Manufacturing Process of

Epoxy Resins
with Formulation
(Synthesis, Epoxy Resin Adhesives
and Epoxy Resin Coatings)
Introduction

Epoxy is a term used to denote both the basic components and the
cured end products of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for
the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resin are a class of thermoset
materials used extensively in structural and specialty composite
applications because they offer a unique combination of properties
that are unattainable with other thermoset resins.

Epoxy resins are characterized by epoxy equivalent (EEVV)/epoxy

value, hydrolysablechlorine content, total chlorine content,
viscosity/softening point, volatile content, colour, clarity, hydroxyl
value, ionic iron, sodium and chlorine contents.

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 Epoxy resins are a group of synthetic resins, which are used to make
adhesives and plastics. Owing to their versatility, high resistance to
chemicals, durability, excellent adhesion, toughness, high electrical
resistance, strong durability at both low and high temperatures, and
ease they offer while pouring on cast without forming any bubbles,
epoxy resins are becoming an integral part of various commercial and
industrial sectors.

Epoxy based solution coatings are used in maintenance and product

finishes, marine finishes, masonry finishes, structure steel coatings and
tank coatings, aircraft finishes, appliance primers, automotive primers,
car and drum linings, furniture finishes and collapsible tube coatings.

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 They are used for concrete floor paints, gym and floor varnishes,
spar varnishes etc. Epoxy Resins are also used in decorative floor
applications, as chemically resistant mortars and floor topping
compound; in printing inks, in fabric treating applications in dental,
surgical and prosthetic applications for breaking petroleum
emulsions and for light weight chemically resistant foams. The
epoxy resins are used as additives for a variety of other plastic
materials, such as vinyl and acrylic resins and natural and synthetic
rubbers.

The epoxy resin market is driven by its increasing demand in

various applications such as coatings, adhesives, and composites.

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 The paints & coatings segment is the largest application and is
projected to remain the same in the overall epoxy resin market, in
terms of volume, during the forecast period. Economic expansion in
the developing countries of Asia-Pacific will increase the demand of
epoxy resin for paints & coatings application in building &
construction and automotive end-use industries.

The global epoxy resin market is expected to reach USD 14.26 billion
by 2024. The market is witnessing a moderate growth rate owing to
increasing applications, technological advancements, and growing
demand in Asia-Pacific. Epoxy resin is largely used in paints &
coatings applications.

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 The market is anticipated to be driven by end-use industries
including automotive, aerospace, transportation, composites,
decorative coatings, construction, industrial & marine coatings,
electrical & electronics, especially in Asia Pacific. Epoxy resins
are the most preferred thermoplastics for manufacturing
composite materials owing to their superior properties as
compared to other materials.

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 The major contents of the book are synthesis and characteristics of epoxy
resin, manufacture of epoxy resins, epoxide curing reactions, the dynamic
mechanical properties of epoxy resins, physical and chemical properties of
epoxy resins, epoxy resin adhesives, epoxy resin coatings, epoxy coating
give into water, electrical and electronic applications, analysis of epoxides
and epoxy resins and the toxicology of epoxy resins.

It will be a standard reference book for professionals and entrepreneurs.

Those who are interested in this field can find the complete information
from manufacture to final uses of epoxy resin. This presentation will be
very helpful to new entrepreneurs, technocrats, research scholars, libraries
and existing units.

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 Table of Contents
1. Synthesis and Characteristics of Epoxy Resin
Introduction
Structure of Epoxides
Epoxipation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Catalytic Oxidation of Ethylene and Higher Olefins
Epoxidation by Peroxy Acids and Their Esters
Preparation of Peroxy Acids
In Situ Epoxidation
The Epoxidation Mechanism
Unsaturated Materials
Epoxidation by Inorganic Peroxy Acids
Epoxidation with Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbon Hydroperoxides
Epoxidation with Chromic Acid and Chromyl Compounds
Biological Epoxidation
Dehydrohalogenation of Substituted Hydroxyl Compounds
The Epoxidation Mechanism
Halohydrin Formation

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 Epoxides from Epichlorohydrin
Glycidyl Ethers
Glycidyl Esters
Nitrogen-Containing Epoxides
Thioglycidyl Epoxides
Silicon-Containing Epoxides
Organophosphorus Epoxides
Halogen-Containing Epoxides
Epoxides from Hydroxy Sulfonates or Halogenated Acetates
Epoxides from Glycols
Epoxidation by Condensation
Darzens Glycidic Ester Condensations
Epoxides from Ylids
Epoxides from Halogenated Ketones and Nickel Carbonyl
Epoxides from the Reaction of Diazomethane with Aldehydes or Ketones
Epoxides Containing Unsaturation
Conclusions

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 2. Manufacture of Epoxy Resins
Raw Materials
Manufacture
Plant Location
Machinery Needed
Profit

3. Epoxide-Curing Reactions
The Effect of Epoxide Structure on Reactivity with Curing Agents
The Mechanism of the Curing Reaction
Polyaddition Reactions
Polyamines
Polyamides
Polyureas
Polyurethanes
Polyisocyanates
Polymercaptans
Polyhydric Alcohols
Polyphenols

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 Polycarboxylic Acids
Polybasic Acid Anhydrides
Silanes and Silanols
Others
Polymerization
Anionic Catalysts
Cationic Catalysts

4. The Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Resins

Basic Parameters
The Glassy Transition and Dynamic Mechanical Dispersion
Temperature and Frequency Interdependence
Experimental
Results and Discussion
Standard Measurements
Dynamic Measurements
Comparison of Results
Treatment by Reduced Variables
Conclusions

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 5. Physical and Chemical Properties of Epoxy Resins
Solubility and Surface Properties
Network Structure and Physical Properties
Aging and Chemorheology
Bisphenol a Epoxy Homopolymers and Copolymers
Thermal Transition Effects
Dynamic Mechanical Response
Relaxation and Fracture Properties
Properties Compared with Elastomers and Thermoplastics

6. Epoxy Resin Adhesives

Introduction
Theories of Adhesion and Aohesive-joint Strength
Wetting and Spreading Phenomena
Boundary-Layer Theory
Surface-Attachment Theory of Adhesive-Joint Strengths
Stress Distribution in Adhesive Joints
Rheological Aspects of Adhesives
Unified Interpretation of Adhesive-Joint Strengths
Physical and Mechanical Aspects of Epoxy-Resin Adhesives

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 Dynamic Mechanical Techniques
Mechanical Behavior of Epoxy Adhesives During Joint Formation
Strength of Adhesive Materials
Chemical Aspects of Epoxy-based Adhesives
Curing Agents for Bisphenol A Epoxy Adhesives
Modifiers for Bisphenol A Epoxy Adhesives
Adhesives Based on Other Epoxy Materials
Technological Properties of Epoxy-adhesive Systems
Cure and Thermal Softening Behavior of Epoxy Adhesives
Stress and Environmental Durability of Adhesive Joints
Applications of Epoxy Adhesives
Future Prospects

7. Epoxy Resin Coatings

Classification of Epoxy-Resin Coatings
Epoxy Resins Commonly Used in Coatings
Epoxy-Resin Esters
Esters Produced from Solid Epoxy Resins
General Remarks

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 Formulation Latitude
Esters Produced from Liquid Epoxy Resins
Precatalyzed Liquid Epoxy Resin for the Production of Solid Epoxy Resins
and Epoxy-Resin Esters
Cooking Procedure
“Two-Step” Liquid-Epoxy-Resin Route to Epoxy-Resin Esters
Cooking Procedure
Solid-Epoxy-Resin Solution Coatings
Cold-Cured Epoxy-Resin Systems
Polyamine Curing Agents
Polyamine-Adduct Curing Agents
Polyamide-Resin Curing Agents
Polyamide-Adduct Curing Agents
Tertiary Amine Curing Agents
Industrial Maintenance Coatings Based on Cold-Cured Epoxy-Resin Systems
High-Film-Build Cold-Cured Epoxy-Resin Coatings
Application Instructions
Manufacturing Instructions

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 Epoxy Baking Finishes
Epoxy-Phenolic Coating Systems
Epoxy-Urea-Formaldehyde Resin Coating Systems
Epoxy-Thermosetting Acrylic Coating Systems
Liquid Epoxy Resins in Solventless and Super-High-Solids Systems
Special Application Equipment and Formulation for Solventless Systems
Manufacturing Instructions
Application
Ketimine Curing Agents
Manufacturing Instructions
Application
Curing Characteristics
Powder Coatings
Application Equipment
Epoxy-Resin Powder-Coating Formulations
Fusion-Produced Epoxy-Resin Powders
Manufacturing Instructions
Applications Instructions
Dry-blended Epoxy-Resin Powders
Manufacturing Instructions

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 Application Instructions
Properties and Applications
Thermoplastic Epoxy Resins
Zinc-Rich and General Purpose Shop Primers
Manufacturing Instructions
Application Instructions
Manufacturing Instructions
Application Instructions
Thermoplastic-Epoxy-Resin Crosslinked Systems
Water-Reducible Epoxy Resin Coatings
Water-Reducible Epoxy-Ester Baking Finishes
Manufacturing Instructions
Application Instructions
Water-Reducible Polyamide-Cured Epoxy-Resin Coatings
Manufacturing Instructions
Manufacturing Instructions
Water-Reducible Epoxy-Resin Coatings for Electrodeposition
General Remarks
Cooking Procedure
Application Instructions

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 8. Epoxy Coating Give into Water

9. Electrical and Electronic Applications : Sealants and Foams

Electronic and Electrical Applications
Introduction
Casting
Potting
Encapsulation
Coatings
Sealing
Molding
Formulation of the Resin System
Internal Stresses
Rapid Cures
Flexibilizing Epoxy Resins
Fillers
Reactive Diluents

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 Cycloaliphatic Epoxides
High-Temperature Epoxy-Resin Systems
Flame-Retardant Epoxy Resins
Colorless Epoxy Resins
Epoxy Formulations
Molding
Molding Compounds
Molding Technology
Liquid-Injection Molding
Pellets and Preforms
Epoxy Sealants
Epoxy Foams
Gas-Blown Foams
Syntactic Foams
One-Package Foams
Epoxy-Foam Applications
Epoxy Strippers
Handling of Epoxy Casting Systems

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 10. Analysis of Epoxides and Epoxy Resins
Uncured Epoxy Resins
Qualitative Tests
Detection of Free Epoxy Groups
Determination of Epoxy Group—Lithium-Chloride Test
Reagents
Procedure
Determination of Epoxy Group—Periodic Acid Test
Reagents
Procedure
Determination of Epoxy Group—Pyrolysis Test
Reagents
Procedure
Determination of Epoxy Group—Lepidine Test
Reagents
Procedure
Detection of the Bisphenol A Skeleton
Reagents

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 Procedure
Determination of Bisphenol A Epoxy Resins in Coatings—Nitric Acid Test
Reagents
Reagent
Procedure
Determination of Bisphenol A Epoxy Resins—Filter-Paper Test
Reagents
Procedure
Determination of Bisphenol A Epoxy Resin—Formaldehyde Test
Reagents
Procedure
Determination of Bisphenol A Epoxy Resins—Phenylenediamine Test
Reagent
Procedure
Detection of Epoxy Resins Based on 4,4-’-Diamino-diphenylmethane
Determination of Epoxy Resins Based on 4,4'-Diaminodiphenylmethane
Reagents
Procedure
Detection of Other Epoxy Resins

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 Quantitative Tests of the Epoxy Group
Hydrohalogenation Methods
Estimation of Epoxy Group—Hydrochloric Acid in Dioxane, Methyl Ethyl
Ketone, or Dimethylformamide
Reagents
Procedure
Calculations
Estimation of the Epoxy Group—Pyridinium Chloride in Pyridine
Reagents
Procedure
Hydrohalogenation by Direct Titration
Estimation of Epoxy Group
Reagents
Procedure
Calculations
Other Chemical Methods
Estimation of Other Functional Groups
Hydroxyl Group
a-Glycol Group
Estimation of a-Glycol Group

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 Reagents
Procedure
Calculation
Chlorine
Esterification Equivalent Weight
Estimation of Esterification Equivalent Weight
Reagents
Procedure
Calculation
Infrared Spectroscopy
Technique
Epoxide Absorption Bands
Epoxy Resins
Quantitative Estimation
Following the Degree of Cure
Other Physical Methods
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
Electron Spin and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods
Gas Chromatography
Paper Chromatography

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 Thin-Layer and Gel-Permeation Chromatography
Handling Properties
Molecular Weight
Softening Point
Viscosity
Color
Blends and Compounds
Hardeners and Accelerators
Organic Acid Anhydrides
Determination of Acid and Anhydride Content
Reagents
Procedure
Calculations
Amines
Determination of Amine Number
Reagents
Procedure
Calculation
The Curing Process

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 Curing Characteristics of Epoxy Resin-Hardener Systems
Determining the Degree of Cure
Analysis of Cured Epoxy Resins

11. The Toxicology of Epoxy Resins

Introduction
Experimental Method
Materials
Acute Toxicity
Chronic Toxicity
Irritation
Sensitization
Results
Acute Toxicity
Chronic Toxicity
Irritation
Sensitization
Medical Experience with Epoxy Resins
Comment

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 Niir Project Consultancy Services (NPCS)
can provide Process Technology Book on
Epoxy Resins
(Manufacturing Process, Synthesis, Epoxy Resin
Adhesives and Epoxy Coatings)

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 AN ISO 9001:2008 COMPANY

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We at NPCS want to grow with you by providing solutions scale
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We bring deep, functional expertise, but are known for
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 Contact us
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