Understanding Grammar in Context

UNDERSTANDING
GRAMMAR IN
CONTEXT
TASKS AND EXPLANATIONS
JUDIT DOMBI & TAMÁS FEKETE

Understanding Grammar in Context
Tasks and explanations
Írta:
Dombi Judit
Fekete Tamás
A kiadvány szerkesztési, lektorálási, grafikai és tördelési munkáit

a Virágmandula Kft végezte
Ezen elektronikus tananyag megjelentetése az EFOP-3.4.3-16-2016-00005

számú, „Korszer egyetem a modern városban: Értékközpontúság, nyitottság és
befogadó szemlélet egy 21. századi felsoktatási modellben” cím pályázat
keretében valósult meg
© Dombi Judit & Fekete Tamás

© Virágmandula Kft
CONTENTS
U NIT 1 The English verb I: Basic forms.............................................................................3
U NIT 2 The English verb II: The progressive aspect.......................................................12
U NIT 3 The English verb III: The perfect aspect..............................................................19
U NIT 4 The English verb IV: The perfect progressive aspect.........................................28
U NIT 5 The English verb V: Future forms .......................................................................36
U NIT 6 Modal auxiliaries..................................................................................................43
U NIT 7 Questions .............................................................................................................54
U NIT 8 Relative clauses ...................................................................................................64

UNIT 1 The English Verb I: Basic forms
Grammar explanations in this unit are based on:
Lewis, Michael. 1986. The English Verb.

Cowan, Ron. 2008. The Teacher’s Grammar of English.
Swan, Michael. 2016. Practical English Usage.
In most language instruction books English tense system is presented in the following ways:
(1) English has either 12 tenses :
Present Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous;
Past Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous;
Future Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous;
(2) or as many as 24 tenses: the twelve listed above plus the passive variant of
each.
The actual state of affair is much more simple: English has two tenses. Past and present. The
English language has no future (English doesn't inflect verbs to indicate future tense). The
reason behind this is that separate word-forms exist only for the past and for the present tense
and there is no word-form for the future tense, as illustrated below:
Present tense Past tense Future tense

I talkø I talked I will talk
you talkø you talked you will talk
he/she/it talks he/she/it talked he/she/it will talk
we talkø we talked we will talk
you talkø you talked you will talk
they talkø they talked they will talk
The future tense is expressed by a modal auxiliary (will) and not by a single word-form.
However, this modal changes the modality of the verb, not its tense. The future tense can also
be expressed in a variety of ways (e.g. Present Simple, will, be going to, be about to, etc), but it
is not possible to indicate futurity by only inflecting the verb. In essence, tense is what can be
marked on the verb, which makes the present and the past forms realizations of tenses, while
the future can only be marked by an auxiliary. The present form is not marked in any way in
English, which alone is enough to set it apart from the past tense which is always marked. The -
s marking in he/she/it walks is an inflection for person and not for tense.
The 12 “tenses” given above are actually the combinations of a tense (present or past) and an
aspect (progressive [or continuous], perfect, and perfect progressive). The term aspect refers
to how the speaker sees the temporal quality of the action described by the verb. Each aspect
brings a specific component of meaning to the whole mix. This meaning is mostly the same in
each occurrence of that given aspect. Regardless of the tense, the progressive aspect will
always carry the same meaning. Similarly, the perfect aspect will also carry the same core
meaning no matter what tense it is combined with, and the perfect progressive construction is in
fact the combination of two different aspects.
Tense tells us the time reference of the verb (i.e. past, present, future), and aspect tells us how
the speaker interprets the action’s time-related characteristics (i.e. duration and recentness).
Unit 1 The English Verb I – Basic forms
I. Look at the following snippets from song lyrics
A) Sit by my side, come as close as the air,

Share in a memory of gray;
And wander in my words, and dream about the pictures
That I play of changes.
B) Green leaves of summer turn red in the fall,

To brown and to yellow they fade.
And then they have to die, trapped within
The circle time parade of changes.
C) Scenes of my young years were warm in my mind,

Visions of shadows that shine.
Till one day I returned and found they were the
Victims of the vines of changes. (A-C: Phil Ochs – Changes)
D) He was a most peculiar man.

He lived all alone within a house,
Within a room, within himself,
A most peculiar man.
He had no friends, he seldom spoke
And no one in turn ever spoke to him,
'Cause he wasn't friendly and he didn't care
And he wasn't like them.
Oh, no! he was a most peculiar man. (Simon & Garfunkel – A most peculiar man)
E) 'Cause he gets up in the morning,

And he goes to work to nine,
And he comes back home at five-thirty,
Gets the same train every time.
'Cause his world is built 'round punctuality,
It never fails.
F) And he's oh, so good,

And he's oh, so fine,
And he's oh, so healthy,
In his body and his mind.
He's a well respected man about town,
Doing the best things so conservatively. (E-F: The Kinks – A well respected man)
G) I can hear the soft breathing

Of the girl that I love
As she lies here beside me
Asleep with the night
And her hair, in a fine mist
Floats on my pillow
Reflecting the glow
Of the winter moonlight (Simon & Garfunkel – Wednesday morning 3 AM)
H) He freely gave to charity, he had the common touch,

And they were grateful for his patronage and thanked him very much,
I) So my mind was filled with wonder when the evening headlines read:
"Richard Cory went home last night and put a bullet through his head."
(H-I: Simon & Garfunkel – Richard Cory)
4
The English Verb I – Basic forms Unit 1
Which of these examples describe or refer to…
…general states, general truths:

…habits, frequently done actions:
…instructions:
…narration, commentary, storytelling:
Regardless of tense, with the basic form, we express what we see to be a matter of fact, and
we see the action described by the verb to be total and complete. The difference between past
and present forms is that the present form expresses immediacy, i.e. the action is still real and
valid, while the past form expresses remoteness, meaning that the action is located in time
prior to the present moment. With the basic forms, the speaker does not emphasize the
duration or recentness of the action, but concentrates on the objective, factual nature of the
action. With the basic forms, the focus is on the action or state itself and not how long it goes
on for. The action is seen as a complete and indivisible unit, with a beginning and an end. We
can think about it as if it were part of a timetable or schedule, especially with habits and
frequently done actions.
In summary, the basic form means that

• the focus is on the action or state itself
• the action is seen to be complete
• we talk about the action in as general and factual terms as possible
• we are not interested in the duration of the action
• the action is seen as timeless, meaning that it has happened multiple times before and if
we’re using the present tense then it will happen in the future
• when we’re using the forms for narration or commentary, we see the actions as if they
were a series of very brief events
• we imagine the action or state to be a point in time without any other dimensions
II. Complete the text with the appropriate form of the verbs.
The attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl Harbor (1) ________ (be) a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese
Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the
morning of December 7, 1941. The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor,
(2) __________ (lead) to the United States' entry into World War II.
Japan (3) ___________ (intend) the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet
from interfering with its planned military actions in Southeast Asia against overseas territories
of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States.
The attack (4) ________ (commence) at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (18:18 GMT). The base
(5) ______________ (attack) by 35 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive
bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, (6) __________ (launch) from six aircraft
5
carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships (7) _________ (damage), with four sunk. One hundred
eighty-eight U.S. aircraft (8) __________ (destroy); 2,403 Americans (9) ________ (kill) and
1,178 others (10) _________ (wound). Important base installations such as the power station,
dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the
submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section),
(11) ________ (not attack). Japanese losses (12) _________ (be) light: 29 aircraft and five
midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. One Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki,
(13) _______ (capture).
The surprise attack (14) _______ (come) as a profound shock to the American people and
(15) ______ (lead) directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and
European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States (16) _____________
(declare) war on Japan, and several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy each
(17) ________ (declare) war on the U.S. The U.S. (18) ________ (respond) with a declaration
of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which
(19) __________ (fade) since the Fall of France in 1940, (20) ____________ (disappear).
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor
Discussion questions:
- Which construction is mostly used in the text?
___________________________________________________________________________
- Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
- What is the form of the text?
___________________________________________________________________________
- How does the writer see the temporal quality of the actions?
___________________________________________________________________________
6
III. Complete the sentences below with the given verbs in the appropriate tense. Then,
determine which use of the verb form is found in each sentence.
break agitate begin take

dream reminisce not realize see
know wear accumulate charter
1. When an aerial shot is needed, filming crews typically __________ a helicopter to fly from
an airport or heliport with fuel and people on board. (habits)
2. He __________ about how back in 2004, over pizza, he and his friends __________ of the
next great software platform. (narration/storytelling)
3. As seafloor sediments __________, each layer's composition reflects the regional climate.
When combined with carbon dating of plankton in each layer, the sediments provide
markers of climate shifts. (general truth [scientific facts])
4. I am most proud that I got the courage to write about something personal that no one
__________ about me. Not even my mom. (general state)
5. Something I __________ until I took yoga was how important the actual way you breathe is.
(general state)
6. Pump the oil into a processor and add a catalyst. __________ the mixture and then allow it
to rest. (instruction)
7. She always looked taller because she hardly ever __________ anything but boots. (habit)
8. War __________, and never ended; history __________ a turn and kept turning, as if intent
upon grinding every last American assumption to dust. (narration/storytelling)
9. Go __________ the movies you want to watch. You're a grown-ass man. You know what to
do. (instruction)
10. He smells the rotten-egg odor of the hydrogen sulfide gas as he __________ the seal of his
mask. (narration/storytelling)
7
IV. Finish the following sentences in any way you find appropriate
1. Whenever I feel…
2. When I was a child, I often…
3. In the summertime…
4. The best thing about…
5. I never really…
6. Yesterday…
7. I hate that I always…
8. Every day…
9. In America…
10. Whenever I felt…
V. Fill the gaps with the suitable verb from the box. Use a tense you find appropriate.
abandon adopt be (4x) become (2x)

begin come crush deprive
invade know loose settle (2x)
speak support survive
The event that (1) ___________ the transition from Old English to Middle English
(2) ___________ the Norman Conquest of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Duke of
Normandy and, later, William I of England) (3) ___________ the island of Britain from his home
base in northern France, and (4) ___________ in his new acquisition along with his nobles and
court. William (5) ___________ the opposition with a brutal hand and
(6) ___________ the Anglo-Saxon earls of their property, distributing it to Normans (and some
English) who (7) ___________ him.
The conquering Normans (8) ___________ themselves descended from Vikings who (9)
___________ in northern France about 200 years before (the very word Norman
(10) ___________ originally from Norseman). However, they (11) ___________ their Old
Norse language and wholeheartedly (12) ___________ French (which (13) ___________ a so-
called Romance language, derived originally from the Latin, not Germanic, branch of Indo-
European), to the extent that not a single Norse word (14) ___________ in Normandy.
However, the Normans (15) ___________ a rural dialect of French with considerable
Germanic influences, usually called Anglo-Norman or Norman French, which
(16) ___________ quite different from the standard French of Paris of the period, which we (17)
___________ as Francien. The differences between these dialects (18) ___________ even
more marked after the Norman invasion of Britain, particularly after King John and England (19)
___________ the French part of Normandy to the King of France in 1204 and England (20)
___________ even more isolated from continental Europe.
8
Which tense is mostly used in this text? Why? Can you think of an event or story int he past and
talk about it in a similar way?
VI. Write a short summary of something you watched recently (on TV, on the internet)
and that the group is also likely to be familiar with. Give pseudonyms to the characters
and the others will have to guess from the storyline.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
VII. Some like it hot, and I certainly do.
1. Listen to Nigella Lawson cooking an Italian dish. (up to 7:22)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQ2iQK56cTM
2. Discuss the following questions in pairs.
- How does Nigella feel about the kitchen in general?
- How does Nigella feel about eating?
- Where does Slut’s Spaghetti get its name from?
- What does the sauce contain?
3. Read the transcript. Which tense is mostly used here? Why? (see the italicized sentences
in paragraph 2.)
The kitchen for me it’s not just a place to cook in and eat it, it’s a place to live in. And
maybe I shouldn’t say this, because it’s a terrible cliché, but it’s true: the kitchen really is the
heart of the home. And what’s also true for me is that it doesn't really matter whether I’ve got
time on my hands and I can cook slowly and leisurely, or if I am really up against it and have to
do frantically fast meals the thing is if I’m in the kitchen I’m happy.
My evening meal is one of the highlights of the day, and something to be celebrated,
even when time or energy are in short supply. How could I not relish a supper called “Slut
spaghetti”? I make it out of ingredients from the store cupboard. My Spanish chicken with
Chorizo and potatoes has it all: looks, taste, ease. The leftovers make the most fantastic
morning-after quesadillas. My no-fuss fruit tart is an absolute show-stopper and it’s stress-free.
And when I’m dining alone, I love to treat myself to my lemony salmon, with cherry-tomato
couscous.
I don’t believe in guilty pleasures. I think the only thing anyone should ever feel guilty
about is not taking pleasure. But having said that, I do concede that the amount of enjoyment I
get from eating supper in bed is almost shameful. But I need to be prepared, I am ever-hopeful,
so I have to keep the ingredients in the house that enable me to rustle up a quick supper
whenever I want.
9
Pasta Putanesca, an Italian stalwart, is generally translated on English menus anyway,

as pasta cooked in a whoreish fashion. Now, I’m sorry to be immodest but I prefer my
translation: Slut’s spaghetti.
Sauce .
I’m gonna start with some anchovies, and I have a special anchovy prizer. The thing about slut’s
spaghetti, is that there’s a bit of a debate about why it’s called this. Some people say it’s
because it’s got such gutsy flavours, others say it’s because it’s very quick to make, so you
could probably rustle up a dish of it in between entertaining gentlemen callers but I think it’s
probably because the ingredients for it all come from tins or jars or like anchovies preserved so
in other words, you could be the sort of slattern who didn't go to market everyday and buy
fresh products, but still make this sauce.
VIII. Pairwork:
• Summarize in a narrative fashion how Slut’s Spaghetti is made.
• Tell your partner about the steps of making a dish (or drink) without telling the name. Let
them guess.
• Do you usually cook for yourself? What are some of the dishes you often make? Do you
always eat on your own?
• Nigella, Britain’s self-claimed Domestic Goddess is passionate about food and cooking.
Do you feel similarly about something? Can you give the others an account of something
that gets you hooked? (See paragraph 1)
IX. Have a look at this dish and try to write down the possible steps of how it is made.
10
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about the basic form of the verb. You
can add more bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make sure you also
write example sentences.
11
UNIT 2 The English Verb II: The progressive aspect
Present Continuous & Past Continuous

Grammatically aspects in English are expressed via aspectual auxiliaries: the progressive
aspect (BE + present participle [also known as the -ing form]) and the perfect aspect (HAVE +
past participle). We will first survey the progressive – or continuous – aspect.
A) Bye, bye Miss American Pie

Drove my Chevy to the levee but the levee was dry
And them good old boys were drinking whiskey and rye
Singin' this'll be the day that I die
This'll be the day that I die (Don McLean – American pie)
B) Father wears his Sunday best

Mother's tired she needs a rest
The kids are playing up downstairs
Sister's sighing in her sleep
Brother's got a date to keep
He can't hang around (Madness – Our house)
C) The world's spinning madly, it drifts in the dark

Swings through a hollow of haze,
A race around the stars, a journey through
The universe ablaze with changes. (Phil Ochs – Changes)
D) Hello there George, newsagent on the corner,

How's the old car, yes the climate's getting warmer (Madness – In the middle of the night)
Does the progressive form refer to permanent situations? Yes / No

Are the actions denoted by the progressive forms completed? Yes / No
Are the actions seen as discrete points in time? Yes / No
Is the duration of the actions important? Yes / No
Why do you think the present simple and present progressive is used in the lyrics above?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The English Verb II – The progressive aspect Unit 2
II. Complete the following excerpt from a textbook with the progressive or simple forms
of the words given in the boxes above each paragraph.
change grow already/overtake be account
Economic relationships between the developed countries and those of the ‘third world’
(1) ________________________. Indian and Chinese economies, especially,
(2) _______________________ fast. According to the OECD, China could overtake the USA
and Germany to become the largest exporter in the world in the next 5 years. In December
2005, China revised its estimations of economic growth, showing that it (3) ______________
Italy in GDP and was likely to become the world’s fourth largest, overtaking the UK, by the end
of 2006. China’s services sector (4) __________ particularly underestimated and probably
already (5) __________________ for over 40% of its GDP.
experience be grow form estimate
The world economy (6) ________________ the impact of two new economic superpowers
emerging simultaneously. But it (7) _______________ not just China and India whose
economies (8) ______________ fast. Together with Brazil and Russia they (9) ____________ a
group referred to by economists as BRICs. An analysis in 2003 by Goldman Sachs
(10) __________________ what the combined impact would be on the world economy of this
emergent group.
warn shape require be welcome
In January 2006, the Worldwatch Institute, a US think-tank, (11) _____________ that India and
China are ‘planetary powers that (12) ______________ the global biosphere’ who, if they were
to consume as much per capita as Japan, would ‘(13) ______________ a full planet Earth to
meet their needs’. Many (14) ______________ fearful of the political consequences of such a
global shift of economic power. Others (15) _____________ the growth of both countries and
the contribution to the global economy which they will make.
Source: David Graddol: English Next, pp. 32-33
The progressive aspect is expressed with the present or past form of BE plus the present
participle, that is the -ing form of the verb.
The main use of the progressive aspect (in any tense) is

(i) to denote actions that are ongoing at the given moment,
(ii) to emphasize that the action is going on for a longer period of time,
(iii) and to express that an action frequently occurs around a given time
As opposed to the basic form, the progressive aspect implies that for some reason the speaker
wishes to underline the duration of the action. Another main distinction is that the action is not
seen as a discrete point, but as a limited period and as being incomplete but compleatable.
13
Unit 2 The English Verb II – The progressive aspect
Use of the progressive form also means that the time reference is limited to a given period, and
the speaker wants to draw attention to the fact that a period was involved.
Summary: Indicate whether the items in the list of features below (A-H) are true for the basic
form or the progressive form
(A) the action is seen as a point in time basic / progressive

(B) the focus is on the duration basic / progressive
(C) the action or state is seen to be temporary basic / progressive
(D) the action can exist for an indefinite amount of time basic / progressive
(E) the action is seen as a period basic / progressive
(F) the action is incomplete but compleatable basic / progressive
(G) the focus is on the action or state itself basic / progressive
(H) the action is complete basic / progressive
(I) the action exists for a limited amount of time basic / progressive
(J) the action or state can be seen to be permanent basic / progressive
III. Describe the difference between the following pairs of sentences. In some cases one
of the sentences in the pair might be ungrammatical. Give reasons why.
1a I swear I didn’t do anything.

1b I’m swearing I didn’t do anything.
2a You always complain about everything.

2b You’re always complaining about everything.
3a I hate awkward situations like this.

3b I’m hating this awkward situation.
4a He snored and talked in his sleep all night long.

4b He was snoring and talking in his sleep all night long.
5a What did you think when you suggested that we hitchhike home?
5b What were you thinking when you suggested that we hitchhike home?
IV. Read this text on Colony Collapse Disorder, a serious phenomenon that is threatening
beekeepers all around the world. Imagine that you are spokesperson for your local
Beekeepers’ Association and you need to inform local authorities about the state of affairs. Use
clues from the text to support your argumentation. Make sure you use the right aspect to signal
how you see the actions.
Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in
a colony disappear and leave behind a queen, plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the
remaining immature bees. While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of
apiculture, and were known by various names (disappearing disease, spring dwindle, May disease,
14
autumn collapse, and fall dwindle disease), the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in
late 2006 in conjunction with a drastic rise in the number of disappearances of western honey bee
(Apis mellifera) colonies in North America. European beekeepers observed similar phenomena in
Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, Switzerland and Germany, albeit
to a lesser degree, and the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50%.
The National Agriculture Statistics Service reported 2.44 million honey-producing hives were in the
United States in February 2008, down from 4.5 million in 1980, and 5.9 million in 1947, though these
numbers underestimate the total number of managed hives, as they exclude several thousand hives
managed for pollination contracts only, and also do not include hives managed by beekeepers owning
fewer than five hives. This under-representation may be offset by the practice of counting some hives
more than once; hives that are moved to different states to produce honey are counted in each state's
total and summed in total counts.
In 2007 in the US, at least 24 different states had reported at least one case of CCD. In a 2007 survey
of 384 responding beekeepers from 13 states, 23.8% met the specified criterion for CCD (that 50% or
more of their dead colonies were found without bees and/or with very few dead bees in the hive or
apiary). In the US in 2006–2007, CCD-suffering operations had a total loss of 45% compared to the
total loss of 25% of all colonies experienced by non-CCD suffering beekeepers.
According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in 2007, the United Kingdom had 274,000
hives, Italy had 1,091,630, and France 1,283,810. In 2008, the British Beekeepers Association
reported the bee population in the United Kingdom dropped by around 30% between 2007 and 2008,
and an EFSA study revealed that in Italy the mortality rate was 40–50%. However, EFSA officials
point out the figures are not very reliable because before the bees started dying, no harmonization
was used in the way different countries collected statistics on their bee populations. At that time
(2008), the reports blamed the high death rate on the varroa mite, two seasons of unusually wet
European summers, and some pesticides.
In 2009, Tim Lovett, president of the British Beekeepers' Association, said: "Anecdotally, it is hugely
variable. There are reports of some beekeepers losing almost a third of their hives and others losing
none." John Chapple, chairman of the London Beekeepers' Association, put losses among his 150
members at between a fifth and a quarter. "There are still a lot of mysterious disappearances; we are
no nearer to knowing what is causing them." The government's National Bee Unit continued to deny
the existence of CCD in Britain; it attributes the heavy losses to the varroa mite and rainy summers
that stop bees foraging for food.
In 2010, David Aston of the British Beekeepers' Association stated, "We still do not believe CCD
(which is now better defined) is a cause of colony losses in the UK, however we are continuing to
experience colony losses, many if not most of which can be explained." He feels recent studies
suggest "further evidence to the evolving picture that there are complex interactions taking place
between a number of factors, pathogens, environmental, beekeeping practices and other stressors,
which are causing honey bee losses described as CCD in the US".
Beekeepers in Scotland also reported losses for the past three years. Andrew Scarlett, a Perthshire-
based bee farmer and honey packer, lost 80% of his 1,200 hives during the 2009/10 winter. He
attributed the losses to a virulent bacterial infection that quickly spread because of a lack of bee
inspectors, coupled with sustained poor weather that prevented honey bees from building up sufficient
pollen and nectar stores.
In Germany, where some of the first reports of CCD in Europe appeared, and where, according to the
German national association of beekeepers, 40% of the honey bee colonies died, there was no
scientific confirmation; in early May 2007, the German media reported no confirmed CCD cases
seemed to have occurred in Germany.
In 2012, a report was published stating the first case of CCD, according to more stringent definitions,
occurring outside of the US was in Switzerland. At the end of May 2012, the Swiss government
reported about half of the bee population had not survived the winter. The main cause of the decline
was thought to be the parasite Varroa destructor.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder
15
V. Describe the picture. Try to come up with original ideas about what is happening.
VI. Complete the following sentences with the simple or progressive forms of the verbs
given in brackets. In some cases both versions are acceptable, but the meanings will be
different.
1. A new, more radio-friendly LP is being cranked out as quickly as possible. Meanwhile, no

one ___________ (doubt) that the young singer eventually will emerge a star.
2. The father of two Manhattan middle schoolers said conferences provided a chance to ask
whom his children ___________ (hang) out with.
3. There were sounds of rapid dressing, and then she ___________ (fling) open the door.
4. Three hours and forty-six minutes until lunch. She ___________ (stare) at the clock and
___________ (imagine) federal agents in white hooded suits shoving contaminated books
into plastic bags.
5. Preservation groups ________________ (contemplate) a survey of every home and

primary structure in the city to determine each one's historic significance.
6. While half a dozen witnesses ________________ (corroborate) the suspect’s alibi, the DNA
sample was enough to convince the jury.
16
7. I ___________ (sit) on a subway and some guy next to me ___________ (blast) music
through his headphones. How do I get him to stop?
8. The lighted end of my cigarette just hit one of my fingers as I ___________ (muse) on the
purposelessness of life.
VII. Read the text below and choose the best alternative in each case
The Latin influence on English and British Celtic (= Brittonic) is / was / had been usually
measured by the number of loanwords Latin was donating / donated / donates to those
languages. The picture that emerged / is emerging / emerges is familiar: the number of
loanwords was / is / can be high, which is to be expected in the case of the politically, socio-
economically and culturally high-prestige language that was / has been / is early-first-
millennium Latin, and it is higher in Brittonic than in English, for the very good reason that
Brittonic unlike the predecessor of English had been spoken / was being used / was spoken
within the boundaries of the Roman Empire for the best part of four centuries.
Lexical borrowing represents / represented / is representing the most superficial level
on which languages can influence one another. Particularly in the case of Latin, influences on a
more structural level are / is / will be to be expected. The success of linguistic Romanization
within the Empire demonstrates / was demonstrated / is demonstrated by the disappearance of all
other languages that were being spoken / are spoken / were spoken when the legions were
marching / marched / march in, apart from three telling exceptions: Albanian, Basque and
British Celtic. All three survive / are surviving / survived in remote mountainous areas within
a territory that at least in the case of Brittonic and Basque
is / was / has been originally larger (the original spread of Albanian is unclear). All three
are packed / are packing / packed with Latin loanwords, some of which
expresses / are expressing / express elementary notions.
VIII. Write a short paragraph starting with the following prompt. You are free to use the
progressive form and any other construction you judge appropriate.
The education system is facing serious challenges today
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
17
IX. Pair work: Look at the picture and guess what is happening in this house.
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about the progressive aspect in
English. You can add more bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make
sure you also write example sentences.
Glossary – define these grammar terms with your own words.
aspect
auxiliary
present participle
18
UNIT 3 The English Verb III: The perfect aspect
Present Perfect & Past Perfect

The perfect aspect (regardless of time reference) expresses beforeness. The speaker wants to underline that
a given action occurred before a specific time. Thus, the actions or states described by the present perfect
occurred before the present, those described by the past perfect occurred before a given point in the past,
and those described by the future perfect occurred before a given point in the future.
Also, with the use of the perfect aspect, the speaker links the event to another time plane. The speaker is
looking back from a later point in time to an earlier point in time. Therefore, the perfect aspect can also be
called the retrospective aspect. The focus is on the result and not on the action itself as with the basic forms.
With the perfect forms, there is a connection (often a resultative one) with a previous point or period in time.
Only the basic forms can be used with time adverbials specifying a point in the past.
A) Oh, what have I done,

Why have I done it?
I've committed a crime,
broken the law
Are the actions completed? Yes / No

Do we know when they were completed? Yes / No
Could we specify when they were completed? Yes / No
Is the result of the actions still relevant? Yes / No
Am I still a criminal? Yes / No
Am I feeling remorseful? Yes / No
B) For twenty-five dollars

And pieces of silver
I held up and robbed
A hard liquor store (A-B: Simon & Garfunkel – Wednesday morning 3 AM)
Are the actions completed? Yes / No

Do we know when they were completed? Yes / No
Could we specify when they were completed? Yes / No
Is the result of the actions still relevant? Yes / No
Am I stating pure facts? Yes / No
Am I feeling remorseful? Yes / No
C) There is a house in New Orleans

They call the Rising Sun
And it's been the ruin of many a poor boy
And God I know I'm one (The Animals – House of the rising sun)
Is the house still standing? Yes / No

Can the house be the ruin of more poor boys? Yes / No
Did the action happen only once? Yes / No
Unit 3 The English Verb III – The perfect aspect
D) She ripped her glittering gown

Couldn't face another show, no
Her deodorant had let her down
She should have used Odorono. (The Who – Odorono)
Can the sequence of events be established? Yes / No

Do we know which action happened earlier? Yes / No
Was the result still relevant? Yes / No
E) An angry silence lay where love had been

And in your eyes a look I'd never seen (Matt Monro – The music played)
Do we know which action happened earlier? Yes / No

Do we know when the love ended? Yes / No
Is the duration of the actions relevant? Yes / No
What general differences can you identify between the perfect aspect and the basic form?
Identify the tense + aspect constructions in the stanza below, and try to explain the meaning and use of each.
What do you think the song is about?
Now she has walked enough through rainy town

She rests her bag against his and sits down
She's trying to remember one better day
A while ago when people stopped to hear her say (Madness – One better day)
II. Explain the differences between the following pairs of sentences
1a) I haven’t seen him all day.

1b) I didn’t see him all day.
In which case is the day already over?

In which case is the possibility of meeting him still open?
2a) Have you ever gone to the Museum of Modern Art in New York?
2b) Did you ever go to the Museum of Modern Art in New York?
Which of these is more relevant to ask a friend who’s just come back from holiday in NY?
In which case is the possibility of going to the museum still open?
3a) I’ve come home.

3b) I came home.
Which of these is felt to be more recent?
4a) I’ve left my wallet at home.

4b) I left my wallet at home.
Which of these feels more to be a deliberate action?

Which of these feels more to be a sudden realization?
5a) After the school year had finished I took a summer job.
5b) After the school year finished I took a summer job.
20
The English Verb III – The perfect aspect Unit 3
III. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb given in brackets
1. Consumers __________ (come) to rely on their smartphones for photos, which is detrimental to the
photography industry.
2. Writers who ___________ (shoot) to fame as a result of their first novels include Ernest Hemingway with
The Sun Also Rises.
3. If the victim ___________ (never/see) before, how do we know that there was a murder?
4. As I walked, I allowed myself to drop back into the scene in a film with a dying woman who ___________
(once/be) a piano teacher to so many.
5. The color this pigment produces is so realistic; I __________ (recommend) it to tons of friends.
6. He ___________ (always/be) difficult, especially when he drank too much.
7. Who ___________ (drive) the car when it collided with a truck and went off a bridge?
8. I _______________ (consider) applying for that job for a long time now, and actually I
_________________ (still/consider) it.
IV. Choose the correct forms in the text below.
As you are reading/read these words, you are taking part/take part in one of the wonders of the natural world.
For you and I are belonging/belong to a species with a remarkable ability: we can shape/are shaping events in
each other's brains with exquisite precision. I am not referring/have not referred to telepathy or mind control
or the other obsessions of fringe science; even in the depictions of believers these are/have been blunt
instruments compared to an ability that is uncontroversially present in every one of us. That ability is language.
Simply by making noises with our mouths, we can reliably cause/causing precise new combinations of ideas
to arise/arising in each other's minds. The ability comes/has come so naturally that we are/have been apt to
forget what a miracle it is/was. So let me remind you with some simple demonstrations, Asking you only to
surrender your imagination to my words for a few moments, I can cause/have been causing you to think some
very specific thoughts:
When a male octopus spots/has been spotting a female, his normally grayish body suddenly
is becoming/becomes striped. He swims/is swimming above the female and is beginning/begins caressing her
with seven of his arms. If she allows/has allowed this, he will quickly reach/quickly reached toward her and
is slipping/slip his eighth arm into her breathing tube. A series of sperm packets were moving/moves slowly
through a groove in his arm, finally to slip into the mantle cavity of the female.
Cherries jubilee on a white suit? Wine on an altar cloth? Apply club soda immediately. It works/has worked
beautifully to remove the stains from fabrics.
When Dixie opens/had opened the door to Tad, she is/is being stunned, because she thought/were thinking he
was/had been dead. (…)When Brian interrupts/had interrupted, Dixie tells/has told a stunned Tad that she and
Brian were married/are married earlier that day. (…)
Think about what these words have done/were doing. I did not simply remind/were not simply reminding you
of octopuses; in the unlikely event that you ever see one develop stripes, you now know what will happen/has
happened next. Perhaps the next time you are in a supermarket you will look/are looking for club soda, one
out of the tens of thousands of items available. (…)You now share/shared with millions of other people the
secrets of protagonists in a world that is the product of some stranger's imagination, the daytime drama All My
Children. True, my demonstrations depended/has depended on our ability to read and write, and this makes/is
making our communication even more impressive by bridging gaps of time, space, and acquaintanceship. But
writing is clearly an optional accessory; the real engine of verbal communication is the spoken language we
acquired as children.
21
Based on: Pinker, Steven: The Language Instinct
V. Respond to the following cues with an appropriate sentence
1. You’re looking very tired.
2. Was there something you wanted to tell me?
3. Where the hell have you been?
4. Didn’t you remember you’d already talked to her?
5. I heard you’re applying for a new job.
6. Have we met before?
7. Did you just accuse me of lying?
8. I had never considered talking to you before.
9. What is wrong with you?
VI. Read the following text and complete the tasks
Edward VIII was the shortest-reigning British monarch, and the only one ever to voluntary give up the throne. In pre-war
Europe, the political climate was already quite dense when British domestic affairs took this shocking turn: Edward VIII
(uncle of the present Queen) fell in love with an American woman who had been married twice, and her second divorce
was still pending when the affair was made public by the media. Edward decided to renounce the throne and he did this
in a public broadcast on 11 December, 1936. The broadcast is available from archives on YouTube.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=re6G1hTlrEo
Read the first paragraph. Identify the tense of the underlined verbs and try to find out why that specific
construction is used in the text. How does grammar serve meaning?
At long last I am able to say a few words of my own. I have never wanted to withhold anything, but until now it has not
been constitutionally possible for me to speak. A few hours ago I discharged my last duty as King and Emperor, and now
that I have been succeeded by my brother, the Duke of York, my first words must be to declare my allegiance to him.
This I do with all my heart. You all know the reasons which have impelled me to renounce the throne. But I want you to
understand that in making up my mind I did not forget the country or the empire, which, as Prince of Wales and lately as
King, I have for twenty-five years tried to serve.
22
Go on reading the second paragraph. Fill the gaps with the suitable forms of the verbs from the box.
make be find comfort treat
But you must believe me when I tell you that I (1) _______________ it impossible to carry the heavy burden of
responsibility and to discharge my duties as King as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love.
I (2) ______________this, the most serious decision of my life, only upon the single thought of what would, in the end,
be best for all. During these hard days I (3) ________________ by her majesty my mother and by my family. The
ministers of the crown, and in particular, Mr. Baldwin, the Prime Minister, (4) __________________ (always) me with
full consideration. There (5) _____________________ any constitutional difference between me and them, and between
me and Parliament. Bred in the constitutional tradition by my father, I should never have allowed any such issue to arise.
Finally, read paragraph 3 and decide which for of the verb is more suitable in the text.
Ever since I have been/was Prince of Wales, and later on when I occupied/have occupied the throne, I have been
treated/was treated with the greatest kindness by all classes of the people wherever I lived/have lived or journeyed
throughout the empire. For that I am very grateful. (…)
Have a look at the text. Which adverbs of time can you associate with the perfect aspect?
VII. Write a short paragraph (about 150 words / 10-12 lines) for one of the following prompts, using the
sentence given as the first or last sentence of your composition. You are free to utilize the perfect forms
and any other construction you judge appropriate.
1) I’ve never been this insulted in my life.
2) I was beginning to doubt whether I had made the right choice.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
23
VIII. Choose an event from the past (historical or fictional) and tell your partner what happened.
IX. Read the text and choose the correct option.
Deforestation in Haiti is commonly seen/has commonly been seen as a severe although complex and often misunderstood and
misrepresented environmental problem. Haitians produce/have produced and consume/have consumed charcoal as their
primary source of domestic energy. Although was widely reported/ it has been widely reported that in 1923 over 60%
of Haiti's land was/had been forested, the source of this assertion remains/has remained unknown but may be linked to the
U.S. Marine Occupation in Haiti. In 2006, the country was claimed/had been claimed to have less than 2% forest
cover. Although significantly deforested, this estimate is challenged/has been challenged as drastically incorrect due to
unsubstantiated research. Nonetheless, the unsubstantiated 2% estimate has been widely circulated/had been widely
circulated in media and in discourse concerning the country. Recent in-depth studies of satellite imagery and environmental
analysis regarding forest classification conclude/have been concluded that Haiti has approximately 30% tree
cover. Environmental modeling undertaken in 2018 suggests/has suggested that in a 'business-as-usual' scenario of wood
depletion, over the next decade, above-ground woody biomass in Haiti would only decrease by approximately 4% of existing
stocks, lending credence to the notion that the issue is/had been vastly misunderstood and exaggerated.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_in_Haiti
24
X. Watergate…the text-book definition of metonymy refers to the major American political scandal of the 1970s. The
word itself originally refers to the Watergate Hotel, the actual location of the burglary that initiated the course of
events. The suffix -gate has been used to denote suspicious political scandal all around the world. Have a look at some
sentences taken from the Wikipedia entry of ’Watergate scandal’ and try to identify the sequence of events.
Shortly after midnight on June 17, 1972, Frank Wills, a security guard at the Watergate Complex, noticed tape covering
the latches on some of the doors in the complex leading from the underground parking garage to several offices (allowing the
doors to close but remain unlocked). He removed the tape, thinking nothing of it. But when he returned an hour later and
discovered that someone had retaped the locks, Wills called the police.
___ security guard notices the tape

___ security guard removes the tape
___ security guard returns to the garage
___ security guard finds the new tape on the locks
___ someone puts tape on the locks
___ someone puts tape on the locks for the second time
___ security guard calls the police
In July 1973, evidence mounted against the President’s staff, including testimony provided by former staff members in an
investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a tape-
recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations.
___ there is more and more evidence against the President’s staff
___ staff members testify in an investigation
___ the investigation reveals illegal actions of the President
___ the President has tape-recording system in offices
___ the President records conversations
After a series of court battles, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to
government investigators. The tapes revealed that Nixon had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-
in.
____ there is a series of court battles

____ Supreme Court rules that the President has to release the tapes
____ the tapes provide evidence that the President is involved in covering up illegal activities
____ the President attempts to cover up activities
____ Some people break in the Watergate Hotel
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal
25
XI. Try to guess the story using the picture as and the prompt. Make sure you relate the events to one another.
Belle opened her hotel room and discovered the most shocking thing in her life. There she stood, frozen, trying
to guess what had happened.
X. Compare the basic form and the perfect aspects. Read the text and find the missing construction.
There are three options that you will not need.
Holly – more specifically the European holly, Ilex aquifolium – (1) ___________________ at Christmas time,
and (2) _____________________ by the name Christ's thorn. In many Western Christian cultures, holly
(3) _______________ a traditional Christmas decoration, (4) ____________________ especially in wreaths
and illustrations, for instance on Christmas cards. Since medieval times the plant (5) ____________________
a Christian symbolism, as expressed in the well-known Christian Christmas carol "The Holly and the Ivy", in
which the holly (6) ____________________ Jesus and the ivy (7) ________________ the Virgin Mary. Angie
Mostellar (8) _______________________ the Christian use of holly at Christmas, stating that Christians
(9) __________________________ a wealth of symbolism in its form. The sharpness of the leaves
(10) _________________________ to recall the crown of thorns worn by Jesus; the red berries
(11) _____________________ as a reminder of the drops of blood that (12) ________________________ for
salvation; and the shape of the leaves, which (13) __________________ flames, can serve to reveal God's
burning love for His people. Combined with the fact that holly (14) _________________ its bright colors during
the Christmas season, it naturally came to be associated with the Christian holiday.
26
In heraldry, holly (15) ___________________

to symbolize truth. The Norwegian
municipality of Stord (16) _____________ a
yellow twig of holly in its Coat-of-arms.
The Druids (17) ____________________ that
leaves of holly (18) ________________
protection against evil spirits and thus
(19) ______________ holly in their hair. In the
Harry Potter novels, holly (20) ____________
as the wood in Harry's wand.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly
a, is l, was eliminated
b,is often referred to m, is used
c, used n, held
d, offered o, has
e, have identified p, is used
f, represents q, maintains
g, has symbolized r, resemble
h, has carried s, were shed
i, represents t, serve
j, discusses wore u, help
k, is portraying v, is commonly referenced
Try to identify why these specific constructions are used in the text.
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about the perfect aspect in English. You can add more
bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make sure you also write example sentences.
Glossary – define these grammar terms in your own words.
retrospective
time frame
27
UNIT 4 The English Verb IV: The perfect progressive aspect
Present Perfect Continuous & Past Perfect Continuous

The perfect and the progressive aspect can be combined with each other to form perfect
progressive constructions. In such cases, the semantic features of the perfect aspect and
those of the progressive aspect are maintained and combined.
I. Below are 12 features of aspects that we’ve been discussing since the first Unit. Sort
them below as pertaining to the perfect aspect (5 features) or the progressive aspect (5
features) and identify 2 features which don’t belong to either.
A) Denotes an ongoing action

B) Refers to a completed action
C) Expresses the concept of “beforeness”
D) Sees the actions or states as pure facts without temporal interpretation
E) Emphasizes that the action took/takes place over a period of time
F) The result of the action is still relevant after the action took place
G) Can express timeless general truths
H) Denotes a temporary state of affairs
I) The action is incomplete but compleatable
J) The time the action was completed is irrelevant
K) The focus is on the result of the action and not the action itself
L) Refers to an action that occurs (very) frequently
Perfect aspect:
Progressive aspect:
Extra items:
The English Verb IV – The perfect progressive aspect Unit 4
The perfect progressive construction refers to a past activity that extends to the present (in
the case of the present perfect progressive), or an activity in the distant past that extended to
the more recent past (in the case of the past perfect progressive).
Now, look at the underlined phrase from the task description above and the bit of song lyrics
below
A) …aspects that we’ve been discussing since the first Unit
B) While I was hurting you by clinging to my pride,

He had been waiting and I drove him to your side (Matt Monro – The music played)
Can you find all of the above mentioned features of the perfect and the progressive aspects in
these two examples? Is there anything you would add, remove or modify?
II. Explain the differences between the following pairs of sentences
1a) Who’s been driving my car?

1b) Who’s driven my car?
2a) I’ve been painting the fence.

2b) I’ve painted the fence.
3a) What’ve you been doing since we last met?

3b) What’ve you done since we last met?
4a) We’d been waiting for hours when he finally arrived.

4b) We’d waited for hours when he finally arrived.
5a) Amazon warriors have been fighting throughout their

whole lives.
5b) Amazon warriors have fought throughout their whole
lives.
III. Here is a list of important dates in the early development of the English language up to
the Great Vowel Shift. Browse the dates and form ten sentences using various verbal
constructions.
Before English
c.6000 BC: Britain cut off from continental Europe by English Channel
c.5000 BC: Proto-Indo-Europeans living in Eastern Europe and Central Asia
c.1000 BC: Germanic Indo-European tribes living in parts of modern-day Germany
c.500 BC: Celts inhabit much of Europe, and beginning to colonize the British Isles
55 BC: First Roman raids on Britain under Julius Caesar
43 AD: Roman occupation of Britain under Emperor Claudius (beginning of Roman rule of
Britain)
410-436: Roman withdrawal from Britain
c.450: Anglo-Saxon settlement (Angles, Frisians, Saxons, Jutes) of Britain begins
29
Unit 4 The English Verb IV – The perfect progressive aspect
Old English
450-480: Earliest Old English inscriptions
597: St. Augustine arrives in Britain (beginning of Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons)
c.600: Anglo-Saxon language covers most of modern-day England
c.660: “Cædmon's Hymn” composed in Old English
731: The Venerable Bede writes “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” (in Latin)
792: Viking raids of Britain begin
c.800: Old English epic poem “Beowulf” composed
865: The Danes launch full-scale invasion and occupy Northumbria
871: Alfred the Great becomes king of Wessex, encourages translation of Latin works
871: “The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” is begun
878: Danelaw established, dividing Britain into Anglo-Saxon south and Danish north
911: Charles II of France grants Normandy to the Viking chief Hrolf the Ganger (the beginning of
Norman French)
c.1000: The oldest surviving manuscript of “Beowulf” dates from this period
1066: The Norman conquest under William the Conqueror
Middle English
1086: “Domesday Book” compiled
c.1100: London becomes de facto capital of England
c.1150: The oldest surviving manuscripts in Middle English date from this period
1154: Eleanor of Aquitaine, French wife of Henry II, becomes Queen Consort of England
1154: “The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” discontinued
1167: Oxford University established
c.1180: The “Ormulum” text of the monk Orm completed
1204: King John loses the province of Normandy to France
1209: Cambridge University established
1349-50: The Black Death kills one third of the British population
1362: The Statute of Pleading replaces French with English as the language of law (although
records continue to be kept in Latin)
1362: English is used in English Parliament for the first time
c.1370: William Langland writes “Piers Plowman”
1384: John Wycliffe publishes his English translation of “The Bible”
1385: English replaces Latin as main language in schools (except Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge)
c.1388: Chaucer begins “The Canterbury Tales”
1399: Henry IV becomes first English-speaking monarch since before the Conquest
c.1450: The Great Vowel Shift begins
Source: http://www.thehistoryofenglish.com/timeline.html
30
IV. Based on the prompts in the brackets, choose the best alternative
1. He’s gone to / went to Spain for his holiday. (he’s already come back)
2. I’ve been painting / I’ve painted this portrait. (I hope to finish soon)
3. She’s been doing / She did her new workout plan for two weeks.
(she’s not doing it anymore)
4. We were dealing / have been dealing with serious financial issues.
(they are still not solved)
5. Have you been drinking / Did you drink again? (you’re sober now)
V. Decide which combination of tense and aspect is the best choice for each gap. There
may be more than one correct solution with a slight difference in meaning.
Wikipedia’s Growth
The rate of new articles initiated within the English Wikipedia grew/is growing/has grown/has
been growing exponentially until around 2007, though this is/is being/has been no longer the
case. The rate of article creation declines/is declining/has declined/has been declining very
slowly from its then-peak of around 50,000 new articles created per month. The two most
credible growth models for the whole life of Wikipedia are a Gompertz function model which
predicts/is predicting/has predicted/has been predicting that article creation will eventually
asymptotically approach zero, and a modified Gompertz model which predicts that growth will
continue indefinitely, but at a significantly lower rate than in the early days of Wikipedia.
On the other hand, the total amount of text in Wikipedia articles increases/is increasing/has
increased/has been increasing essentially linearly, and the growth rate is essentially unchanged
since 2006. This implies not that contribution to Wikipedia faded/is fading/has faded/has been
fading over time, but that relatively more of the work done is on expanding existing articles or
even merging articles that are similar in scope rather than creating new ones.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Modelling_Wikipedia%27s_growth
VI. Fill the gaps with the appropriate construction
1. For months, this was the moment he _______________ (wait) for and now here it was.
2. The room’s empty but the TV is on – someone must __________________ (watch) it.
3. It was just a lost feeling, I _____________ (think) I was losing her.
4. She's just a real great person and an amazing teacher. She _______________ (reiterate)
concepts all the time so we get it.
5. My friend here is kind of shy, but she ________________ (wonder) what you're studying.
6. I tore out of my apartment so fast, I left a dust trail behind me, along with a flummoxed best
friend, who _________________ (tell) me about the couple next door for weeks.
31
7. The few times in the past I __________ (reveal) my malady, I ________ (feel) like a freak.
8. I told my doctor how I _____________ (be) in a deep sleep when I was struck with the
certainty that someone was coming to get me.
VII. Victoria is the host of a weekly television quiz program. She is introducing this week’s
contestants who are playing for the second time. Fill the gaps with an appropriate construction
using the words given in brackets.
Hello, and welcome to Only Connect, let’s meet the teams. On my right, a journalist who
(1) ___________ (write) a limerick a day and (2) _______________ (work) as a garden laborer
at the British army base in West Berlin; a data scientist who (3) ______________ (make) a
memorable speech at a famous author’s 80th birthday party, and their captain, a native
Yorkshireman, who (4) ____________ (be) in the highest pub in Britain. They all
(5) ____________ (write) clues for various crosswords, they (6) ___________ (be) The
Cluesmiths. You (7) _____________ (win) your first heat against the Operational Researchers,
how (8) _____________ (you/celebrate) that victory?
We (9) ______________ (decide) to try and find the lowest dive in Wales.
You (10) _______________ (play) a quiz against, on my left, a math student who
(11) _____________ (be) a fan of Hull City FC; a math and philosophy student who
(12) _____________ (lose) his cat on a windy day in Cornwall, and their captain, a keen rugby
player who (13) _____________ (play) the guitar and recently (14) _____________ (witness) a
giraffe kicking a rhino in the face. All students at York University, they (15) _____________ (be)
The Yorkers. You (16) ___________ (win) your first game against The Polyglots, how
(17) ____________________ (you/prepare) for the game ahead?
We (18) _________________ (pump) iron and (19) _______________ (eat) large quantities of
meat.
Excellent, that would be a first on this show. Let’s get on with the quiz, both these teams
(20) ________________ (already/win) a match, so nobody (21) ____________ (go) home, they
(22) _______________ (shoot) for a direct route into the quarter finals. Cluesmiths, you
(23) ________________ (win) the toss, you (24) ______________ (go) first. Please
(25) _____________ (choose) your first question.
VIII. What does this picture make you think about? Discuss with your partner the possible
implications using different verbal constructions.
32
IX. Finish the following sentences in any way you find appropriate
1. How long have you_______________________________________________________

2. The first time I ___________________________________________________________
3. It’s been months since I _____________________________________________________
4. I had never _______________________________________________________________
5. Have you been ____________________________________________________________
6. Has it ever occurred to you___________________________________________________
7. Sorry for the mess, I’ve just __________________________________________________
XI. Connect these sentences using “because”.

a, He took a taxi. His car broke down.
_______________________________________________________________________
b, She was very angry. She failed her driving test.
_______________________________________________________________________
c, The kids were very tired. They didn’t sleep in the afternoon.
_______________________________________________________________________
33
d, The sight looked horrible. Arsonists attacked the garden.
______________________________________________________________________
c, Students didn’t find the room. The class was moved to a different place.
______________________________________________________________________
XI. Read the text below and do the tasks.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials
FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the
United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential
elections and became a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century. Roosevelt
directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing his New
Deal domestic agenda in response to the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. As a dominant
leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which realigned American politics into the
Fifth Party System and defined American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th
century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II. He is often rated by
scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents, along with George Washington and
Abraham Lincoln.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt
Write sentences about Franklin D. Roosevelt using the appropriate verb constructions.
By 1935 he ________________________________ for 2 years.
By the mid-20th century he ______________________ a central figure in world politics.
By the middle third of the 20th century he ________________________ realigned American

politics to the Fifth Party System.
By the outbreak of World War II he ___________________ for six years.
By the time of his death the war _________________ for six years.
34
Order the events
__ He died
__ New Deal was implemented.
__ Roosevelt took office
__ The Great Depression started.
__ The US dropped the atomic bombs to Nagasaki and Hiroshima
__The US entered the war
__ The US survived the Great Depression
__ World War II started
Summarize the events with your own words, using different aspects.
XII. Write a short paragraph (about 150 words / 10-12 lines) for one of the following prompts,
using the sentence given as the first (or even last) sentence of your composition. You are free to
use the perfect progressive forms and any other construction you judge appropriate.
1) This is the moment we’ve all been waiting for.

2) It was then that I realized what I’d been missing from my life.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about the combination of the perfect
and progressive aspects in English. You can add more bubbles and complete this initial template
to suit your needs. Make sure you also write example sentences.
Glossary:
semantic features
35
UNIT 5 The English Verb V: The future
Future forms in English

As has been discussed in Unit 1, the English language has no single form for expressing the
future. Instead, English uses either an aspect or the combination of the future auxiliary will
and an aspect.
The most frequently used forms with which we can refer to the future are:
will + basic form I will leave

will + progressive aspect I will be leaving
will + perfect aspect I will have left
will + perfect & progressive aspect I will have been leaving
pure basic form in the present I leave at 7 AM tomorrow
present progressive I’m leaving tomorrow
BE going to + basic form I’m going to leave / I was going to leave
BE going to + progressive aspect I’m going to be leaving / I was going to be
leaving
BE about to + basic form I’m about to leave / I was about to leave
I. Read the short excerpt from an article on Brexit. Pay attention to the highlighted forms.
A Tory donor who helped fund the legal challenge to the government's Brexit plans has
predicted Theresa May will be forced from office within two years because of the economic
consequences of leaving the EU.
(…)
“I don’t think that Theresa May is going to be around in two years once the EU negotiations
kick in,” he said. “She is setting this up but someone else will have to pick up the pieces when it
all goes really wrong.”
(…)
“When she goes, the damage will have been done and it's going to take a long, long time to
get back to where we are today. People in business just cannot believe that she is cutting us off
from a market of 500 million people.”
Source: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/23/tory-donor-charlie-mullins-predicts-
theresa-may-quit-within-two-years-brexit
Why do the journalist and the interviewee use these specific forms to refer to the future?
What meanings do each of these forms convey?
The English Verb V – The future Unit 5
II. Look at the pictures and song lyrics below and identify the function of the future
construction in each
A)
B) Your tears will be trembling, now we're somewhere else
C) One last cup of wine we will pour

I'll kiss you one more time, and leave you on
the rolling river shores of changes. (Phil Ochs – Changes)
D) She is soft, she is warm

But my heart remains heavy
And I watch as her breasts
Gently rise, gently fall
For I know with the first light of dawn
I'll be leaving
E) And tonight will be
All I have left to recall (Simon & Garfunkel – Wednesday Morning 3 AM)
F) I'm gonna charge him with possession and being under the influence while on duty. Plead
guilty and I'll recommend 30 days in the brig with loss of rank and pay.
Functions
Stating a fact: _______________
Expressing a plan or prediction: _______________
Revealing the speaker’s intentions, or what’s likely to be inevitable: _______________
Prediction about the future: _______________
Action that will be completed by a future point in time: _______________
Expressing a pre-arranged plan: _______________
37
Unit 5 The English Verb V – The future
III. Some parts of the text below have been removed, try to find which sentence is missing
from each paragraph. There is an extra one that you won’t need. Read the text and make
some predictions regarding the future of both the Hungarian and the English languages. What
changes are about to occur in the next couple of decades, regarding vocabulary?
Reverse loanwords
Although a huge number of words have been imported into English from other languages over
the history of its development, many English words have been incorporated (particularly in the
last century) into foreign languages in a kind of reverse adoption process. (1) _____
But a more amusing exercise is to piece together the English derivations of foreign words
where phonetic spelling are used. To give a few random examples, herkot is Ukrainian for
“haircut”; muving pikceris is Lithuanian for “movie” or “moving pictures”; ajskrym is Polish for
“ice-cream”; schiacchenze is Italian for “shake hands”; etc. Japanese has as many as 20,000
anglicisms in regular use (“Japlish”), including apputodeito (up-to-date), erebata (elevator), raiba
intenshibu (labour-intensive), nekutai (neck-tie), biiru (beer), isukrimu (ice-cream), esukareta
(escalator), remon (lemon), mai-kaa (my car) and shyanpu setto (shampoo and set), the
meanings of which are difficult to fathom until spoken out phonetically. (2) _____________
German has invented, by analogy, anglicisms that do not even exist in English, such as
Pullunder (from pullover), Twens (from teens), Dressman (a word for a male model) and handy
(a word for a cellphone).
(3) _________________ Rosbif (roast beef) has been in the French language for over 350
years, and ouest (west) for 700 years, but popular recent “Franglais” adoptions like le gadget, le
weekend, le blue-jeans, le self-service, le cash-flow, le sandwich, le babysitter, le meeting, le
basketball, le manager, le parking, le shopping, le snaque-barre, le sweat, le marketing, cool,
etc., are now firmly engrained in the language.
There is a strong movement within France, under the stern leadership of the venerable
Académie Française, to reclaim French from this onslaught of anglicisms, and the country has
even passed laws to discourage the use of anglicisms and to protect its own language and
culture. (4) ______________________. In Québec, the neologism le clavardage (a portmanteau
word combining clavier - keyboard - and bavardage - verbal chat) is becoming popular as a
replacement for the common anglicism le chat (in the sense of online chat rooms). Norway and
Brazil have recently adopted similar measure to keep English out, and this kind of lexical
invasion in the form of loanwords is seen by some as the thin end of the wedge, to be
strenuously avoided in the interests of national pride and cultural independence.
Source: http://www.thehistoryofenglish.com/history_today.html#Reverse%20Loanwords
38
A, “Russlish” uses phonetic spellings such as seksapil (sex appeal), jeansi (jeans), striptiz (strip-
tease), kompyuter (computer), chempion (champion) and shusi (shoes), as well as many exact
spellings like rockmusic, discjockey, hooligan, supermarket, etc.
B, Anglicisms such as stop, sport, tennis, golf, weekend, jeans, bar, airport, hotel, etc, are
among the most universally used in the world.
C, New French replacements for English words are being encouraged, such as le logiciel
instead of le soft (software), le disc audio-numérique instead of le compact disc (CD), le
baladeur instead of le walkman (portable music player), etc.
D, English-Canadians exciting vocabulary is a further example for English native speakers’

exaggerated use of French loanwords.
E, After many centuries of one-way traffic of words from French to English, the flow finally
reversed in the middle of the 20th Century, and now anywhere between 1% and 5% of French
words are anglicisms, according to some recent estimates.
IV. Finish the following sentences in any way you find appropriate
1. By this time next year _______________________________________________________
2. When we meet next time ____________________________________________________
3. When I finally get out of jail __________________________________________________
4. Well, I’ve got nothing to do today, guess I ________________________________________
5. I’ve already made plans for my next holiday, I ____________________________________
6. Your grades are not looking great, I think you _____________________________________
7. When you barged into my room I was __________________________________________
V. Sue is planning her outfits for the next couple of days. What programs do you think are
scheduled in her agenda? Support your ideas with cues from the pictures.
39
VI. Write a short paragraph (about 150 words / 10-12 lines) for one of the following
topics. You are free to utilize the future forms and any other construction you judge
appropriate.
1) What do you think life and the world will be like in 10, 20, or 30 years’ time?
2) Imagine you could go back to any moment in world history and change it. What would
you change and how would it affect the world?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
40
VII. Read these ideas about the future of the English language. Fill the gaps with the verbs
in brackets in their most appropriate forms.
People (1) _______ (wonder) for some years whether English (2) ____________ (so much get)
its feet under the global office desk that even the rise of China – and Mandarin – could ever shift
it from its position of dominance. The answer is that there is already a challenger, one which
(3) _____________ (quietly appear) on the scene whilst many native speakers of English
(4) ___________ (look) the other way, celebrating the rising hegemony of their language. The
new language which (5) _________ (rapidly oust) the language of Shakespeare as the world’s
lingua franca (6) __________(be) English itself – English in its new global form. As this book
(7) _______________ (demonstrate), this is not English as we (8) __________ (know) it, and
(9) ______________ (each) it in the past as a foreign language. It is a new phenomenon, and if
it (10) ___________ (represent) any kind of triumph it is probably not a cause of celebration by
native speakers. This book (11) _________________ (attempt) to describe this new
phenomenon and explain the context in which it (12) _____________ (emerge). It also (identify)
some of the challenges that (13) ______________ (create) over the next few years for
everyone involved in the global education business. The book does not attempt to provide a
complete ‘state of the art’ account of global English. It (14) ____________ (serve) as an update
for The Future of English by identifying very recent developments which seem to
(15) ____________ (drive) changes to the international and national status of the English
language. It (16) _____________ (become) much clearer how much is at stake, and how many
stakeholders there now are, in the global business of English. The teaching of English
(17) ____________ (see) in the past as largely a technical issue about the best methodology, a
practical issue of resources in teacher training and text books, or a problem about imperialist
propaganda. We can now see that it (18) ___________ (become) much more than these things,
although such issues (19) __________ (not go) away. If the analysis of this book is correct, then
English (20) ___________ (at last become) of age as a global language. It is a phenomenon
which lies at the heart of globalisation: English (21) _________________ (now redefine)
national and individual identities worldwide; shifting political fault lines; creating new global
patterns of wealth and social exclusion; and suggesting new notions of human rights and
responsibilities of citizenship. Anyone who (22) _____________ (believes) that native speakers
of English (23) ______________ (remain) in control of these developments
(24) _____________ (be) very troubled. This book suggests that it is native speakers who,
perhaps, should be the most concerned. But the fact is, that the future development of English in
the world (25) ____________ (be) now a global concern and should be troubling us all.
Source: David Graddol: English Next
41
VIII. Naughty cats…..Make predictions based on the photos.
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about possible ways of expressing
futurity in English. You can add more bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your
needs. Make sure you also write example sentences.
42
UNIT 6 Modal auxiliaries

Modality
In linguistics modality is a feature of language that enables the speaker to communicate

propositions which are about non-actual situations. In other words, it shows the speaker’s view
on how obligatory, necessary, desirable, believable or likely the proposition is. Study the
example below:
(1) John swims.

(2) John can swim.
(3) John must swim.
(4) John may swim.
(5) John should swim.
How do the propositions differ from (1) and from one another? Try to figure the possible
contexts for each sentence.
In English, similarly to other Germanic languages, modal auxiliary verbs are often used to
express modality.
There are certain general characteristic features that modal auxiliaries share.
• They act as an auxiliary verb in verb phrases (e.g. I can swim).
• They do not take inflections to indicate agreement or tense (e.g. I can swim, He can swim and
not *He cans swim). However, could can be regarded as an irregular past tense form of can.
• Except for may, they contract with not, whereas main verbs do not form contractions with not.
(Shall also contracts with not -> shan’t – however, this is used in British English only, and with
S/1 or Pl/1 pronouns.
• They undergo subject-auxiliary inversion in questions (e.g. Can you swim?).
• They take a bare infinitive verb as the main verb in the verb phrase (e.g. He can swim, not *He
can to swim or *He can swims or *He can swam).
• They express stance meanings, related to possibility, necessity, obligation, permission, ability.
There are also some lexical verbs and adjectives that have meanings similar to modal
auxiliaries, as they express stance meanings, but they are neither idiomatic nor fixed
expressions. However, their core lexical meanings include those of desire, obligation,
possibility, etc. Examples include: need to, dare to, want to, be able to, be likely to, etc.
Modals can be differentiated based on their meaning. The following three groups can be
distinguished:
Modals of ability, permission and possibility: can, could, may, might

Modals of advice and necessity: must, should, dare, need, have to, (have) got to, ought to, be
supposed to,
Modals to express future: shall, will, would, be going to.
Unit 6 Modal auxiliaries
Modals of ability, permission and possibility

can could may might
Identify the meaning of modals in the sentences below.
(6) List as many poor moral actions as you can remember from the game.
(7) Can I have one more slice, please?
(8) This challenge includes making phone calls that can be tedious and time consuming.
(9) This can’t be true!
(10) When I informed my team about this project, I could sense their quiet skepticism.
(11) An existing digital audience could enhance a student's writing development.
(12) The study took place in a suburban school in northeast Texas, and results may be different
in different settings.
(13) May I come in?
(14) Babies might be gently bounced to the music.
6.1. Ability
• can: general ability (present)
• could: general ability (past)
It is possible to use be able to instead of can/could in the following structures:

• infinitives: She wants to be able to walk without help.
• gerunds: What motivates me most is being able to help people.
• after other modals: I might be able to call you later.
• in the perfect: I haven’t been able to clean this car for weeks.
6.2. Permission
• can: ask, give or refuse permission
• could: ask permission (more polite)
• may: ask, give or refuse permission (formal)
6.3. Possibility
• may: expresses that something is possible now or in the future, indicates that a possible
situation is usual.
• might: expresses that something is possible now or in the future, expresses that
something was possible in the past, is used in reported speech.
• may/might + perfect: it is possible that something happened in the past
• can: something is possible in the present
• could: something was possible in the past, in speculations,
• could+ perfect: in speculations about an event in the past
• The forms could and might also indicate that the possibility is more remote than in the
case of can and may
44
Modal auxiliaries Unit 6
I. Identify the meaning and use of the modals in the sentences and indicate their time
reference.
CAN, COULD meaning / use time reference

1. He can speak German fluently.
2. I can give him an answer.
3. He could easily climb those stairs when he
lived there.
4. I could have told you.
5. I could give him an answer tomorrow.
6. Bentleys, even used ones, can cost a
fortune.
7. He could be very unpleasant when he’s
angry.
8. You can phone the inmates twice a week.
9. Can I have a word with you?
10. Can I open the window?
11. We can’t park here. It’s forbidden.
MAY , MIGHT meaning / use time reference

1. They may come home next weekend.
2. I may be wrong, of course.
3. The two parties might reach an agreement
tomorrow.
4. You may now kiss the bride.
5. “You might have succeeded in changing
me.”
6. You may not double park except while
waiting in the car.
7. You may speak to the patient for a few
minutes.
8. May I have a word with you?
II. Who lives here? Have a look at the pictures. Discuss with your partner possible owners
of the house depicted by the pictures. Use can, could, may and might.
45
III. Use a modal of ability/permission/possibility combined with a verb from the box to fill
the gaps in the text. Sometimes more than one modal is possible.
have to agree require achieve help (2x) enjoy

play engage limit affect be
Obesity – What can be done?
Overweight and obesity, as well as their related chronic diseases, are largely preventable and
at an individual level, people (1) ______________ energy balance and a healthy weight by
limiting energy intake from total fats and shifting fat consumption away from saturated fats to
unsaturated fats.
Experts recommend at least 30 minutes of regular, moderate-intensity activity on most days -
more activity (2) __________________ for weight control. While being active from an early
age (3) _________________ prevent many diseases, regular movement and activity
(4) ________________ (also) relieve the disability and pain associated with these conditions.
Importantly, the benefits of physical activity (5) _____________ even if regular practice starts
late in life.
On a broader level governments and other stakeholders (6) ___________ a vital role in shaping
healthy environments and making healthier diet options affordable and easily accessible. This is
particularly important for the most vulnerable in society - the poor and children, who have
limited choices about the food they eat and the environments in which they live. In some
cultures, gender (7) __________________ (also) individuals’ predisposition to healthy lifestyle.
Many factors hinder the participation of women in physical activity and their access to health
care - their income is often lower than that of men and therefore the costs of access to physical
activity facilities (8) ___________ a barrier - senior members of the household who control
household resources (9) __________________ before a woman (10) _________________ in
physical activity - also women often have a workload in the home and care-giving roles for
other family members which (11) ______________ the time available for them to engage in
physical activity.
Source: www.news-medical.net/health/Obesity-What-Can-be-Done.aspx
V. Which of the following constructions or modals could best complete the sentences
below? Sometimes more than one solution is acceptable, with a slight change in meaning.
1) If the interviewer inquires ‘Do you have a family?’, the candidate _______ answer anything.
A) might B) may not C) might not D) could
2) Jacob becomes more familiar with his own peculiarity as the novel progresses, which makes him
realize that he is more like his late Grandpa than he _______ ever imagined.
A) could not have B) might have C) may not D) could have
46
3) You didn’t quite get the correct answer, you _______ ‘Henry VIII’ and won the jackpot.
A) could have said B) may have said C) might say D) can say
4) She _______ in Italy, but she knew how to make a mean cappuccino.
A) could not train B) could have trained C) might not have trained D) can train
5) Using the latest technology in biochemistry currently in development, in the future, scientists
_______ bring extinct species back to life.
A) could be able to B) are able to C) could D) can
6) It would be difficult to imagine how it _______ to do her job any worse than Bella herself did it.
A) might have been possible B) could be possible C) may be possible D) can be possible
7) I _______ you the way to the railway station if you want me to.
A) could show B) might show C) may show D) can show
8) I _______ you the way to the railway station if I wanted to.
A) could show B) might show C) may show D) can show
9) As feelings of safety increase, the patient _______ a little more about her history.
A) can reveal B) may reveal C) could reveal D) might reveal
Modals of obligation, advice, necessity and deduction

must, should – central or pure modals
have (got) to, dare, need, had better, ought to – marginal and semimodals
Identify the meaning of modals in the sentences below.

(1) King did his speech in 1963. So this is way before. So he must have been a slave.
(2) It doesn't fix broken genes, so the therapy should work regardless of which of the 250
genes are causing problems.
(3) Learning in the twenty-first century must challenge students to become innovative,
creative, and adaptable.
(4) You mustn’t tell them.
(5) This is the final months before my tenure portfolio must be submitted.
(6) Little girl, somebody ought to teach you to knock before you open a door. Otherwise
people might think that you are lacking in good breeding.
47
(7) First impressions matter greatly, and a candidate should choose a career suit and
accessories carefully.
(8) You’ve got to do this for me, Brick!
(9) There are some things in this world, baby, that you simply got to face.
(10) You have to show your passport.
6.4. Obligation and advice
• should expresses an obligation, an expectation or a general belief of what we consider

appropriate
• should + perfect expresses that something desired did not, in fact, happen; expresses
regret
• ought to can be used instead of should with the same meaning
• be supposed to can be used instead of should, in more informal contexts. It is more
impersonal and can be used when the speaker reports what others think should be done.
6.5. Necessity
• must expresses that something is necessary (especially orders and rules). It can also be
used to express strong feelings or opinions. Must cannot be used for referring to past
obligations, in those cases we use had to. Similarly, in negations have to is used, as
mustn’t does not mean the absence of obligation.
• have to is used instead of must in contexts where the speaker can’t control the
necessity.
• have to is also used in situations where must lacks the needed grammatical forms, and it
is used in questions instead of must, it is also used to express necessity in the past and is
used in phrasal modal structures.
• don’t have to is the opposite of must. We use it when something is not necessary.
• have got to expresses the same meaning as have to, but it is more informal. It can only
be used in the present tense.
• need to is used similarly to have to, as it expresses that something is necessary.
• don’t need to indicates that something is not necessary in general.
• needn’t indicates that something is not necessary on a particular occasion
• needn’t + perfect indicates that something unnecessary was done. In contrast, didn’t
need to means that something was not necessary in the past. Compare and contrast
these sentences:
(1) You needn’t have washed the dishes. I could have put them in the dishwasher.
(2) When I lived at home with my parents I didn’t need to do the dishes. They have a
dishwasher. I wish we had one here in the dorm.
48
6.6 Deduction
• must expresses the inferred or presumed certainty of a fact, an assumption or a logical

conclusion. It refers either to the present, and then it is followed by either a present
infinitive, or a present participle; or to the past, and then it is followed by a perfect
infinitive.
• have to can also be used for deductions (more informal)
• can’t is used in negative deductions as the opposite of must. It either refers to the
present, and then it is followed by a present infinitive, or to the past, and then it followed
by a perfect infinitive.
• couldn’t is used in negative deductions as the opposite of must. It either refers to the
present, and then it is followed by a present infinitive, or to the past, and then it followed
by a perfect infinitive.
VI. Identify the meaning and use of the modals in the sentences and indicate their
time reference.
SHOULD, OUGHT TO , HAD BETTER meaning / use time reference

1. „We shouldn't risk Big Daddy hearing this
discussion.”
2. I'm sorry to bother you, I should've
called first.
3. „I like you, son, but why should I subsidize
worthless behavior?”
4. You should come and see us more often.
5. “Your men follow orders or people die. So
Santiago shouldn't have been in any
danger at all, should he have, Colonel?”
6. You'd better watch out
You'd better not cry
You'd better not pout
I'm telling you why
Santa Claus is coming to town
7. “I have a sentimental weakness for my

children, and I spoil them as you can see;
they talk when they should listen.”
8. “Sonny, we ought to hear what they have to
say...”
MUST, HAVE TO meaning / use time reference

1. You must be new here.
2. And the promise is, that the deal is so good,
that we can't refuse. Eh... (!)
3. I hope you're not a hothead like your brother
Sonny. You -- can't talk business with him... (!)
4. It must have had a serious influence on his
career.
49
5. You can’ t be serious.

6. No way! You can’t have/couldn’t have
finished already.
7. Candidates must attempt to answer all the
questions.
8. “You must understand why I had to do that"
9. Then I said to my wife, "for justice, we must go
to Don Corleone.
10. You really must try this. It’s absolutely
delicious.
11. If you interfere, you'll have to appear before
a judge in the morning and show cause.
12. I think you have to prepare yourself for the
fact that we're gonna lose.
13. You can’t handle the truth. Son, we live in a
world that has walls and those walls have to
be guarded by men with guns.
NEEDN ’ T, NOT NEED TO , NOT HAVE TO , MUSTN ’ T meaning / use time reference
1. We needn’t open the door. You can see
him through the glass.
2. Why is it important that you realize that
you don’t need to tell others about your
actions and your reason?
3. -Thank you.
4. - You don’t have to thank me.
5. You needn’t have cooked. We’ve had
lunch on the way here.
6. They didn’t need to take the oral part of
the exam.
7. We mustn’t let a superpower turn its back
on rationality
8. But uh – there are reasons why you must
have no part in what is going to happen.
VII. Try to find possible scenarios for the following sentences. Which sentences are
similar in meaning?
John could have called.
John should call you.
John should have called.
John might have called.
John needn’t have called.
John couldn’t have called.
John was not able to call.
John can’t call.
John may not call.
50
VIII. Read the text on how to cultivate cacti at home. Give advice to a friend on what to do and what not
to do when cultivating cacti at home. Make sure you use modals of obligation, advice and necessity.
The cultivation of cacti
The popularity of cacti means many books are devoted to their cultivation. Cacti naturally occur
in a wide range of habitats and are then grown in many countries with different climates, so
precisely replicating the conditions in which a species normally grows is usually not practical.
This manual is primarily concerned with the cultivation of semi-desert cacti in containers and
under protection, such as in a greenhouse or in the home, rather than cultivation outside in the
ground in those climates that permit it.
Growing medium
The purpose of the growing medium is to provide
support and to store water, oxygen and dissolved
minerals to feed the plant. In the case of cacti, there is
general agreement that an open medium with a high air
content is important. When cacti are grown in
containers, recommendations as to how this should be
achieved vary greatly. The general recommendation is
25–75% organic-based material, the rest being inorganic
such as pumice, perlite or grit.
Watering
Semi-desert cacti need careful watering. General advice is hard to give, since the frequency of
watering required depends on where the cacti are being grown, the nature of the growing
medium, and the original habitat of the cacti. Another issue is the hardness of the water; where
it is necessary to use hard water, regular re-potting is recommended to avoid the build up of
salts. The general advice given is that during the growing season, cacti should be allowed to dry
out between thorough waterings. A water meter can help in determining when the soil is dry.
Light and temperature
Although semi-desert cacti may be exposed to high light levels in the wild, they may still need
some shading when subjected to the higher light levels and temperatures of a greenhouse in
summer. Allowing the temperature to rise above 32 °C (90 °F) is not recommended. The
minimum winter temperature required depends very much on the species of cactus involved.
For a mixed collection, a minimum temperature of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F) is
often suggested.
Propagation
Cacti can be propagated by seed, cuttings or grafting. Seed sown early in the year produces
seedlings that benefit from a longer growing period. Seed is sown in a moist growing medium
and then kept in a covered environment, until 7–10 days after germination, to avoid drying out.
A very wet growing medium can cause both seeds and seedlings to rot. A temperature range of
18–30 °C (64–86 °F) is suggested for germination; soil temperatures of around 22 °C (72 °F)
promote the best root growth. Low light levels are sufficient during germination, but afterwards
semi-desert cacti need higher light levels to produce strong growth.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus#Watering
51
IX. Fill the gaps with an appropriate modal and the words in the brackets. In many cases
more than one solution is possible with a difference in meaning. Find all the possible solutions
and explain the differences between them.
1. – Are his books any good?

– How _________________ (I/know)? I’ve never read any of them…
2. I think Mr. Trump ________________ (figure out) a way maybe to lessen the hurtful
language. It’s very detrimental and destructive.
3. I bought the wrong kind of toothbrush. I really __________________ (do) more research
instead of impulse buying.
4. What?! A newspaper said something good about me? That __________________ (be) true.
5. Richmond, Virginia is a city of old-time neighborliness and finicky manners, like you
___________ (ever/sneeze) publicly.
6. She leaned over and whispered, so loudly that she _________________ (bother) to whisper
in the first place.
7. She knew secrets her mother had told her that she _________________ (tell) anyone.
8. It’s nasty out there, very nasty. Stay home. If you __________________ (come) out, just
stay home.
9. When you see the movie, you'll understand why I keep talking about the art. It's incredible.
Because I _______________ (actually/tell) you about it. But you ___________ (see) the
movie for yourself because the art is amazing.
X. Use modals to complete the text. Sometimes more than one solution is possible.
You can’t have your cake and eat it (too) is a popular English idiomatic
proverb or figure of speech. The proverb literally means "you
(1) ___________ simultaneously retain your cake and eat it".
Once the cake is eaten, it is gone. It (2) _____________be used to say that
one (3) ___________ or
(4) ____________have or want more than one deserves or is reasonable,
or that one
(5) ______________ or (6) _____________ try to have two incompatible things. The proverb's
meaning is similar to the phrases "you (7) ____________ have it both ways" and "you
(8) ________ have the best of both worlds."
52
Many people misunderstand the meanings of "have" and "eat" as used here but still understand
the proverb in its entirety and intent and use it in this form. Some people feel this form of the
proverb is incorrect and illogical.
In English, "have" (9) _____ mean "eat", as in "Let's have breakfast" or "I'm having a
sandwich". So the saying "You can't have your cake and eat it too" (10) ________ mean that
you can't eat the cake and then eat it again; or less metaphorically, that what you want is
unreasonable.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_can%27t_have_your_cake_and_eat_it
XI. Write a short essay (cca. 150 words) with the following title: How to deal with me: A
user’s manual for my friends and family. Explain to the others what they should, shouldn’t,
must, mustn’t, can or cannot do if they want to live with you happily.
XII. Respond to the prompts below.
1, You should have seen that house! ______________________________________________
2, You can’t be serious! ________________________________________________________
3, This must be Jonathan’s brother. _______________________________________________
4, You must have mistaken her for Anna __________________________________________
5, You couldn’t have done a better job. ____________________________________________
6, Couldn’t you have done a better job? ___________________________________________
7, You must believe me. ________________________________________________________
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about modal auxiliaries. You can add
more bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make sure you also write
example sentences.
Glossary – define these grammar terms with your own words.

bare infinitive
contraction
inflection
inversion
lexical verb
modality
stance meaning
verb phrase
53
UNIT 7 Questions

7.1. Yes/No questions
If a sentence contains an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb or the copular verb be, we use
the subject-auxiliary inversion to form a yes/no question. The subject-auxiliary inversion
changed the position of the subject and the predicate following it.
(1) He has cleaned the garage.
Has he cleaned the garage?
(2) She can ride a bike.
Can she ride the bike?
(3) He is a teacher.
Is he a teacher?
In all other cases (i.e. if the sentence does not have an auxiliary, a modal or the copular verb be,
we use the appropriate form of do to make questions. This is called do insertion. Do is always
followed by the bare infinitive form of the verb.
(4) She plays the piano.

[She does play the piano.]
Does she play the piano?
(5) They opened the box.

[They did open the box.]
Did they open the box?
If there are more than one auxiliaries in the sentence, it is always the first one that undergoes
the subject-auxiliary inversion:
(6) The plane could have been hijacked.

Could the plane have been hijacked?
In case of inversion, the whole subject, long as it may be, comes after the auxiliary.
(7) Every single person I know loves Jack.

Does every single person you know love Jack?
NOTE: Yes/No questions are usually asked with rising intonation, with the pitch moving up on
the last word of the question.
Questions Unit 7
Yes/No questions can be positive or negative. Negative questions are usually asked to confirm
the speaker’s expectation, whereas positive questions do not imply any expectation on behalf of
the speaker.
(8) Is this your bag? (I have no idea whose bag it is, it might be yours. Is it?)
(9) Isn’t this your bag? (I actually believe this is your bag, and want you to confirm this.)
Negative questions can express annoyance or anger (a) or surprise and disbelief (b), and they
are also used in persuasions (c) or suggestions (d)
(10a) Can’t you stop playing the piano? (I really want you to stop playing, it disturbs me.)
(10b) Can’t you make pizza? You are Italian!
(10c) Won’t you please help me? (Please do help me, I really need it)
(10d) Couldn’t we stop for a while?
Note: In some contexts, especially if we want to add special emphasis, we use not instead of the
contracted forms: (10e) Can you not make pizza? (10f) Did she not know he was in the office?
In colloquial English, Yes/No questions are often reduced. The speaker may omit the auxiliary
or copula. This is called elliptical Yes/No question.
(11a) Can you come? --> You come?

(11b) Are you coming? --> You coming?
(11c) Has she arrived? --> She arrived?
A further type of reduced questions is declarative questions, which have the form of a
statement but have rising intonation. Declarative questions are used to check information (12a),
to confirm what has been said (12b) or to show surprise (12c).
(12a) A: That resort is awesome.

B: You’ve been there before?
(12b) A: Their car broke down on the way home.
B: Their car broke down?
(12c) A: Katinka won the 200 medley.
B: She won it again?
7.2. Tag questions
Tag questions are made up of two parts, a stem and a tag. The stem is a statement, and the tag
is a short question form. There are two types of tag questions, opposite polarity tag questions
and same polarity tag questions. As for opposite polarity tag questions, the subject of the
stem and the tag are the same. If the stem is positive, the tag is negative, and vice versa. Rising
intonation on the tag indicates that the speaker is really asking for information, whereas falling
intonation on the tag means that the speaker has an assumption and expects the listener to
agree with the statement in the stem.
The verb and its tense in the tag should match the verb and its tense in the stem, and the
pronoun in the tag should refer to the sentence’s subject. If the stem contains a form of the
copula be (13a), or an auxiliary (13b), or a modal (13d), the tag should also contain a matching
form of be, or the auxiliary, or the modal. If only a lexical verb is present, an appropriate form
of do should be used in the tag.
55
Unit 7 Questions
(13a) They are from Spain, aren’t they?

(13b) You haven’t heard the news, have you?
(13c) He eats meat, doesn’t he?
(13d) We should be leaving soon, shouldn’t we?
(13e) They have five children, don’t they?
(13f) I’m your friend, aren’t I?
(13g) It won’t be long before we meet again, will it? (NOT: will we / don’t we)
Experiment with tag questions, try to collect some questions in different tenses, using different
auxiliaries or verbs.
• _____________________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________________
In same polarity tag questions, both the stem and the tag are positive. Same polarity tag
questions indicate that the speaker has arrived to a conclusion (a), they may imply sarcasm (b)
but they can also function as imperatives (c), requests (d), or suggestions (e).
(14a) So this is the reason he never showed up again, is it?

(14b) Oh, wow, smart boy, are you?
(14c) Blow them candles, will you?
(14d) Pass me some of those black-eyed peas, would you?
(14e) Let’s go, shall we?
7.3. Wh -questions
Wh-questions contain a question word. Think of as many interrogative words (wh-words) as

you can, and list them in the box.
As illustrated by (15a-c), there are different parts of a sentence that can be questioned with wh-
questions.
(15) George left his phone at home.

(15a) What did George leave at home?
(15b) Where did George leave his phone?
(15c) Who left his phone at home?
56
Questions Unit 7
Depending on whether an object (direct, indirect or object of preposition) or the subject is

questioned, different rules of question formation apply. If the sentence contains an auxiliary
verb, a modal verb or copular be, and its object is questioned, the following two things happen:
1. Wh-movement
2. subject-auxiliary inversion
Consider the next sentence from this point of view:
(16) She has forgotten his birthday.
She has forgotten what.
What she has forgotten.
What has she forgotten?
If the sentence does not contain an auxiliary, a modal or copular be, the process of question
formation looks like this:
1. Wh-movement
2. do insertion
The process is illustrated in the following sentence:
(17) I forgot the homework.
I forgot what.
What I forgot.
What did I forget?
Note that do is always followed by the bare infinitive form of the verb. When the subject of a
sentence is questioned, none of the above rules (i.e. wh-movement, subject-auxiliary inversion,
do insertion) apply. Instead, the subject is substituted by the appropriate wh-word.
(18) Jane saw him. Who saw him?

(19) Their car has been stolen. What has been stolen?
7.5. Embedded questions
A wh-question can be part of a longer sentence. In this case neither subject-auxiliary inversion
nor do insertion are applied.
(20) What time is it? Can you tell me what time it is?
(21) Who is she? I have no idea who she is.
(22) How much does it cost? I don’t know how much it costs.
(23) Why did they divorce? I wonder why they divorced.
57
Unit 7 Questions
If the original question does not contain a wh-word, we use if or whether.
(24) Does she eat meat? Do you know if (or whether) she eats meat?
(25) Have they arrived yet? Could you tell me if (or whether) they’ve arrived yet?
The same change in word order happens in reported questions.
(26) Teacher: Does anyone need further explanations?

(26a) The teacher asked us if anyone needed further explanations.
(27) Martha: Are you coming to the party?
(27a) Martha asked me if I was coming to the party.
NOTE: In reported questions, the verb usually changes to the past tense.
I. Indicate if the questions below have any implications.
- Aren’t they married?

- Did you call her?
- Can’t you please stop making this noise?
- You lost the game?
- Are you coming to see Anne?
II. Write possible questions that could be answered by these sentences.
1) I don’t know, I’ve never had any.

2) She did what?!
3) Yes, way before you, in fact.
4) No, this is the first time I hear about this.
5) Of course, why wouldn’t I?
6) Sorry, I can’t tell you that.
7) Definitely Jim’s.
8) That doesn’t matter.
9) Sure, but first let me change my socks.
10) Please don’t ever talk to me again.
III. Add an appropriate question tag to the following sentences. Pay attention to intonation, too.
1) You had been to Scotland before you visited Wales, ____________?

2) You just can’t wait, ____________?
3) We’d better hurry up if we don’t want to be late, ____________?
4) So that’s your version of the story, ____________? I mean, it’s barely believable…
5) Listen to me, ___________?
6) You wanted to ask me something, ___________?
7) I was never your first choice, _____________?
58
Questions Unit 7
8) What an outlandish thing to do, ____________?

9) I’m never good enough for you, ____________?
10) Nobody could’ve been so stupid to leave the door open, ____________?
11) Nothing can be done now, ___________?
12) Now’s hardly the time to apologize, ___________?
13) Not a single student knew there was going to be a test, ____________?
IV. Write negative questions on the basis of the following cues
1) I’ve never heard of this band before.
How come? _________________________________________________________________
2) I’ll have to ask you to leave now.
Why? ______________________________________________________________________
3) I’m afraid I can’t take you to Hawaii with me.
Why not? ___________________________________________________________________
4) Do you seriously think the court will believe your alibi?
Why? ______________________________________________________________________
5) I wouldn’t recommend you to try bungee jumping.
Why not? ___________________________________________________________________
V. Pairwork
A) Your friend has just made a Cheshire Cat pumpkin carving. Ask questions about this unusual
project. Try to use negative questions and question tags, too.
B) Your friend is saving money in a creative DIY jar. Ask questions about this project. Try to use
negative questions and question tags, too.
59
Unit 7 Questions
VI. Write embedded questions based on the following cues
1) What do you think? How much does she earn?
___________________________________________________________________________
2) What is love? I want to know it.
___________________________________________________________________________
3) Did he finally pass his exam? Do you know it?
___________________________________________________________________________
4) Have you ever had an allergic reaction before? Can you tell me?
___________________________________________________________________________
5) Do I care? What do you think?
___________________________________________________________________________
6) Where can it be found? I have no idea.
___________________________________________________________________________
7) What time did Anne leave? Can you remember?
___________________________________________________________________________
VII. Look at the following pictures and write questions pertaining to the situation or
questions that people in the pictures could be asked (or questions that could be on their mind).
60
Questions Unit 7
VIII. Read the text and write questions about the underlined parts.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was the product of Maurice

Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for
the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel, after discussion about
a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition
Universelle, a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the
French Revolution. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration
for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York
City in 1853. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a
sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon,
consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and
coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at
regular intervals". Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he
did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked
Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company's architectural
department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the
tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
Questions:
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________________________
61
Unit 7 Questions
IX. Pairwork
Read one of the texts below on a) the most popular botanic garden of the UK and b) a famous
rose garden in California. You have just returned from a visit to one of these locations and your
partner from the other. Ask each other questions about the sights.
Belfast Botanic Gardens
Occupying 28 acres (110,000 m2) of south
Belfast, the gardens are popular with office
workers, students and tourists. They are
located on Stranmillis Road in Queen's
Quarter, with Queen's University nearby.
The Ulster Museum is located at the main
entrance.
The gardens opened in 1828 as the private
Royal Belfast Botanical Gardens. It continued
as a private park for many years, only
opening to members of the public on
Sundays prior to 1895. Then it became a public park in 1895 when the Belfast Corporation
bought the gardens from the Belfast Botanical and Horticultural Society. The Belfast Corporation
was the predecessor of Belfast City Council, the present owner.
The gardens' most notable feature is the Palm House conservatory. The foundation stone was
laid by the Marquess of Donegall in 1839 and work was completed in 1840.[4] It is one of the
earliest examples of a curvilinear cast iron glasshouses in the world. Designed by Charles
Lanyon and built by Richard Turner, Belfast's Palm House predates the glasshouses at Kew and
the Irish National Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin, both of which Turner went on to build. The
Palm House consists of two wings, the cool wing and the tropical wing. Lanyon altered his
original plans to increase the height of the latter wing's dome, allowing for much taller plants. In
the past these have included an 11 metre tall globe spear lily. The lily, which is native to
Australia, finally bloomed in March 2005 after a 23-year wait. The Palm House also features a
400-year-old Xanthorrhoea.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanic_Gardens_(Belfast)
The Berkeley Rose Garden
The Berkeley Rose Garden is a city-owned park
in the North Berkeley area of Berkeley,
California. The Rose Garden is situated in a
residential area of the Berkeley Hills between
the Cragmont and La Loma Park
neighborhoods, occupying most of the block
between Eunice Street and Bayview Place
along the west side of Euclid Avenue.
The Rose Garden is in the form of a terraced
amphitheater nestled in a small canyon and
offers stunning views of the city and bay of San
Francisco and the Golden Gate. Over a hundred varieties of roses grow along the terraces, with
maximum blooming occurring in early Spring. The park is bisected by Codornices Creek. The
north side of the Rose Garden includes a set of tennis courts. The south side is a grove of Coast
Redwoods, bay trees and coastal live oak.
Construction of the Rose Garden began in 1933 with funds provided by the federal Civil Works
Administration. Construction continued in subsequent years with funding from the California
State Relief Administration and the federal Works Progress Administration. It opened on
September 26, 1937. Since its inception, the Rose Garden has been the site of numerous rose
shows.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Rose_Garden
62
Questions Unit 7
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about questions. You can add more
bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make sure you also write example
sentences.
63
UNIT 8 Relative clauses

The purpose of a relative clause is to give more information about a certain element of a
sentence, while referring to that given element. Relative clauses are introduced by relative
pronouns: that, which, who (including whom and whose), what, where, and why. To
understand how relative clauses and relative pronouns work, let’s first examine pronouns and
the concept of reference.
In general, pronouns are words that substitute nouns or noun phrases. Pronouns are often
used as anaphoric expressions, which means that they refer back to something that has
previously occurred in the sentence or text. This is known as anaphora, and what the pronouns
refer back to is known as an antecedent.
Consider the following example of a personal pronoun:
(1) I spoke to Mary yesterday. She was unhappy.

NOUN PERS PRN
In the second sentence, the personal pronoun she substitutes the noun Mary and also refers
back to it. Therefore, Mary is the antecedent for she. Relative pronouns work along similar
principles, with the difference that besides referring to something in the sentence they also
introduce a subordinate clause. In some cases, the relative pronoun may be omitted from the
relative clause.
(2) The topic that we are addressing is English grammar.
Here, the relativizer that refers to “the topic” which is the antecedent. In this case, the noun
phrase is essentially the object of the verb address, but it is moved to the beginning of the
sentence. In sentences like this, it is possible to leave out the relative pronoun. The role of the
noun phrase becomes clearly visible if we leave out the relative clause itself and paraphrase the
sentence.
(3) The topic is English grammar. We are addressing the topic / it.
(3a) The topic [(that) we are addressing the topic] is English grammar.
Similarly, in the following sentence if the relative clause is removed it becomes clear that the
noun phrase is in fact an object of the verb make.
(4) The errors [(that) people make] are rarely random.

(4a) The errors are rarely random. People make the errors / them.
On the other hand, those relative pronouns which refer to noun phrases that fulfill the role of the
sentence’s subject cannot be omitted. If they were deleted the sentence would become
ungrammatical and meaningless.
Relative clauses Unit 8
(5) The topic [that has been studied] is English grammar.

(5a) The topic is English grammar. The topic / It has been studied.
(5b)*The topic has been studied is English grammar.
In conclusion, the relative pronoun can be omitted if their antecedent is the object of the
sentence, but must be kept if their antecedent is the subject of the sentence.
I. Decide whether the relative pronoun can be omitted in the following sentences. Give
reasons for your decision
1) You’re the reason why I’m unhappy.

2) The package that I’ve been waiting for has finally arrived.
3) A large classroom library that contains simple books and books for beginner readers is a
necessity.
4) Most of the people whom I met had not driven their cars for four to five months.
5) They needed more time to spend on activities which
could prepare them for the communication tasks.
6) Students were playing a video game by shouting
instructions to their teacher, who was at the front of
the class and controlled the game, which was shown
on a large-screen monitor.
7) The House of Lancaster, whose symbol was the red
rose, engaged in a series of civil wars against the
House of York, whose symbol was the white rose.
In some cases, the pronoun which can have the proposition (an entire sentence or clause( as its
antecedent, meaning that the relativizer refers to the whole sentence or clause. These are
called sentential relative clauses:
(6) The road was blocked, which made me angry.

(6a) The road was blocked. It made me angry.
This means I was made angry by the fact that the road was blocked, as can be seen from the
use of the pronoun it that refers to the entire preceding sentence. In these cases, the relativizer
cannot be deleted.
There are two main types of relative clauses, depending on the meaning they convey: defining
(or restrictive) and non-defining (or non-restrictive) clauses. Non-defining relative clauses only
add extra meaning to the sentence, and thus can be omitted, while defining relative clauses
specify, identify, and single out people and things. A defining relative clause is necessary to
complete the meaning of the sentence, as opposed to a non-defining one.
II. Consider the following sentences
(1a) My brother, who is an accountant, works in a bank.

(1b) My brother who is an accountant works in a bank.
How many brothers do I have in 1a and how many in 1b?

Which of these is sentences contains a defining relative clause and which a non-defining one?
65
Unit 8 Relative clauses
(2a) The company, which can adapt to changing circumstances, will prosper.
(2b) The company which can adapt to changing circumstances will prosper.
Which of these sentences gives information about an individual company and which one is
about a given type of companies?
Non-defining relative clauses are indicated by different sentence intonation than defining
clauses and also by being enclosed within commas.
In defining relative clauses, that can be used interchangeably with who or which, but in non-
defining ones we cannot use that instead of who or which.
III. Fill the gaps with an appropriate relative pronoun. Decide if the clause is defining (D) or
non-defining (ND).
Legendary Creatures
A legendary, mythical, or mythological creature, traditionally called
a fabulous beast or fabulous creature, is a fictitious, imaginary and
often supernatural animal, often a hybrid, sometimes part human,
(1) _________ existence has not or cannot be proved and
(2) ____________ is described in folklore or fiction but also in
historical accounts before history became a science.
In the classical era, monstrous creatures such as the Cyclops and
the Minotaur appear in heroic tales for the protagonist to destroy.
Other creatures, such as the unicorn, were claimed in accounts of
natural history by various scholars of antiquity. Some legendary
creatures have their origin in traditional mythology and were believed to be real creatures, for
example dragons, griffins, and unicorns. Others were based on real encounters, originating in
garbled accounts of travelers' tales, such as the Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, (3) ___________
supposedly grew tethered to the earth.
A variety of mythical animals appear in the art and stories of the Classical era. For example in
the Odyssey, monstrous creatures include the Cyclops, Scylla and Charybdis for the hero
Odysseus to confront. In other tales there appear the Medusa to be defeated by Perseus, the
(human/bull) Minotaur to be destroyed by Theseus, and the Hydra to be killed by Heracles,
while Aeneas battles with the harpies. These monsters thus have the basic function of
emphasizing the greatness of the heroes involved.
Some classical era creatures, chimaera, (4) ___________is a horse/human centaur, or Triton
and the flying horse, are found also in Indian art. Similarly, sphinxes appear as winged lions in
Indian art and the Piasa Bird of North America.
In medieval art, animals, both real and mythical, played important roles. These included
decorative forms as in medieval jewelry, sometimes with their limbs intricately interlaced.
Animal forms were used to add humor or majesty to objects. In Christian art, animals carried
66
symbolic meanings, (5) ____________ for example the lamb symbolized Christ, a dove
indicated the Holy Spirit, and the classical griffin, (6) ________ represented a guardian of the
dead. Medieval bestiaries included animals regardless of biological reality; the basilisk
represented the devil, while the manticore symbolized temptation.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_creature
IV. Choose the correct relative pronoun(s). Sometimes more than one option is grammatical.
Laborious meal prep is now a thing of the past, here’s why
A Sunday afternoon spent chopping, dicing and cooking your meals for the rest of the week
might sound boring, but it's a great habit to get into, and not just for money saving purposes.
People who/that/which regularly do meal prep find it easier to control their weight, have a
more nutritionally balanced diet, and save time and money according to research by the
Harvard School of Public Health. But despite all its benefits, meal prep can feel laborious -- after
all, Sundays are meant to be about curling up on the couch not peeling potatoes. Here's why
meal prep is easier than ever...
1.You no longer have to chop food yourself

"Consider buying some frozen vegetables," Nutrition Program Manager at Nutrition Australia
Queensland, Aloysa Hourigan said. "They're already chopped, which/that/- saves you time,
and have good nutritional quality if stored and cooked according to instructions. You can buy
meat already cut in strips for stir fries, or cubed for casseroles. Herbs and spices come in tubes
where/which/that they're ready just to add in to cooking." If you'd rather DIY, there are still
plenty of ways to minimise meal prep stress. "You can get appliances that/-/which will cut,
grate or shred vegetables in to the size or shape you want-- saving lots of time and effort,"
Hourigan said.
2.Apps can help you plan what to eat and how to make it
Roughly planning your meals for the week ahead means you'll always have the right
ingredients in the house, which/that/- makes preparation much easier. Apps such as Meal
Board and Paprika let you plan your meals in advance, then find recipes to help you turn the
items on your grocery list in to meals. Try online recipe platform Cookidoo, which/-/that helps
you create menu plans and shopping lists. Looking into the future, next year you'll be able to
invest in the Connected Food Platform -- a smart kitchen that/-/that 'sees' what's in your fridge,
creates a menu based on the ingredients you have, then controls your oven to cook it for you.
67
3.There's gear to help food last longer

The right plastic container will keep food fresh for longer, meaning you can bulk prepare food
less often. Rubbermaid Produce Saver Containers allow produce to last up to 33 percent longer
as they promote airflow to keep food fresh. "Investing in good quality plastic containers with
good seals, that/which/- are easy to wash, makes food prep easier," Hourigan said. When it
comes to reheating food, be careful with plastics, McMillan warned. "Some plastics may leak
chemicals into your food, especially hot and/or fatty food," McMillan said. "I prefer to use glass
in the microwave and a washable plastic cover made for the microwave that/which/- doesn't
touch the food."
4.You don't even have to do it yourself

There are now a multitude of companies that/who/where will deliver a box of ingredients in the
right quantities to your door, along with a recipe and cooking instructions. "If you're time poor,
these can be a good (although often expensive) option," Hourigan said.
Source: https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/2017/08/09/laborious-meal-prep-is-now-a-thing-of-the-past-here-s-
why_a_23058919/
V. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun. Sometimes

more than one solution is possible. For some sentences you will also have to add a preposition
to the relativizer.
1) Identity is shaped by communities ___________ languages we share.

2) Registration is the first step in the process ______________ medical records are
transferred.
3) For students ______________ distance was an issue, distance education has helped
eliminate some barriers.
4) Jack strode the beach alone. The brother ______________ shadow he had always moved
dispersed in the air.
5) _________________ she wanted to do was work in television or film or magazines.
6) Local students host social events __________________ they can interact with international
students.
7) I suffered from having to hide my agony, _______________ I managed to do.
8) After the war, Clement Attlee sought to overturn a failed system _____________ delivered
the great depression, the hungry 1930s and a genocidal world war.
9) Both Attleeism and Thatcherism had iconic moments ____________ came to represent the
inadequacy of the system ____________ they replaced.
68
VI. Your friend wants to try cultivating tropical fruits at home. Argue for/against this idea.
Try to use diverse structures.
VII. Use the prompts from the box to complete the text with relative clauses. Decide if the
clauses are defining (D) or non-defining (ND). The first one has been done for you.
a) Adopted children only get their environment from their parents.
b) Complex innate mental faculties enable human beings to create and learning culture.
c) John Locke wrote that the mind is “white paper void of all characters.
d) Parents talk to their children.
e) Research finds a correlation between the behavior of parents and of their children.
f) Some parents’ children haven’t turned out as hoped.
g) Someone/people has/have had more than one child, or been in a heterosexual relationship,
or noticed that children learn language but house pets don’t.
h) The “blank slate” is subsequently inscribed by parents and society.
i) These concepts would seem natural to the human way of thinking – emotions, kinship, the
sexes.
Intellectual life today is beset with a great divide. On one side is a militant denial of human
nature, a conviction that the mind of a child is a blank slate (1) _____. For much of the past
century, psychology has tried to explain all thought, feeling, and behavior with a few simple
mechanisms of learning by association. Social scientists have tried to explain all customs and
social arrangements as a product of the surrounding culture. A long list of concepts (2) _____
are said to have been “invented” or “socially constructed.”
At the same time, there is a growing realization that human nature won’t go away. Anyone
(3) _____ has recognized that people are born with certain talents and temperaments.
Moreover, the modern sciences of mind, brain, genes, and evolution are showing that there is
something to the commonsense idea of human nature. Although no scientist denies that
learning and culture are crucial to every aspect of human life, these processes don’t happen by
magic. There must be complex innate mental faculties (4) _____.
69
Many policies on parenting come from research (5) _____. Loving parents have confident
children, authoritative parents (not too permissive nor too punitive) have well-behaved children,
parents (6) _____ have children with better language skills, and so on. Thus everyone
concludes that parents should be loving, authoritative, and talkative, and if children don’t turn
out well, it must be the parents’ fault.
Those conclusions depend on the belief that children are blank slates. It ignores the fact that
parents provide their children with genes, not just an environment. Until the studies are redone
with adopted children, (7) _____, the data are compatible with the possibility that genes make
all the difference, that parenting makes all the difference, or anything in between. Yet the
extreme position – that parents are everything – is the only one researchers entertain.
The denial of human nature has not just corrupted the world of intellectual but has harmed
ordinary people. It has distorted the choices faced by mothers as they try to balance their lives,
and it has multiplied the anguish of parents (8) _____.
The phrase “Blank Slate” is a loose translation of the medieval Latin term tabula rasa -- scraped
tablet. It is often attributed to the 17th century English philosopher John Locke, (9) _____ But it
became the official doctrine among thinking people only in the first of the 20 th century, as part of
a reaction to the widespread belief in the intellectual or moral inferiority of women, Jews, non-
white races, and non-Western cultures.
Adapted from: Pinker, S. (2002): The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature.
VIII. Have a look at these pictures. Tell your partner how this jar is made using as many
relative clauses as you can.
70
IX. Read the text below. Based on the information you fin din the text, write as many „extra
information” sentences (i.e. sentences with non-defining relative clauses) as you can. An
example has been done for you.
Multilingual countries
In many countries, perhaps even the majority of countries, there are at least two native
languages. In Belgium, for example, many towns have both French and Dutch names which are
used by the French- and Flemish-speaking population (e.g. Bruges and Brugge, Liège and Luik,
Tournai and Doornik, etc). In Luxembourg, the inhabitants use French at school, German for
reading newspapers and Luxemburgish (a local German dialect) at home.
Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. By some

estimates, 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual. Some countries have not just two or
three languages but hundreds, and India boasts 1,600 languages and dialects. South Africa has
no less than eleven official languages: Afrikaans, English, Southern Ndebele, Northern Sotho,
Southern Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. In West Africa, an English-
based pidgin language, developed during the Atlantic slave trade years, still serves as a
common lingua franca between several different countries with distinct and mutually
unintelligible languages.
But not all speakers in a multilingual society need to be multilingual. Some countries may have
multilingual policies and recognise several official languages (such as English and French in
Canada), but particular languages may be associated only with particular regions in the state
(e.g. Québec, New Brunswick). In Scandinavia, many, if not most, speakers of Swedish and
Norwegian (and also of Norwegian and Danish) can communicate with each other by speaking
their respective languages, and just avoiding words that are not found in the other language, or
that may be misunderstood. A similar phenomenon occurs in Argentina, where the similar but
distinct languages of Spanish and Italian are both widely spoken.
Multiple languages within a country can also lead to political problems, as witnessed by the
simmering resentment of the Dutch-speaking majority in Belgium, the sometimes radical tactics
of the French-speaking Québecois in Canada and Welsh language campaigners in English-
dominated Wales, and the full-blooded terrorism of the Basque organization ETA in the name of
linguistic and cultural independence.
71
However, despite such activism, and apparently regardless of government support or

otherwise, minority languages in multilingual countries are generally on the decline. There have
been isolated victories, such as the increasing usage of Hawaiian and Scottish Gaelic, but there
have been many more set-backs. For instance, Irish Gaelic appears moribund, and even Welsh
is still declining slowly despite the investment of millions in government money. The last native
speaker of Manx, a Celtic language spoken on the tiny Isle of Man, died in the 1960s. Further
afield, Ubykh, a highly complex Caucasian language with 82 consonants and just 3 vowels, once
spoken by 50,000 people in the Crimea region of eastern Europe, went the same way in 1992.
Source: http://www.thehistoryofenglish.com/issues_geography.html#Endangered
Example: In Belgium, where there are at least two native languages, many towns have both
French and Dutch names.
Mind map
Draw a mind map to summarize what you have learned about relative clauses in English. You
can add more bubbles and complete this initial template to suit your needs. Make sure you also
write example sentences.
Glossary
relative pronoun
antecedent
reference
anaphora
subordinate clause
72

Understanding Grammar in Context

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Understanding Grammar in Context

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Understanding Grammar in Context

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNDERSTANDING

JUDIT DOMBI & TAMÁS FEKETE

A kiadvány szerkesztési, lektorálási, grafikai és tördelési munkáit

Ezen elektronikus tananyag megjelentetése az EFOP-3.4.3-16-2016-00005

© Dombi Judit & Fekete Tamás

U NIT 1 The English verb I: Basic forms.............................................................................3

U NIT 2 The English verb II: The progressive aspect.......................................................12

U NIT 3 The English verb III: The perfect aspect..............................................................19

U NIT 4 The English verb IV: The perfect progressive aspect.........................................28

U NIT 5 The English verb V: Future forms .......................................................................36

U NIT 6 Modal auxiliaries..................................................................................................43

U NIT 7 Questions .............................................................................................................54

U NIT 8 Relative clauses ...................................................................................................64

Lewis, Michael. 1986. The English Verb.

Present tense Past tense Future tense

I. Look at the following snippets from song lyrics

A) Sit by my side, come as close as the air,

B) Green leaves of summer turn red in the fall,

C) Scenes of my young years were warm in my mind,

D) He was a most peculiar man.

E) 'Cause he gets up in the morning,

F) And he's oh, so good,

G) I can hear the soft breathing

H) He freely gave to charity, he had the common touch,

Which of these examples describe or refer to…

…general states, general truths:

In summary, the basic form means that

The attack on Pearl Harbor

- Which construction is mostly used in the text?

- What is the form of the text?

break agitate begin take

abandon adopt be (4x) become (2x)

VII. Some like it hot, and I certainly do.

1. Listen to Nigella Lawson cooking an Italian dish. (up to 7:22)

Pasta Putanesca, an Italian stalwart, is generally translated on English menus anyway,

Lewis, Michael. 1986. The English Verb.

I. Look at the following snippets from song lyrics

A) Bye, bye Miss American Pie

B) Father wears his Sunday best

C) The world's spinning madly, it drifts in the dark

D) Hello there George, newsagent on the corner,

Does the progressive form refer to permanent situations? Yes / No

change grow already/overtake be account

experience be grow form estimate

warn shape require be welcome

Source: David Graddol: English Next, pp. 32-33

The main use of the progressive aspect (in any tense) is

(A) the action is seen as a point in time basic / progressive

1a I swear I didn’t do anything.

2a You always complain about everything.

3a I hate awkward situations like this.

4a He snored and talked in his sleep all night long.

1. A new, more radio-friendly LP is being cranked out as quickly as possible. Meanwhile, no

5. Preservation groups ________________ (contemplate) a survey of every home and

Glossary – define these grammar terms with your own words.

Lewis, Michael. 1986. The English Verb.

I. Look at the following snippets from song lyrics

A) Oh, what have I done,

Are the actions completed? Yes / No

B) For twenty-five dollars