not only
for the USA but for all mankind. Every human being in their right mind is excited and stands
amazed every time they consider the feat achieved in the 1960’s and 70s. Considering the
hazards, complexity, costs, risks and uncertainties involved, the Apollo Astronauts were
certainly a remarkable set of people worth applauding. The amount of coordinated team work
across the globe, time consumptions and prior flight preparations are simply unimaginable and
yet all these worked together like beavers until the work was done.
However, whilst the world was spell bound and excited about all the space craze, a group of
sceptics arose. They questioned the entire space and moon adventure as a hoax, fluke and
deception. They had their own reasons for taking such a position and their voice was heard more
strongly in 2009 when the Apollo moon landing 40th anniversary was commemorated. Their
argument goes something like this:
Because of the race to the moon, as well as America’s determination and quest to remain the
world leader in technology, a conspiracy was hatched in which the Apollo 11 astronauts quite
alright took off from earth and went into orbit from which they were made to land somewhere on
earth away from the cameras. They were then drugged and then sent back into space and
appeared to have landed back home on 22nd July 1969. According to them, either Armstrong or
team were convinced (brain washed) into believing that they actually went to the moon or they
were sternly warned not to reveal the plan obviously in exchange for some fortune. In between,
the moon voyage was basically an acted out trip to the moon which showed the three astronauts
go to the moon, “land on the moon” and even “Walk” on the lunar surface. The sceptics claim
that all these were acted out in a secret studio somewhere with the artificial background created
by the film directors. Thus, for them, the Apollo 11 moon landing never happened but was done
to frustrate the USSR as well as deceive the rest of the world. They point to a number of issues
worth critically analysing such as:
1. The lighting on the supposed lunar landing was inconsistent.

2. There was no way the astronauts would have survived those deadly and lethal Van Allen
rays. Deadly rays in the Van Allen belt should have killed the astronauts after the lethal
exposure to them. NASA did not have the technology nor the ability to fend off these
deadly rays.
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3. The USA did not possess the right technology or might at the time to fly people to and
from the moon safely.
4. The Lunar surface is believed to have fine dust, rocks and glass, how come the space
suits never ruptured as they moved about, jumped and fell?
5. The flag placed on the surface appeared to have been moving probably due to wind,
where did the wind come from on the lunar surface since it is part of the vacuum of
space?
6. The Eagle’s rocket engines as it landed on the moon never raised dust, why was this?
7. The Astronauts’ movement in “slow motion” appears to have been acted out rather than
actual.
8. Some of the movements appeared to have been made possible by some invisible “wires”
which at times radiated in the light.
These and many other arguments are raised by the sceptics as they bombard NASA “to tell the
truth”. There are two schools of thought in this group though. Whilst they are all agreed that the
Apollo 11 landing was fake, they do not all agree that the subsequent missions i.e. Apollo 12, 13,
14, 15, 16 &17 were real. Some believe these were real and actual since the Americans had
proved that they were superior while others contend that all these were a sustained lie. The
reader is encourages you to view some of these “Conspiracy theories” on You Tube as well as
other materials.
Energy sources on the moon
One of the reasons why nations today are tending to focus their attention to the moon is because
of the potential they have spotted there. For one thing, they think that the moon will and can
offer a safe haven of a good portion of the earth’s exponentially exploding population. If a good
portion could be “exported” to the moon, then the earth will be less congested and stands a better
chance of recovery from the deadly planet degrading activities such as pollution. For another
thing, the moon does not have an atmosphere which is as fragile or complex as the earths. This
implies that industrial activity can proceed unabated or without fear. Further still, the moon has
some energy sources that are either limited on the earth or may not be safe to exploit. The moon
has Rigolith (or Lunar soil) and Hellium 3 which are nuclear oriented radioactive substances.
They can power the moon base as well as export some of the energy to the earth so that the
planet does not black out due to excessive energy demands. The moon will then be alive and full
of activity that will lead to sustainability. In effect, another body in space will be active and
attractive for generations to come. This selfsame Nuclear energy will be useful for the deep
space exploration. Space crafts from the earth will stop over on the moon to refuel on their
outward journeys to the far reaches of space. There are other minerals and useful substances that
the moon has which may be presently veiled to the human eye. For instance, the moon is Page | 62
believed to have abundant glass suggesting that sand of sorts may be readily available both for
construction as well as other useful applications. Finally, it will be easier to execute some heavy
duty functions on the moon compared to the earth. Since its gravity is one sixth of the earth’s,
heavy duty work will be a piece of cake leading to energy conservation. This will lead to other
benefits such as faster task accomplishment, savings as well as other technological inventions
appropriate for the lunar context.
The grand idea
The desire of ages for humans has been to set up a permanent moon base akin to what has been
depicted in the film, Space 1999 which hit the television screens in the 1970s. The film centres
around a moon base on in which humans work and live. A lot of things happen on the moon as
well as other parts of the heavenly body. The commander and team work tirelessly to preserve
the base as well as provide support to others who need support. This large moon base covers a
wide area and has several terminals and facilities in which people work and live. A fleet of space
crafts called “Eagle” are used by the team as they move around the moon as well as other parts
of space within the Moon’s orbit. This motion picture is an excellent depiction of what humans
have aspired to do for years. Thus, when the 40th Apollo landing anniversary came around, this
dream, which appeared abandoned for nearly four decades suddenly came to the fore. Those
advocating for a permanent settlement argue that the station on the moon can be self sustaining
and will significantly contribute to the quality of humans. It will also afford humans to exploit
the moon at a cheaper rate as some of the materials will be locally sourced. The living quarters
will be pressurised, be able to generate a life supporting system, plants will grow as well as
artificial gravity installed akin to what obtains on the earth. The centre will house living rooms,
recreation centres, gyms and sick bays. The intercoms will be at every turn although wireless
mobile communication will be very basic at the time. The walls of the base will be thick enough
to wad-off the deadly UV and gamma rays (or any other lethal rays) thus protecting the
occupants. If humans want to visit the outside environment for exploration or some other activity
such as mining, they will have to wear space suits. Robots and other machines (state of the art)
will do most of the hazardous work outside the station. Space Rovers, saucers or other mobile
vehicles will transport people around the moon ensuring that the moon potentials are fully
exploited. As highlighted in an earlier section, the moon will be colonised either by humans
collectively or as separate political states. If the former be the case, a common moon base will be
constructed in one central place with various sections belonging to different countries. These
countries will work jointly to preserve the station as well as engage in different activities of their
preference but of course observing some universal ethics and agreements. This will most likely
foster human unity and understanding. However, if the latter be the case, as presently appears to
be, countries will venture to the moon in the name of “mankind” when in fact they are extending
their state dominion from the earth. This will spark a “scramble for the moon” akin to what
happened to Africa centuries ago. The first country to land at a particular site will place their flag
signifying their conquest of that place as well as owning all the rights relating to that domain. Page | 63
This view is what makes the USA and other advanced nations reluctant to by-pass the moon in
preference for Mars. If while they were busy crafting a space craft to Mars, the other space
industry entrants will swiftly take over the moon and exploit all the loot that is there. This would
spell serious loss for the Russians and USA because they got there first in one way or the other
but lost an opportunity to maintain the lead. India, China, Japan and a few other states are
making serious inroads into the space industry and have serious intentions to visit the Earth’s
nearest neighbour. If the present mode of thinking is sustained and actualised, the moon will be a
seriously partitioned place which will effectively lock out the pauper nations from ever owning a
square inch of land on the moon, let alone visit there. The only way to visit there perhaps will be
by getting a pass or permission of some sort, at great cost of course. That said, if competition is
maintained, the moon will most likely develop much faster than it would ordinarily be developed
in stages.
The ideal moon base station will be a habitable place that will invite all mankind to work and
live as “astro-workers” far beyond the present global worker cadre. These people (astro-workers)
will initially have to be physically fit having gone through strenuous training and on-going
routine medical check up but as the learning curve evens out as humans become proficient in
space management, civilians will eventually be engrafted into moon society. People from earth
will apply for moon careers and chose whether to be permanently based there or on a contractual
period and then return to the earth for respite or pick up an “earth job”. Those that permanently
dwell there will have special rights to own property as well as develop some part of the moon if
they so wish.
The down side to this moon life will centre around terrorism threat or some other lethal threat
that has potential to destroy the entire moon base, hence the merit of having multiple moon bases
or meticulous background checks before any person is admitted to the said moon base(s). But
then, the problem still lingers, can we tell for sure that someone is a genuine moon citizen? We
cannot tell people’s real motives even if they have lived among you for generations. To make the
bases safe, the moon complex will have to provide for emergency lock outs in case of any
dangers. This view presupposes three things: Firstly, the building material of the station will
have to be made of “bomb proof” material. This may include ability to repel deadly invisible
rays. Secondly, the station sections will have the ability to “detach” from the rest and function as
a complete unit for some years. The unit will thus be mobile and able to be moved about to some
safe location & distance. Finally, the section will have sufficient space to host several thousands,
if not millions of occupants. This implies that all the moon base occupants can be safely housed
in one section in case of trouble. But another supposition is that each section will have a landing
base as well as its own space crafts that can quickly evacuate people to another part of the moon
or to a Moon orbit based space station flying above the lunar surface.
As to what the moon residents will do for their work and survival, they will do plenty things,
ranging from service delivery to experiments, research, mining and tourism. The moon will help
Page | 64
to decongest the earth and will house a good portion of the earth’s population scattered all over
the lunar surface. While some will be Engineers, others will take up Accountancy, hotel
Management, and Astronomy among many other fields. There will be a new range of
occupations that may not be present on the earth such as stomata management, artificial
photosynthesis or some sorts of advanced genetic engineering. The food industry will no doubt
be big business for a time until the brain chip as well as when humans are able to control or
determine the metabolism rate. Some humans will hibernate for generations without any food
and only become active when their time has arrived. The “expired” beings will be shipped out to
their burial sites, cremated or their bodies processed to some other useful material. Although
humans will still posses emotions as always, their view of things will be radically different from
what obtains today perhaps.
In such a scenario, the degenerated earth will either be abandoned by the rich and powerful
nations in preference for the moon or it will be a special place for the rich and powerful while the
pauper nations will be banished to the moon, to work there. The beautiful sunshine, beaches and
free fresh air will only be affordable by the powerful not the poor, assuming the earth will have
been rejuvenated to what is once was before anthropogenic activity wrecked it.
That said, the moon will be fun to visit, live and work on. Humans will understand things far
better than they presently do. The glass and other minerals on its surface will no longer be
mysterious. Venturing onto the lunar surface outside the moon base confines will be normal and
acceptable.
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Proto type
Space 1999’s moon base

Page | 65
Undoubtedly, the motion picture “Space 1999” laid a solid foundation for present thinking and
simulation. The film depicts a company of humans who have settled on the moon in a “moon
base”. The moon base is far advanced than any technology known at the time of its making but
the station has its own challenges. All sorts of things happen on that base ranging from deadly
creepy creatures to strange visitors who threaten the station. Each episode focuses on a particular
problem that keeps the audience in suspense until the issue is resolved before the next episode
commences. The station has a large base spread over a large section of the moon with all sorts of
transport systems as well as space suits that can be worn when venturing around the moon. This
epic motion picture is worth revitalising with probably a changed name or title as we are clearly
past the 1999 period. It would appear that the originators of the series had anticipated that by
1999, humans would have been working and living on the moon. Alas, this has not happened and
may eventually become a reality around 2024, if the present plans and thinking do not change.
====================================================================
Bibliography
Dresner Simon, the Principles of Sustainability, Earth Scan, 2002
Karpagam M, Environmental Economics, Sterling Publishers private ltd, 1999
Kenah Katharine, Space Mysteries, School Speciality Childrens’ publishing, 2004
Padilla J Michael, Miaoulis Ioannis & Cyr Martha (Program Authors), Prentice Hall Science
Explorer, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006
Sichone Billy, The Strategic Horizon: Being the needs of the times, Lulu.com, 2009
Symes R.F, Rocks & Minerals, Dorling Kindersley, 1988
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Chapter Three
Mars Page | 67
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Artist impression of planet Mars
If the moon has captivated minds for centuries, then Mars has stolen them. The planet has been
under serious scrutiny by humans for many centuries each generation having interesting views
about it. The reason for this is not exactly clear but one thing is sure, its unique colour and
properties. It is often called ‘the red planet’ because it has an alluring lustre about it that keeps
one engaged. Another reason why this planet holds sway in people’s minds is the similarity it has
with the earth. Although it may not be entirely exactly like the earth, it has several features such
as distinct channels, has “frozen” north and south poles as well as appears to have some form of
atmosphere. Many stories and imaginary tales have been made about this planet on that score
because it has been believed to harbour (or has in the past) some form of living organism. The
channels and frozen poles suggest some form of fluid to have freely flowed on its surface until
something happened that probably blew away its atmosphere for ever. Some authority has this to
say in one book “Despite its desiccated34 and generally inhospitable condition now, the fact
remains that Mars did have a dense atmosphere and running water on its surface during its first
billion years, and this brings us to the all important question, did life develop there, and if so, is
there a possibility that some especially hardy organisms may somehow have maintained a foot
hold?” As late as 1976, Dr Carl Sagan believed that aliens inhabited the planet either on the
surface or in the subterranean cities. Although the Doctor’s argument largely centred on
extraterrestrial life in general around the Universe, he none the less championed Mars to be a
very likely candidate of such organisms.
Prior to space probe visits, astronomers spent countless hours mapping the planet, studying its
features, atmosphere and possible soil properties. They wanted to find out exactly why the planet
glowed so brightly red as well as why it changed “Seasons”.
The momentous occasion of exploring the planet would come in 1976 when the twin Viking
landers touched down on the surface. Their mission was to carry out some biological
experiments (and thus establish the possibility of any life form). The Landers also were to find
out some properties of the planet. Accordingly, they landed on the Martian surface and carried
out the experiments, taking samples of the soils, examining them and finding out whether the
planet was habitable for some form of organisms. The Landers exceptionally executed their
functions and in fact exceeded the 90 day life span by far. The landers would “die” in 1982 and
1987 respectively having transmitted a wealth of data. What were some of the successes of the
34
William Sheehan, Worlds in the sky, pp100
landers? They certainly proved that no life form existed in the way we know and define it.
Although people are reluctant to admit, living organisms were not found although this expedition
did not conclusively rule out any life form present on the planet at the time or before. Secondly,
the landers found out that the red colour was probably attributable to iron or some other chemical
substances in abundance on the planet. Finally, the Landers proved that Mars was a dry barren Page | 68
world with stormy winds and fluctuating weather depending on the planet’s position in space
relative to the sun.
Many other probes have visited Mars on their outward journey while others still orbit the planet
gathering as much information as possible. In 2004, a set of probes, Opportunity and Spirit
landed on the planet in a spectacular way on opposite sides of the planet. Their main task was to
investigate if water actually existed on the planet in the distant past as well as whether there was
still traces of liquid water beneath the surface. This would then lead to a further search of the
possibility of life on the planet. The probes traversed the surface from different positions,
excavated the soils and analysed the samples with profound success. These probes initially
planned to do their work within 90 days continued to work three years later with remarkable
success despite their “breaking down” in some parts as depreciation caught on. The twin probes
worked as geologists, moved around and hibernated to save energy or to let the storm pass. At
other times, they hibernated to let the winter pass and reactivate afterwards. On went the
excavations, analysis and data transfer back to the earth. In terms of finds, the probes established
strong evidence of the planet having once had liquid water flowing on its surface. This gave hope
that life of sorts may have once flourished when the atmosphere was a lot thicker than it
presently is. The other thing confirmed by the probes was the abundance of Carbon dioxide in
the planet’s atmosphere. Some put it at about 95%. The red colour comes from the iron in the
soils reacting with chemicals. Finally, these and other probes would prove that the “ice caps”
contained frozen carbon dioxide rather than water. Others have even mentioned methane on the
surface!
That said, speculation and thoughts about the planets’ viability still linger on. Though dry and
bare, relatively colder than the earth, Mars still offers a grand opportunity for human exploration
and colonisation.
The temperature variance (between -140*c and 20*c) can be managed by human settlers while
the dust storms, weather changes and seasons will have to be studied with a view to mitigate
their impact on human settlement. The planet’s crater, Olympus Mons35, is said to be the largest
volcano in the solar system so far as well as the Mariner Valley, wide enough to campus right
across the USA.36
35
Science Explorer, pp716-717
36
Sky Watch, pp17
As we have noted earlier, a lot of debate has surrounded the planet as to whether it should be the
next solar body to be visited by humans after the moon. The reason is simple, Mars places a
better bet for human habitation than the moon. The planet has an atmosphere albeit thin but this
is a better scenario than the moon that is completely naked. Secondly, the planet has changing
weather due to its axis angle & spin relative to the sun. This would give humans the time and Page | 69
ability to plan around that. The warmer months would allow human to work, recharge their solar
batteries as well as do many other things. The carbon dioxide abundant in the atmosphere would
be good for photosynthesis (although the plants would have problems in the night!). The plants
would grow relatively well though the early years and centuries would be corrosively tough for
their survival. Humans would probably house them inside the ‘Mars base’. This Mars out post
would then be a factory to strategically contribute to colonising and changing the gas
composition in the planet. Admittedly, an artificial atmosphere close to what obtains on the earth
or supports organisms would be a tall order and long range thinking with the present
technological development but we should not put it past human capability to develop such
mechanisms. The valleys, canyons, gullies and channels on the planet can be exploited to the
advantage of settlers although at the moment they may be viewed as obstacles. Mars also offers
some natural resources that can be exploited. The planet has abundant Iron content in its soil
structure. It has methane, carbon dioxide and other gases than can act as green house gases in
addition to being used as fuel or for photosynthesis. The water vapour which probably still exists
in its atmosphere can be condensed and used for other useful purposes. Although further away
from the sun than the earth and taking almost twice the time to complete an orbit round the sun,
planet Mars offers the best alternative to the earth as a potential place where settlers can reside
and build a separate existence. Here, they can visit or refuel on their outward bound visit to the
far flung places of our solar system. The planet, akin to the moon, can be a great human
settlement with stations dotted all over the planet to which settlers can migrate in case of extreme
situations such as winter. The settlers can also build subterranean cities which are largely
shielded from the planets’ extremities.
Thus, the first settlers will need to carry their own space suits, vehicles (such as rovers) and
materials to build the first base. Once complete, this complex will host humans from different
parts of the earth who will work together with a view to colonise the planet, change its gas
chemical composition as well as contribute to the depopulation of the earth. This population
reduction will afford the earth to recover and preserve some of its natural resources such as
minerals (e.g. iron), gases and acids. The outposts will also serve as both observatories and
experiment laboratories. The thin planet atmosphere will ensure enhanced big picture views of
space using the respective observatories. Astronomers will definitely find the planet even more
convenient than the ISS or the Hubble Space Telescope which are somewhat affected by the
earth’s Van Allen belt or other forces. That said, the living quarters, gyms/fitness centres, clinics,
vegetation halls, dining halls and common rooms/halls will favour human habitation and
advancement. There may come a time when the planet inhabitants will master the Martian
environment to the extent that they will be able to venture outside the base without much ado.
In addition to the aforementioned, the satellites, both natural and artificial will continue to circle
the planet. The artificial satellites will track changes on the planet as well as transmitted valuable
data to the earth or planet as the case might be while the natural satellites will eventually be
“invaded” by other humans who may prefer them to the actual mother planet Mars. In the far
distant future, there is a possibility that there will be a separate existence much like what Page | 70
happened to England and the settlers of New England. Today, Former English people in America
have little connection to England itself, although they may speak a similar dialect.
There is more to learn about planet Mars. However, whatever has been discovered so far is both
encouraging and discouraging at the same time. The encouraging bit is that the planet is being
mapped, probes have successfully landed on its rocky surface and made serious head way. The
planet has seasons, an atmosphere and probability of harbouring some organisms albeit in a form
unknown to us presently. The planet is not excessively big and can be far much easily be
colonised as opposed to hostile Jupiter, Neptune or Uranus (The gaseous giants). It has a far
weaker gravity at 0.38 that of the earth, probably owing to its size and rotation speed (equatorial
speed). With much more work on humans’ part, the planet may well become our second home.
The discouraging bit is that the planet presently has a very thin and fragile atmosphere largely
composed of CO2 (The gas composition stands as follows: CO2 (95%) and a combination of
Nitrogen, Argon, Carbon Monoxide, Oxygen and other trace elements amount to 5% or less)37 .
The planet occasionally has deadly storms, is exceedingly dry terrain as well as a far weaker
solar effect (in terms of energy and light). The temperature differences can be extreme and pose
a threat in the declining period of the sun as it mutates into a dying star or even long before.
What humans finally resolve about where to go next in space exploration will have a direct
bearing on how soon Mars is colonized and developed.
Prototype
The Red Planet
This is a movie which narrates a story of human beings who travel to Mars for the first time to
find out what the planet is like, having sent numerous probes to the planet prior to that particular
trip. This is the first Manned flight and has a team of close to eight human beings. Their task is to
find out what the planet is like and then feedback information to the earth. Accordingly, the
space craft arrives in Mars orbit and shortly releases a lander carrying about seven human beings.
Unfortunately, the lander enters the atmosphere when a storm has just ensued and thus crashes
on the planet. All communication is lost with the Mars orbiter circling the planet. Things unfold
progressively until one of the crew members accidentally discovers that the gas on Mars is
breathable! This sends puzzles through the team as they seek to get to a Russian lander on the
other part of the planet. In the process, they die off by attacks as well as a “gone astray” robot. In
37
Source: The Search for Life on Mars: Evolution of an Idea, pp 3 (1980) by Henry S.F Cooper
Jr.
the end, only one survives and blasts off to meet the orbiter for the seven month journey home.
The film really depicts what could be if humans assist in changing the planet gas ratios and
atmosphere as the film shows.
Bibliography
Page | 71
Kenah Katherine, Space Mysteries, School Specialty Children’s Publishing, 2004
Nottridge Rhoda, Skywatch, Collins, 1991
Padilla, J Michael, Miaoulis Ioannis & Cyr Martha (Program Authors), Prentice Hall Science
Explorer, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2006

Chapter Four
Beyond
The study of the Earth alone and its moon is enough an interesting study area which could take Page | 72
us more than a life time to exhaust, if at all that were possible. The reason is that there is so much
to learn, discover and appreciate about each of these two cosmic bodies. The Earth has many
things beyond number which are yet to be investigated. The area just outside the earth’s
atmosphere into the Van Allen belt has so much that is yet to be studied and documented. But
then, there are equally other thrilling areas and objects beyond our planet that exert a strong
magnetic influence on our minds. To pause and consider the planets, the sun, the invisible rays
and a host of other amazing things simply jams the mind with awe! These are all unique in their
own right which in itself would take many years and several generations of astronomers,
scientists to fully map out and comprehend38. However, in this chapter we take a tour around our
solar system using a bird’s eye view to open up some areas of study. We shall take a far briefer
‘fly by’ view of the planets than what the Voyager or Pioneer crafts saw as they made their
maiden voyages in their exit journeys of the solar system. We shall give brief points about each
planet or object of interest and then swiftly get back to Earth where we began from.
Mercury39
NASA
Mercury taken by MESSENGER space probe
Mercury is the first planet in our line of consideration. It is first because it is the closest planet to
the sun nearly 58 million kilometres from the sun’s blazing furnace surface. Its orbit is rather
short and completes its circle round the sun in only 88 earth days. It spins on its axis at an
equatorial speed of 6.7 miles per hour which is a slow rotation speed. Thus, a day on Mercury
takes about 59 earth days. Mercury is a solitary place that has attracted some early space probes
to visit it and map its terrain. The earliest was by the Marina 10 craft that visited in 1974 & 1975
38
Some have suggested the dimensions of the solar system (heliosphere) standing at a
staggering 7,332 milliom miles (11,800 million km), Gitt Werner, Stars and their purpose, pp
172
39
Most of this section is derived from the Science Explorer text pp714 ff
(flew by the planet thrice) and flew within 700 kilometres of the planet. Since then, very few
other probes have visited the planet with a view to study it. By 2009, it is expected that the probe
MESSENGER will go into Mercury orbit to study & observe it.
What is the planet like? What are the conditions on the planet? Not much is known but for all we
Page | 73
know, the side facing the sun may have surface temperatures as high as 430*C and cools down to
-170*C on the side facing away from the sun because Mercury does not have an atmosphere. It
has a rocky (probably dense metal iron) surface and has a gravity weaker than the earths’ at 0.38
equivalent to that of Mars. Marina 10’s pictures suggest that the planet has flat plains and craters
on its surface. Being close to the sun, the planet is significantly affected by the solar winds and
other rays that are constantly emitted from the sun. It is the smallest of the terrestrial planets (i.e.
the inner planets alongside Venus, Earth and Mars). It is hardly larger than the earth’s moon and
orbiting next to a gigantic sun (sol).
What would human travellers encounter on this planet and what challenges would they
encounter? The reader is encouraged to explore this beautiful planet further.
Venus
JPL/NASA
Venus
Venus is the brightest object in the morning and evening sky. The planets’ lustre can easily be
mistaken for a nearby star because it is none the less distinct from the rest. The planet appears
like a star by all counts and is the earliest shining object to be seen at dusk. It has sometimes
been called the morning star when in fact it is a planet radiating the suns’ light. Of all the
terrestrial planets, Venus very closely resembles the earth in several ways. For one thing, it has a
thick atmosphere with a solid surface beneath it. For another thing, the planet is almost the same
size as the earth although slightly smaller. Further, it has a gravity of nearly the same strength as
the Earth (0.90 of the earths’) as well as an escape velocity of 6.4 miles per second compared to
the earth’s 7.0 miles per second. Thus, a day on Venus takes 244 earth days! The planet has
valleys, plains and clouds much like the earth. For these and other similarities, Venus is called
“Earth’s twin”. However, the planet differs from the earth in several respects. The first is that the
planet has a far slower equatorial speed of 6.5 kilometres per hour compared to the earth’s 1,670
kilometres per hour. Secondly, the planet’s atmosphere largely contains carbon dioxide largely
though its thick clouds contain sulphuric acid droplets which would easily destroy or corrode
would be planet invaders. Venus is nearly 108 million kilometres from the sun and thus
comparatively gets more solar heat as well as other rays. The planet takes nearly 7.5 earth
months (about 224.7 earth days) to complete one orbit round the sun. From this we can see that
one ‘Venus day’ takes 8 months while its ‘year’ takes 7.5 months! Another interesting fact about
Venus is that it rotates from east to west rather than from west to east as the earth does. A lot of
theories surround this strange phenomenon. The planet is believed to have a very high pressure Page | 74
(about 92 times that of the earth) and could easily crush any human that attempted to land there.
The planet’s carbon dioxide (green house gas, 96.5% of the atmosphere, 3.5% largely Nitrogen)
probably accounts for the planet’s high temperature (the highest of any known planet in the solar
system) which exceeds 420*C which would easily melt lead. On earth, most of the CO2 is
locked or trapped in fossils or water whereas, on Venus, most of the CO2 freely floats in the
atmosphere, hence the “infernal” within. The minimum temperature however on the planet is
around -220*C especially the side facing away from the sun.
Venus none the less has attracted a lot of interest over many generations because its atmosphere
reflects a lot of heat and light some of which reaches the earth. That explains its brilliance.
Humans have sent several probes to study this planet by that token. One of the earliest probes to
visit and land on the planet was from Russia’s Venera series. Venera 7 landed on the planet in
1970 and sent some interesting data back to the earth. Mariner 2 (1962) before Venra 7 orbited
the planet 109 times before “dying”. Part of the Pioneer series also attempted to visit the planet
but Magellan was probably the most successful. It went in 1990 and mapped the entire planet
confirming that the planet has solid rocks, plains, lava flows and volcanoes.
Clearly, although Venus looks attractive to the eye, it is very hostile to humans or organisms as
we know them although one cannot rule out the possibilities of life even in those harsh
conditions. For instance, on the earth, how do some creatures survive at the bottom of the
deepest oceans given the heavy pressure and darkness exerted by the water? The other thing
worth observing is the temperature and acids on the planet. These would easily kill off any
organisms or “eat” them away long before they land on the planet. The good side about this
planet is that you can work for eight months on one spot without the sun setting! This is really a
long day, longer than the year!
Asteroid Belt
Image removed
Asteroid belt against the backdrop of space
The asteroid Belt is found between Mars and Jupiter. By definition as someone has said, “this is
a Sun-orbiting span of rocky debris floating in space between Mars and Jupiter” and ‘Asteroid’
in Greek means “star like”. Some have dubbed Asteroids as Minor planets. Viewed in a
telescope, these asteroids radiate as they reflect light from the sun, hence the name. The said belt
is a collection of rocky metallic fragments which each have an orbit round the sun. These rock
fragments are thought to be remnants of the “big bang” that failed to collect into planet size
structures. Other thinkers suggest that these are fragments from shattered planets. Presently,
there are thousands of them and new ones continue to be discovered daily. In fact, recent
evidence seems to suggest that some of these asteroids are larger than expected. For instance Page | 75
Ceres is said to be large enough to be classified a dwarf planet (with a diameter of about 1,000
km) and so is Eris. Some of the asteroids even have some “moons” orbiting them as they make
their solar journey. Studies revolving around the asteroid belt have been commissioned with
some countries like the USA devoting some resources towards this work. The reason is simple,
among the asteroids, some planets may exist! For another reason, some of these rocky structures
are rich in minerals which could be exploited and used for development purposes. Further, some
have been found to have some form of atmospheres which could probably point to a possibility
of some life form. Presently, some of the best known asteroids include Annefrank, Braille,
Castalia, Eros, Gaspra, Ida, Juno, Vesta and Pallas among many thousand others (Presently, over
100,000 have been identified). These asteroids orbit round the sun and are thought to sometimes
escape their orbit by attraction of the bigger planets especially Jupiter. Some asteroids are also
believed to periodically crash into the earth’s atmosphere. This thought perhaps accounts for the
extinction of the dinosaurs when an asteroid supposedly collided with the earth millions of years
ago, raised dust and lo and behold, the creatures could not survive! There is no definite tangible
proof of this theory but people believe it by faith. Craters in the USA and other parts of the world
are used as proof of the possible earth-asteroid collisions. Granted, some of the asteroid orbits
may pass very close to the earths, if not criss-cross, does the earth have enough power to attract
these? Why then doesn’t the earth have more than one moon? That said, the asteroids are of
varying sizes and have unique orbits generally between Mars and Jupiter.
For some time, concerns were raised about a possible collision with an asteroid if space probes
ventured out but this fear is now allayed. The Pioneer crafts opened the door that enabled future
probes to safely navigate among the asteroids. This fear, in part, explains why asteroid tracking
is critical.
In future, humans may spend more time visiting the asteroids with a view to establish settlements
and mining activities. If relatively hospitable asteroids are discovered, then there may not be
immediate need to colonise Jupiter and other hostile planets. Perhaps humans may go to the outer
planets for sightseeing and research rather than colonisation. But then, the asteroids themselves
could be a business opportunity and destination, much like people go to tourist resorts at a cost.
Jupiter
Image removed
Jupiter
When we come to a consideration of Jupiter, every space enthusiast of necessity sits up. They do
so because the planet in question is in many senses extremely unique. Apart from being the
largest planet in the solar system (with a diameter of 142,984 kilometres, nearly 12 times that of
the earth), Jupiter’s’ mass is about 2.5 times that of all the solar systems’ planets combined! This
planet is believed to have been a failed star because it emits more heat than it’s receives as well Page | 76
as possessing properties that many other regular planets do not possess. First we consider the
similarities this Jovian planet has with other planets. It is the first of what is known as the ‘outer
planets’ beyond the asteroid belt and is among the ‘gas giants’ which are believed not to have a
solid surface though suspected to have a solid core. Jupiter has a very thick atmosphere
(composed of Helium (14%) and Hydrogen (86%), in addition to some trace elements such as
Methane, ammonia, Phosphine, Water, acetylene, ethane, germanium and carbon dioxide and
consistently covers the surface of the planet and thus never visible to the naked eye (i.e. Cannot
see the planet surface). The planet also has cloudy covering which is some kilometres in depth
and most probably largely made out of Ammonia, sulphur and phosphorus crystals. The planet
averages a distance of 778,570,000 million kilometres away from the sun making it one of the
furthest planets from the sun relative to the inner planets. The planet takes nearly 12 earth years
to complete one revolution around the sun and has one of the fastest equatorial speeds enabling
the planet to complete one revolution on its axis within 9 hours 56 minutes. Jupiter’s gravity is
2.6840 times stronger than that of Earth (and its magnetic field is 14 times stronger than the
earths!)41 probably due to its size and equatorial speed (at 45,765 kilometres per hour).If a space
vehicle were to escape from Jupiter’s gravity, it needs at least to accelerate at around 37.0 miles
per second42.
Jupiter has stark differences from the terrestrial planets in the following areas: The planet has a
huge mass and rotates very fast on its axis. As hinted at earlier, the planet emits heat from its
surface despite being further from the sun than the other planets. The planet has a very thick
atmosphere as well as an extremely high pressure (estimated at over 30 million that of the
earth.)43 If a craft or any human beings were to venture to land on the watery surface, they would
be crashed long before they reach the liquid surface. The other difference is the planets’ great red
spot probably caused by mighty winds that constantly blow across the planet. It was first spotted
in the 1600s and does not show signs of subsiding. The jovian giant has swirling storms that go
on constantly given its lack of land mass to slow down the speedy winds. The planet also
occasions lightening flashes that are many times stronger than those generated on the earth. This
gives the impression that the planet interior is a hive of chaotic activity coupled with a speedy
revolution on its axis.
40
Source: Saturn and Beyond pp 54 & 86
41
World Book @ NASA, accessed 11/09/2009
42
Saturn and beyond pp 88
43
Refer to Science Explorer pp 722
Conditions on the planet
The planet is admittedly far from the sun and is expected to be a freezing place. In one sense, this
view is true but in another it is not. This is because the planet amazingly generates more heat
than it receives! The temperature increases as one descends down the ammonia clouds into the
Page | 77
planet core. At the cloud tops, the temperature is around -145* C but soon reaches 21*C after
some few metres down. It is probable that the temperature at the core could be around 24,000*C,
even hotter than the suns’ surface44! Recall that Jupiter is thought to be a failed star by some
quarters and probably explains how or why the planet generates such heat and energy. Even the
mix of chemicals resembles the sun rather than the other planets, interestingly!
Jupiter’s satellite moons
No doubt, the giant planet exerts a lot of influence in the region. It has a belt around it that slows
solar winds as well as attracts other objects in the solar system. Jupiter is thought to attract a lot
of comets and meteorites to itself probably because of its rapid revolution and size. Some even
propose that Jupiter protects the terrestrial planets because it “stops” some potentially deadly
objects from going beyond the asteroid belt. That is why the planet is sometimes referred to as
the Solar System’s “vacuum cleaner”, thanks to its gravity which is 2.68 times stronger than the
earths’. The magnetosphere is 14 times stronger than the earths’! This same gravity is the one
that keeps the satellite moons as well as the ring around the planet. Jupiter has over 45 known
moons the best known being four namely, Callisto, Europa, Io and Ganymede (the largest moon
in the solar system, larger than Mercury or Pluto!). Galileo identified these moons with his
telescopes hence the phrase “Galilean moons” but the others would be discovered in later years
especially after the Voyager flyby and Galileo probes. Each of these major moons has a unique
feature that marks them apart. For instance, Europa is thought to be covered by ice holding an
ocean of liquid water beneath. Callisto is icy and has many craters while Io is covered with many
large and active volcanoes. Scientists have been considering sending a probe to investigate if life
could exist on Europa. As of January 2009, Jupiter has 49 official (although the Wikipedia site
says 63), named moons plus 14 other unofficial still being considered. By that token, the number
could increase with time. A further difference about this planet is that it has some rings
encircling the planet. They may not be as prominent or spectacular as those of Saturn but they
certainly do go right round the planet. At the moment (2009) Jupiter has two or three rings
adding colour to the planet’s beauty. In 1996 & 1997, Galileo spacecraft investigated these rings
and established that some of these were still in formative stage. This study also shed some light
on how these rings are formed.
Ancient mythology
In ancient times, Jupiter has been an interesting subject of discussion. Due to its brightness
(Usually the second brightest planet after Venus, although Mars at times outshines it depending
44
Source: World book @ NASA, accessed on 11/09/2009
on its location in its orbit) and sheer size, many ancients have marvelled at the planet, developing
different theories and stories surrounding it. All sorts of things including strange creatures have
been attributed to the planet Jupiter. It also has been a centre of religious worship and
mysticism45. The Romans had a King among the gods called Jupiter and thus named this planet
after him probably because of its imposing size, colour and lustre. The planet is definitely in a Page | 78
class of its own.
Probes to Jupiter
In the quest to answer many curious questions, people have visited this planet both mentally and
by using man made probes. Presently, Jupiter is too far away for humans to physically travel
there but this may be possible in future generations. Among the many probes (at least six) that
have either visited or flown by this planet, the following stand out:
Pioneer 10 & 11
Probably the first and most important probes to visit this planet were the Pioneer twin space
probes. The probes flew by the planet at a distance and in the process garnered some momentum
which propelled them into the far reaches of space. The probes made significant findings which
have laid the foundation for many theories that surround the planet perspective. In addition, these
probes discovered some hither to unknown moons.
Voyager twins
The momentous encounter of Voyager probes with planet Jupiter occurred in 1979. The two
voyager crafts, set out in 1977 a few weeks apart with a view to explore Jupiter and Saturn
(including the rings). However, this initial plan would change because the probes proved more
versatile and have lasted over 30 years, 25 years more than initially planned. The probes arrived
at Jupiter and observed the planet at different distances and made remarkable discoveries. One of
them was the Jupiter rings as well as some other moons. The planet’s great red spot was
examined and information analysed to feed into future programming. In an inspiring article by
the National Geographic, “What Voyager Saw: Jupiter’s dazzling Realm” of January 1980, the
crafts revealed a lot of hither to unknown but fascinating facts, really stunning to the eye. The
Voyagers also examined Europa as well as the rings before hurtling away to Saturn , Uranus and
Neptune before hurtling away into deeper space.
Galileo46
45
For instance, refer to Acts 14:12 in the Bible where Paul & Silas are nearly worshipped!
46
Some parts of this article are attributed to: Gierasch, Peter J., and Philip D Nichloson.
“Jupiter” World Book Online Reference center. 2004 World Book, Inc
(http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar293080.)
The Galileo space craft left the earth in October 1989 and arrived at Jupiter somewhere in July
1995 where it released an atmospheric probe (December 1995) to measure the amount of water
and other chemicals in the atmosphere. Galileo remained in orbit around Jupiter until about 2003
when the craft was intentionally crashed it into the Jovian planet’s atmosphere, September 21.
The craft contributed a lot to what we presently know about the Planet as well as its moon Page | 79
Europa. Future programming has and will definitely benefit from the wealth of knowledge
contributed by Galileo, probably thus named in honour of the great scientist of the earlier
centuries. No doubt, Galileo was a great craft that changed the way we look at the solar system.
We have surveyed some salient points about the largest planet in the solar system. Much has
been learnt so far and yet still more remains to be discovered. Several things are however sure:
Jupiter is too hostile for humans to live on, let alone land on its fluid surface. Long before the
space craft descends below its clouds, it would probably have been crushed and vaporised by a
combination of the planets’ incredible pressure as well as its heat escaping from its core. But
there would be more a visitor from Earth would have to contend with. They would have to
handle the bolts of lightning, the storms, the chemical composition as well as the speed at which
the planet rotates on its axis. When leaving the planet, they may have to contend with its great
gravity as well as the planetary pull which is many times greater than anything known in the
solar system save for the sun. The Magnetosphere of Jupiter as well as other belts surrounding
the planet would for a moment confuse the unsuspecting visitor as they approach the blow shock
phase or increase their speed as they sling shot out of its gravitational pull. Jupiter will for a long
time still remain the king among the solar system planets despite being too small to be a star but
too large to be an ordinary planet. The question still begs answering, could some form of life
exist on Jupiter or its moons somewhere below their surfaces? For now, we must wait for future
generations to unravel these mysteries. It is high time we took off for Saturn!
Saturn
Saturn has been another dazzling celestial giant after Jupiter. It has brilliant rings surrounding it
in addition to its beautiful atmosphere (composed of hydrogen, Helium and trace Methane) and
collection of moons circling it. Saturn, like Jupiter has been named after some Roman deity as it
was equally adored by ancient civilisations. For a long time, this planet intrigued the human
mind because it is far off, an incredible 1,429,400 kilometres from the sun. Saturn in clearly the
second largest planet in the solar system and has an equatorial speed of 36,850 kilometres per
hour. This implies that the planet’s day lasts just under 10 hours 39 minutes. It has an equatorial
diameter of 119,300 kilometres and takes over 29.5 earth years to complete one revolution round
the sun. The planet is cold with an average cloud temperature around -125*C. A visitor to this
planet would have to contend with several things such as the storms, the harsh atmospheric
conditions and limited light.
Several things distinguish Saturn from the rest. The first is that the planet’s density is only 0.69,
making it one of the few, if not the only planet in the solar system whose density is less than that
of water. Thus, Saturn can float on water! The second is that the planet has many rings composed
different particles. The beautiful collection of rings around the planet is believed to have been
formed by debris from a previous collision between some larger moons and comets or Page | 80
meteoroids. Others think that these are chunks of rocks and ice simply orbiting the planet. The
planet has far more rings than hitherto known (some put it at seven)47, thanks to the Voyager
flyby of the 1980s (November 1980). Another larger ring was recently discovered using NASA’s
Spitzer Telescope making Saturn even more fascinating.
NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope has spotted a massive, nearly invisible ring around Saturn. 06/10/2009
Saturn has a collection of satellites called “shepherd moons” which are believed to hold the rings
belt together and keeping them from flying off to space. The planet has a total of 31 known
moons the dominant one being Titan48 (although more moons continue to be identified). Other
moons include Atlas, Calypso, Dione (A & B), Enceladus, Epimetheus, Helene, Phoebe, Tethys
(Trojan), Lapetus (discovered by Giovanni Casini in 1671) and Pandora among others. This is
certainly an amazing collection of moons each doing a great job around the mother planet. This
satellite (Titan) was initially thought to be only ‘a point of light’ until Voyager (Nov 12, 1980)
unlocked the mystery even revealing that the Titan has an atmosphere. Saturn has a gravity that
is 1.15 times stronger than that of earth which means that a space faring vehicle would need an
escape velocity of 22.1 miles per second (35.49 kmph) from the planet’s surface. Akin to Jupiter,
Saturn does not have a solid surface but is largely gaseous in nature with probably liquid
hydrogen flowing on its surface. The planet does have stormy conditions as well although not
comparable to the chaos found on Jupiter or Neptune.
47
Katherine Kenah in Space Mysteries, pp25
48
Titan is unique with an atmosphere harbouring 82% Nitrogen & 6% Methan which acts like
water on earth. Methan is found in solid, liquid and gas states. Methane glaciers and lakes,
rain drops and snow are common place on it. Refer to Gitt W Stars & their purpose , 2006,
pp168/69
Probes to Saturn
Voyager 1 & 2
The Voyager twins were originally designed to visit Jupiter and Saturn and then end their
missions but with time, it increasingly became desirable and necessary for them to extend their Page | 81
mandate to Uranus and Neptune before taking on journeys among the stars. Saturn therefore was
in the original design and was planned to clear some of the most pressing questions of the time.
For instance, what composed the rings around the planet? How many planets did the planet
actually have? What was the planets’ atmosphere composed of? These and slightly more
questions were answered by the legendary Voyager fly by which captured some of the most
spectacular pictures of the magnificent planet both the side the faces the sun as well as the
reverse side. What we know about Saturn was largely unravelled by the Voyager crafts.
Casini (2004)
In 2003/2004, the space probe Casini (probably named after famous astronomer Giovanni
Casini) arrived in Saturns’ orbit to begin a comprehensive observation and study of the planet.
Named, after the great astronomer, the probe accordingly and successfully completed the mission
with distinction, confirming unclear things that Voyager saw as well as revealing more
information that included data about the planet’s atmosphere, the moons as well as the exact
nature of the Saturn rings. Casini discovered that the rings were in fact more than earlier thought
to be with larger bands having smaller ‘ringlets’ within. There were also gaps noticed between
the rings as well in some places. Casini continues to explore Saturn and its moons to this day.
More is certainly to come.
Future probes
It is hoped that future probes will even be more thorough than what The Voyagers and Casini
saw or continue to see. It is expected that future probes will be more complex, more equipped
and advanced enough to detect more things. In addition, the probes will probably do well to
descend into the planet atmosphere and get a glimpse of what is there. Titan deserves further
investigation.
Well, so much for the great planet, it is time to continue our voyage to Uranus before we head
out to Neptune and Pluto.
Uranus
Image removed
Uranus
Uranus was not discovered until 1781 by the English Astronomer William Herschel. He was
surveying the skies when he stumbled across a fuzzy object in the sky that did not quite fit into
the regular description of a star. After several verifications and examination, it was finally
concluded that a new planet had been discovered. Accordingly, the astronomer would
subsequently become famous. Knowledge about the planet remained limited until Voyager 2
came around making amazing discoveries about the planet. For instance, Voyager discovered at
least ten new moons, some rings around the planet as well as helping to determine more Page | 82
precisely how fast the planet rotates on its axis. It was discovered that the planet takes about 17
hours 14 minutes to complete one rotation on its axis.
But what about the planet itself, what is it like? As earlier intimated, very little is known but the
planet definitely is larger than the earth, though clearly smaller than both Jupiter and Saturn. It is
among the gaseous giants meaning that it is mainly composed of gases rather than having a solid
surface. The planet is 2, 870,972,200 kilometres from the sun and thus almost twice the distance
of Saturn from the sun. This also implies that the planet receives far less light and could be a
very cold place, despite it having stormy conditions on its planet and some volcanic activity on
some of its moons. The planet has at least 25 known moons that orbit around it as well as a thin
ring belt akin to Saturn though less spectacular and darker. The best known of these moons are
Titania and Oberon both discovered by Herschel in 1787. The planet has a blue-greenish colour
probably because of Methane in its atmosphere. The planet is the third largest planet in the solar
system with an equatorial diameter of 51,800 kilometres and orbits the sun once every 84 earth
years! The atmosphere of Uranus is mainly Hydrogen (83%), Helium (15%), methane (2%) and
other smaller trace elements like acetylene. The planet is tipped in an unusual direction and
rotates from north to south rather than from west to east. Some suggest that the planet was
probably impacted by an object that “disturbed” its rotation pattern. Uranus was visited by
Voyager 2 in 1986 and took spectacular images of the planet, some of them iconic in nature. The
old solitary planet (averaging -193*C) is so far away and yet continues to attract the human mind
to it. How soon another probe visits that planet depends on what humans will be looking for.
Neptune
Image removed
Neptune
Neptune was visited by Voyager 2 (1989) before it tangented to head to the stars. By Design,
Voyager 2 was only to visit Jupiter and Saturn and then end its mission but by ‘popular demand’,
this visit was extended to Uranus and Neptune. Voyager’s trip brought a lot of information to the
fore about this blue planet that hovers very far out in space at average distances of over
4,504,300,000 kilometres away from the sun. A visit to this planet is currently impossible but
were it to be, a number of things would be discovered and contended with.
The planet itself was discovered in 1846 by Johann Gotfried Galle after many years of
mathematical predictions of its existence. In some ways, Neptune is like Uranus and thus some
call them ‘twin planets’. Uranus is blue-green in colour but Neptune has a distinct blue colour
probably due to the presence of ammonia, water and methane on its interior while the outer parts
(including atmosphere) are composed of Helium(13%), Hydrogen (85%), water and methane
(2%). The Methane is what gives Neptune its blue colour (which absorbs red and orange wave
length while reflecting blue light). It contains some clearly visible clouds and is believed to be a
hive of activity. The hurricane-like winds on the planet are believed to be the fastest in the solar Page | 83
system and blow in an opposite direction to its equatorial rotation. Several spots have been
spotted on the planet resulting from frequent chaotic situations within the planet but these
quickly change. The Great Dark spot discovered by Voyager disappeared and has been replaced
by several others since. The dynamic planet is volatile but holds together none the less. Neptune
has an equatorial diameter of 49,500 kilometres and thus clearly larger than the earth by over 60
times. It orbits round the sun once in 164.79 years. Its day lasts 16 hours 6.7 minutes and thus
revolves faster on its axis. Its average temperature revolve between -193*C & 153*C. Neptune is
thought to be shrinking, much like Jupiter over the years and has probably higher temperatures in
the interior.
The planet has at least 13 (though some say 8) known moons and some rings which prior to
Voyager’s visit were unknown or seen. The largest of these is Triton which has a thin
atmosphere. From Voyager’s ‘investigation’, Triton’s southern pole has a Nitrogen ice cap.
Interestingly, the moons are far away from the planet unlike what generally obtains in the solar
system.
Scientists have been baffled at why ferocious winds blow on Neptune. One has said “We have
reached a point at which we cannot even explain why the wind on Neptune blows so fiercely”49.
Despite possible explanations, this phenomenon still intrigues the mind.
Pluto
NASA
50
Pluto system
Pluto is the farthest planet from the sun in the known solar system standing at over
5,913,520,000 kilometres away from the sun. For several years, the planet could not be identified
among the stars because it was too far off. This was also due, in part, it its size. Pluto is a small
49
James Pollack, NASA (K2, p 132) as quoted by Gitt pp 169
50
Picture downloaded from Wikipedia website on 14/09/2009
solitary planet in the remote part of the solar system. Before it was eventually spotted in the
1930s (discovered by 24 year old Clyde W. Tombaugh), its existence was predicted because of
its effect on Neptune’s orbit. It has also been a subject of controversy as to whether it is a full
planet or not. Some call it “the double planet” because it is nearly the same size as one of its
satellite moons (Charon) which orbit round it. Others have argued that Pluto is a “run away” Page | 84
moon of the planet Neptune and thus does not qualify to be a full planet. As such, it has at times
been demoted from a full planet to a sub or Dwarf planet along with the newly discovered Ceres
and Eris. With these recent discoveries, Pluto is probably not the ninth planet but the tenth or so.
Pluto is larger than Ceres but smaller than Eris. They are none the less all classified as Dwarf
planets.
In terms of its physical composition, Pluto is a cold solitary rocky planet that takes over 248.54
earth years to complete one revolution around the sun. It does not have a known atmosphere
(although it may have a very thin one composed of Methane and Nitrogen) and is probably an
icy deserted world with little or weak light from the Sun. Its surface is believed to contain 98%
Nitrogen, some Methane and traces of Carbon Monoxide. If Voyager had visited the planet in its
grand tour among the celestial bodies, a bit more information would have been discovered about
the planet thus, much more remains to be known about it. Should a probe be sent to permanently
orbit the planet, perhaps more light will be shed. Thank fully, the probe, New Horizons
(launched January 2006, on a nine year trip to Pluto) is presently making its way there and
should reach Pluto orbit about 2015.Then Pluto and its satellites would have been visited by a
manmade object, much like the other outer planets have been. The planet has a very unique orbit
at times even coming closer to the sun than Neptune (For a period 20 years out of its 249 year
orbit, Pluto comes closer to the sun than Neptune. It is now heading out and only returns in
September 2226). Most of the times however, it is far away from reach.
Should humans one day travel there, they will definitely need to carry a lot of energy and light so
that they keep warm. The planet takes 6.387 earth days to rotate on its axis with mean
temperatures of around -240*C. It has a diameter of 2, 274 kilometres only while Charon, one of
its three known moon has 1,172 kilometres. They will also have an interesting time visiting the
planet’s moon.
Planet X51
The Planet X is generally a belief that an unidentified planet exists somewhere in the solar
system but has not yet been spotted. Pluto was for a long time unseen but its effects were
detected until about March 1930 when its discovery was officially announced. In fact, Pluto was
the original planet X although thought to have a bigger mass and density than it actually turned
51
Gitt talks about a tenth planet dubbed 1992QB1 discovered in 1992 by Daniel Jewitt &
Jane Luu way beyond Pluto approximately 41 AU away. Its orbit around the sun is probably
in the region of 262 earth years. There is yet another, 1993FW which is to be explored
further! Stars and their Purpose, pp 172
out to be. There have been other pseudo planets have been discerned but not yet located. In an
article “Pluto’s retreat” which appeared in the US News & World report of August 1991, a
University of Manchester team of astronomers claimed that they had discovered the first planet
outside our known solar system. The planet itself was not seen directly but its presence was
discernible by its six month fluctuations in radio signals detected by radio telescopes. Many such Page | 85
findings abound in these latter days. The question that begs is, Is Pluto the furthest planet in the
solar system after all? Could there be other planets beyond or before Pluto? Are the planets
exactly placed in the order that they have been placed thus far? What are those planets like?
Other issues
UFOs
Image removed
UFO with aliens alighted
Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) have never been resolved. Myriads of explanations have
been forwarded attempting to rationally explain what was observed. Some people have claimed
to have encountered beings from another world who descended from the skies using saucer like
space ships, landed and at times abducted them for some experiments and then left them. Others
have claimed to have seen space ships fly in the skies at night at terrific speeds and vanished.
One case even claimed that they were captured and “detained” in the space ships’ laboratory
where a collection of strange looking beings carried out studies on their anatomy. After
completion, they were “knit” back together and taken back to their home before the visitors from
another world left. Even films have been developed to such effects. But scientists have dismissed
such insinuations as mere imagination created by the mind. They have said that once the mind
wants to ‘see’ something, it has the power to create that impression thereby deceiving the eyes.
Science fictionists on the other hand have left the door open for possibilities of anything.
That said, the UFO question has not been answered, do people from other worlds visit the Earth?
If they do, why are they not openly visible to humans? Why should they be seen by a select few?
Could it be true that people are in fact deceived by their minds?
Suppose the UFO stories and sightings were true, what implications would it have on human
life? What effect would the fact of being watched by someone somewhere have on everyday
life? Would a war subsequently ensue? Would humans be targets for annihilation? These and
many other issues still linger around the UFO question.
Extraterrestrial life
For generations, and increasingly in these latter days, humans have been wondering whether
there is life elsewhere in the universe apart from the earth. Enquiry so far has drawn a blank
though this is not conclusive yet. Some argue that life in fact does exist elsewhere but probably
not in the form known to us. They further argue that organisms could have lived in the past but
for changes in the solar system has been obliterated by some unexplained disastrous event such
as a collision with an asteroid or meteorite that forced the atmosphere to be sucked out into
space. This has been the long held view over Mars. The voyager visits to the planets shed more
light to this Extraterrestrial life question. No life form was discernibly found. The next step was Page | 86
to look elsewhere, but where? The enormous distances between planets is itself a serious
challenge, what about peering into the dark? Astronomers have shifted their enquiry and
telescopes to other stars. Recent evidence has shown that in fact, other “planetary systems” do
exist elsewhere in our galaxy although no life has been discovered yet. Some “planets”,
sometimes called “exoplanets” by some, have been discovered though their properties are not
exactly or clearly known. What has been concluded so far about their properties is by use of
proxy indicators. That discovery however has raised further hopes of some life forms far out
there, probably not presently visible to the human eye. Some astronomers postulate that
extraterrestrial life could be classified into at least three categories52:
1. Those that use energy comparable to all nations on the earth combined.
2. Those that use energy equivalent to a star such as the sun.
3. Those that use energy equivalent to an entire galaxy.
The third class is obviously a very advanced civilisation as compared to the first option which
would appear extremely primitive relative to the others. This classification also brings to the fore
the question as to whether humans are being watched by some more advanced civilisation hidden
somewhere waiting to befriend or ambush the earth? Perhaps humans are not even significant at
all much like what ants appear to a travelling human in his car.
If life exists out there and humans successfully establish communication with such civilisations,
what are the implications? Should humans continue with the contact or break off? What will
humans do? Some have alleged that communication has already been established in the past but
has been kept secret from the public lest panic be generated all over the world. The X files in the
UK and USA are said to contain such information. Some former Astronauts and scientists have
also joined the chorus of those calling for the disclosure of what is contained in the said X files.
====================================================================
Prototype
Star Trek
52
Advanced by Soviet astronomer N.S Kardasher . Refer to New Horizons in Astronomy pp
100. Also consult a book called Exploration of Space pp 421 which expresses human affinity
to connect with other yet unseen civilizations out there somewhere in space.
Wikipedia
Page | 87
Star Trek Logo 2007
The first Star Trek motion picture hit the TV screens in 1966. The plot of the film is a star ship
that is far out in deep space and travels across the stars visiting different worlds, venturing
“where no man has gone before” as the famous saying goes. As the Star ship enterprise treks
among the stars and planets, they encounter different challenges and situations. The Enterprise is
equipped to move at light speed as well as orbit planets investigate them and move on.
Occasionally, the Enterprise gets distress signals to help out at one end of the universe to which
it responds. Captain Kirk has a great team composing Dr McCoy (Bones), Spoke (the Vulcan),
Scotty (engineer), Sulu and a host of other active individuals. The star ship has living quarters,
several stories and a population that works away like beavers ensuring that the Enterprise
functions at optimum levels. After each episode, Captain James (Jim) Kirk gives his “captain’s
log” which gives an update of what the star ship has been through, location and how things were
resolved. Each episode brings lively situations that keeps one glued to the screen. The later
generations of Star Trek bring in more characters with varying abilities to continue from where
the NCC 1701 enterprise ended.
Internet
Star ship encountering yet another planet
Obviously, what the Star Trek series achieved is that it challenged humans about the possibilities
of inhabiting and exploring space safely. The advanced state of the art technology that is
displayed in the series is obviously way ahead of its time. For instance, the beeper is the fore
runner of the wireless cell phone we have today. Then there is the Beaming technology which is
yet to be developed despite several trials here and there. The vehicles that fly in and out of the
enterprise are equipped for their complex manoeuvres in different contexts. In later generations
of Star Trek, the Federation head quarters comes into focus, equivalent to the International Space
Station, although far more advanced. Star Trek remains a stunning classic to this day.
Star Wars
Wikipedia Page | 88
Star wars logo
Star Wars first hit the screens in the mid 1970s (by George Lucas) which depicts a series of
characters that are involved in conflict to destroy or preserve certain civilisations scattered
around the universe. The main characters are Luke (Anakin) Skywalker with his laser sword
alongside friends and robotic droids. Luke assumes some title and power as a Jedi (use power for
good) that battles with an enemy (Sith and later Dark Jedi) whose machinations are to destroy all
the media warriors so that they can gain supremacy of the Universe. There is a lot of conflict and
visits to different planets where all sorts of beings (often humanoids) exist though are
endangered. Sky Walker alongside his brothers and robots (3PO) visit some of these planets and
attempt to free them from bondage but in the process provokes the slave masters’ wrath. They
have a space vehicle that can travel at or beyond the speed of light and thus takes them places.
The Star Wars series pictured in a space context continues to captivate the human mind.
===================================================================
Bibliography
“Pluto’s retreat?”, US News & world Report August 5, 1991 edition, pp10
“When our atmosphere is damaged”, Awake magazine, December 1994 issue
Bartusiak Marcia, “Shake, rattle, and shine: New methods of probing the sun’s interior”,
American Scientist, February 1994 edition
Brandt & Maran, New Horizons in Astronomy, 2nd edition, WH. Freeman & Co.
Cooper S.F Henry Jr, The search of life on Mars: Evolution of an idea, Holt, Renehart &
Winston, 1980
Introductory College Physics
Moore Patrick & Mason John, The return of the Halley’s comet.
Sagan Carl, The Cosmic connection,
Saturn and Beyond
Shelton William, Soviet Space Exploration,

The American Scientist January 1995 issue
Topic magazine, issue # 191, 1992
Whayes AR, Concise A-Level

Page | 89
Chapter Five
JPL
Inscription aboard the deep space probes.
Whither from here?

There is no ending to what we can discuss. Information keeps flowing through as well as
debates daily generated. Humans no doubt have made tremendous strides in technological
advancement and can competently design robotic machines to replace human functions. Human
ingenuity is improving all the time and may one day sort out a lot of problems that bug the
planet. For one thing, technological feats will probably make manned space flights out of date.
Although people love adventure, machines may take over since the probability of them having
longer life spans is greater. Consider the Pioneer, Voyager and other probes that have done a
fantastic job. They continue to send marvellous pictures of what it is in the far flung areas of
space. Humans could not have done that because they would have long deceased, although future Page | 90
technology may change this picture. But then, we will have to wait for a long time to come in the
process losing out on time. For now, humans are limited to the earth’s orbit, the moon and
probably Mars in the next few years, should they elect to go that far. As for Jupiter and beyond,
that remains a pipe dream for now in relation to manned flights. The Star Trek kind of
adventures will take a bit of time but with more concentration and focus, things should change in
the short or medium time range. All that is needed is focus, determination, massing resources and
thinking big as well as strategically.
The debate raging across the world is which frontiers humans should now conquer. Is it the
moon or Mars? As we briefly saw at the beginning of the book, serious schools of thought have
emerged over the years. Some say the moon is no longer interesting and in fact boring while
others argue that it is even more essential than Mars or the international Space station! To arrive
at an objective answer, we recommend that readers give themselves to serious research and
thinking, listing down the advantages and down side of each position. Some basic guiding
questions would be something like, what are the issues at hand? Which place is best and why?
Which will be more strategic and cost effective in the long run? Will we be going backwards or
improving on what we have? What are the implications on the earth and its inhabitants? Will
these voyages affect the planet as well as the solar system in any way? Does humanity have what
it takes in terms of technology and resources? How best can planetary or moon colonisation be
handled? Should nations go it alone or collectively as humans? What ethics govern space
exploration? How will the solar system, let alone the universe be ‘divided’ in the scramble for
dominion? These and many other pressing questions beg serious well thought out rational and
objective answers. It will take time to answer all these but the earlier it is done, the better. Then
progress can be made.
Dr Carl Sagan and others were persuaded about many things and devoted their lives and souls for
the pursuit of what they thought best. We need people who are thus passionate and will do
everything in their power to pursue a dream.
We could say much, much more but we need wind up this book and return to our planetary
studies. We have come a long way together and have visited different worlds together. I trust that
you have been enticed to take on the study of astronomy. It is simply amazing to know that there
is so much out there happening without our knowledge or aid. The solar winds, the sun spots, the
winds on Neptune, the reactions on Jupiter, the relative remoteness of Pluto, the wondering
rocky asteroid, just so much out there! They may appear random to some but if one paused, they
would be seriously dumb founded to notice the “chaotic order” that holds things together. That
planets maintain their orbits repeatedly across the years cannot be fully understood. Humans may
intelligently and logically explain the gravitational forces but that does not settle the matter of
order. To know also that our sun is just an average star is fascinated. But that is not all, there are
probably billions of galaxies out there and each of them is heading in some direction away from
the others! Could the Universe be expanding? To where and what? In the midst of all these
gigantic distances between stars and stellar systems, the planet earth exists, with its unique Page | 91
internal environment! The planet has a belt surrounding it, a gaseous atmosphere which supports
living organisms!
It is from this tiny little dot in space that humans continue to plan ways of reaching out to the
outer reaches of space. Whether life exists on earth alone or somewhere else in the universe
remains unresolved. For now, humans know that they exist and can do something to reach out
beyond the present reaches. The question that begs answering at the moment is whether the
Moon or Mars should be the next step in reaching out into the deep. Should humans build the
first settlement outside our Earth’s immediate atmosphere on the moon or Mars? What will be
the advantages in either case? Who stands to lose or win in this case? Should the developed
nations by pass the moon, what will they be losing? Should laws be established that will dictate
where humans go next? Who will be privileged to live on the Moon or Mars, or is it that the
banished will live on these stations because the earth will be for the “good citizens? Recall that
Australia was once for the banished criminals but today, it is a goodly place!
These and many questions will continue to face humans for many years to come. The earlier they
are resolved, the better for space development. Where do you stand on this matter?
End.
General Bibliography
“Pluto’s retreat?”, US News & world Report August 5, 1991 edition, pp10
“When our atmosphere is damaged”, Awake magazine, December 1994 issue
Baker Susan, Sustainable development, Routledge, 2006
Banking World, Views from the future, December 1989, Chartered Institute of Bankers
Bartusiak Marcia, “Shake, rattle, and shine: New methods of probing the sun’s interior”,
American Scientist, February 1994 edition
Brandt & Maran, New Horizons in Astronomy, 2nd edition, WH. Freeman & Co.
Children’s World Atlas, King Fisher books, 1994
Cooper S.F Henry Jr, The search of life on Mars: Evolution of an idea, Holt, Renehart &
Winston, 1980
Curry-Lindahl Kai, Conservation for survival: An Ecological Strategy, Victor Gollancz ltd, 1972
Dresner Simon, The Principles of sustainability, Earthscan, 2003
Dubrin J Andrew, Leadership: Research Findings, Practice and skills, Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1995 Page | 92
Envro-line (volume 1 # 1), Environmental Council of Zambia, April 1996
Forestry for Sustainable Rural Development, Ford Foundation, New York, 1998
Fun, Facts & Fiction, Zaner Bloser, Inc, 1983
Gitt Werner, Stars and their Purpose, 1996
HIV/AIDS in Zambia: Background projections, impacts and interventions, Ministry of

Health/CBOH, September 1999
International Action Against Poverty, Achieving our dreams for 2015, Grow up free from
poverty Coalition, 2005
Introductory College Physics
IUCN, Caring for the Earth: A strategy for sustainable living (Summary), UNEP, IUCN, WWF,
1991
Karpagam M, Environmental Economics, Sterling Publishers Private Ltd, 1999
Kenah Katharine, Space Mysteries, Waterbird Books, 2004
Man’s conquest of space
Moore Patrick & Mason John, The return of the Halley’s comet.
Morris M Henry, many Infallible Proofs: Evidences for the Christian Faith, Master Books, 1974
Morris M Henry, Many Infallible Proofs: Evidences for the Christian faith, Master books, 1974
NASA, Results of the third U.S. Manned Orbital Space Flight, October 3, 1962, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
Nottridge Rhoda, Sky Watch, COLLINS, 1991
Owen A Lewis & Kevin T Pickering, An introduction to Global Environmental issues,

Routledge, 1994
Padilla J Michael, Miaoulis Ioannis, Cyr Martha et al, Prentice Hall Science Explorer, Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2006
Pollock Steve, Ecology, DK Publishing, 2005
Poltorzycki Stephen, Creating Environmental Business Value, Financial World Publishing, 2001 Page | 93
Preston University, Environmental Management, CACC, 1998
Red Planet (Movie)
Redfern Martin, The Earth: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, 2003
Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic 2002, UNAIDS
Sagan Carl, The Cosmic connection,
Saturn and Beyond
Schaeffer A Francis, Genesis in Space & Time, Intervarsity Press, 1972
Schaeffer A. Francis, Pollution and the Death of Man, Tyndale House publishers, 1967
Shelton William, Soviet Space Exploration,
Sichone Billy C, The Strategic Horizon: Being needs of the times, Lulu .com, 2009
Steger B Manfred, Globalisation: A very short Introduction, Oxford Press, 2003
Stewart P (complier) Perspectives on theories of Development, UNISA, 2005
Stewart Peter, Development Theories, UNISA, 2005
The American Scientist January 1995 issue
The National Programme of Action for Children in Zambia, GRZ
Topic magazine, issue # 191, 1992
United Nations, A Vision of Hope: the fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations
Uniting the world against AIDS, UNAIDS

Welford Richard & Starkey Richard (editors), Business and the Environment, Universities Press
(India) Ltd, 1996
WFP Zambia
Whayes AR, Concise A-Level Page | 94
Willis Richard J.B, The AIDS pandemic, The Stanborough Press Ltd, 2002
World food Programme, Annual report 1999
World food Programme, Annual Report 2003
Zambezi River Authority, Kariba Dam’s operation Noah Re-launched, 1996
Appendix
A
Air pollution
In December 1952, over 4,000 people perished at the grisly hands of toxic smog which settled
over London for four days. More recently, in 1991, Athens was engulfed in a cloud of smoke,
which landed many in hospital. These and many like incidents have been recorded more
frequently all over the world, especially in major cities where there is heavy traffic. But what has
caused these occurrences? What exactly is the root cause and what can be done to correct this
situation? Many have undertaken to highlight these problems and one of these is an article
“Environmental Polluters to face criminal charges” which appeared in the Zambia Daily mail
issue of 4th August 1999. We shall attempt to define what this kind of pollution is and then seek
to show its effects as well as the possible remedies.
What exactly is pollution? Pollution is generally defined as “The introduction of certain

Γ
parameters into the environment , which cannot be engrafted properly into the ecosystem due to

The environment is the world in which we live. It is the source of our food, water and the
air we breathe
their nature or volume and thus lead to deleterious consequences as a result of an eco-
inequilibrium.” Clearly, we note that this state of affairs is very hostile to vegetation, animals and
human kind. The parameters here spoken of are of varied types depending on the type of
pollution at hand. For our purposes we confine ourselves to air pollution. This is one of the most
common forms of pollution because we meet it at every turn. As one walks around the Page | 95
compound, they will notice little smoke emitting fires, as people clean their yards. In the city, big
industries pour noxious gases galore. But what are the major sources of pollution in the world
today? A number are identified below:
1. The Coal Power generating plants. These are spread all over the world and in some cases, their
concentration is so high like in the coal power plants of the UK. These use coal that burns and
gives off thick dark fumes. These fumes billow into the air and are transported many kilometres
Ε
away from the polluting point. It is a curious fact that over 92% of the polluted air present in
Norway is as a result of the Pollution in the lower latitudes such as England. This clearly shows
that Pollution is not only a local problem but a global one. The burnt coal heats up water to
produce steam. This selfsame steam turns the turbines to generate power. While the power is
useful and necessary, the by-products from this process are toxic and the solid waste is difficult
to dispose off.
2. Volcanic eruptions The Volcanic eruptions have been known to be the largest natural
polluters, even outweighing present anthropogenic emissions. It is estimated that some eruptions
∏
release as much as 15 – 30 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the air!
3. Toxic Fumes from Cars. As the number of world vehicles has swelled, so also has the amount
of emitted poisonous fumes. Cars give out at least two noxious air pollutants as a result of engine
combustion. These pollutants are Carbon Monoxide and Lead. Carbon monoxide, an odourless,
colourless gas, is formed when the following reaction occurs due to incomplete combustion:
2C(s) + O2 2CO (g)
This carbon monoxide is released is large volumes especially in the cities where there is much
traffic. For example, in Zambia, where the emission levels are not regulated, it is estimated that
Ξ
45,000 tons are released into the atmosphere per year! The Lead is put in the fuel to increase
the engine efficiency to burn the fuel. This toxic pollutant is very deadly and once it enters the
human body system, even in minute quantities (as little as 100 micro grams/cubic decimetre), it

Source: Introduction to Global environmental issues, Pickering C Owen L Page 109.

Source: Introduction to Global environmental issues, Pickering C Owen L page 116.

Source: Enviro line April 1996 Vol 1 No. 1 pp8
will cause terrible mental disorders on the victim, especially children. The exact amount of
damage caused by these is incalculable. The average estimation for Zambia per year is
Ξ
approximately 444 tons released into the air. These levels are frighteningly high and are bound
to increase as more vehicles pour onto the already jammed the streets. Nitrogen oxide is another
pollutant to consider though it is not directly released from the car fumes but is a mixture of Page | 96
oxides of Nitrogen and other gases like Carbon monoxides and Sulphur Dioxide.
4. Domestic burning. This is by far the most common type of pollution source because man has
been burning things from the earliest times of civilisation. Now we have arrived at a stage where
unnecessary fires are not welcome. Fire ceased being a wonder many ages ago, rather is now an
inconvenience where it is unnecessary, because fumes will billow from there making the air
dirty. There is another type of burning- that of natural gas in homes, especially in the cooler
countries where gas is used for cooking and warming. An example of a polluting reaction is the
burning of methane in the following reaction:
CH4 + 3O2 CO2 + 2H2O
This reaction causes more carbon dioxide to be released to the atmosphere thereby contributing
to global warming.
5. Industries- The industries are a major source of pollution as their by-products are usually dirty
and toxic. The Oil refineries and other chemical factories have continued pouring dense
poisonous fumes into the air. These must be watched very carefully.
6. Mining activities- Anthropogenic activities such as mining are as old as the world probably.
Today, however, this activity ranks among the highest polluters in the world. Smoke and
dust come from the mineral processing activities especially from the metal smelters. It is no
wonder that the surrounding areas of the mines do not have vegetation and acid rain is a
common feature in nearby localities.
7. Firewood burning- As the need for power rises, so also the demand for firewood. This means
that more trees are felled to produce the wood charcoal. The ramifications are that there will be
fewer trees to carry out photosynthesis which converts carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to
give oxygen. The mere processing of wood to charcoal makes smoke to be produced. This
practice is more pronounced in developing countries.
8. Air plane and Rocket fumes. Not much has been written about the effect of planes on the
environment. One author once asserted that the pollution produced by the take off of one Boeing
707 is equivalent to 6,850 accelerating Volkswagens. In Munich for example, an area of 20
hectares near the airport has suffered severe pollution where the pine trees are dying-all due to

Source: Enviro line April 1996 Vol 1 No. 1 pp8
∂
the air plane exhausts. Want of space forbids us to talk about the noise and air pollution
generated by the many rockets launched into space.
9. Exponential Population growth. The rapid increase of the worlds’ population has far
outstripped the earth’s carrying capacity. There is unbearable strain on the worlds’ resources as
Page | 97
the global population hurtles towards the seven billion mark. Not only is there stress on the
resources, but also the amount of Carbon dioxide emissions have increased proportionally. While
human population is on the increase that of plants is on the decline meaningless oxygen
machines available (i.e. the plants)
Having identified the major air polluting sources, we proceed to enquire as to the types of
pollutants and the effects of this type of pollution. The question to hand is “What are some of the
toxic air pollutants and what are the effects on man and the environment?” The major air
pollutants are given below:
1. Carbon monoxide. This is a colourless and odourless gas formed when incomplete combustion
takes place. This gas is produced in car engine combustion as well as when hydrocarbons are
burnt where insufficient oxygen is present. The fact that this gas cannot be smelled makes it
doubly dangerous because the person inhaling it suffocates to death. Carbon monoxide has been
the major cause of many a death that has occurred in village huts where people sleep with a fire
in the middle of a poorly ventilated hut. Others have perished when they have left the car engine
running while in an enclosed place such as a garage.
2. Sulphur dioxide. This gas is mainly emitted from the Mines, which pour out untold amounts of
this gaseous substance into the air. This gas rises into the atmosphere and settles in the air. Some
of it is dissolved into the rainwater to form other chemicals that fall to the ground. Zambia is said
ℑ
to release over 1,000 tons of this gas into the air. In Kitwe and Mufulira (Zambian town on the
Copper belt), the refinery plants and the underground fumes often cause many to choke as the
“Senter” is released at certain hours of the day. Extremely concentrated fumes are released at a
particular hour of the day and when that is done, people are sent scampering while others have to
endure the choking fumes with great discomfort. Later on in life, these selfsame fumes effect
will come to haunt the victims while the mines go Scot-free.
3. Hydro carbons and organic acids- The hydrocarbons fuels and the CFCs are used in aerosols
as propellants. They are preferred because they are chemically very inert and thus do not react

Source: Conservation for survival ,Lindahl K., 1972, Page 14

Source: Enviro line April 1996, Vol 1, number 1, Page 8
with other materials in the container. However, in the upper atmosphere, UV light splits the
!
CFC to give Chlorine. This chlorine then reacts with ozone to produce oxygen.
4. Lead- Is a naturally occurring element and it is added to petrol in cars to improve the engine Page | 98
efficiency. As a result, the selfsame metal (in tiny particle form) is released to the atmosphere
where it is inhaled by living organisms. The air concentration of the Lead is relative from place
to place but is highest where traffic congestion is upper most-the cities. New York and Tokyo
have been known to have very high concentrations of Lead and on days when Traffic reduces,
say, on Sundays, the levels of the same pollutant have reduced by the same token, in some cases
Χ
by as much as 80%! . Incidentally, this lead is found in many more substances such as paints,
insecticides, and solder. It is also used in the glass making process.
5. Nitrogen Oxides-These are oxides that come from sources such as the burning of organic
substances, or reactions in the air with certain gases such as Carbon Monoxide or Sulphur
oxides. The major sources of these oxides are the burning of coal in power plants and the car
fumes.
6. Nuclear waste and fall out. This topic has been a source of much controversy in the recent past
due to the nature of the materials at hand. While nuclear use and knowledge has increased over
time, the age-old question that still begs answering is, “How are we to safely dispose off
hazardous nuclear waste permanently after use?” No real solution has been found. The problem
is that nuclear materials are lethal and invisible to the human eye. In addition, they usually have
long half-lives and can exist in that lethal state for many years. Where these have accidentally
been exposed to the free atmosphere, untold amount of damage has been recorded, as was the
case with the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the former USSR. To this day, large stretches of land
and air are deadly to traverse. This nuclear waste and fallout threatens both the wild life and the
environmental health of a certain locality. Even more hair raising is the fact that the
contaminated air moves from place to place and thus transports the radiation particles to distant
places. It has been reported for example, that animals grazing in Sweden and Norway were
condemned and the milk not fit for human consumption. Various reports have been given as to
the radiation levels at the Chernobyl disaster, but one reading pegged it at more than 300
δ
roentgens an hour, more than 300,000 times above the normally allowed dose! once exposed,

“The total chlorine loading of the atmosphere has continued to rise… Governments should
replace CFCs and other Ozone depleting substances, consistent with the Montreal
Protocol…” Agenda 21-1992 Rio earth summit.

Source: Conservation for Survival, an ecological strategy. Lindahl K., 1972 ,page 14

Source: Readers’ digest, May 1991 issue. Pekkanen. J, The man who flew into hell Page
151
the body cells rapidly disintegrate, mutations occur and cancers like Leukaemia develop later on
From the above scenario, it is clear that nuclear technology, whilst plausibly cheaper and more
efficient, is a long-term hazardous pollutant of the atmosphere.
Page | 99
The aforementioned pollutants are classified as gaseous and particulate. Some of these pollute
directly and as such are known as primary pollutants while others form as a result of prior
reactions of primary gases to form secondary pollutants. An example of a secondary gas is
Nitrogen dioxide and ozone. When these gases are emitted in excessive quantities, the earth fails
to clean the atmosphere adequately. Naturally, the Earth has a “Cleaning” mechanism that can
only handle a certain level of pollution beyond which, the toxic substances remain in the
atmosphere and “stick” to the clouds. In the fullness of time, the said toxins begin to wreck
havoc as they affect the natural functions of the atmosphere. What are some of the effects of air
≤
pollution? Looking at the magnitude of the terrible effects , it is difficult to point out
exhaustively the extent of this scourge but a few suggested answers will suffice for our purposes.
The following effects immediately come to the fore:
1. Discomfort, health problems and death. It is now a documented fact that air pollution is a
silent, slow but certain killer. As intimated at the beginning of this paper, the noxious gases
have and continue to do great harm. In humans, it has been discovered that where there is
more air pollution, diseases such as bronchitis and other respiratory ailments abound.
Another known disease connected to atmospheric damage is Emphysema. Furthermore, air
pollution is linked to Lung cancer as this disease is more prevalent in industrial countries
rather than in agrarian ones. There has been a world over increase of Lung cancer and in the
USA for example, as an author states, this type of cancer kills more people than all the other
Κ
cancer types combined . Carbon monoxide, one of the poisonous gases once inhaled
displaces the Oxygen in the blood and reduces the amount carried to the body tissues, thus
the brain gets starved of oxygen and the victim dies. The concentration of this gas varies
from place to place. In the USA for example, Lindahl states that more than 100 million tons
of Carbon monoxide was emitted in 1968. This figure is nothing compared to the present
levels today, 32 years later. Furthermore, CO slows down the body reactions even in the
healthiest persons and contributes significantly to the risks of accidents.

The 1992 Rio earth summit highlighted the following… “Air pollution damages lungs,
corrodes buildings, poisons soils and crops, kills forests and makes lakes unfit for aquatic
life…"

Source: Conservation for survival., Lindahl. 1972,page 19
Ω
2. Acid rain forms . It is hardly necessary to be labour the point that acid rain emanates directly
from air pollution. What happens is that as the Nitrogen oxides and the Sulphur oxides
dissolve into rain water, they change the pH level of the water so much that by the time the
rain falls to the ground, the pH of the water will be around 4. It must be noted that not all the
gases are absorbed due to their high concentration, the excess “sticks” onto the clouds and
falls later as rain. This rain will most likely fall in a totally different locality and cause other Page | 100
problems such as acidifying lakes and soils. Further, the rain destroys the vegetation as well.
The two ways in which this acid rain destroys the vegetation and plant diversity is by making
the soil have an unfavourable pH level and secondly, by simply poisoning the soil so that
certain plants will not grow. The following is a suggested reactions take place in the
atmosphere to form acid rain:
(i) SO2(g) + H2O(l)H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid) or
(ii)SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)

This is how acid rain is formed as the gases react with rainwater
3. Large stretches of vegetation are destroyed- Closely akin to the aforementioned point, large
stretches of vegetation are destroyed. It has been speculated by some scientists that if not
carefully managed, air pollution has the potential to cause entire forests to vanish. This is
because the plant leaves are destroyed by either dry or wet deposition of pollutants on the
leaf surfaces. As the pollutants settle on the surface, they not only destroy the stomata but
Ω
allow toxic gases like ozone to enter into the plant too. Furthermore, in places near
industrial areas, mines and airports, the vegetation is either absent or experiences stunted
growth. A visit to the Mines in Mufulira, Zambia will reveal just how much air pollution has
damaged large stretches of forest. In those areas no plant survives once planted. The
explanation is simply that the Sulphur dioxide scorches chokes and kills the plants.
4. Air concentration balances altered. I did not find any documented evidence but I seriously
think that a chance exists that the traditional concentration ratio of gases in normal clean air
(i.e. Nitrogen, 78%, oxygen 21% and 1% other trace elements) is now being altered due to
the anthropogenic actions as more gases are pumped into the atmosphere. This postulation, if
correct, will mean that the air becomes more toxic and unhealthy for organisms. The will
lead to diversity reduction in species and diseases increases such as lung cancer as asserted in
No. 1 above.
5. Weather and climate changes-The far-reaching consequence of pollution is that the weather,
world-over is changing rapidly and unpredictably. Hither to, it took no less than 30 years to
predict the climatic conditions of an area but today this data is obsolete. The reason is that air
pollution has affected the weather patterns so much that we can no longer easily predict the

Vegetation is affected by the following pollutants: Gases kill the cells, acid rain damages
plants as well as lowers the soil pH & mobilizes toxic metals, air borne particles settle on the
plants to reduce solar radiation received hindering photosynthesis, dust particles block
stomatal pores and inhibit gas exchange as well as photosynthesis

See footnote with same symbol on previous page
climatic conditions of a place. The advent of the computer and Satellite technology aids us to
figure out what is going on at a given moment but cannot tell us precisely what will happen
10 years hence. All these sudden weather changes are attributed to atmospheric pollution.
6. Death of marine life due to temperature changes. Due to the weather instability and the
atmospheric changes, marine life will die. The water temperature changes will lead to
extensive deaths of organisms which are sensitive to temperature variations, even minute Page | 101
changes of say 1*C will create a mass grave of organisms. The Bio diversity is at risk as
well.
7. Destruction of buildings. Air pollution has caused certain gases which were hitherto not in
abundance in the air to increase to such levels where when they react with certain substances,
they cause a lot of damage. A well observed case is that of acid rain which destroys the
curving on some ancient limestone buildings. The acid reacts with the calcium carbonate and
thus breaks down the structures slowly but surely. Other uncalculated costs such as the dirt
on the walls of buildings, the corroded metal bridges and many other structures distorted by
pollution indirectly. To replace, paint or clean them costs a lot of money which would have
otherwise been spent profitably elsewhere. Dust pollution for example is a menace in many
places.
8. Deserts expand and get hotter. There is a significant advance of the hot deserts as more
vegetation dies off. The world is increasingly becoming hostile to plants as more toxins are
released into the air. In recent years, the Kalahari and the Sahara deserts have been noted to
be expanding further out at a phenomenal rate. As though that were not enough, the deserts
are becoming even hotter! Both these changes have been noticed, we have no telling what
nature has up its sleeve next.
9. Changes in the circulation of the ocean currents. The advent of the indiscriminate air
pollution by human activity has led to the erratic weather patterns in the atmosphere. Among
the anticipated changes is the route of the ocean currents. Traditional patterns are being
violated by the unstable conditions in the upper atmosphere and with time, it is thought that
these changes will affect the ocean currents. If this happens, it will lead to many changes
such as the different distributions of species, different impacts on the continents and the
reduction of the bio diversity.
10. Ozone layer depletion. Since the British scientists in the Antarctica discovered the Ozone
β
holes , there has been a lot of discussion and “Heat” generated from various quarters. The
fact that the Ozone layer has developed holes due to human activity spells doom for man.
This layer is the worlds’ shield against the lethal solar radiation that comes to the earth from
the sun. When the said radiation reaches the earth, the ozone layer filters out the harmful UV
radiation from the rays and allowing only safe levels to reach the earth. In the absence of this
selfsame layer, the entire intense load reaches the earth causing invisible but catastrophic
harm to the worlds’ organisms. In humans, especially among the white skinned people who
have little melanin in their skins, cancers are prevalent. Cataracts have also been associated
with the Ozone depletion phenomenon. This has been traced to the deadly solar radiation.
Furthermore, increased UV air radiation will affect marine, crops, and terrestrial ecosystems
through the UV effect on sensitive species. But what exactly is ozone? What happens to it
and why? Where is it found? We shall attempt to offer some answers. Ozone is a form of
oxygen except that each Ozone molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms. It is a light blue

Quoted from the Awake! Magazine, December 22, 1994 issue page 6 “When our
atmosphere is damaged”
toxic gas with a pungent smell. The ozone is found in trace elements near the surface of the
earth but the bulk of it is found in the stratosphere, a layer between 15 to 45 kilometres above
the earth. Ozone is formed by the reaction of ordinary Oxygen gas (O2) molecule with
atomic oxygen (O) from Nitrogen dioxide in the air in the presence of Ultra Violet radiation.
The reaction goes as follows:
O2 (g) + O (g)  O3 Page | 102
This reaction takes place on a large scale and so forms a layer that is an effective barrier against
the lethal gamma particles. Unfortunately, this selfsame gas is easily destroyed by certain
elements in the atmosphere which leads to the situation we sited-the ozone hole. The major
cause of the rapid break down of the layer is attributed to the use of aerosols. These aerosols
∇
contain inert propellant gases such as Chlorofloro Carbons or CFC s. After being released
from spraying cans and fridges, these ascend to the higher orbs where, in the presence of UV
light they split to give free Chlorine radicals.
These free chlorine radicals then go and “Attack” the ozone in a spontaneous continuous manner.
In this way, the destruction rate of ozone is far higher than the formation, thus leading to the
gaps or ozone hole. The following is the reaction that probably takes place when the Ozone
is broken:
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
Unless drastic measures are put in place, we will continue to witness more and more ozone holes,
as the present ones are growing bigger by the day. Also the skin cancer cases will continue to
∆
rise especially among the white skinned people in places like Australia where the ozone
Λ
protection has fallen sharply . It is gratifying to note that modern fringes and aerosol cans have
been branded “Ozone friendly”. Although extensive damage has been done to the Ozone layer
already, there is still hope of reversing the trend, tough it will take many years, aye, centuries to
repair the mess. We badly need the Ozone layer.
12. Frequent Famine and floods. Air pollution is poised to cause more frequent natural disasters.
There is so much evidence for this assertion because the natural disasters are galore in almost all
parts of the world. An example is the flooding which took place in Mozambique recently. This is
probably a place where no previous record of flooding of that magnitude has been recorded, but
alas, it has happened! Much more is to come. Further, what is the explanation of the droughts,
famines and crop failures worldwide? Isn’t it because of mans’ continued violation of the natural
balance in the ecosystem? We are bold to assert that all this has its root cause in Pollution! Let us
gear up for more natural disaster show downs!

An estimated 20 million tons of CFC 1994 have been already been released into the
atmosphere…reports the 1994 magazine Popular Science.

The following except is from The New scientist: “…there were unusually low values of
Ozone concentrations in 1992 between latitudes 50*N & 60*N, covering northern Europe,
Russia and Canada. The Ozone level was 12% below normal, lower than at any time in 35
years of continuous observations…”

Depletion is most rapid in extremely cold & still conditions like Antarctica where over 60%
or more Ozone has been destroyed.
13. Heat waves. Hither to, heat waves were a rare phenomenon and restricted to certain
geographical areas but the recent years have witnessed a higher frequency of these heat waves
even in places where these were previously unheard of. It is believed that the said waves will
Page | 103
increase in frequency as the chaotic weather patterns continue to be catalysed by more air
pollution. Scanning the local press, one will definitely come across some incidence related to
these sudden heat outbursts in different parts of the world. Where these have occurred, the
temperatures have risen to unbearable degrees causing many human and animal deaths. Plants
are not spared either, as they become scorched too. Excessive heat is dangerous as it causes
serious dehydration.
14. Polar cap melting. There is a belief that in coming months and years, the rising world
temperatures will cause the ice caps at the two poles of the earth to melt. The two cold deserts
hold a lot of water in frozen state and thus reduce the amount of free flowing water in the oceans,
but with the afore mentioned development, there is going to be a more pronounced ice melting
and the consequent release of more water to the oceans. This development will be a result of air
pollution that will in turn lead to higher temperatures. What this melting will entail has not been
fully calculated but suffice it to say that the ice caps will definitely begin to melt in coming days,
if they have not already begun!
15. Global warming. Although warmer temperatures have been alluded already, it is necessary
for us to highlight this as we see it being pivotal to the many changes that are taking place in the
world today. As may have been noticed, there is a general increase in the world temperatures due
to the presence of more free Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a green house
gas, meaning that its presence causes the world to heat up because the gas traps the Infra red
radiation and keeps the heat in the lower atmosphere. When this happens, the heat builds up in
the world causing an inequilibrium in the ecosystem. The off shoots are the observed changes in
the weather and climate. It is postulated that going by the present trends, the temperatures
worldwide might rise by an estimated 1.5-4.5*C, depending partly on the response of the natural
CO2 reservoirs such as forests and oceans. Talking about the reservoirs, it is estimated that some

300,000 times more carbon dioxide is trapped in the ocean floors in fossils and rocks . It is
feared that as more global warming occurs, these deposits will be released into the atmosphere,
causing even more problems. Reversing the global warming will be hard since CO2 remains in
ε
the atmosphere for many decades. The 1992 Rio de Jenairo earth summit called for countries to

Source: Worlds in the sky, Sheenan.W., 1992, page 75

Maurice Strong, the earth summit Secretary General stated: “Stabilising the gaseous
composition of the atmosphere is clearly the most urgent problem we face in the 1990s…
Carbon emissions must be cut at least by 60% just to put the global warming trend on
hold…”
stabilise the CO2 emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. Whether this has been achieved, we
have no telling just now.
16. Tide rise. It is postulated by some scientists that there has been and will be more tidal rise in Page | 104
the ocean and sea water levels. As pointed out in 14 above, the melting of the polar caps will
mean more water unlocked into the oceans. This, among many things threatens to flood lowlands
such as the pacific islands and Bangladesh. Also, the atolls, Coral reefs and other bodies where
organisms thrive will be submerged and reduce the biodiversity further. This will also mean that
the hurricanes on coastlines will be even more difficult to quell. It is feared that the world
melting ice might raise the sea water level uniformly worldwide by no less than thirty
centimetres within a century.
17. Reduced light intensity It has been noticed that the light intensity in heavily polluted areas
has been reduced significantly due to the dark fumes that hover over the polluted areas. As one
approaches a mining town like Kitwe in Zambia, one can clearly see a dark smoke hallow o
enveloping the city, but upon entering the city, the cloud is virtually invisible to the human eye.
Every hour, people are breathing smoke into their body systems unawares. In some extreme
cases, visibility due to the dense fumes has been reduced to less than 10 metres! This condition is
a sure recipe for disaster and has a twofold negative effect:
1. The process of photosynthesis is hindered in plants and thus leads to stunted plant growth
and death.
2. The dark clouds have contributed to many accidents due to the poor visibility.
18. Noise pollution. Another component that comes hand in hand with mechanisation is noise.
As the machines efficiently do their work, noise has made our world so uncomfortable. Although
the definition of “Noise” is relative, any unwanted sound can be classified as noise. The
Factories, cars, aeroplanes and even our own domestic gadgets give off noise. Of concern is the
sonic booms produced from aeroplanes and also from magnificent vehicles like the space shuttle.
Not only do the planes pollute by the destructive gases they produce, they also emit too much
noise, such that some people have had their hearing impaired as a result. In some instances,
glasses are shattered due to the high noise decibels flooding the atmosphere. Those who work
among machines for long hours on end are most at risk of suffering the ill effects of continuous
noise pollution.
19. Acidification of lakes and soil poisoning. When the acid rain falls it pollutes the water bodies
making them inhabitable to aquatic life. This has occurred in Norway and Sweden. Also, the
selfsame acid rain changes the pH of the soil making it poisonous to plants. This has a bearing on
the type of Flora and Fauna extant in a given locality. Both these negative effects lead to reduced
bio diversity.
The above outlined air pollution effects speak for themselves that we are virtually sitting on a
pending time bomb. Only a few seconds remain before the detonation takes place, what ought to
be done? How are we to handle the prospects that confront us? The article to hand suggests that
Page | 105
the law be invoked. In Zambia, the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control act is in
place, in particular, the Air Pollution Control Bill which was signed in 1996 are there to help the
Environmental Council of Zambia. But what practical tangible steps can we take to help tame the
pollution tide? A few practical steps are suggested:
1. Strengthen the existing laws against Polluters. - The relevant appointed environmental
protection institutions must be strengthened. In turn, this will empower them to prosecute
polluters with minimal external interference. In many countries, the same ecological protection
bodies are there only to report pollution occurrences but have no power to bring to book all the
offenders. If they are to be relevant and effective, laws must be enacted to give them “teeth to
bite”, otherwise they remain as white elephants in any country, these bodies must have the
powers to issue or revoke a licence to all that pollute the atmosphere in one way or the other. Not
only should they be empowered to issue licences, but they must also be given the right to
monitor and check any premises at will, as they please. Only in this way will polluters be
deterred from degrading the atmosphere. Of course this is a costly exercise but atmospheric
degradation is even more costly!
Θ
2. Minimise the polluting levels of the atmosphere. Presently, the emissions into the
atmosphere are so high that if we continue at the present rate, we are headed for a major
catastrophe. With the breakdown of the ecosystem will come economic collapse and death. The
ideal situation is to simply shut down the pollution sources! Unfortunately, this is not a
possibility now. The best that can be done is to minimise the air contamination levels to a bare
minimum so that the earth can be given the capacity to recover, though this process will take
many years (the recovery). Pragmatic measures must be put in place that will enable the existing
polluters to carefully watch their waste emissions and also to be at the forefront promoting the
anti pollution cause. Furthermore, cleaner and more efficient ways must be developed which
reduce the degree of air contamination.
3. Develop healthier, cleaner and efficient power sources. More money must be spent on
research into newer cleaner power sources. Presently, hydrocarbon fuels are extensively used
world over. The problem with these hydrocarbon fuels is that they are not renewable and
therefore wasting assets. Secondly, they emit a lot of by products that cannot be safely disposed

It is important to note the following as stated by UNEP in 1992 “Exposure to air pollution is
now an inescapable part of urban life through out the world…”
off. In burning coal for example, we have a two-fold waste-the solid as well as the gaseous
waste. These cannot be disposed off easily. The one (solid waste) has to be dumped on land
previously undisturbed whilst the other (gas) will billow into the air and contaminate it, thus
destroying the air quality. As though that were not enough, acid rain falls to the earth as a bonus!
It should be our firm belief that research is primary at the moment or else risk destroying the Page | 106
earth further. Some countries have made plausible strides towards that direction but the majority
are still engrossed in exploiting these dirty power sources. Some of the latest developments are
the use of water as a fuel instead of petrol. Other inventions are the solar power and the now
generally accepted hydroelectric power. For many developing countries, the nuclear power
harnessing is still a far-fetched dream and many do not even think about that option because of
the attendant hazards. Many still harbour an antipathy for Nuclear power harnessing because of
its potential deleterious nature. In an ideal situation, Nuclear power is potentially a good power
source as is the hydro one but these systems must be perfected and made more efficient before
they can be effectively used widely across the world. Other power source ideas are yet to be
hatched, for this, we anxiously wait!
4. Regulate the emission to the 1990 levels. Among the many proposals that were suggested at
ε
the 1992 Rio earth summit was the desire to regulate emission to the 1990 levels. This means
that nations must strive to either reduce or maintain the 1990 levels while alternative solutions
were being sought. The extent to which this proposal has been implemented is yet to be
ascertained but it is certainly a good first step towards taming the pollution tide. If we are to
tackle any issue, we must first stop in our tracks and then refocus which way forward.
5. Intensify global awareness campaigns. Ironically the greater part of the world remains asleep
in the light. They see the danger but many remain indifferent or continue in their old
indiscriminately destructive habits. It is high time people awoke and came out of their cocoons.
Many global environmental protection crusaders have emerged in the recent past and they must
be supported by all. Individuals must be made aware of the true repercussions of their actions
and that of others, probably thousands of kilometres away. We need a concerted effort to tackle
this human created vice rather than by few disjointed individuals. It must be pointed out that this
environmental decay knows no geographical or political boundaries but is global in nature.
Furthermore, this should be a political campaign requirement as well. Candidates who ignore the
environmental component must not be given a hearing at all as they have no pulse for mother
earth. One other way to get the world’s attention is to report the occurrences of pollution
accompanied by the stiff penalties mated out on the offenders publicly. In this way, many will be
careful, dreading to be brought to public disgrace lest they lose their good will. Also, as has
happened in some places, the products of the offending companies are boycotted.

See foot note under global warming on 10 by Maurice strong.
Time has come for the world to open its eyes and see the exact picture on the ground. We long
for a higher antipathy to pollution!
6. Encourage people to use public transport so as to minimise the air polluting traffic- This
proposal is a plausible one but it largely depends on the degree of understanding and sympathy
Page | 107
people have towards environmental issues. The idea at hand is to encourage people to use public
transport rather than their own vehicles. This cuts down significantly on the number of vehicles
on the road, thus fewer emissions into the air. There is obviously going to be a reduction in the
concentrations of the carbon monoxide and other related gases into the atmosphere. The problem
with this idea is that some people will not trade their comforts for anything. Perhaps one way to
encourage people is to offer some kind of incentive to those who voluntarily use public transport
though they have their own cars.
7. In extreme cases, declare certain days as “car free”- This proposal is closely connected to the
one above except that in this instance, people have no choice but to obey. The issue at hand is
a moral one that affects everyone. It was done once in Japan (1970) and the CO dropped as
≈
much as 80%! This ban was implemented on Sundays on over 122 busiest streets in Tokyo.
We are fast approaching a time when this will not only be an issue of indifference but a must.
We need to act fast before the laws of nature force us into an austere position.
8. Introduce toxins neutralising elements during mass production processes. This will mean that
certain chemicals will have to be introduced either into the air or be added to by-products so
that when they react with atmospheric pollutants, they bring about some kind of
neutralisation. This has been explored in some coal power stations where the waste fumes are
passed through some substances, which neutralise or filter out most of the toxic Sulphur
dioxide. This could be extended to other areas and used on a wider scale. The only hurdle is
that this is an expensive undertaking and also poses other detrimental environmental
problems such as where these waste materials will be dumped without tampering with the
topography of the land.
9. “Nip” potential pollution sources in the “bud.” This is simply the idea that any upcoming
pollution source must be watched strictly even before one puff of smoke is released to the
atmosphere. This is very involving because it amounts to “witch hunting”! By and by, this
will be a necessary activity. To ensure that this works well, realistic guidelines must be put in
place. These parameters will guarantee that we are not always acting as “fire fighters” but
rather, disaster preventers. By that token, new factories must be meticulously watched lest
they proliferate and add to the existing mess.
10. Be cautious and meticulous what “Investment” to allow into the country, especially in the
poorer developing countries! Although most of the atmospheric pollution presently occurs in

Source: Conservation for survival. Lindahl K, 1972, page 14.
the highly Industrialised countries, this scourge is fast shifting to the less developed nations.
While the Developed nations are looking for ways to deal with the waste emanating from
mass production, the poorer nations will compromise many issues so as to get the
technological and financial assistance from the more advanced nations. Since these poor
nations have no choice in the matter, they open their countries to all manner of investment
without caring to put certain minimum environmental and health standards in place. As such, Page | 108
the rich investors come with their powerful Dollars, revive old dilapidated mines and
factories as well as explore new areas of development. Half the time, these new investors’
main goal is profit and not sustainable development per se. We do not need to go far, we just
need to turn our eye and see what has taken place in Zambia where the major factories and
mines have been taken over. There is literary no care for the environment. Another way this
serpent has slithered its way into the less environmentally polluted countries is under the
guise of “aid”. This subjective point is validated by the fact that in the countries where these
industries originate have strict laws and very high fines slapped for pollution offences.
Without foresight, these beggarly nations embrace any glimmer of apparent free technical
help not realising that there is a translation of pollution points. That is not to say that there is
nothing good in all the technical aid given, not at all! To the contrary, the presence of these
institutions will create the much-coveted jobs, though at the cost of long term permanent
α
damage to the environment. The air quality degenerates to almost inhaling smoke , akin to
Hitler’s gas chambers!
11. Establish the critical loads of every environment. This is very crucial if sustainable
development is to be a reality in the world today. There must be a deliberate policy in place
to determine the critical loads of the environment. Since Pollution cannot be entirely
χ
eradicated , degradation. As such, the environment has certain levels of Pollution that it can
safely clean beyond which the earth does not have the capacity to effectively clear the air.
This calls for careful observation and research and then to determine the maximum levels
beyond which degradation begins. In the case of water bodies for example, this means that
the acid neutralising capacity (ANC) must be known. The propensity to turn acidic must be
determined. In some countries, the air and water are so easily pollutable because of the
continued releasing of pollutants into them.
12. Curb noise pollution: Though noise pollution is here to stay, ways must be devised which
minimise the noise levels from machinery. Silencers must be utilised or the noise pollution
sources relocated to alternate places far from society. This will minimise the inconvenience
suffered by myriads.
As the article new millennium unfolds we, like the article author ably concludes, hope that the
law enacted will have the potency to restore sanity in human kinds’ mad quest to exploit nature

See the May 1987 issue of the National Geographic page 624

“Exposure to air pollution is now almost an inescapable part of the urban part of life
throughout the world”- UNEP, 1992
without paying back dividends. Let us join hands with the environmental crusaders on the throes
of earth restoration!
Bibliography
Page | 109
th
1. Zambia Daily mail, 4 August 1999 issue by Kasuba Mulenga, “Environmental polluters to
face criminal charges”
2. Reader’s Digest, May 1991 issue, Pekkanen “The man who flew into hell” Pages 147-176
3. Introduction to global environmental issues.1995 Pickering C. Owen. L. London & New
York. Routledge
4. Enviro line, April 1996 issue Vol 1 No. 1 Environmental council of Zambia
5. Conservation for survival: an ecological strategy.1972. Lindahl K. London. Victor Collancz
ltd
6. Worlds in the sky.1992. Sheenan. W
7. GIS WORLD, March 1994 issue,Vol 7 No. 3. Page 32. Chernobyl: GIS aids model nuclear
disaster relief. GIS WORLD Inc, Washington.
8. National Geographic, May 1987 issue. Mike Edwards, “Chernobyl-One year after” pages
632-653,624-625
9. Caring for the earth- a strategy for sustainable development (Summary). IUCN/WWF/UNEP
1991
10. A bomb Radiation effects Digest. Harwood academic publishers, 1993.
11. National Geographic, July 1987 issue. Cobb.C. jr. The Great Lakes’ troubled waters. Pages
2-31
12. National Geographic, July 1992 issue. Lee D. America’s third coast
13. Message, May/June 1990 page 18,19, WM.B Eerdmans publishing Co., 1985
14. National Geographic, March 1985 issue, Allen A. Boraiko. Hazardous waste. Pages 318-
351,364-383
15. Quotations from the Rio de Jenairo summit
Page | 110
Index
A cosmonauts......................................11, 26
craft. 12, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 59,
Aires.................................................23, 24 63, 72, 76, 79
anthropogenic...12, 39, 41, 43, 64, 95, 100 Creation..................................................39
Apollo. 7, 12, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 52, 58, D
59, 60, 61, 62
artificial satellite.....................................36 Dambiso Moyo........................................45
asteroid..15, 18, 21, 33, 35, 37, 74, 75, 76, Dead Aid.................................................45
77, 86, 90 degradation. 12, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 55,
Astronauts....24, 26, 27, 28, 39, 58, 60, 61, 105, 108
86 Democracy.............................................50
astronomer...........................35, 81, 82, 86 Discovery................................................23
Atlantis...................................................23 Dwarf planets.........................................84
atmosphere....9, 12, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, E
27, 29, 32, 34, 35, 37, 42, 43, 44, 47,
53, 61, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, earth 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20,
76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88, 91, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44,
104, 105, 107 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61,
B 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74,
75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,
Beagle....................................................20 90, 91, 97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106,
Big Bang.............................................8, 39 108, 109
biodiversity.........................39, 42, 51, 104 Earth....1, 8, 11, 13, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24,
black hole.........................................14, 33 25, 27, 30, 34, 37, 39, 46, 51, 52, 53,
Buran shuttle..........................................23 55, 56, 58, 63, 65, 72, 73, 76, 79, 85,
C 91, 92, 93, 99
ecosystem................40, 94, 102, 103, 105
centripetal forces....................................13 Edmund Halley.......................................35
Challenger............................23, 28, 29, 52 Endeavour..............................................23
China..........................................48, 60, 63 England............................................70, 95
Chinese...................................................11 Environmental....12, 41, 46, 52, 56, 65, 92,
climate, climate......................................41 93, 94, 105, 109
Columbia..........................................23, 29 ESA.........................................................21
Comets...................................................35 EU...........................................................45
Conspiracy theory...................................60 extra terrestrial.......................................10
Extraterrestrial life......................12, 85, 86 N

extremists...............................................49
G NASA 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30,
38, 44, 61, 76, 77, 92
galaxy.......................14, 30, 31, 32, 86, 91 Neptune. 13, 15, 33, 34, 36, 70, 78, 81, 82,
Galileo.............................20, 57, 77, 78, 79 83, 84, 90 Page | 111
Gemini........................................22, 27, 58 O
Genetically modified Organisms.............43
geographical.............................9, 103, 106 Obama....................................................11
Global warming...............................42, 103 Opportunity................................11, 19, 68
globe...........................9, 10, 12, 41, 45, 60 orbital influence........................................9
God.......................................30, 39, 41, 48 organisms....16, 30, 37, 42, 43, 44, 47, 52,
Green Business.......................................46 67, 69, 70, 74, 86, 91, 98, 100, 101, 104
H Ozone...............................44, 98, 101, 102
P
heliopause........................................15, 35
Hubble space telescope..........9, 22, 31, 32 Pioneer...16, 17, 18, 19, 72, 74, 75, 78, 89,
humans 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 22, 25, 28, 31, 90
36, 39, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 51, 54, 55, planet...3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21,
57, 58, 62, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 74, 75, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41,
78, 79, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 99, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 55,
101 61, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76,
Hydrogen........................12, 34, 76, 82, 83 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 90, 91
I Pluto.13, 15, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 77, 81,
83, 84, 88, 90, 91
Indians....................................................11 Pollution. .42, 57, 93, 94, 95, 102, 105, 108
Inner solar system....................................9 probes 9, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 31, 68, 70, 72,
international space station.....................23 74, 75, 77, 78, 81, 90
Iran.........................................................48 R
J
race to the moon........9, 24, 26, 58, 59, 60
Jupiter....13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 31, 34, 36, Religion...................................................48
70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, Rovers........................................11, 20, 62
83, 90 Russia.....................11, 22, 25, 48, 74, 102
M S
Magellan...........................................21, 74 satellite...11, 13, 21, 25, 36, 53, 77, 80, 84

Mariner.......................................14, 68, 74 Saturn....13, 15, 16, 19, 21, 24, 26, 34, 76,
Mars...1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20, 23, 31, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, 93
33, 34, 37, 51, 60, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, Shuttle Transport System...................4, 23
73, 74, 77, 86, 88, 90, 91 Sky lab..............................................24, 25
Martian.................................16, 19, 67, 69 Solar winds.......................................14, 35
Mercury...........................34, 36, 72, 73, 77 Soyuz..........................................24, 26, 27
mineral deposits.....................................11 space. 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
Mir 1.......................................................26 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
moon....6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
27, 28, 33, 36, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 40, 41, 44, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58,
62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70,
84, 90, 91
72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, Uranus......................13, 15, 34, 70, 81, 82
86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 97, 104 USA....9, 11, 15, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 48, 58,
Space 1999...........................10, 62, 64, 65 59, 60, 61, 63, 68, 75, 86, 99
space shuttle....................................11, 22 USSR.......10, 22, 23, 26, 48, 58, 59, 60, 98
Space Shuttle..............................23, 28, 59 V
Spirit...........................................11, 19, 68 Page | 112
Star Trek...................10, 25, 54, 86, 87, 90 Venera..............................................21, 74
Star Wars..........................................10, 88 Venezuela...............................................48
sustainable development..40, 46, 108, 109 Venus......13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 34, 73, 74, 77
Sustainable development.................46, 91 Viking Lander..........................................16
T Voyager. . .3, 14, 15, 22, 31, 35, 72, 77, 78,
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 90
Titan.................................................21, 80 Y
U
Yuri Gagarin......................................14, 58
UK...............................................45, 86, 95 Z
Unidentified Flying Objects.....................85
Universe...8, 15, 22, 30, 31, 32, 37, 67, 88, Zambia.................................................113
91
Page | 113
About the author
Billy Sichone trained as an Accountant and worked as a Program Accountant at one of World
Vision International-Zambia’s large scale Area Development Programs (ADP) for seven years
before moving on to hold other portfolios. He holds several qualifications that include an MBA.
He is married to Jane and they have two daughters together.
Among his interests are studying, reading, photography, research, writing, poultry, art, meeting
people, astronomy, cycling and adventure. In keeping with his interests, he has produced several
DVDs, books and is a public speaker.
Visit his u tube site on: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2vu-QE0Oj4 to sample some of his

materials
You could also visit his SCRIBD site (BILLYSICHONE) where he has lodged his other writings
on various subjects
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Earth, Moon, Mars or beyond?

Earth, Moon, Mars or beyond? Page | 1

By Billy Chilongo Sichone

© Billy C Sichone 2009

STS-Shuttle Transport System

ISS-International Space Station

ETA-Expected Time of Arrival

AU-Astronomical Unit (1 Au=93 million miles)

SETI-Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

To all space exploration lovers: Past, present and future.

The pressing issues

The Solar system

Space vehicles, satellites & deep space exploratory probes

Viking Orbiters & Viking Landers

Year in Space Owner Craft (Pioneer) Exploration area (in

1958 I Measure temperatures,

1959 NASA III “

1960 NASA V Successfully explored

1965 NASA VI To explore the solar

1966 NASA VII “

1967 NASA VIII “

1972 NASA X Designed to be outer

1973 NASA XI Much like Pioneer X

its predecessor (X)

1978 NASA XII (or Pioneer Venus To explore

1978 NASA XIII (Pioneer Venus Sent into the

Spirit & Opportunity (2003-2004)

Venera 9 to Venus (1975)

Magellan to Venus (1989)

Cassini-Huygens to Saturn (1997)

Hubble space telescope

Mir space station and Salyut space station program

Sky lab (1973-79)

International Space Station (ISS)

Tragic events and challenges

-Apollo disaster 1961

-Challenger Jan 1986

-Columbia Feb 1, 2003

The crew of the doomed of the Columbia Shuttle:

5. Kalpana Chawla ( From India)

6. Laurel Blair Salton Clark

7. IIan Ramon (from Isreal)

The wonders of space

A. The Universe Page | 30

C. Enormous distances apart

Comet Returns after:

Rigollet’s 156 years

M. Orbits and years

P. Why are we here?

Gitt Werner, Stars and their purpose, Master Books, 2006

Griswold Ferrel, Evolution 1, 2 & 3 (tapes), Ferrel Griswold tape Ministry

Hartmann K William, Astronomy the cosmic Journey,

Hayden Kate, Astronaut: Living in space, Dorling Kindersley, 2000

Kenah Katharine, Space Mysteries, Waterbird books, 2004

Man’s conquest of Space

Nottridge Rhoda, Skywatch, Harper Collins publishers Ltd, 1991

Symes R F, Rocks & Minerals, Dorling Kindersley, 1988

Voyager 1 picture of Earth with moon

Pervasive and excruciating poverty