THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN

THOUGHT

Watch your thoughts, they become your words; watch your words, they become your actions; watch your
actions, they become your habits; watch your habits, they become your character; watch your character, it
becomes your destiny.” – Lao Tzu
If someone asked you to finish the sentence, “I am _____," what sorts of would you include in
your responses?
Would you focus on your personality traits? Your job title? Or your relationships with others?
Psychologists have found that a person's cultural It becomes your destiny. Lao Tzu background can affect
how a person sees himself or herself.
Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett (1998) reported that people are shaped by their culture, and
their culture is also shaped by them. One of the major proponents of cultural psychology, Richard
Shweder wrote, *Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human
psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self, and
emotion” (1991). An individual thinks, feels, and behaves similarly as that of the members of his or her
community. However, each community has its own standards. expectations, and rules that shape its
members. These differences are the reason people are markedly divergent. This divergence is evident in
the eastern and western concepts of “self."

Western Concept of Self

Ancient Grecian philosophers see humans as the bearers of irreplaceable values. In medieval
times, the philosopher and saint, Thomas Aquinas, believed that the body constitutes individuality. The
individual was the focus of Renaissance thought, with Rene Descartes' famous “I think, therefore I am" as
the epitome of the Western idea of self.
The western tradition is generally acknowledged to be “imbued with a style of thinking based on
dichotomy and binary opposition” (Carr & Zanetti, 2000; Singhal, 2000). There is an essential distinction
between the notion of the thinking subject (an observer) that stands in natural opposition to observable
reality (Singhal, 2000).
The psychiatrist and professor, Frank Johnson (1985), outlined four categories on how the term
"self" is used in contemporary western discussion.
1. Analytical
2. Monotheistic
3. Individualistic
4. Materialistic/rationalistic
By analytic, Johnson meant the "tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.” The "self" is an
observer separate and distinct from external objects (Me versus Other). Monotheism, according to
Johnson, involved the tendency of phenomena and a closed-system view of "self" as modeled after a
unitary, omnipotent power (“Man was created by God, in His image). Individualism on the other hand, is
a quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-actualization are important ways of
establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world. Finally, materialistic/rationalistic
western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use analytic-deductive modes of thinking
(Johnson, 1985; Goldin, 2000)
Eastern Concept of Self
The earliest religious writings in the East are the Vedas. It formed the Hindu philosophy and
dharma (the principle of cosmic order). The chants and hymns in the Vedas illustrate the eastern mindset
of a nondual universe but rather a creation that is completely unified with the creator, with no distinction
(Watts, 1965, Wolter, 2015). According to these sacred Hindu texts, the true nature of humans is
described as "Brahman" which is the divine universal consciousness encompassing the universe. The
Brahman is the Self that is all within us (Watts, 1965; Wolter; 2013). Thus, one of the main points of
Hinduism is “change your perception of the world to perceive the Brahman in oneself and in others”
(Watts, 1965; Wolter, 2013).
Buddhism is composed of the teachings of Buddha. In Buddhist traditions, the "self” is not an
entity, a substance, or essence. Rather, the “self” is a dynamic process. It is interdependent and ever
changing. The Buddha taught a doctrine called anatta, which is often defined as “no-self or no-soul.”
Annata is a concept that the sense of being a permanent, autonomous “self” is an illusion. It is the
teaching that there is no eternal, unchanging "self/soul” inhabiting our bodies or living our lives, (Collins,
1982; Garfield, 1995; Hopkins, 1983, 1987; Wallace, 1989, 1998).
Buddhist tradition holds that the human being's inborn erroneous view of "self” as an enduring
entity is the cause of his/her suffering because he/she tries to hold on to that which is in constant flux
(constantly flowing or constantly changing) and has no existence outside of shifting contexts (Galin,
2003). Thus, a new corrective experience of the "self" is needed. Buddhism takes a great interest in how
people experience their "self” rather than just their abstract idea of it because Buddhist practices are
designed to lead to a new (correct) experience of self. It takes arduous training to modify or overcome the
natural state of experiencing the “self” as persisting and unchanging (Galin, 2003).
In Confucianism the quest for the "self" in terms of substance, of Spirt, of body, or of essence
does not exist (Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham, 1990). The form that Confucius wrote about the
concept of "self" is that of personality. The qualities that form a person's character are not something that
exists inherently. Rather, in Confucian thought it is something that is formed through upbringing and the
environment (Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham, 1990).
Confucian philosophy presented the idea that every person is born with four beginnings.
However, these do not yet comprise the concept of “self” but when perceived together, it could be
explained in Western terms as a "pre-self” or a “potential self.” These four beginnings are:
• Heart of compassion that leads to Jen;
• Heart of righteousness that leads to Yi;
• Heart of propriety that leads to Li; and
• Heart of wisdom that leads to Chih.
Jen, Yi, Li, and Chih are the perfection of the virtues that at the start were mere potentials. Jen
means goodwill, sympathy toward others, politeness, and generosity. Yi means rightness and the respect
of duty (you must respect your position as a guardian toward nature and humanity). Li means having the
right to practice propriety in all that you do. Propriety involves not demonstrating your inner attitude in
your outer expression. Chih means wisdom; this wisdom is expressed by putting jen, yi, and li into
practice (Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007).
Personality (in the Confucian perception) is an achieved state of moral excellence rather than a
given human condition. However, such achieved personality, or self, is not to be understood as primarily
an individual entity. The Confucian concept of self is deeply embedded within the family and society, and
it is only in that context that the self comes to be what it is (Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007).
Taoism rejects a hierarchical view of the self, society, or cosmos. Unlike Confucianism, Taoism
does not regard the “self” as an extension of (or defined by) social relationships. Rather, the "self” is but
one of the countless manifestations of the Tao. It is an extension of the cosmos (or the universe seen as a
well-ordered whole). Chuang-tzu, regarded as a mystic of unmatched brilliance in China, gave an explicit
negation of the centrality of the "self.” According to Chuang-tzu, "The perfect man has no self; the
spiritual man has no achievement; the true sage has no name," The ideal is, thus, selflessness. In sum,
Chuang-tzu's conception of selfhood entails conscious self-transformation leading to the attributes of a
balanced life in harmony with both nature and society (Ho, 1995).
The Arabic word for the word "self" is Nafs written in the Holy Qur’an. It pertains to the psyche
(the totality of the conscious and unconscious human mind) or the soul. The Quran does not ascribe any
property of goodness or evil to the “nafs/self”. Instead, the "nafs/self is something, which has to be
nurtured and self-regulated, so that it can progress into becoming "good" (or conversely, "evil") through
its thoughts and actions. The "self" in Islamic tradition is used both in the individualistic and collective
sense (Nurdeen Deuraseh & Mansor Abu Talib, 2005).
Here is a concise presentation of the difference between east difference between eastern and
western thought.

East* vs. West Philosophy, Cultural Values, and Mindset by Vadim Kotelnikov and Anastasia Bibikova
Broadly speaking, Western society tries to find and prove “the truth", while Eastern society accepts the
truth as given and is more interested in finding the balance. Westerners put more stock in Individual
rights: Easterners in social responsibly.
The Wheel of Life in the Eastern and Western Philosophy East West Finance Work Nanter society
werepte the truth as given and Is more Interested in Nading the balance Friends & S ovement
Environment

Health | Fun Nirvana dionifies the end of the eternal cycle of reinc amatiert Everything must be accounted
for within the lifetime http/www.1000ventures.com/business auide/crosscuttinas/cultures east-west-
phylosophy.nummi

PHILOSOPHY Eastern Philosophy Western Philosophy

MAIN SCHOOLS Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, Rational Scientific,
Hinduism, Integral Yoga, Islam, Logical schools
Taoism, Yen
MAIN PRINCIPLES 1. Cosmological unity 1. Feeling oneself as an element
2. Life is a journey towards of the Divine
eternal realities that are beyond 2. Life is a service to the God,
 the realities that means money, business, etc.)
3. Circular -view of the universe, 3. Linear view of the universe and
based on the perception of life, based on the Christian
eternal recurrence. philosophy where everything
4. Inner-world dependent has its beginning and the end.
5. Self-liberation from the false 4. Outer-world dependent
“Me” and finding the true 5. Self-dedication to the goal (life
“Me”. The highest state is vision success, happiness, etc.)
believed to be a state of “no
self”, where neither self-worth
nor self-importance have any
real meaning.
6. Behavioral ethics.
THE “ME” CONCEPT Eternal reality of the universal truth, "Me" is here and now. The true
self-liberation through getting rid of "Me in every human being is a part
the false “Me” and discovering the of the Divine that need to become
true “Me” apparent. True "Me" is given and
doesn't have to be cognizable
RELATIONSHIP Integration Opposition
WITH RELIGION
SEARCH FOR • Systemic approach - all events in • More focused on individual
ABSOLUTE TRUTH the universe are interconnected events and the role of the person
 Searching inside yourself - by
becoming a part of the universe  Searching outside yourself
through meditation and right through research and analysis.
living
“The truth that survives is
"Though he should live a simply the life that is
hundred years, not seeing the pleasantest to believe” - H.L.
Truth Sublime, vet better, Mencken
indeed, is the single day’s life
of one who sees the Truth
Sublime” - Buddha

SEARCH FOR TRUTH The truth is given is does not to The truth needs to be proved
& FUNDAMENTAL have be proved The philosophic base for and
RESEARCH The philosophic base for and culture of fundamental research is
culture of fundamental research is stronger.
weaker.

BELIEFS AND The main values

VALUES The true key is INSIDE. The are success and achievement.
inner world of a human being These that can be achieved in many
and his or her ability to control ways, but rarely through
and develop it is of the highest developing inner strength. The
value. The way to the top is majority of success 
inside yourself, through self- and achievement criteria have an
development external nature (money, faith,
"Man is made by his belief. As popularity, etc.). The way to the
he believes, so he top is through
 active OUTSIDE intervention.
is." ~ Bhagavad Gita
"The superior man understands "Happiness lies in virtuous
what is right; the inferior man activity,
understands what will sell." and perfect happiness lies in the
~ Confucius best activity, which is
contemplative."
"By chasing desires you will ~ Aristotle
meet only the outer
surface." ~ Lao Tzu

FUTURE Your future is determined by the Your future is unknown, it

past and your deeds today. was predetermined by God and is
not much influenced by your deeds.
"Study the past if you would like to
divine the future." ~ Confucius "You can never plan the future by
the past."
~ Edmund Burke
JUSTICE SPIRITUAL practice CEREBRAL practice

"There is a higher court than courts

"At his best, man is the noblest of
of justice and that is the court of
all animals; separated from law
conscience. It supercedes all other
and justice he is the worst.
courts." ~ Mahatma Gandhi " ~ Aristotle
INDIVIDUALISM/COL A human being is an integral part of
A human being has an
LECTIVISM the universe and the society. People
individualistic nature and is an
are fundamentally connected. Duty
independent part of the universe
towards all others is a very and the
important matter.
society. INDIVIDUALISM is
COLLECTIVISM is stronger. stronger.
IMPROVEMENT/EVO CYCLIC development, LINEAR development, hence
LUTION hence improvement is a never
improvement has a goal.
ending journey that has no limits.
Development stops when the goal
is reached.
RADICAL The fundamentals of the status quo The fundamentals of the status quo
INNOVATION/ should not be questioned. The can – and often should –
REVOLUTION culture of considering and be questioned. The culture of
introducing radical considering and introducing radical
changes is WEAKER. changes is STRONGER.
PASSION & Entrepreneurial Entrepreneurial
VENTURING creativity and venturing is CONTA venturing is ENCOURAGED emo
INED by the habit to control one's tionally.
passions.
"Nothing is ever achieved by
"Desires are the cause of reasonable men."
suffering. If desire, which lies at ~ J Fred Bucy of Texas
the route of all human passion, Instruments
can be removed, then passion
will die out and all human "Nothing great was
ever achieved without enthusia
 suffering will be ended." sm... Always do what you are
~ Buddhism afraid to do... Do not go where
the path may lead, go instead
"Vain indeed is all overweening where there is no path and
pride in the conquest even of the leave a trail." ~ Ralph Waldo
entire universe if one has not Emerson
conquered one's own passions."
~ Sri Aurobindo "If you want to succeed, you
have to forge new paths and
avoid borrowed ones." ~ John
Rockfeller

ACHIEVEMENT & Winning is INSIDE yourself. Winning is OUTSIDE yourself.

WINNING
"Though he should conquer a "You're not a star until they can
thousand men in the battlefield spell your name in Karachi."
a thousand times, yet he, indeed, ~ Roger Moore
who would conquer himself is
the noblest victor." "Life affords no higher
~ Buddha pleasure than that of
surmounting difficulties,
"He who conquers others is passing from one stop of
strong; he who conquers himself success to another, forming
is mighty." ~ Lao Tzu new wishes and seeing them
gratified."
"The most excellent Jihad is that ~ Samuel Johnson
for the conquest of
self." ~ Mohammad

IMPLEMENTATION SPIRITUAL and MISSIONARY  PRAGMATIC and EMOTIONA

approach. L approach.

"To create and develop without "The supreme accomplishment is

any feelings of ownership, to to blur the line between work and
work and guide without any play."
expectation and control, is the ~ Arnold Toynbee
best quality" "Since most of us spend our lives
~ Lao Tzu doing ordinary tasks, the most
important thing is to carry them
To achieve self-liberation and out extraordinary well."
nirvana you need to perform ~ Henry David Thoreau
your duties without expecting
any reward for it. ~ "Every minute you spend
Vedanta, Hinduism in planning saves 10 minutes in
execution." ~ Brian Tracy
"Action can be achieved by
inaction, where the result is
achieved by "Not-Me" ~ Zen
GOALS & KEY TO SPIRITUAL MATERIALISTIC
SUCCESS
"Live a virtuous life and adhere "The secret of success in life,
to performing your and subsequently of making
duties." ~ Confucianism money, is to enjoy your work.
If you do, nothing is hard work
"The Three Armies can be – no matter how many hours
deprived of their commanding you put in." ~ Sir Billy Butlin
officer, but even a common man
cannot be deprived of his "Success is that old ABC
purpose." ~ Confucius – ability, breaks
and courage." ~ Charles
"If you really want everything, Luckman
then give up everything." ~ Lao
Tzu "Flaming enthusiasm, backed
by horse sense and persistence,
"He is able who thinks he is is the quality that most
able." ~ Buddha frequently makes
for success." ~ Dale Carnegie

LIVING PRINCIPLES VIRTUE ETHIC

"To be able under all "One can live magnificently in

circumstances to practice five this world if one knows how
things constitutes perfect virtue; to work and how to love."
these five things are gravity, ~ Leo Tolstoy
generosity of soul, sincerity,
earnestness "Refrain from doing ill; for one
and kindness." ~ Confucius all powerful reason, lest our
children should copy our
"Be satisfied with whatever you misdeeds; we are all to prone
have, and enjoy the same. When to imitate whatever is base and
you come to know that you have depraved."
everything, and you are not ~ Juvenal
short of anything, then the
whole world will be "There is no real excellence in
yours." ~ Lao Tzu all this world which can be
separated from right living."
"The thought manifests as the ~ David Starr Jordan
word; The word manifests as the
deed; The deed develops
into habit; And habit hardens
into character. So watch the
thought and its ways with care,
And let it spring from love born
out of concern for all
beings." ~ Buddha

ESTABLISHING Through MEDITATION Through ANALYSIS

CONTROL OVER
 YOUR EMOTIONS A man can separate his/her mind "I can control my passions and
from his/her emotions and control emotions if I can understand their
them. ~ Taoism nature." ~ Spinosa
LEADERSHIP SPIRITUAL HANDS-ON
Walking behind people; silence is Walking ahead of people; speech is
golden golden

"In order to guide people, "Leadership is done from in front.

the leader must put himself behind Never ask others to do what you, if
them. Thus when he is ahead they challenged, would not be willing to
feel no hurt." ~ Lao Tzu do yourself." ~ Xenophon
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures east-west-phylosophy.html

Individualistic vs Collective Self

ARE YOU SELF-ORIENTED OR FAMILY-ORIENTED?

Individualism-Collectivism Scale
The source of this scale is: T. M. Singelis, H. C. Triandis, D. P.S. Bhawuk, and M. i Gelfand.
"Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism: A Theoretical and Measurement
Refinement,” Cross-Cultural Research 29 (August 1995). pp. 240-75.
Cross-cultural values have become an important part of organizational life caused by
globalization and an increasingly multicultural workforce. Organizational behavior researchers have
studied several cross-cultural values, but none has had as much attention as the two measured in this self-
assessment: individualism and collectivism.
Read each of the statements in this instrument, and select the response that you believe best
indicates how well these statements describe you. - 1 - Does not describe me at all 2 - Does not describe
me very well 3 - Describes me somewhat 4 - Describes me well 5 - Describes me very well
1. I often do “my own thing."
2. The well-being of my coworkers is important to me.
3. One should live one's life independently of others.
4. If a coworker gets a prize, I would feel proud.
5. I like my privacy.
6. If a relative were in financial difficulty, I would help within my means.
7. I prefer to be direct and forthright when discussing with people.
8. It is important to maintain harmony within my group.
9. I am a unique individual.
10. I like sharing little things with my neighbors.
 11. What happens to me is my own doing.
12. I feel good when I cooperate with others.
13. When I succeed, it is usually because of my abilities.
14. My happiness depends very much on the happiness of those around me.
15. I enjoy being unique and different from others in many ways.
16. To me, pleasure is spending time with others.

Source: Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Glinow. Organizational Behavior. Second Edition.
Retrieved at http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/student_viewo/chapter2/self
assessment_2_3.html

Understanding Your Score on the Individualism-Collectivism Scale

This self-assessment estimates your level of individualism and collectivism. At one time, experts
thought that these two cross-cultural values were opposites. Now, we understand that they represent
separate ve at they represent separate values that are generally unrelated to each other. Each scale has a
potential score ranging from 8 to 40 points. Higher scores indicate that the person has a higher level of
each cross-cultural value. LOW individualism Moderate individualism 23-30 High individualism 31-40
Your score was 21. The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.

Individualism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly
individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their own lives, and
appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish them from others. The following graph shows the
range of individualism in general. However, keep in mind that the average level of individualism is higher
in some cultures (such as Canada) than in others.
LOW individualism 8-22 Moderate individualism 23-30 High individualism 31-40
Your score was 25. The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.
Collectivism
Collectivism refers to the extent that we value our duty to groups to which we belong, and to
group harmony. Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group membership and value
harmonious relationships within those groups. The following graph shows the range of collectivism in
general. However, keep in mind that the average level of collectivism is lower in some cultures (such as
Canada) than in others. SOURCE: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/ student
viewo/chapter2/self-assessment_2_3.html
 Culture plays a very significant role in the development of the self-concept. It embodies specific
values, thoughts, or ideas that play a central role in determining a person's sense of “self." The two
dominant self-concepts are the individualistic self and the collective self.
One of their famous quotes is, "I am the master of lieving that it is the person who determines
how
Individualistic self
Americans are fond of saying "I am my own man." They of saying "I am my own man." They
believe that they should assert and stand up for themselves. One of their famous quotes is, “I am the
master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul" believing that it is the person who de he or she lives
his/her life.
Individualistic cultures (such as in the USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands,
and New Zealand) emphasize the moral worth of the individual (Wood, 4072). Individualists encourage
asserting one's goals and de independence and self-reliance. They insist that the interests se asserting
one's goals and desires, they highly value They insist that the interests of the individual should take
precedence over the state or a social group. They also strongly oppose external interference by society or
institutions (such as the government) upon one’s own interests.
Individualistic cultures are oriented around the individual: that a person should be independent
instead of having ad or having the mentality of identifying with a group. In interpersonal relationships,
Individualists see each other as only loosely bi personal goals over group interests (Hofstede 2001).
Moreover, it is characterized with emphasis on personal achievements and vents and a rational assessment
of both the beneficial and detrimental aspects of relationships with others (Rothwell, 2010).
Societies that focus on the person create an individualistic self-concept wherein the person sees
the constellation of traits and characteristics that distinguish the museums within his or her social context
(Constantine. Brewer, & Constantine, 2001). This form of self-representation relies on interpersonal
comparison processes and is associated with the motive of protecting or enhancing the person
psychologically (Constantine, et al., 2001; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; see also Markus, 1977; Sedikides,
1993).

Collective self
A study conducted by Patricia Licuanan, a Filipino psychologist and educator, determined that
one of the strengths of the Filipino character is our deep love and concern for the family, which includes
not simply the spouses and children, parents, and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins,
godparents, and all other ceremonial relatives. To the Filipino, one's family is the source of personal
identity, the source of emotional and material support, and the person's main commitment and all
responsibility.
Eastern culture practiced by countries in Asia (i.e., the Philippines) base their values and self-
concept in a collectivist view. People in collectivistic culture emphasize the interdependence and
harmonious relatedness with one another (e.g., the family, co-workers, friends, etc.). It is of utmost
importance to be part of and maintain social networks, maintain good relationships, and fulfill
obligations.
Closing the gap
Because of such difference in emphases, western self-concept has been challenged that it did not
capture the significant relationship of interdependence in eastern collectivist cultures. Some contemporary
self-concept theories attempted to close the gap between cultural concepts. Baumeister (1986) proposed
that self-concept could be organized in three aspects:
1. Private, which refers to the mental processes that perceive one's own traits or behaviors (e.g. I
am honest);
2. Public, which refers to the generalized view of self, such as the perception of how others view
you (e.g., People think I'm honest); and
3. Collective, which refers to the view of self in a collective concept (e.g., My family expects me to
be honest).

It is assumed that these three aspects exist in every person. However, a dominant aspect would
probably present itself depending on one's culture (Triandis, 1986; Mclnerney, 2003). Thus, in an
individualistic culture, the person would predominantly show the private self and will behave according
to personal beliefs, feelings, philosophy, etc. In a collectivist culture, the person would present the
"collective self “ more; and is thus more inclined to behave according to rules, norms, and custom
(Triandis, 1986; McInerney, 2003).

The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought
The Confucian tradition as a way of thinking and lifestyle is still an inspiration to many East
Asian societies. Characteristic of Confucian selfhood is the participation of others in the dynamic process
of self and spiritual development.
The Confucian concept of Li often rendered as “proper conduct” or “propriety" was originally
denoted as court rites (rituals) performed to sustain social and cosmic order. The current context of Li
moved beyond mere politeness or convention. It has since been central to Confucian human-centered
religiousness.
In the Confucian sense, self-development is a lifelong commitment to learning. However,
Confucian learning is not only about reading books or taking exams; it is also about ritual practice. It
involves practicing discipline for the mind and body to love life not as an isolated individual but as an
active participant in the living community. Perhaps the single most important concept of the self in
Confucian thought is the view that the “self” is the center of relationships. The idea is that it is only by
continually opening the self to others that the "self" maintains its wholeness and identity.