Slide TCDN
Slide TCDN
Slide TCDN
What is Corporate Finance?
Corporate Finance addresses the following
Financial Management – Corporate three questions:
Finance
1 What
1. What long
long‐term
term investments should the firm
investments should the firm
engage in?
2. How can the firm raise the money for the
Prof. Ahmed Hanane, MBA, CMA, Eng
Email: ahanane360@gmail.com required investments?
3. How much short‐term cash flow does a
company need to pay its bills?
The Balance‐Sheet Model of the Firm The Balance‐Sheet Model of the Firm
Total Value of Assets: Total Firm Value to Investors: The Capital Budgeting Decision
Current Liabilities Current Liabilities
Current Assets Current Assets
Long‐Term Debt Long‐Term Debt
1
25/06/2013
The Balance‐Sheet Model of the Firm The Balance‐Sheet Model of the Firm
The Capital Structure Decision The Net Working Capital Investment Decision
Current Liabilities Current Liabilities
Current Assets Current Assets
Hypothetical Organization Chart
Capital Structure
Board of Directors
The value of the firm can be thought
of as a pie. Chairman of the Board and
Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
The goal of the manager is to 70% Debt
25% Debt
50% Debt
30% Equity President and Chief
increase the size of the pie. Operating Officer (COO)
75% Equity
50% Equity Vice President Finance
The Capital Structure decision can be
viewed as how best to slice up the
pie. Treasurer Controller
2
25/06/2013
The Financial Manager The Firm and the Financial Markets
Taxes (E)
The cash flows from the firm
Ultimately, the firm must be
must exceed the cash flows
a cash generating activity.
Government from the financial markets.
1.2 Corporate Securities as Contingent Claims on
Total Firm Value Debt and Equity as Contingent Claims
Payoff to Payoff to
debt holders shareholders
• The basic feature of a debt is that it is a
If the value of the firm If the value of the
promise by the borrowing firm to repay a is more than $F, debt firm is less than $F,
fixed dollar amount by a certain date. holders get a share holders get
maximum of $F. nothing.
• The shareholder’s claim on firm value is the $F
residual amount that remains after the
debtholders are paid. $F $F
Value of the firm (X) Value of the firm (X)
• If the value of the firm is less than the If the value of the firm
Debt holders are promised
amount promised to the debtholders, the $F.
If the value of the firm is less than $F, they
is more than $F, share
holders get everything
shareholders get nothing. get whatever the firm is worth.
above $F.
Algebraically, the bondholder’s Algebraically, the shareholder’s
claim is: Min[$F,$X] claim is: Max[0,$X – $F]
3
25/06/2013
Combined Payoffs to Debt and Equity 1.3 The Corporate Firm
Combined Payoffs to debt holders If the value of the firm is less than
and shareholders $F, the shareholder’s claim is:
Max[0,$X – $F] = $0 and the debt
• The corporate form of business is the standard
holder’s claim is Min[$F,$X] = $X. method for solving the problems encountered
The sum of these is = $X in raising large amounts of cash.
Payoff to shareholders
$
$F • However, businesses can take other forms.
However businesses can take other forms
If the value of the firm is more than
Payoff to debt holders $F, the shareholder’s claim is:
Max[0,$X – $F] = $X – $F and the
$F debt holder’s claim is:
Value of the firm (X)
Min[$F,$X] = $F.
Debt holders are promised
$F. The sum of these is = $X
Forms of Business Organization A Comparison of Partnership and Corporations
Corporation Partnership
4
25/06/2013
1.4 Goals of the Corporate Firm The Set‐of‐Contracts Perspective
• What are firm decision‐makers hired to do? • The firm can be viewed as a set of contracts.
• One of these contracts is between shareholders and
• The traditional answer is that the managers of managers.
the corporation are obliged to make efforts to • The managers will usually act in the shareholders’
maximize shareholder wealth
maximize shareholder wealth. interests.
– The shareholders can devise contracts that align the
incentives of the managers with the goals of the
shareholders.
– The shareholders can monitor the managers’ behaviour.
• This contracting and monitoring is costly.
Managerial Goals Separation of Ownership and Control
• Managerial goals may be different from
Board of Directors
shareholder goals
– Expensive perquisites
Deb
Sha
– Survival Management
areholders
btholders
– Independence
• Increased growth and size are not necessarily
the same thing as increased shareholder Debt
Assets
wealth. Equity
5
25/06/2013
The Agency Problem Do Shareholders Control Managerial Behaviour?
• The agency relationship • Shareholders vote for the board of directors,
• Will managers work in the shareholders’ best who in turn hire the management team.
interests? • Contracts can be carefully constructed to be
– Agency costs
g y incentive compatible.
p
– Direct agency costs • There is a market for managerial talent—this
– Indirect agency costs may provide market discipline to the
• Control of the firm managers—they can be replaced.
• How do agency costs affect firm value (and • If the managers fail to maximize share price,
shareholder wealth)? they may be replaced in a hostile takeover.
1.5 Financial Institutions, Financial Financial Markets
Markets, and the Corporation
• Financial Institutions Money versus Capital Markets
Indirect finance • Money Markets
Funds Deposits Financial Loans Funds
– For short‐term debt instruments
suppliers intermediaries demanders • Capital Markets
C it l M k t
Direct finance – For long‐term debt and equity
6
25/06/2013
Financial Markets Financial Markets
Primary versus Secondary Markets
• Primary Market Stocks and Investors
Bonds
– When a corporation issues securities, cash flows Firms
securities
from investors to the firm. Money Bob Sue
money
– Usually an underwriter is involved
• Secondary Markets Primary Market
– Involve the sale of “used” securities from one Secondary Market
investor to another.
– Securities may be exchange traded or trade
over‐the‐counter in a dealer market.
1.6 Trends in Financial Markets and Chapter Outline
Management
• Integration and globalization
2.1 The Balance Sheet
• Increased volatility
2.2 The Income Statement
• Financial Engineering reduces costs related to
2.3 Net Working Capital
– Risk
2.4 Financial Cash Flow
– Taxes
2.5 Summary and Conclusions
– Fnancing costs
Appendix 2A Financial Statement Analysis
• Improved computer technology allows
Appendix 2B Statement of Cash Flows
Economies of scale and scope
• Regulatory dialectic
7
25/06/2013
The Balance Sheet of the
2.1 The Balance Sheet Canadian Composite Corporation
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
• An accountant’s snapshot of the firm’s accounting Balance Sheet
20X2 and 20X1
value as of a particular date. (in $ millions)
Liabilities (Debt)
Assets 20X2 20X1
The assets are listed in order by the
and Stockholder's Equity 20X2 20X1
Current assets: length of time it normally would take a
Current Liabilities:
Balance Sheet Analysis Liquidity
• When analyzing a balance sheet, the • Refers to the ease and speed with which
financial manager should be aware of three assets can be converted to cash.
concerns: • Current assets are the most liquid.
1 Liquidity
1. • Some fixed assets are intangible.
Some fixed assets are intangible
2. Debt versus equity • The more liquid a firm’s assets, the less likely
the firm is to experience problems meeting
3. Value versus cost short‐term obligations.
• Liquid assets frequently have lower rates of
return than fixed assets.
8
25/06/2013
Debt versus Equity Value versus Cost
• Generally, when a firm borrows it gives the • Under GAAP audited financial statements of
bondholders first claim on the firm’s cash flow. firms in Canada carry assets at historical cost
• Thus shareholder’s equity is the residual adjusted for depreciation.
difference between assets and liabilities
difference between assets and liabilities. • Market value is a completely different
Market value is a completely different
concept. It is the price at which willing buyers
and sellers trade the assets.
2.2 The Income Statement Income Statement
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Income Statement
• The income statement measures 20X2
(in $ millions)
performance over a specific period of time.
Total operating revenues $2,262
The operations section
• The accounting definition of income is of the income statement Cost of goods sold
Selling, general, and administrative expenses
‐ 1,655
‐ 327
reports the firm’s
Depreciation ‐ 90
− Expenses ≡ Income
revenues and expenses
revenues and expenses
R
Revenue E I from principal
Operating income
Other income
$190
29
operations
Earnings before interest and taxes $219
Interest expense ‐ 49
Pretax income $170
Taxes ‐ 84
Current: $71
Deferred: $13
Net income $86
Retained earnings: $43
Dividends: $43
9
25/06/2013
Income Statement Income Statement
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Income Statement Income Statement
20X2 20X2
(in $ millions) (in $ millions)
Income Statement Income Statement Analysis
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Income Statement
20x2
(in $ millions) • There are three things to keep in mind when
Total operating revenues $2,262 analyzing an income statement:
Cost of goods sold ‐ 1,655
Selling, general, and administrative expenses ‐ 327 1. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
Depreciation ‐ 90
Operating income $190
(GAAP); IFRS
(GAAP); IFRS
Other income 29
Earnings before interest and taxes $219
2. Non Cash Items
Net income is the
Interest expense
Pretax income
‐ 49
$170
3. Time and Costs
“bottom line”.
Taxes ‐ 84
Current: $71
Deferred: $13
Net income $86
Retained earnings: $43
Dividends: $43
10
25/06/2013
Generally Accepted Accounting Income Statement Analysis
Principles
1. GAAP / IFRS 2. Non Cash Items
• The matching principal of GAAP dictates that • These are expenses that do not affect cash flow
revenues be matched with expenses. Thus, directly.
income is reported when it is earned even
income is reported when it is earned, even • Depreciation is the most apparent. No firm ever
Depreciation is the most apparent No firm ever
though no cash flow may have occurred. writes a cheque for “depreciation.”
• For example, when goods are sold for credit, • Another noncash item is deferred taxes, which
sales and profits are reported. does not represent a cash flow.
Income Statement Analysis 2.3 Net Working Capital
NWC = CURRENT ASSETS –
3. Time and Costs CURRENT LIABILITIES
• In the short run, certain equipment, resources, and
commitments of the firm are fixed, but the firm can • NWC is +ve when current assets are greater
vary such inputs as labour and raw materials. than current liabilities.
• In the long run, all inputs of production (and hence • A firm can invest in NWC. This is called
costs) are variable.
change in NWC .
• Financial accountants do not distinguish between
variable costs and fixed costs. Instead, accounting • The change in NWC is usually +ve in a
costs usually fit into a classification that growing firm.
distinguishes product costs from period costs.
11
25/06/2013
The Balance Sheet of the C.C.C. 2.4 Financial Cash Flow
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Balance Sheet
$252m = $707‐ $455 20X2 and 20X1
(in $ millions)
• In finance, the most important item that can
Assets 20X2 20X1
Liabilities (Debt)
and Stockholder's Equity 20X2 20X1
be extracted from financial statements is the
Current assets:
Cash and equivalents $140 $107
Current Liabilities:
Accounts payable $213 $197
actual cash flow of the firm.
Accounts receivable 294 270 Notes payable 50 53
Inventories
Other
269
58
280
50
Accrued expenses
Total current liabilities
Total current liabilities
223
$486
205
$455
• Since there is no magic in finance, it must be
g
Total current assets $761 $707
Long‐term liabilities:
Here we see NWC grow to $275 million
the case that the cash received from the
Fixed assets: Deferred taxes $117 $104
Property, plant, and equipment
Less accumulated depreciation
$1,423 $1,274
‐550 ‐460
in 20X2 from $252 million in 20X1.
Long‐term debt
Total long‐term liabilities
471
$588
458
$562
firm’s assets must equal the cash flows to
Net property, plant, and equipment 873
Intangible assets and other 245
814
221 Stockholder's equity:
the firm’s creditors and stockholders.
Total fixed assets $1,118 $1,035 $23 million
Preferred stock $39 $39
Common stock ($1 par value) 55 32
$275m = $761m‐ $486m Capital surplus
Accumulated retained earnings
This increase of $23 million is an
347
390
327
347 CF ( A) ≡ CF ( B ) + CF ( S )
Less treasury stock ‐26 ‐20
investment of the firm.
Total equity $805 $725
Total assets $1,879 $1,742 Total liabilities and stockholder's equity $1,879 $1,742
Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C. Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C.
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Financial Cash Flow Financial Cash Flow
20X2 20X2
(in $ millions) (in $ millions)
12
25/06/2013
Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C. Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C.
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Financial Cash Flow Financial Cash Flow
20X2 20X2
(in $ millions) (in $ millions)
Cash Flow of the Firm Cash Flow of the Firm
Operating cash flow $238 Operating cash flow $238
(Earnings before interest and taxes NWC grew to $275 million in 20X2 (Earnings before interest and taxes
plus depreciation minus taxes) from $252 million in 20X1. plus depreciation minus taxes)
Capital spending
p p g ‐173 Capital spending
p p g ‐173
(Acquisitions of fixed assets This increase of $23 million is the (Acquisitions of fixed assets
minus sales of fixed assets) addition to NWC. minus sales of fixed assets)
Additions to net working capital ‐23 Additions to net working capital ‐23
Total $42 Total $42
Cash Flow of Investors in the Firm Cash Flow of Investors in the Firm
Debt $36 Debt $36
(Interest plus retirement of debt (Interest plus retirement of debt
minus long‐term debt financing) minus long‐term debt financing)
Equity 6 Equity 6
(Dividends plus repurchase of (Dividends plus repurchase of
equity minus new equity financing) equity minus new equity financing)
Total $42 Total $42
Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C. Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C.
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Financial Cash Flow Financial Cash Flow
20X2 20X2
(in $ millions) (in $ millions)
Cash Flow of the Firm Cash Flow of the Firm
Operating cash flow $238 Operating cash flow $238
(Earnings before interest and taxes Cash Flow to Creditors (Earnings before interest and taxes Cash Flow to Stockholders
plus depreciation minus taxes) plus depreciation minus taxes)
Capital spending
p p g ‐173 Interest $49
$ Capital spending
p p g ‐173 Dividends $43
$
(Acquisitions of fixed assets (Acquisitions of fixed assets
minus sales of fixed assets) Retirement of debt 73 minus sales of fixed assets) Repurchase of stock 6
Additions to net working capital ‐23 Additions to net working capital ‐23
Debt service 122 Cash to Stockholders 49
Total $42 Total $42
Cash Flow of Investors in the Firm Proceeds from new debt sales Cash Flow of Investors in the Firm Proceeds from new stock issue
Debt $36 (86) Debt $36 (43)
(Interest plus retirement of debt (Interest plus retirement of debt
minus long‐term debt financing) Total 36 minus long‐term debt financing) Total $6
Equity 6 Equity 6
(Dividends plus repurchase of (Dividends plus repurchase of
equity minus new equity financing) equity minus new equity financing)
Total $42 Total $42
13
25/06/2013
Financial Cash Flow of the C.C.C. 2.5 Summary and Conclusions
CANADIAN COMPOSITE CORPORATION
Financial Cash Flow
20X2
(in $ millions) • Financial statements provide important
Cash Flow of the Firm
The cash received from the firm’s information regarding the value of the firm.
Operating cash flow $238
assets must equal the cash flows
(Earnings before interest and taxes
plus depreciation minus taxes) to the firm’s creditors and • A financial manager should be able to
Capital spending
p p g ‐173 stockholders:
(Acquisitions of fixed assets determine cash flow from the financial
determine cash flow from the financial
minus sales of fixed assets)
Additions to net working capital ‐23 statements of the firm.
Total $42
Cash Flow of Investors in the Firm CF ( A) ≡ • Knowing how to determine cash flow helps
Debt $36
(Interest plus retirement of debt CF ( B ) + CF ( S ) the financial manager make better decisions.
minus long‐term debt financing)
Equity 6
(Dividends plus repurchase of
equity minus new equity financing)
Total $42
Appendix 2A Financial Statement
Analysis Short‐term solvency ratios
• Financial ratios provide information about • Measure the firm’s ability to meet recurring
five areas of financial performance: financial obligations
Total current assets
1. Short‐term solvency Current ratio =
Total current liabilitie s
2
2. Activity
3. Financial leverage
4. Profitability
• A higher current ratio indicates greater
5. Market value
liquidity
14
25/06/2013
Short‐term solvency ratios (cont.) Activity ratios
Quick assets
Quick ratio = • Measure how effectively the firm’s assets are
Total current liabilities
being managed
Total operating revenues
Total asset turnover =
Average total assets
• Quick assets = Current assets – inventories
• Quick ratio determines firm’s ability to pay off
current liabilities without relying on the sale • Example: retail and wholesale trade firms tend
of inventories. to have high asset turnover ratios compared
to manufacturing firms
Activity ratios (cont.) Activity ratios (cont.)
Cost of goods sold
Total operating revenues Inventory turnover =
Receivable s turnover = Average inventory
Average receivable s
•These ratios provide information on the success •Measure how quickly inventory is produced and
of the firm in managing its investment in sold.
accounts receivable.
15
25/06/2013
Financial leverage ratios Financial leverage ratios (cont.)
Profitability ratios Profitability ratios (cont.)
Net income
Net profit margin = DuPont system of financial control
Total operating revenue
Return on assets = Profit margin x Asset turnover
Net income Total operating
p g revenue
Return on assets = x
• trade firms and service firms tend to Total operating revenue Average total assets
have
low and high profit ratios respectively.
• Firms tend to face a trade‐off between
turnover and margin
16
25/06/2013
Profitability ratios (cont.) Market value ratios
Net income
Return on equity =
Average shareholders equity Market price/shar e
Price - Earnings ratio =
current annual earnings /share
ROE = Profit margin x Asset turnover X Equity multiplier
•P/E ratio shows how much investors are willing
•P/E ratio shows how much investors are willing
Net income Total operating revenue Average total assets
ROE =
Total operating revenue
x
Average total assets
x
Average shareholders' equity to pay for $1 of earnings per share.
• It also reflects investors’ views of the growth
•The difference between ROA and ROE is due to potential of different sectors.
financial leverage.
Market value ratios (cont.) Remarks on ratios
Market price/share
Market - to - Book ratio =
Book value/share
– Financial ratios are linked to one another.
•The M/B ratio compares the market value of
•The M/B ratio compares the market value of
the firm’s investments to their cost . • Measures of profitability do not take risk or
• a M/B value < 1 indicates that the firm timing of cash flows into account.
has not been successful in creating value
for its shareholders.
17
25/06/2013
Chapter Outline 3.1 The Financial Market Economy
The Financial Market Economy: Example The Financial Market Economy: Example
• Consider a dentist who earns $200,000 per year and • Rather than performing the credit analysis 4 times, he could
chooses to consume $80,000 per year. He has $120,000 in loan the whole $120,000 to a financial intermediary in
surplus money to invest. return for a promise to repay the $120,000 in one year with
• He could loan $30,000 to each of 4 college seniors. They interest.
each promise to pay him back with interest after they
graduate in one year. • The intermediary in turn loans $30,000 to each of the 4
college seniors. $30,000×(1+r)
$ , ( )
$
$30,000×(1+r) $120,000 $30,000 Student #1
$30,000 Student #1
$30,000×(1+r)
$30,000×(1+r) $30,000 Student #2
$30,000 Student #2 Bank
Dentist
Dentist $30,000 Student #3
$30,000 Student #3
$30,000×(1+r)
$30,000×(1+r) $30,000 Student #4
$30,000 Student #4 $120,000×(1+r)
$30,000×(1+r)
$30,000×(1+r)
18
25/06/2013
The Financial Market Economy: Example 3.3 The Competitive Market
• Financial intermediation can take three forms: • In a competitive market:
– Size intermediation – Trading is costless.
• In the example above, the bank took a large loan from – Information about borrowing and lending is
the dentist and made small loans to the students. available
– Term intermediation
T i di i – There are many traders; no individual can move
• Commercial banks finance long‐term mortgages with market prices.
short‐term deposits.
– Risk intermediation
• There can be only one equilibrium interest
• Financial intermediaries can tailor the risk rate in a competitive market—otherwise
characteristics of securities for borrowers and lenders arbitrage opportunities would arise.
with different degrees of risk tolerance.
3.4 The Basic Principle 3.5 Practicing the Principle: A Lending Example
Consider an investment opportunity that costs
• The basic financial principle of investment $50,000 this year and provides a certain cash flow
decision‐making is this: of $54,000 next year.
$54,000
Cash inflows
• An investment must be at least as Time 0
desirable as the opportunities available Cash outflows 1
‐$50,000
in the financial markets. Is this a good deal?
It depends on the interest rate available in the
financial markets.
The investment has an 8% return, if the interest rate
available elsewhere is less than this, invest here.
19
25/06/2013
3.6 Illustrating the Investment Decision Net Present Value
• Consider an investor who has an initial • We can calculate how much better off in
endowment of income of $40,000 this year today’s dollar the investment makes us by
and $55,000 next year. calculating the Net Present Value:. $30,000
Cash inflows
• Suppose that he faces a 10‐percent interest
Suppose that he faces a 10 percent interest Time 0
rate and is offered the following investment. Cash outflows 1
$30,000
Cash inflows ‐$25,000
Time 0
Cash outflows 1
$30,000
‐$25,000 NPV = −25,000 + = $2,272.73
1.10
3.7 Corporate Investment Decision‐Making Corporate Investment Decision‐Making
Positive NPV projects shift the shareholder’s
opportunity set out, which is unambiguously
nsumption at t+1
• Shareholders will be united in their preference good.
for the firm to undertake positive net present
All shareholders agree on their preference
value decisions, regardless of their personal for positive NPV projects, whether they are
borrowers or lenders.
intertemporal consumption preferences
intertemporal consumption preferences.
Con
Consumption today
20
25/06/2013
3.7 Corporate Investment Decision‐Making 4.1 The One‐Period Case: Future Value
• If you were to invest $10,000 at 5‐percent interest
• In reality, shareholders do not vote on every for one year, your investment would grow to $10,500
investment decision faced by a firm and the
$500 would be interest ($10,000 × .05)
managers of firms need decision rules to
$10,000 is the principal repayment ($10,000 × 1)
operate by
operate by.
$10,500 is the total due. It can be calculated as:
• All shareholders of a firm will be made better
off if managers follow the NPV rule— $10,500 = $10,000×(1.05).
undertake positive NPV projects and reject
The total amount due at the end of the investment is
negative NPV projects.
called the Future Value (FV).
4.1 The One‐Period Case: Present
4.1 The One‐Period Case: Future Value
Value
• In the one‐period case, the formula for FV can • If you were to be promised $10,000 due in one year
be written as: when interest rates are at 5‐percent, your
FV = C0×(1 + r) investment would be worth $9,523.81 in today’s
dollars.
$10,000
$9,523.81 =
Where C0 is cash flow at date 0 and r is the 1.05
The amount that a borrower would need to set aside today to be able to meet the
appropriate interest rate. promised payment of $10,000 in one year is call the Present Value (PV) of $10,000.
C0×(1 + r)
C0 = $10,000 FV = $10,500
$10,000 × 1.05
21
25/06/2013
4.1 The One‐Period Case: Present
Value 4.1 The One‐Period Case: Net Present Value
• In the one‐period case, the formula for PV can • The Net Present Value (NPV) of an investment
be written as: is the present value of the expected cash
C1
PV = flows, less the cost of the investment.
1+ r
• Suppose an investment that promises to pay
Where C
Where C1 is cash flow at date 1 and r is the appropriate interest
is cash flow at date 1 and r is the appropriate interest
rate.
$10 000 in one year is offered for sale for
$10,000 in one year is offered for sale for
$9,500. Your interest rate is 5%. Should you
buy? $10,000
C1/(1 + r) NPV = −$9,500 +
PV = $9,523.81 C1 = $10,000 1.05
$10,000/1.05
NPV = −$9,500 + $9,523.81
Year 0 1
NPV = $23.81 Yes!
4.1 The One‐Period Case: Net Present Value 4.2 The Multiperiod Case: Future Value
In the one‐period case, the formula for NPV can be
written as: • The general formula for the future value of an
investment over many periods can be written
NPV = −Cost + PV
as:
If we had not undertaken the positive NPV project considered on the last slide, and
instead invested our $9,500 elsewhere at 5‐percent,
instead invested our $9,500 elsewhere at 5 percent, our FV
our FV would be less than
would be less than ( )T
FV = C0×(1 + r)
the $10,000 the investment promised and we would be unambiguously worse off
in FV terms as well: Where
$9,500×(1.05) = $9,975 < $10,000. C0 is cash flow at date 0,
r is the appropriate interest rate, and
T is the number of periods over which the cash is
invested.
22
25/06/2013
4.2 The Multiperiod Case: Future Value Future Value and Compounding
• Suppose that Jay Ritter invested in the initial • Notice that the dividend in year five, $5.92,
public offering of the Modigliani company. is considerably higher than the sum of the
Modigliani pays a current dividend of $1.10, original dividend plus five increases of 40‐
which is expected to grow at 40‐percent per percent on the original $1.10 dividend:
year for the next five years.
• What will the dividend be in five years? $5.92 > $1.10 + 5×[$1.10×.40] = $3.30
FV = C0×(1 + r)T This is due to compounding.
$5.92 = $1.10×(1.40)5
Present Value and Compounding
Future Value and Compounding
$1.10 × (1.40) 5 • How much would an investor have to set
aside today in order to have $20,000 five
$1.10 × (1.40) 4
years from now if the current rate is 15%?
$1.10 × (1.40) 3
$1.10 × (1.40) 2 PV $
$20,000
$1.10 × (1.40)
0 1 2 3 4 5
$1.10 $1.54 $2.16 $3.02 $4.23 $5.92
$20,000
$9,943.53 =
0 1 2 3 4 5 (1.15) 5
23
25/06/2013
How Long is the Wait? What Rate Is Enough?
Assume the total cost of a university education will be
If we deposit $5,000 today in an account paying 10%, $50,000 when your child enters university in 12 years. You
how long does it take to grow to $10,000? have $5,000 to invest today. What rate of interest must
you earn on your investment to cover the cost of your
FV = C0 × (1 + r )T $10,000 = $5,000 × (1.10)T child’s education? About 21.15%.
(1.10)T =
$10,000
=2 FV = C0 × (1 + r )T $50,000 = $5,000 × (1 + r )12
$5,000
ln( 1.10)T = ln 2 $50,000
(1 + r )12 = = 10 (1 + r ) = 101 12
$5,000
ln 2 0.6931
T= = = 7.27 years r = 101 12 − 1 = 1.2115 − 1 = .2115
ln( 1.10) 0.0953
4.3 Compounding Periods Effective Annual Interest Rates
Compounding an investment m times a year A reasonable question to ask in the above
for T years provides for future value of example is what is the effective annual rate of
wealth: m×T interest on that investment?
⎛ r⎞
FV = C0 × ⎜1 + ⎟ .12 2×3
⎝ m ⎠ FV = $50 × (1 + ) = $50 × (1.06) 6 = $70.93
2
For example, if you invest $50 for 3 years at
12% compounded semi‐annually, your The Effective Annual Interest Rate (EAR) is the
investment will grow to annual rate that would give us the same end‐
of‐investment wealth after 3 years:
2×3
⎛ .12 ⎞
FV = $50 × ⎜1 + ⎟ = $50 × (1.06) 6 = $70.93 $50 × (1 + EAR)3 = $70.93
⎝ 2 ⎠
24
25/06/2013
Effective Annual Interest Rates 4.4 Simplifications
(continued)
FV = $50 × (1 + EAR) 3 = $70.93 • Perpetuity
– A constant stream of cash flows that lasts forever.
$70.93 • Growing perpetuity
(1 + EAR) = 3
$50 – A stream of cash flows that grows at a constant rate
forever.
forever
13
⎛ $70.93 ⎞ • Annuity
EAR = ⎜ ⎟ − 1 = .1236
⎝ $50 ⎠ – A stream of constant cash flows that lasts for a fixed
number of periods.
So, investing at 12.36% compounded annually • Growing annuity
is the same as investing at 12% compounded – A stream of cash flows that grows at a constant rate for a
semiannually. fixed number of periods.
Perpetuity Perpetuity: Example
A constant stream of cash flows that lasts forever. What is the value of a British consol that promises to
C C C pay £15 each year, every year until the sun turns
into a red giant and burns the planet to a crisp?
…
The interest rate is 10‐percent.
0 1 2 3
£15 £15 £15
C C C
PV = + + +L …
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) (1 + r )3
2
0 1 2 3
The formula for the present value of a perpetuity is:
£15
C PV = = £150
PV = .10
r
25
25/06/2013
Growing Perpetuity Growing Perpetuity: Example
A growing stream of cash flows that lasts forever. The expected dividend next year is $1.30 and
C C×(1+g) C ×(1+g)2
dividends are expected to grow at 5% forever.
If the discount rate is 10%, what is the value of this
… promised dividend stream?
0 1 2 3 $1.30 $1.30×(1.05) $1.30 ×(1.05)2
C C × (1 + g ) C × (1 + g ) 2 …
PV = + + +L
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) 2 (1 + r )3 0 1 2 3
The formula for the present value of a growing perpetuity is:
C $1.30
PV = PV = = $26.00
r−g .10 − .05
Annuity Annuity: Example
A constant stream of cash flows with a fixed maturity. If you can afford a $400 monthly car payment, how
C C C C much car can you afford if interest rates are 7% on
36‐month loans?
L $400 $400 $400 $400
0 1 2 3 T
L
C C C C 0
PV = + + +L
1 2 3 36
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) 2 (1 + r )3 (1 + r )T
$400 ⎡ ⎤
The formula for the present value of an annuity is:
1
PV = ⎢1− 36 ⎥
= $12,954.59
C⎡ 1 ⎤ .07 / 12 ⎣ (1 + .07 12) ⎦
PV = 1−
r ⎣ (1 + r )T ⎥⎦
⎢
26
25/06/2013
Growing Annuity Growing Annuity
A growing stream of cash flows with a fixed maturity. A retirement plan offers to pay $20,000 per year for
C C×(1+g) C ×(1+g)2 C×(1+g)T‐1 40 years and increase the annual payment by 3‐
percent each year. What is the present value at
L retirement if the discount rate is 10‐percent?
0 1 2 3 T
C × (1 + g ) C × (1 + g )T −1
$20 000
$20,000 $20 000×(1 03)
$20,000×(1.03) 000×(1 03)39
$20,000×(1.03)
$20
C
PV = + + L +
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) 2 (1 + r )T L
0 1 2 40
The formula for the present value of a growing annuity:
C ⎡ ⎛ 1+ g ⎞ ⎤ $20,000 ⎡ ⎛ 1.03 ⎞ ⎤
T 40
PV = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ PV = ⎢ ⎜
1 − ⎟ ⎥ = $265,121.57
r − g ⎢ ⎝ (1 + r ) ⎠ ⎥ .10 − .03 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 1.10 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎣ ⎦
4.5 What Is a Firm Worth? 4.6 Summary and Conclusions
• Two basic concepts, future value and present value
• Conceptually, a firm should be worth the are introduced in this chapter.
present value of the firm’s cash flows. • Interest rates are commonly expressed on an
• The tricky part is determining the size, timing, annual basis, but semi‐annual, quarterly, monthly
and risk of those cash flows
and risk of those cash flows. and even continuously compounded interest rate
and even continuously compounded interest rate
arrangements exist.
• The formula for the net present value of an
investment that pays $C for N periods is:
N
C C C C
NPV = −C0 + + +L+ = −C 0 + ∑
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) 2
(1 + r ) N
t =1 (1 + r )
t
27
25/06/2013
4.6 Summary and Conclusions How do you get to Bay Street?
(continued)
• We presented four simplifying formulae:
• Practice, practice, practice.
C
Perpetuity : PV = • It’s easy to watch Olympic gymnasts and
r convince yourself that you are a leotard
C purchase away from a triple back flip.
y : PV =
Growingg Perpetuity
p
r−g • It’s also easy to watch your finance professor
’ l h f f
do time value of money problems and
C⎡ 1 ⎤
Annuity : PV = 1− convince yourself that you can do them too.
r ⎢⎣ (1 + r )T ⎥⎦
• There is no substitute for getting out the
C ⎡ ⎛ 1+ g ⎞ ⎤ calculator and flogging the keys until you can
T
Chapter Outline 6.1 Why Use Net Present Value?
6.1 Why Use Net Present Value? • Accepting positive NPV projects benefits
6.2 The Payback Period Rule shareholders.
6.3 The Discounted Payback Period Rule 9NPV uses cash flows
6.4 The Average Accounting Return
g g
6.5 The Internal Rate of Return 9 V
9NPV uses all the cash flows of the project
ll h h fl f h j
6.6 Problems with the IRR Approach 9NPV discounts the cash flows properly
6.7 The Profitability Index
6.8 The Practice of Capital Budgeting
6.9 Summary and Conclusions
28
25/06/2013
The Net Present Value (NPV) Rule Good Attributes of the NPV Rule
• Net Present Value (NPV) = Total PV of future CF’s + 1. Uses cash flows
Initial Investment
2. Uses ALL cash flows of the project
• Estimating NPV: 3. Discounts ALL cash flows properly
– 1. Estimate future cash flows: how much? and when?
– 2. Estimate discount rate
– 3. Estimate initial costs • Reinvestment assumption: the NPV rule
assumes that all cash flows can be
• Minimum Acceptance Criteria: Accept if NPV > 0 reinvested at the discount rate.
• Ranking Criteria: Choose the highest NPV
The NPV Rule : Example The NPV Rule : Example (continued)
0 1 2 3 4
• Assume you have the following information on
Project X: Initial Revenues
outlay Expenses
$1,000
500
Revenues
Expenses
$2,000
1,300
Revenues
Expenses
$2,200
2,700
Revenues
Expenses
$2,600
1,400
– Initial outlay ‐$1,100 ($1,100) Cash flow $500 Cash flow $700 Cash flow (500) Cash flow $1,200
– Required return = 10%
– $1,100.00
1
$500 x
• Annual cash revenues and expenses are as
ua cas e e ues a d e pe ses a e as +454 54
+454.54
1.10
1
follows: $700 x
1.10 2
+578.51 1
Year Revenues Expenses - $500 x
1.10 3
-375.66
1 $1,000 $500 $1,200 x
1
1.10 4
2 2,000 1,300 +819.62
+$377.02 = NPV
3 2,200 2,700
4 2,600 1,400
29
25/06/2013
The NPV Rule : Example (continued) 6.2 The Payback Period Rule
NPV = ‐C0 + PV0(Future CFs)
• How long does it take the project to “pay
= ‐C0 + C1/(1+r) + C2/(1+r)2 + C3/(1+r)3 + C4/(1+r)4 back” its initial investment?
• Payback Period = number of years to recover
‐1 100 + 500/1 1 + 700/1 12 + (‐500)/1.1
== ‐1,100 + 500/1.1 + 700/1.1 + (‐500)/1 13 + 1,200/1.1
+ 1 200/1 14 initial costs
initial costs
= $377.02 > 0 • Minimum Acceptance Criteria:
– set by management
• Ranking Criteria:
– set by management
6.3 The Discounted Payback Period
The Payback Period Rule (continued)
Rule
• Disadvantages:
– Ignores the time value of money • How long does it take the project to “pay
– Ignores cash flows after the payback period back” its initial investment taking the time
– Biased against long‐term projects value of money into account?
– Requires an arbitrary acceptance criteria
Requires an arbitrary acceptance criteria • By the time you have discounted the cash
By the time you have discounted the cash
– A project accepted based on the payback flows, you might as well calculate the NPV.
criteria may not have a positive NPV
• Advantages:
– Easy to understand
– Biased toward liquidity
30
25/06/2013
The Discounted Payback Period Rule: The Discounted Payback Period Rule:
Example Example (continued)
• Assume you have the following information on
Project X: Year Accumulated discounted CF
– Initial outlay ‐$1,000 1 $ 182
– Required return = 10%
2 513
• Annual that cash flows and their PVs are as follows: 3 1,039
4 1,244
Year Cash flow PV of Cash flow
1 $ 200 $ 182
2 400 331
3 700 526 • Discounted payback period is just under 3 years
4 300 205
6.4 The Average Accounting Return 6.4 The Average Accounting Return Rule:
Rule Example
Average Net Income
AAR = • You want to invest in a machine that produces
Average Book Value of Investment
squash balls
• Another attractive but fatally flawed approach. • The machine costs $90,000
• Ranking Criteria and Minimum Acceptance Criteria • The machine will ‘die’ after 3 years
set by management
set by management
• Disadvantages: • Assuming straight line depreciation, the annual
– Ignores the time value of money depreciation is $30,000
– Uses an arbitrary benchmark cutoff rate • The estimate cash flows for the life of the project:
– Based on book values, not cash flows and market values
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
• Advantages:
– The accounting information is usually available Sales 140 160 200
– Easy to calculate Expenses 120 100 90
31
25/06/2013
6.4 The Average Accounting Return Rule: 6.4 The Average Accounting Return Rule:
Example (continued) Example (continued)
• Projected Net Income from the project: We calculate:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 − 6 + 18 + 48
Sales 140 160 200 (i) Average NI = = 20
20
Expenses 120 100 90
E.B.D. 20 60 110 (ii) Average book value (BV) of the investment
(ii) A b k l ( V) f h i
(machine):
Depreciation 30 30 30
time‐0 time‐1 time‐2 time‐3
E.B.T. ‐10 30 80
Taxes (40%) ‐4 12 32 BV of investment: 90 60 30 0
NI: ‐6 18 48
90 + 60 + 30 + 0
Average BV = = 45
4
6.4 The Average Accounting Return Rule:
Example (continued) 6.5 The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Rule
(iii) The Average Accounting Return: • IRR: the discount that sets NPV to zero
• Minimum Acceptance Criteria:
– Accept if the IRR exceeds the required return.
20 • Ranking Criteria:
AAR = = .4444 – Select alternative with the highest IRR
45 • Reinvestment assumption:
– All future cash flows assumed reinvested at the IRR.
All future cash flows assumed reinvested at the IRR
• Conclusion • Disadvantages:
– Does not distinguish between investing and borrowing.
If target AAR < 44.44% => accept – IRR may not exist or there may be multiple IRR
– Problems with mutually exclusive investments
If target AAR > 44.44% => reject • Advantages:
– Easy to understand and communicate
32
25/06/2013
The Internal Rate of Return: Example
The NPV Payoff Profile for This Example
If we graph NPV versus discount rate, we can see the IRR as the x‐axis intercept.
Consider the following project:
$50 $100 $150 Discount Rate NPV $120.00
0% $100.00 $100.00
4% $71.04 $80.00
8% $47.32
$60.00
12% $27.79
0 1 2 3 $40.00
NPV
16% $11.65 IRR = 19.44%
‐$200 20% ($1.74) $20.00
24% ($12.88) $0.00
28% ($22.17)
($20.00)
-1% 9% 19% 29% 39%
The internal rate of return for this project is 19.44% 32% ($29.93)
36% ($36.43) ($40.00)
40% ($41.86) ($60.00)
$50 $100 $150 Discount rate
NPV = 0 = + +
(1 + IRR ) (1 + IRR ) 2 (1 + IRR )3
Calculating the Crossover Rate Mutually Exclusive vs. Independent Project
Compute the IRR for either project “A‐B” or “B‐A” • Mutually Exclusive Projects: only ONE of several
Year Project A Project B Project A-B Project B-A potential projects can be chosen, e.g., acquiring an
0 ($10,000) ($10,000) $0 $0 accounting system.
1 $10,000 $1,000 $9,000 ($9,000)
2 $1,000 $1,000 $0 $0
3 $1,000 $12,000 ($11,000) $11,000 – RANK all alternatives and select the best one.
$3,000.00
$2,000.00
• Independent Projects: accepting or rejecting one
10.55% = IRR project does not affect the decision of the other
$1,000.00
projects.
NPV
A-B
$0.00
B-A
($1,000.00) 0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
($2,000.00)
– Must exceed a MINIMUM acceptance criteria.
($3,000.00)
Discount rate
33
25/06/2013
6.7 The Profitability Index (PI) Rule 6.8 The Practice of Capital Budgeting
Total PV of Future Cash Flows
PI =
Initial Investent • Varies by industry:
• Minimum Acceptance Criteria:
– Some firms use payback, others use accounting
– Accept if PI > 1
• Ranking Criteria: rate of return.
– Select alternative with highest PI
Select alternative with highest PI • Discounted
Discounted cash flow techniques (such as IRR
cash flow techniques (such as IRR
• Disadvantages: or NPV ) are the most frequently used by large
– Problems with mutually exclusive investments
industrial corporations in Canada.
• Advantages:
– May be useful when available investment funds are • Payback is most commonly used by small firms
limited
– Easy to understand and communicate
and by CEOs without an MBA.
– Correct decision when evaluating independent projects
Example of Investment Rules Example of Investment Rules
Compute the IRR, NPV, PI, and payback period for
the following two projects. Assume the required Project A Project B
return is 10%. CF0 ‐$200.00 ‐$150.00
PV0 of CF1‐3
13 $241.92
$ $240.80
$
Year Project A Project B
0 ‐$200 ‐$150
NPV = $41.92 $90.80
1 $200 $50
2 $800 $100 IRR = 0%, 100% 36.19%
3 ‐$800 $150 PI = 1.2096 1.6053
34
25/06/2013
Example of Investment Rules Relationship Between NPV and IRR
NPV Profiles 6.9 Summary and Conclusions
$400
• This chapter evaluates the most popular
NPV
$300
IRR 1(A) IRR (B) IRR 2(A) alternatives to NPV:
$200 – Payback period
$100
– Accounting rate of return
g
– Internal rate of return
$0
‐15% 0% 15% 30% 45% 130% 160% 190%
– Profitability index
70% 100%
($100) • When it is all said and done, they are not the
($200) NPV rule; for those of us in finance, it makes
Project A them decidedly second‐rate.
Discount rates
Cross‐over Rate Project B
35
25/06/2013
Cash Flows—Not Accounting Earnings Incremental Cash Flows
• Consider depreciation expense. • Sunk costs are not relevant
– Just because “we have come this far” does not mean that
• You never write a cheque made out to we should continue to throw good money after bad.
“depreciation.” • Opportunity costs do matter. Just because a project has
a positive NPV does not mean that it should also have
• Much of the work in evaluating a project lies
h f h ki l i j li automatic acceptance. Specifically if another project
t ti t S ifi ll if th j t
with a higher NPV would have to be passed up we
in taking accounting numbers and generating should not proceed.
cash flows. • Side effects matter.
– Erosion and cannibalism are both bad things. If our new
product causes existing customers to demand less of
current products, we need to recognize that.
36
25/06/2013
Estimating Cash Flows Interest Expense
• Cash Flows from Operations • Later chapters will deal with the impact that
– Recall that: the amount of debt that a firm has in its
Operating Cash Flow = EBIT – Taxes + Depreciation capital structure has on firm value.
• Net Capital Spending
N t C it l S di • For now, it
For now it’ss enough to assume that the firm
enough to assume that the firm’ss
– Don’t forget salvage value (after tax, of course). level of debt (hence interest expense) is
• Changes in Net Working Capital independent of the project at hand.
– Recall that when the project winds down, we
enjoy a return of net working capital.
7.2 The Majestic Mulch and Compost Company The Worksheet for Cash Flows of the
(MMCC): An Example
MMCC
Costs of test marketing (already spent): $250,000. (All cash flows occur at the end of the year.)
The proposed factory site (which we own) has no resale value. Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8
Cost of the tool making machine: $800,000 (CCA calculations Income:
are based on a class 8, 20‐percent rate). (1) Sales revenues $600,000 $918,000 $1,248,480 $1,379,570 $1,298,919 $1,104,081 $900,930 $689,211
Production (in units) by year during 8‐year life of the machine:
6,000, 9,000, 12,000, 13,000, 12,000, 10,000, 8,000, and 6,000.
Price during first year is $100; price increases 2‐percent per
year thereafter.
Production costs during first year are $64 per unit and increase
at the annual inflation rate of 5‐percent per year thereafter. Recall that production (in units) by year during 8‐year life of the machine is
given by: (6,000, 9,000, 12,000, 13,000, 12,000, 10,000, 8,000, 6,000).
Fixed production costs are $50,000 each year.
Working capital: initially $40,000, then 15‐percent of sales at Price during first year is $100 and increases 2% per year thereafter.
the end of each year. Falls to $0 by the project’s end. Sales revenue in year 5 = 12,000×[$100×(1.02)4] = $1,298,919.
37
25/06/2013
The Worksheet for Cash Flows of the The Worksheet for Cash Flows of the
MMCC (continued) MMCC (continued)
(All cash flows occur at the end of the year.) (All cash flows occur at the end of the year.)
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8
Income: Income:
(1) Sales revenues $600,000 $918,000 $1,248,480 $1,379,570 $1,298,919 $1,104,081 $900,930 $689,211 (1) Sales revenues $600,000 $918,000 $1,248,480 $1,379,570 $1,298,919 $1,104,081 $900,930 $689,211
(2) Operating costs 434,000 654,800 896,720 1,013,144 983,509 866,820 736,129 590,327 (2) Operating costs 434,000 654,800 896,720 1,013,144 983,509 866,820 736,129 590,327
(3) CCA 80,000 144,000 115,200 92,160 73,728 58,982 47,186 37,749
Annual CCA
Beginning Ending
CCA calculations are based on Year UCC CCA UCC
a class 8, 20% rate (shown at 1 $400,000 $80,000 $320,000
right) 2 720,000 144,000 576,000
Again, production (in units) by year during 8‐year life of the machine is
given by: (6,000, 9,000, 12,000, 13,000, 12,000, 10,000, 8,000, 6,000). The machine cost $800,000. 3 576,000 115,200 460,800
4 460,800 92,160 368,640
Variable costs during first year (per unit) are $64 and (increase 5% per CCA charge in year 5 5 368,640 73,728 294,912
year thereafter). Fixed costs are $50,000 each year. =$368,640×(.20) = $73,728. 6 294,912 58,982 235,930
7 235,930 47,186 188,744
Production costs in year 2 = 12,000×[$64×(1.05)4] + 50,000= $983,509.
8 188,744 37,749 150,995
The Worksheet for Cash Flows of the The Worksheet for Cash Flows of the
MMCC (continued) MMCC (continued)
(All cash flows occur at the end of the year.) (All cash flows occur at the end of the year.)
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8
Income: Investments:
(1) Sales revenues $600,000 $918,000 $1,248,480 $1,379,570 $1,298,919 $1,104,081 $900,930 $689,211 (7) NWC (year end) $ 40,000 $90,000 $137,700 $187,272 $206,936 $194,838 $165,612 $135,139 $ 0
(2) Operating costs 434,000 654,800 896,720 1,013,144 983,509 866,820 736,129 590,327 (8) Change in NWC (40,000) (50,000) (47,700) (49,572) (19,664) 12,098 29,226 30,473 135,139
(3) CCA 80,000 144,000 115,200 92,160 73,728 58,982 47,186 37,749 (9) Equipment (800,000)
(4) EBIT 86,000 119,200 236,560 274,266 241,682 178,278 117,615 61,136 10) Aftertax salvage 150,000
[(1) – (2) - (3)] 11) Total
T t l cashh flow
fl (840 000) (50,000)
(840,000) (50 000) (47,700)
(47 700) (49,572)
(49 572) (19,664)
(19 664) 12,098
12 098 29 226
29,226 30 473 285,139
30,473 285 139
(5) Taxes at 40% 34,400 47,680 94,624 109,707 96,673 71,311 47,046 24,454 of investment
(6) Net Income 51,600 71,520 141,936 164,560 145,009 106,967 70,569 36,682 [(8) + (9) + (10)]
38
25/06/2013
Incremental After Tax Cash Flows
7.3 Inflation and Capital Budgeting
(IATCF) of the MMCC
(All cash flows occur at the end of the year.) • Inflation is an important fact of economic life and must be considered in capital
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 budgeting.
(1) Sales $600,000 $918,000 $1,248,480 $1,379,570 $1,298,919 $1,104,081 $900,930 $689,211 • Consider the relationship between interest rates and inflation, often referred to
revenues as the Fisher relationship:
(2) Operating $434,000 $654,800 $ 896,720 $1,013,144 $ 983,509 $ 866,820 $736,129 $590,327
costs (1 + Nominal Rate) = (1 + Real Rate) × (1 + Inflation Rate)
(3) Taxes 34,400 47,680 94,624 109,707 96,673 71,311 47,046 24,454 • For low rates of inflation, this is often approximated as
Real Rate ≅ Nominal Rate – Inflation Rate
(4) OCF 131 600 215,520
131,600 215 520 257 136
257,136 256 720
256,720 218 737
218,737 165 949
165,949 117 755
117,755 74 430
74,430
[(1) - (2) - (3)]
• While the nominal rate in the U.S. has fluctuated with inflation, most of the time
(5) Total CF of (840,000) (50,000) (47,700) (49,572) (19,664) 12,098 29,226 30,473 285,139
the real rate has exhibited far less variance than the nominal rate.
Investment • When accounting for inflation in capital budgeting, one must compare real cash
(6) IATCF (840,000) 81,600 167,820 207,564 237,056 230,835 195,175 148,228 359,570 flows discounted at real rates or nominal cash flows discounted at nominal
[(4) + (5)] rates.
NPV@10% $500,135 If the project’s
discount rate is
NPV@10% $188,042
above 15.07%,
NPV@15% $2,280 it should not be
NPV@20% ($137,896) accepted (since
NPV > 0).
IRR 15.07%
Example of Capital Budgeting under Inflation Example of Capital Budgeting under Inflation
39
25/06/2013
• The PV of CCA tax shield is given by:
Th PV f CCA t hi ld i i b
C ⋅ d ⋅ Tc [1 + 0.5k ] S ⋅ d ⋅ Tc 1
PVCCA Tax Shield = × − × PVCCA Tax Shield =
k +d 1+ k k +d (1 + k )n
S = Min[resale value of assets, original price of assets] 32,000,000 ⋅ .2 ⋅ .34 [1 + (.5 ⋅ .04] 0 ⋅ .2 ⋅ .34 1
= × − ×
C = original price of the assets .04 + .2 1.04 .04 + .2 (1.04 )4
d = depreciation rate that applies to the asset class
= $8,892,308
d = discount rate
n = the time when assets are sold
Example of Capital Budgeting under Inflation Example of Capital Budgeting under Inflation
Year One After‐tax revenues = $400 × 100,000 × (1‐.34) = $26,400,000
• Risky Real Cash Flows Year One After‐tax labour costs = $15 × 2,000,000 × 1.02 × (1‐.34) = $20,196,000
– Price: $400 per unit with zero real price increase Year One After‐tax energy costs = $5 × 2,00,000 × 1.03 × (1‐.34) = $679,800
– Labour: $15 per hour with 2% real wage increase Year One After‐tax net operating CF =$5,524,200
– Energy: $5 per unit with 3% real energy cost
increase
• Year 1 After‐tax Real Risky Cash Flows: $5 524 200
$5,524,200 $31 499 886 $31,066,882
$31,499,886 $31 066 882 $17 425 007
$17,425,007
After‐tax revenues =
$400 × 100,000 × (1‐.34) = $26,400,000
After‐tax labour costs = 0 1 2 3 4
$15 × 2,000,000 × 1.02 × (1‐.34) = $20,196,000 -$32,000,000
After‐tax energy costs =
$5,524,200 $31,499,886 $31,066,882 $17,425,007
$5 × 2,00,000 × 1.03 × (1‐.34) = $679,800 PVrisky CFs = −$32m + + + +
(1.08) (1.08) 2 (1.08) 3 (1.08) 4
After‐tax net operating CF =
$26,400,000 ‐ $20,196,000 ‐ $679,800 =$5,524,200 PVrisky CFs = $69,590,868
40
25/06/2013
7.4 Investments of Unequal Lives: The
Example of Capital Budgeting under Inflation
Equivalent Annual Cost Method
The project NPV can now be computed as the • There are times when application of the NPV rule
sum of the PV of the cost, the PV of the risky
cash flows discounted at the risky rate, and the can lead to the wrong decision. Consider a
PV of the risk‐free CCA tax shield cash flows factory that must have an air cleaner. The
discounted at the risk‐free discount rate. equipment is mandated by law, so there is no
“doing without.”
g
NPV = ‐$32,000,000 + $69,590,868 + $8,892,308 = • There are two choices:
$46,483,176 – The “Cadillac cleaner” costs $4,000 today, has annual
operating costs of $100 and lasts for 10 years.
– The “cheaper cleaner” costs $1,000 today, has annual
operating costs of $500 and lasts for five years.
• Which one should we choose?
7.4 Investments of Unequal Lives: The 7.4 Investments of Unequal Lives: The
Equivalent Annual Cost Method Equivalent Annual Cost Method
At first glance, the cheap cleaner has the lower NPV (r = 10%): The Cadillac cleaner time line of cash flows:
-$4,000 –100 -100 -100 -100 -100 -100 -100 -100 -100 -100
10
$100
NPVCadillac = −$4,000 − ∑ = −4,614.46 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t =1 (1 .10) t
10
$100
5
$500 NPVCadillac = −$4,000 − ∑ = −4,614.46
NPVcheap = −$1,000 − ∑ = −2,895.39
t
t =1 (1.10)
t =1 (1.10)t The “cheaper cleaner” time line of cash flows over 10 years:
This overlooks the fact that the Cadillac cleaner lasts twice as long. -$1,000 –500 -500 -500 -500 -1,500 -500 -500 -500 -500 -500
When we incorporate that, the Cadillac cleaner is actually cheaper.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 10
$500 $1,000 $500
NPVcheap = −$1,000 − ∑ − −∑ = −$4,693.20
t =1 (1.10) t (1.10) 5 t =6 (1.10) t
41
25/06/2013
Investments of Unequal Lives Investments of Unequal Lives: EAC
• Replacement Chain • The Equivalent Annual Cost Method
– Repeat the projects forever, find the PV of that – Applicable to a much more robust set of
perpetuity. circumstances than replacement chain or
– Assumption: Both projects can and will be matching cycle.
repeated.
– The Equivalent Annual Cost is the value of the
q
• Matching Cycle
M hi C l level payment annuity that has the same PV as
– Repeat projects until they begin and end at the our original set of cash flows.
same time—like we just did with the air cleaners.
– Compute NPV for the “repeated projects.” – NPV = EAC × ArT
• The Equivalent Annual Cost Method – For example, the EAC for the Cadillac air cleaner
is $750.98
The EAC for the cheaper air cleaner is $763.80
which confirms our earlier decision to reject it.
Example of Replacement Projects Example of Replacement Projects
Consider a Belgian Dentist’s office; he needs an • Existing Autoclave
autoclave to sterilize his instruments. He has an Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
old one that is in use, but the maintenance Maintenance 0 200 275 325 450 500
Resale 900 850 775 700 600 500
costs are rising and so he is considering 340 435 478 620 660
Total Annual Cost
replacing this indispensable piece of equipment.
p g p p q p Total Cost for year 1 = (900 ×
y ( 1.10 – 850) + 200 = $340
)
New Autoclave Total Cost for year 2 = (850 × 1.10 – 775) + 275 = $435
– Cost = $3,000 today, Total Cost for year 3 = (775 × 1.10 – 700) + 325 = $478
– Maintenance cost = $20 per year Total Cost for year 4 = (700 × 1.10 – 600) + 450 = $620
6 Total Cost for year 5 = (600 × 1.10 – 500) + 500 = $660
– Resale value after 6 years = $1,200 $20 $1,200
− $2,409.74 = −$3,000 − ∑ +
– NPV of new autoclave (at r = 10%): (1.10) t (1.10) 6
t =1 Note that the total cost of keeping an autoclave for the first year
EAC of new autoclave = ‐$553.29 includes the $200 maintenance cost as well as the opportunity cost of
the foregone future value of the $900 we didn’t get from selling it in
6
− $553.29 year 0 less the $850 we have if we still own it at year 1.
− $2,409.74 = ∑
t =1 (1.10) t
42
25/06/2013
Acquisition of Stock Acquisition of Assets
• A firm can acquire another firm by purchasing • One firm can acquire another by buying all of
target firm’s voting stock in exchange for cash,
shares of stock, or other securities. its assets.
• A tender offer is a public offer to buy shares • A formal vote of the shareholders of the
made by one firm directly to the shareholders of
another firm
another firm. selling firm is required
selling firm is required.
– If the shareholders choose to accept the offer, they
tender their shares by exchanging them for cash or • Advantage of this approach: it avoids the
securities. potential problem of having minority
– A tender offer is frequently contingent on the bidder’s
obtaining some percentage of the total voting shares. shareholders that may occur in an acquisition
– If not enough shares are tendered, then the offer of stock.
might be withdrawn or reformulated.
• Disadvantage of this approach: it involves a
costly legal process of transferring title.
43
25/06/2013
A Classification Scheme A Note on Takeovers
Merger
• In a taxable acquisition, the shareholders of
the target firm are considered to have sold
Acquisition Acquisition of Stock their shares, and they will have capital
gain/losses that will be taxed
gain/losses that will be taxed.
Takeovers Proxy Contest Acquisition of Assets • In a tax‐free acquisition, since the acquisition
is considered an exchange instead of a sale, no
Going Private
(LBO)
capital gain or loss occurs.
44
25/06/2013
45
25/06/2013
46
25/06/2013
The NPV of a Merger: Common
Cash versus Common Stock
Stock
• The analysis gets muddied up because we • Overvaluation
need to consider the post‐merger value of – If the target firm shares are too pricey to buy with
those shares we’re giving away. cash, then go with stock.
Target firm payout ≥ α × New firm value • Taxes
– Cash acquisitions usually trigger taxes.
New shares issued – Stock acquisitions are usually tax‐free.
α=
Old shares + New shares issued • Sharing Gains from the Merger
– With a cash transaction, the target firm
shareholders are not entitled to any downstream
synergies.
• Target‐firm managers frequently resist • The basic idea is to reduce the potential
takeover attempts. diversification discount associated with
• It can start with press releases and mailings to commingled operations and to increase
shareholders that present management’ss
shareholders that present management corporate focus
corporate focus.
viewpoint and escalate to legal action. • Divestiture can take three forms:
• Management resistance may represent the – Sale of assets: usually for cash
pursuit of self interest at the expense of – Spinoff: parent company distributes shares of a
shareholders. subsidiary to shareholders. Shareholders wind up
owning shares in two firms. Sometimes this is
• Resistance may benefit shareholders in the done with a public IPO.
end if it results in a higher offer premium from – Issuance if tracking stock: a class of common stock
47
25/06/2013
The Control Block and The Corporate Charter Repurchase Standstill Agreements
• If one individual or group owns 51‐percent of a company’s • In a targeted repurchase the firm buys back its
stock, this control block makes a hostile takeover virtually
impossible. own stock from a potential acquirer, often at a
• Control blocks are typical in Canada, although they are the premium.
exception in the United States
exception in the United States. • Critics of such payments label them
Critics of such payments label them
• The corporate charter establishes the conditions that allow a
takeover.
greenmail.
• Target firms frequently amend corporate charters to make • Standstill agreements are contracts where the
acquisitions more difficult. bidding firm agrees to limit its holdings of
• Examples another firm.
– Staggering the terms of the board of directors.
– Requiring a supermajority shareholder approval of an acquisition – These usually leads to cessation of takeover
attempts.
h h k d d h h f
Exclusionary Offers and Nonvoting
Going Private and LBOs
Stock
• The opposite of a targeted repurchase. • If the existing management buys the firm from
• The target firm makes a tender offer for its the shareholders and takes it private.
own stock while excluding targeted • If it is financed with a lot of debt, it is a
shareholders.
shareholders leveraged buyout (LBO)
leveraged buyout (LBO).
An example: • The extra debt provides a tax deduction for
– In 1986, the Canadian Tire Dealers Association the new owners, while at the same time
offered to buy 49% of the company’s voting shares turning the previous managers into owners.
from the founding Billes family.
• This reduces the agency costs of equity
– The offer was voided by the OSC, since it was
viewed as an illegal form of discrimination against
one group of shareholders
48
25/06/2013
30.11 Some Evidence on Acquisitions: Stock Price
Other Defensive Devices Changes in Successful U.S. Corporate Takeovers
• Golden parachutes are compensation to
outgoing target firm management. Takeover Successful
• Crown jewels are the major assets of the Technique Targets Bidder
target If the target firm management is
target. If the target firm management is
desperate enough, they will sell off the crown Tender offer 30% 4%
jewels. Merger 20% 0%
Proxy contest 8% NA
• White Knight is a friendly bidder who
promises to maintain the jobs of existing
management.
• Poison pills are measures of true desperation
Abnormal Returns in Successful Canadian Comparison of U.S. vs. Canadian
Mergers Mergers
• The evidence both in U.S. and Canada
strongly suggests that shareholders of
Target Bidder
successful target firms achieve substantial
Mergers 1964‐‐83 9% 3% gains from takeovers.
Going private • Shareholders of bidding firms earn
Transactions 1977‐‐89 25% NA significantly less from takeovers. The balance
‐ Minority buyouts 27% NA is more even for Canadian mergers than for
‐ Non‐controlling bidder 24% NA U.S. ones.
The reasons may be:
– There is less competition among bidders in
Canada
49
25/06/2013
• The three legal forms of acquisition are • The possible synergies of an acquisition come
1. Merger and consolidation from the following:
2. Acquisition of stock – Revenue enhancement
3 Acquisition of assets
3. Acquisition of assets – Cost reduction
Cost reduction
• M&A requires an understanding of – Lower taxes
complicated tax and accounting rules. – Lower cost of capital
• The synergy from a merger is the value of the • The reduction in risk may actually help
combined firm less the value of the two firms existing bondholders at the expense of
Synergy = V − (VA + VB ) shareholders.
as separate entities. AB
50