Complete New Testament Greek - A Comprehensive Guide To Reading N Understanding New Testament Greek 391pp VOY 19P

Contents
Meet the author

Only got a minute?
Only got five minutes?
Only got ten minutes?
Introduction
How to use this book
Glossary of grammatical and other terms
Abbreviations
01 1.1 Grammar /1 The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
/2 Accents 1.2 Exercise 1.3 Excursus: The nature of New
Testament Greek and its history

02 2.1 Grammar /1 Nouns in Greek /2 Second declension
and the masculine and neuter definite article /3 Basic

uses of cases /4 Verbs in Greek /5 Present and future
indicative active of -ω verbs verbs /6 Word order and
elision 2.2 Greek reading /1 Vocabulary
03 3.1 Grammar /1 First declension (feminine nouns) and
the feminine definite article /2 First declension

(masculine nouns) /3 First and second declension
adjectives /4 Adverbs /5 Prepositions /6 Present

indicative and infinitive of εἰμί I am 3.2 Greek reading /1
Vocabulary
04 4.1 Grammar /1 Imperfect indicative, weak aorist
indicative and infinitive of -ω verbs (active) /2 Personal

pronouns /3 Non-Greek proper nouns /4 Connecting
particles 4.2 Greek reading /1 Vocabulary 4.3 Excursus:
books in antiquity – the papyrus roll
05 5.1 Grammar /l Third declension – consonant stem nouns
(1) /2 Contracted verbs /3 Further uses of the definite
article 5.2 Greek reading /1 Vocabulary

06 6.1 Grammar /1 Third declension – consonant stem
nouns (2) /2 οἶδα know /3 Compound verbs formed with

prepositional prefixes /4 -ω verbs with stems in palatals,
labials, dentals 6.2 Greek reading /1 Vocabulary
07 7.1 Grammar /1 Strong aorist indicative and infinitive
active of -ω verbs /2 Direct and indirect speech /3 ϕημί

say and direct speech /4 Indirect command /5 Numerals
/6 Phrases expressing time and space 7.2 Greek reading
/1 Vocabulary
08 8.1 Grammar /1 Middle and passive voices /2 Deponent
verbs /3 Negatives /4 Indirect statement /5 Third

declension nouns – stems in ι and υ 8.2 Greek reading /1
Vocabulary 8.3 Excursus: Books in antiquity – the codex
09 9.1 Grammar /1 Demonstrative pronouns /2 The relative
pronoun ὅς and adjectival clauses /3 Other uses of αὐτός

/4 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns /5 Possessive
adjectives and pronouns 9.2 Greek reading /1

Vocabulary
10 10.1 Grammar /1 Interrogative τίς and indefinite τις /2
Questions, direct and indirect /3 First and third

declension adjectives /4 Third declension adjectives 10.2
Greek reading
11 11.1 Grammar /1 Aorist passive, root aorist, and future
passive /2 Agent and instrument /3 -ω verbs with stems

in λ, ν, ρ /4 Third declension nouns – stems in ευ and ου /5
Crasis 11.2 Greek reading
12 12.1 Grammar /1 Participles /2 Uses of participles 12.2
Greek reading 12.3 Excursus: The Septuagint

13 13.1 Grammar /1 Moods of the Greek verb /2 Subjunctive
mood /3 Uses of the subjunctive (1) /4 Optative mood
and its uses 13.2 Greek reading
14 14.1 Grammar /1 Uses of the subjunctive (2) /2 Perfect
indicative active 14.2 Greek reading

15 15.1 Grammar /1 Verbs used with the genitive or dative /2
Further particles 15.2 Greek reading

16 16.1 Grammar /1 Uses of ὥστε /2 Pluperfect indicative
active /3 Perfect and pluperfect indicative middle/passive

/4 Other parts of the perfect tense 16.2 Greek reading
17 17.1 Grammar /1 Imperative mood – commands and
prohibitions /2 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs /3

Meaning of the comparative and superlative /4
Constructions involving the comparative 17.2 Greek
reading 17.3 Excursus: Translations of the Bible
18 18.1 Grammar /1 -μι verbs /2 δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place
/3 Conditional sentences /4 Other potential constructions
18.2 Greek reading
19 19.1 Grammar /1 Verbs in νυμι /2 ἵστημι and its compounds
/3 Eccentric μαι verbs 19.2 Greek reading
20 20.1 Grammar /1 Compounds of ἵημι /2 Uses of cases (1)
– nominative and accusative /3 Uses of cases (2) –
genitive /4 Oddities in verbs 20.2 Greek reading

21 21.1 Grammar /1 Uses of cases (3) – dative /2 First and
second declension contracted adjectives /3 Further

demonstrative and relative adjectives/pronouns 21.2
Greek reading 21.3 Excursus: The text of the New
Testament
Suggestions for further study
Appendices
1 Conjugation of λύω loosen
2 Conjugation of contracted verbs
3 Conjugation of εἰμί be
4 Root aorist
5 Conjugation of δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place, ἵστημι make
stand
6 Numerals
7 Accentuation
Key to Greek reading exercises

Principal parts of verbs
Vocabulary
Meet the author
My interest in Greek began at an early age. In 1938 my father gave me

the choice between a newly minted coin bearing the head of the
recently crowned George VI to add to my coin collection and a copy of
Arthur Mee’s Children’s Encyclopedia. After some deliberation – I was
six at the time – I chose the latter, and the wealth of articles in it about
the ancient world, Greek, Roman and Biblical, made me determined
to learn Latin and Greek if I ever had the opportunity. Latin I started at
secondary school but Greek had to wait until university. There I began
with the classical language but my interests soon extended to its other
forms such as New Testament and Modern Greek. At a much later
date, when I had joined the Department of Classical Studies of
Monash University in Melbourne and I began to teach a beginner’s
course in New Testament Greek, I was unable to find any elementary
book that did not contain masses of Greek sentences concocted by
the author. Why, I thought, given the ease with which students could
read much of the Greek New Testament after a few months of study, is
there not an elementary book where virtually all grammatical
examples and reading exercises were taken directly from the New
Testament itself? I set myself to write this and the result is what you
have before you.
1: Only got a minute?
Are you ever confused by the enormous variety of translations of the

New Testament now available? Some claim to be more user-friendly
than established versions, while others are produced for groups
wishing to push idiosyncratic social theories or unusual notions of
biblical interpretation. And yet the language used by the writers of the
New Testament was both simple and generally unambiguous. As they
were directing their message to as wide an audience as possible they
chose a form of Greek that would be understood by all those who
spoke it. A reader who gets back to what New Testament authors
actually wrote removes the barrier of translation and is able to
appreciate the fundamental texts of Christianity in their original form.
As an example of the inadequacy of modern translations, take

Matthew 23.29. Two versions are as follows:
Alas for you, lawyers and Pharisees, hypocrites! You build up the
tombs of the prophets and embellish the monuments of the saints.
(The New English Bible O.U.P & C.U.P. 1970)
You Pharisees and teachers are nothing but show-offs, and you’re
in for trouble! You build monuments for the prophets and decorate the
tombs of good people. (Today’s New Testament and Psalms Bible
Society 1995)
The old Authorized Version of the bible, which was a masterpiece of

both translation and English prose, has:
Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because ye build

the tombs of the prophets, and garnish the sepulchres of the
righteous.
This is both close to the Greek and elegantly expressed. A simple
and literal translation into modern English might run:
I rebuke you, scholars and Pharisees, hypocrites, because you

build the tombs of the prophets and adorn the graves of the just.
The parts of the Greek New Testament that are easiest to read are
in fact the most important and most interesting – the four Gospels.
Some of their most famous stories – the good Samaritan, the prodigal
son – are set out and explained in this book. But, above all, the
message of Christianity can be read in its original form after a few
months of diligent study.
5: Only got five minutes?
Christians often place the outline of a fish on the back window of

their car to indicate their beliefs, but do many know how this
symbol came to have a connection with Christianity? The answer
lies in the fact that early Greek-speaking Christians used a fish
as a secret sign to indicate their religious commitment. In Greek
the word for fish, ΙXΘϒΣ, is made up of the first letters of each
word in the phrase ΙΗΣOϒΣ XΡΙΣΤOΣ ΘΕOϒ ϒΙOΣ ΣΩΤΗΡ Jesus
Christ Son of God Saviour. The language spoken by these
people, the koine (the common [dialect]), was the form of Greek
prevalent in most parts of the Greek world of the time. The
variety of the koine spoken in Palestine of the first century AD
was used by the writers of the New Testament to spread the
message of Christianity. Because this was somewhat different
from the koine of other areas, scholars have given it the name
New Testament Greek.
New Testament Greek was not a sophisticated language like that

used by the great Greek writers of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. in
the intervening centuries the language had taken on a simpler form in
which many of the grammatical complexities were lost and the
vocabulary of the earlier language was restricted. Consequently the
New Testament is much easier to read than the works of Euripides or
Plato.
In learning Greek the first step is the alphabet but as this is so similar
to our own it presents no problems. We do not have to worry
overmuch about pronunciation as our object is to read texts, not to
communicate in the language — in any case there are no speakers of
New Testament Greek in the world today.
New Testament Greek is an inflected language, that is to say nouns,

verbs and adjectives have endings that vary according to the meaning
required by their function in a sentence. This exists in English but to a
very much smaller extent; child, child’s, children, children’s are
examples. The way in which sentences are constructed is not very
different from what we are accustomed to in English. The first clause
of Matthew 15.29 reads in transliteration kai metabas ekeithen ho
Iēsous ēlthen para tēn thalassan tēs Galilaias and this means and
[kai] having gone [metabas] from there [ekeithen] Jesus [ho
Iēsous] went [ēlthen] to [para] the sea [tēn thalassan] of Galilee

[tēs Galilaias]. Here the idioms of the two language are very close;
apart from the case endings of nouns the main difference is the use in
Greek of the definitive article (in English the) with Iēsous and
Galilaias.
In this book you will be reading genuine phrases, sentences and

passages from the New Testament, not pieces of made-up Greek.
The work you put into learning New Testament Greek will be more
than compensated by the rewards it brings. Like the seed that fell
upon good ground in the parable of the sower (Matthew 13.3-8), your
efforts will bring a plentiful return.
10: Only got ten minutes?
The discrepancies between the many translations of the New

Testament published over recent decades leave many people in
a state of confusion as to what the Greek text really says. And yet
the original is accessible and can be mastered with a modicum of
diligence and persistence. The New Testament is written in a
form of ancient Greek that presents about the same level of
difficulty as easier texts in modern German. Its history explains
why this is so.
The language spoken in most parts of the Greek world from the third
century BC is called the koine (the common [dialect]). This was a
descendant of the Greek of fifth and fourth centuries BC Athens in
which the literary masterpieces of that period were written. However,
the koine was a simpler form of Greek. It was not a literary language
in the sense that the Greek of Attic literature had been. The difference
between the two could be very roughly compared to that between a
popular modern newspaper and the educated English of
Shakespeare’s day.
New Testament Greek, which gets its name from the most important
book for which it was used, is the variety of the koine spoken in the
first century AD in the Roman province of Judaea, which covered a
somewhat greater area than that now covered by Israel and the West
Bank. When the Christian faith as preached by Jesus failed to gain
any widespread acceptance among Jews, the apostles and those who
had been converted turned to the non-Jewish population of Palestine
and other parts of the eastern Roman empire. The language spoken
by many of these communities was Greek in its koine form. When
Christianity began to spread in the middle decades of the first century
AD, we find Paul using this type of Greek to address Christian
communities in Greece, Asia Minor and even the one group in the
west that had formed in Rome. As the gospels were composed during
the same period for the information of such communities it was natural
that they too were written in Greek.
In learning Greek the first difference that strikes a beginner is, of

course, the alphabet. This is easy to master. Our own alphabet is an
adaptation of the Greek and the discrepancies between the two
present no problem. We can take the second sentence of Mark 2.13:
καὶ πᾶς ὁ ὄχλος ἤρχετο πρὸς αὐτόν, καὶ ἐδίδασκεν αὐτούς.
Transliterated in our alphabet this reads:
kai pas ho ochlos ērcheto pros auton, kai edidasken autous

(Mk.2.13)
Some Greek letters resemble their Roman counterparts; some, such

as delta (δ = d), lambda (λ = l), pi (π = p), are different. Other points to
notice here are:
in the third word, where the reversed comma above the omicron (ὁ)
represents our aitch (h)
in the fourth word (ὄχλος), where the second letter (called chi) is
transliterated as ch. This letter also occurs in the next word
in the fifth word (ἤρχετο), where the first letter is the Greek long e
(pronounced as ê in fête). Its length is indicated by the bar (ē) and its
name is ēta.
Pronunciation is important with a modern language, but as New

Testament Greek is no longer spoken we use a conventional system
agreed upon by scholars. This is an approximation of how the
language originally sounded and does not require any sounds
unfamiliar to an English speaker.
Greek is an inflected language, which means that words undergo

changes to indicate a variation in meaning or in the way it is used. We
have this in English. The meaning and function of the noun man
depends on whether we have man, man’s, men, men’s. Likewise the
form of a verb changes according to the meaning we wish to convey.
We use the different parts of the verb break (breaks, broke, broken) to
suit a particular sense and context.
In Greek changes of this sort are more numerous. The ending of a

noun varies according to which of the five cases (nominative,
vocative, accusative, genitive, dative) is required by the context in
which it is used. As an adjective must agree with the noun it qualifies,
it too is subject to the same variations. The endings of verbs have
several functions; for instance they indicate the time in which the
action described by a verb takes place. However, the structure of a
sentence in the New Testament is often very similar to that in English.
Taking the sentence from Mark given above we find that a literal
translation also gives us acceptable, idiomatic English:
And (kai) all (pas) the (ho) crowd (ochlos) went (ērcheto) to (pros)
him (auton), and (kai) he taught (edidasken) them (autous).
The only word added in our translation is he. This is because

according to Greek idiom the pronoun is inferred from the ending of
edidasken and the context. This is a simple sentence, typical of the
Gospels. Yet some translators cannot refrain from at least minor
alterations, and for the first clause here one translation has a large
crowd gathered around him.
Many books intended for students beginning a language contain a

mass of sentences composed by the author. Here from the very
beginning the reader is presented with the actual words of the New
Testament. Except for a few phrases the material in the reading
exercises is taken from the Greek text of the New Testament. The
references of all sentences and passages are given so that the reader
can look up the context in which they occur.
The book has a glossary for readers who are unfamiliar with
grammatical terms. Additional information is also provided on the form
in which the New Testament appeared before the invention of printing,
and on other topics relating to its history.
Introduction
How to use this book

When St Jerome decided to translate the Old Testament into Latin
from the original text he was obliged to learn Hebrew, and to do this he
is said to have retired into the desert for a number of years. It is the
author’s hope that the student who wants to read the New Testament
in its original form will not find a similar retreat necessary. However,
learning a language on one’s own requires a special approach. Apart
from the key, you will have few checks on your progress, and you
must follow up any doubt, however small, about meanings of words
and points of grammar. To be able to do this you must make yourself
completely familiar with the arrangement of the book’s contents.
A knowledge of the basics of traditional English grammar is essential,

as this is the framework used to explain the structure of Greek. You
should be conversant with the parts of speech (adjective, adverb,
article, conjunction, interjection, noun, preposition, pronoun, verb)
and with the meaning of such terms as finite, transitive/intransitive,
clause, phrase, subject, object, etc. If these are new to you, consult
the Glossary of grammatical and other terms, which follows this
section of the introduction. There you will find much information on the
salient points of Greek grammar, which has much in common with that
of English. Start with the entries suggested above, and consult others
as the need arises. Do not try to digest the whole glossary before
starting on the first unit.
The main part of the book consists of twenty-one units. Each contains
either two or three sections. The first section is taken up with
grammar, the second contains sentences and passages of Greek for
reading, while the third section deals with some background aspects
of NT Greek studies.
The grammatical sections, which are headed .1, are carefully graded
over the course of the book and set out the basic features of Greek
grammar. Each should be mastered before tackling the next. Very
often a particular section cannot be understood without mastering
what has gone before.
Grammar as a whole can be divided into two parts; one involves the
forms which a word can take (e.g. those of a second declension
masculine noun, 2.1/2), the other deals with the ways in which these
forms are used to make up phrases and sentences (e.g. the uses of
the dative case, 2.1/3(e)). The former we must learn by heart. The
latter we can only fully understand when, after learning a general rule,
we see, and are able to understand, examples of it in use. Because of
the importance of this, almost all sentences given in grammatical
explanations (as well as the sentences and passages in the reading
exercises) are taken from the NT itself. For all these extracts from the
NT a reference is given, and if any change has been made the
reference is preceded by an asterisk. You will be familiar with many of
these in translation. Sometimes you may feel inclined to look up the
passage from which a sentence has been taken; sometimes you may
be moved to learn the Greek by heart. Both practices will help your
progress.
The reading exercises should not be attempted with one finger in the
corresponding page of the key, although you should make full use of
any help provided by the notes which follow each exercise. It is only
by analysing the forms of words and patiently working out the
construction of clauses and sentences that you will make progress.
Write out a full translation of an exercise and then compare it with the
key. When you discover you have made a mistake, you must
meticulously hunt out the point of grammar concerned and see how
you came to be wrong. To help you do this, many cross references
have been supplied in all parts of the book (a reference of the form
18.1/2 is for the grammatical section (.1) of a unit, but one such as
18.2.2 is to the reading section (.2)). Your final step should be to read
through the Greek aloud until you are able to translate it without
reference to your own version or the key. This will familiarize you with
the construction employed and any new vocabulary. Some rote
learning of new words is, of course, inevitable. If, however, you go to
the trouble of memorizing some of the many famous verses contained
in the reading you will find your grasp on the language extending itself
in an enjoyable and rewarding fashion.
Appendices 1–6 give grammatical tables and other information to

supplement particular units. Appendix 7 is on accentuation and can
be consulted regularly and mastered over the course of the whole
book. The section Principal parts of verbs complements the
vocabulary with full information about more difficult verbs. For ease of
reference to grammatical points an index is provided.
The book is oriented completely towards the form of Greek found in

the New Testament. Less emphasis is placed on features of the
language, such as the optative, which are in the process of
disappearing. In the case of that perennial scourge of beginners, the
-μι verbs, forms that actually occur in the New Testament are clearly
distinguished from those that do not. If you are not interested in other
early Christian literature, you need not worry yourself with the latter.
It is not necessary to acquire a text of the Greek New Testament until

you have finished the book and wish to pursue your studies further.
The recommended edition is that published by the United Bible
Societies; details will be found in Suggestions for further study.
Glossary of grammatical and other terms
The following list contains the grammatical terms which we shall use
in approaching Greek; most are part of traditional English grammar. If
you are not familiar with this terminology you should study the
following list carefully. Start with the parts of speech, viz adjective,
adverb, article, conjunction, interjection, noun, preposition,
pronoun, verb. These are the categories into which words are
classified for grammatical purposes and are the same for Greek as for
English.
active see voice.
adjective An adjective is a word which qualifies (i.e. tells us of some

quality of) a noun or pronoun: a high pyramid; a short Egyptian; the
high priest was intelligent; he is thin.
adverb Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs: she talks

quickly; an extremely fat man; the ship was going very slowly.
Certain adverbs can qualify nouns and pronouns: even a child can
see that. They may even qualify a whole clause: we went to
Jerusalem last year; we also saw Bethlehem.
apposition A noun (or noun phrase) is in apposition to another noun

or pronoun when it follows by way of explanation and is exactly
parallel in its relation to the rest of the sentence: he, a just man, was
wrongly convicted; I, the undersigned, will inform my solicitor.
article English has two articles the and a/an. The is called the definite
article because a noun preceded by it refers to someone or something
definite: the cat belonging to the neighbours kept me awake last night.
A/an is called the indefinite article because a noun preceded by it
refers to someone or something indefinite: No, I do not want a dog.
aspect This is the term applied to the use of verbal forms to express
an action in respect not of the time when it occurs but of its inception,
duration, or completion. It is most commonly employed in Greek in
connection with the moods (other than the indicative) of the present
and aorist tenses; e.g. the present imperative is used for continual
actions (keep hitting that Philistine!), but for single actions (hit that
Philistine!) we have another form of the verb (the aorist imperative).
Attic Greek This was the dialect used in Athens of the fifth and fourth
centuries BC. In it are written most of the literary masterpieces of the
period and it came to be recognized as the normal idiom for prose.
From it developed the Koine, the form of Greek used in the NT (see
also 1.3).
attributive Attributive and predicative are the terms applied to the two
ways in which adjectives can be used. An adjective used attributively
forms a phrase with the noun it qualifies, and in English always comes
immediately before it: ancient Jerusalem, a tall mountain, the true
prophet. An adjective used predicatively tells us what is predicated of,
or asserted about, a person or thing. A verb is always involved in this
use, and in English a predicative adjective always, in prose, follows
the noun or pronoun it qualifies, generally with the verb coming
between them: men are mortal, the centurion was bald. This use
frequently involves the verb to be, but there are other possibilities: the
priest was considered pious; we thought the tax collector avaricious.
All adjectives can be used in either way, with the exception of some
possessive adjectives in English such as my, mine (the first can be
only attributive, the second only predicative).
auxiliary verb Many tenses in English are formed with the present or
past participle of a verb together with some part of have or be (or
both); when so used the latter are called auxiliary verbs: he was
running when I saw him; I have read this glossary five times; we have
been working for the past week at Greek. These combinations (was
running, have read, etc.) are called composite tenses. Other auxiliary
verbs in English are shall, will, should, would. Greek has a much
smaller number of composite tenses.
case In any type of expression where it occurs, a noun (or pronoun)

stands in a certain relationship to the other words, and this
relationship is determined by the meaning we want to convey. The two
sentences my brothers bite dogs and dogs bite my brothers contain
exactly the same words but have opposite meanings, which are
shown by the relationship in each sentence of the nouns brothers and
dogs to the verb bite; here (as is normal in English) this relationship is
indicated by word order. In Greek, where word order is used
somewhat differently, it is indicated by particular case endings applied
to nouns. If a noun is the subject of a verb (i.e. precedes it in a simple
English sentence such as the above), it must, in Greek, be put into the
nominative case with the appropriate ending; if it is the object of a verb
(i.e. follows it in English) Greek puts it into the accusative case. In
English we still have this system with pronouns; we say I saw her
today, we cannot say me saw her because I is the nominative case,
required here to show the subject of the verb, whereas me is the
accusative case. With nouns in English we only have one case which
can be indicated by an ending and this is the genitive; girl’s, boy’s. In
Greek we have five cases, nominative, vocative, accusative,
genitive, dative.
clause A clause is a group of words forming a sense unit and

containing one finite verb, e.g. the peasant feared the centurion; I am
not happy today (the finite verb is in bold type). We can have either
main clauses, which can stand on their own, or subordinate
clauses, which cannot. In the sentence Herod owned a palace which
had cost much money, the first four words constitute the main clause
and this forms a complete sense unit; if, however, you were to say to a
friend which had cost much money and nothing else, you would risk
being thought odd because these words form a subordinate clause.
Subordinate clauses are divided into adverbial which function as
adverbs, adjectival, which function as adjectives, and noun clauses,
which function as nouns.
comparison (of adjectives and adverbs) See inflexion.
conjugation See inflexion.
conjunction Conjunctions are joining words and do not vary in form.

Some conjunctions can join clauses, phrases or individual words (e.g.
and, or) but most have a more restricted use. Those that are used to
join clauses are divided into co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or,
but), which join a main clause to a preceding one (I went to the
temple, but you were not there), and subordinating conjunctions,
which subordinate one clause to another (the doctor came because I
was ill).
declension See inflexion.
dental This term is used to describe those consonants which are

pronounced with the tongue touching the teeth, in English t, d; in
Greek τ, δ, θ.
deponent A deponent verb is one which is middle or passive in form

(see voice) but active in meaning. Deponent verbs do not exist in
English but are common in Greek.
enclitics These are Greek words of one or two syllables whose

accentuation, or lack of it, is determined by the previous word;
because of this they normally cannot stand at the beginning of a
clause; see also Appendix 7, (d).
finite This term is applied to those forms of verbs which can function
by themselves as the verbal element of a clause. The only non-finite
forms of a verb in English and Greek are participles and infinitives. We
can say the Israelites defeated their enemies because defeated is a
finite form of the verb to defeat. We cannot say the Israelites to have
defeated their enemies because to have defeated is an infinitive and
therefore non-finite, nor can we say (as a full sentence) the Israelites
having defeated their enemies because having defeated is a
participle.
gender In English we only observe natural gender (apart from such
eccentricities as supposing ships feminine). If we are talking about a
man we refer to him by the masculine pronoun he, but we refer to a
woman by the feminine pronoun she, and we refer to a thing, such as
a table or chair, by the neuter pronoun it. Greek, however, observes
natural gender with living beings (generally), but other nouns, which
may denote things, qualities and so on, are not necessarily neuter.
For example τράπεζα table is feminine, λόγος speech is masculine. This
has important grammatical consequences, but the gender of
individual nouns is not difficult to learn as, in most cases, it is shown
by the ending. In vocabularies and dictionaries a noun is always
accompanied by the appropriate form of the definite article, and this
also indicates its gender.
imperative See mood.
indeclinable This term is applied to nouns which have only one form
and whose case is determined by the surrounding words. Most
indeclinable nouns are names of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which
have not been assimilated to the Greek system of declensions.
Examples are Άβραάμ Abraham, Ἰσραήλ Israel, Βηθλέεμ Bethlehem.
indicative See mood.
infinitive Infinitives are those parts of a verb which in English are

normally preceded by to, e.g. to see, to be seen, to have seen, to have
been seen. These are, respectively, the present active, present
passive, past active, and past passive infinitives of the verb see. As in
English, a Greek verb has active and passive infinitives, and infinitives
exist in different tenses. A Greek infinitive is not preceded by anything
corresponding to the English to.
inflexion The form of adjectives, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and

verbs changes in English and in Greek (but much more so) according
to the requirements of meaning and grammar. Inflexion is the overall
term for such changes and covers conjugation, which applies only to
verbs, declension, which applies to nouns, pronouns, and adjectives
(which include participles), and comparison, which applies to
adjectives and adverbs. The term conjugation is also used for the
categories into which verbs are classified, and the term declension is
similarly used for those of nouns and adjectives.
interjection Interjections are words used to express one’s emotions.

They do not form part of sentences and have only one form (i.e. are
not subject to inflexion). An example is οὐαί alas!
intransitive This is a term applied to verbs which cannot, because of

their meaning, take a normal object, e.g. come, die, go. The opposite
term is transitive; transitive verbs (e.g. make, hit, repair) can take an
object. He hit the man is a perfectly possible sentence, but he dies the
man is nonsense. Sometimes in English we have pairs of verbs, one
transitive and the other intransitive, which are obviously connected in
sense and etymology, as to fall and to fell. We can say John is falling
from the tree but John is falling the tree is without sense. If we mean
John is causing the tree to fall, we can say John is felling the tree;
hence to fall is intransitive, to fell is transitive. Some verbs are
transitive in English but intransitive in Greek, and vice-versa. There
are also a number of verbs in English, such as move, which can be
either transitive or intransitive, while their Greek equivalents are
exclusively one or the other: I moved the lamp from its place
(transitive); the previous year he moved from Damascus to Egypt
(intransitive). The Greek κινέω move, however, can, in the active, only
be used transitively.
koine This is the name given to the dialect of Greek which developed
in the third century BC in the wake of the conquest of Alexander the
Great. It is the language in which the NT is written. For details see 1.3.
labial This term is used to describe those consonants which are

pronounced by bringing the lips together, in English p, b; in Greek π,
β, ϕ.
middle See voice.
mood This term is applied to verbs. Every finite form of a Greek verb
is in one of four moods, which are:
indicative, to express a fact: the doctor operated on me
yesterday.
subjunctive, which originally expressed what the speaker
willed or expected (let us go is expressed in Greek by a
single subjunctive form of the verb go; cf. be that as it may,
i.e. let that be as it may). In Greek it is used in a number of
idiomatic ways which cannot be given a single meaning. A
few relics of the subjunctive survive in English (if I were you;
be in the above example). A Greek subjunctive is often to be
translated with an English auxiliary verb such as let, may,
would, etc.
optative, which originally expressed what the speaker
desired or considered possible. Like the subjunctive it cannot
be given a single meaning. In one of its uses it expresses a
wish of the type May that not happen! Its use in the New
Testament is very restricted and it later disappeared from
Greek completely.
imperative, to give an order: do this immediately!
There is also a fifth mood, the infinitive mood, which is solely taken up
by infinitives; these by definition are non-finite. The other part of the
Greek verb, participles, is not considered to be in any mood.
noun A noun is a naming word: book, river, truth, Paul, Nazareth.

Proper nouns are those we write with a capital letter; all others are
common nouns.
number A noun, or pronoun, or verb is normally either singular or

plural in Greek just as in English.
object A noun or pronoun which is the object of an active verb suffers

or receives the action of that verb: Matthew wrote a gospel; the devil
tempted many gentiles; the Romans destroyed the temple. By
definition we cannot have an object of this sort after intransitive verbs
or (normally) after verbs in the passive voice. It is sometimes called a
direct object to distinguish it from an indirect object which we get
after verbs of saying and giving: he told a story to the child. In English
we can express this slightly differently: he told the child a story; but
child is still the indirect object because the direct object is story. In
Greek an indirect object is put into the dative case.
oblique cases The overall term applied to the accusative, genitive,

and dative cases.
optative See mood.
palatal This term is used to describe those consonants which are

pronounced by bringing the tongue into contact with the upper palate,
in English k, g; in Greek κ, γ, χ.
parse To parse a word is to define it grammatically. For nouns it is

necessary to give case and number (men’s is the genitive plural of
man), for finite verbs the person, number, tense, mood and voice.
participle Participles are those forms of a verb which function as

adjectives: the running horse, a fallen tree.
particle Under the term particle are included adverbs which give a
particular nuance to individual words, phrases or sentences, as well
as certain shorter conjunctions (see 4.1/4).
passive see voice.
person There are three persons, first, second, and third. First
person is the person(s) speaking, i.e. I or we; second person is the
person(s) spoken to, i.e. you; and third person is the person(s) or
thing(s) spoken about, i.e. he, she, it, they. The term person has
reference to pronouns and also to verbs because finite verbs must
agree with their subject in number and person. Naturally, when we
have a noun as subject of a verb, e.g. the dog is running across the
road, the verb is in the third person.
phrase A phrase is an intelligible group of words which does not have

a finite verb: into the woods, the Syrian’s five tired donkeys. A phrase
can only be used by itself in certain circumstances, as in answer to a
question.
postpositive This term is used of words (mainly particles) which, if

qualifying a word, must be placed after it, or, if qualifying a clause,
cannot stand as its first word.
predicate The predicate is what is said about the subject of a clause.

In John wrote the fourth Gospel the subject is John and what is said
about him (wrote the fourth Gospel) is the predicate. In the high priest
was furious the adjective furious is used predicatively because it is
part of the predicate (was furious).
predicative See attributive.
preposition Prepositions are invariable words which govern a noun

or pronoun and show the relationship of the noun or pronoun to the
rest of the sentence: Joseph went to Nazareth; we live in Samaria; I
saw John with him.
pronoun Pronouns stand in place of nouns. The English personal

pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they (in the accusative case me,
you, him, her, it, us, them). Other words such as this, that can function
as pronouns (I do not like that!) or as adjectives (I do not like that
habit!); for convenience we shall call them demonstrative pronouns.
We also have reflexive pronouns (he loves himself) and relative
pronouns (I do not like the woman who was here).
sentence A sentence is a unit of speech which normally contains at

least one main clause. It may be either a statement, question or
command. For the Greek marks of punctuation used with each see
Unit 1.
stem The stem is the form of a word before endings are applied. In
Greek, nouns normally have only one stem, which sometimes cannot
be deduced from the nominative singular. With verbs in Greek we
have different stems for some, but not all, tenses. English verbs such
as to break are comparable; break- is the present stem and to it the
ending of the third person singular is added (giving breaks); brok- is
the past stem, giving us brok-en for the past participle.
subject A noun or pronoun which is the subject of an active verb

performs the action of that verb: Paul went on a journey to Rome; the
tax-collector amassed a large amount of money; on the third day the
soldier died. A noun or pronoun which is the subject of a passive verb
suffers or receives the action of that verb: the ship was hit by a storm;
the army was commanded to advance. It is normal to speak of the
subject as governing its verb. In English and Greek a finite verb’s
person and number are determined by the subject. We cannot say I is
because I is the first person singular pronoun and is is the third person
singular of the verb to be (present tense); we must here use the first
person (singular) form am. Likewise we must say we are and not we
am because we is plural. An easy way to find the subject in English is
to put who or what in front of the verb; with the sentence the ship was
hit by a submerged rock, we ask the question what was hit by a
submerged rock? and the answer, the ship, is the subject of the
clause. See also Voice.
subjunctive See mood.
tense Tense is a term applied to verbs. Every finite form of a verb, as

well as participles and infinitives, indicates that the action or state
expressed takes place in a particular time; for a complication in Greek
see aspect. The verb in I am sick refers to the present, in I will be sick
to the future. These temporal states are called tenses, and in Greek
we have six: present, future, imperfect, aorist, perfect, pluperfect.
transitive See intransitive.

verb A verb, when finite, is the doing or being word of its clause. It
must agree with the subject in person and number. For non-finite
forms of verbs see finite. A finite verb varies according to person,
number, tense, mood, and voice.
voice This term is applied to verbs, whether finite or non-finite. In

English there are two voices, active and passive. The subject of an
active verb is the doer of the action; the soldier lifted his shield. With a
passive verb the subject suffers or receives the action: the shield was
lifted by the soldier. Greek has another voice, the middle, which
originally meant to do something to or for oneself; its use in New
Testament Greek will be explained at 8.1/1.
Abbreviations
a. or accusative
acc.
absol. absolute
Ac Acts
act. active
adj. adjective
ad anno Domini, ie. after Christ
adv. adverb
aor. aorist
AV King James translation of the New Testament (the
Authorized Version)
c. about, approximately
cap. capital
cf. compare
Col Colossians
compar. comparative
conj. conjunction
1 Cor 1 Corinthians
2 Cor 2 Corinthians
d. died
dat. dative
Eph Ephesians
ex. example
f. or f feminine
f. following
fut. future
Gal Galatians
gen. genitive
Hb Hebrews
imp. imperative
impers. impersonal
impf. imperfect
ind. indicative
indecl. indeclinable
indef. indefinite
indir. indirect
inf. infinitive
interrog. interrogative
intr. intransitive
1 J 1 John
2 J 2 John
3 J 3 John
Jd Jude
Jn John
Js James
l. line
lit. literally
Lk Luke
ll. lines
m. or m masculine
mid. middle
Mk Mark
Mt Matthew
n. or n neuter
n. or nominative
nom.
NT New Testament
opt. optative
pass. passive
perf. perfect
pers. person
Phil Philippians
Phlm Philemon
pl. plural
plpf. pluperfect
poet. poetical
poss. possessive
pple. participle
prep. preposition
pres. present
pron. pronoun
1 Pt 1 Peter
2 Pt 2 Peter
refl. reflexive
rel. relative
Ro Romans
Rv Revelation
s. singular
sc. namely
subj. subjunctive
supl. superlative
1 Th 1 Thessalonians
2 Th 2 Thessalonians
1 Ti 1 Timothy
2 Ti 2 Timothy
Tit Titus
tr. transitive
trans. translate
v. or vocative
voc.
viz that is to say
Round brackets ( ) contain explanatory material or a literal translation;

in the vocabulary round brackets are also used to indicate alternative
forms.
Square brackets [ ] are used in two ways:

a) With English words they enclose something required by English
idiom but which has no equivalent in the Greek original; not all such
words are marked in this way.
b) With Greek words they indicate that a form does not occur in the NT
but is included, usually in a table, to give a clearer overall picture.
+ means in conjunction with, compounded with, or followed by.
< means is derived from.
> means produce(s).
# marks a word which cannot stand first in a clause or phrase.

precedes a reference and indicates that the verse quoted has been
altered in some way (most often a word is omitted).
† is explained in the introductory note to the vocabulary.
Unit 01
1.1 Grammar
1.1/1 The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
The names of the twenty-four letters of the Greek alphabet are

traditional. Today the alphabet is used in upper and lower case, although
in antiquity it was written only in capitals. The value assigned below to
each letter does not always reflect what is known of the ancient
pronunciation, which in any case developed over time and varied from
one locality to another. However, as we learn Greek in order to read what
has been written in the language, not to speak it, the need for absolute
accuracy in pronunciation does not arise.
A circumflex (ˆ) above a vowel in the English transliterations indicates a
longer pronunciation (compare êta with epsilon).
When taking Greek words directly into English we normally use the
phonetic equivalent of Greek letters except where indicated above, e.g.
cosmos (κόσμος), pathos (πάθος). For proper nouns and derivatives see
note 1.
a) Consonants
(
Where no example is given above, consonants are pronounced as their

English equivalent. Chei (χ) should be pronounced as the ch in the
Scottish pronunciation of loch in order to distinguish it from kappa (κ).
The double consonants ξ and ψ are the equivalents of κσ, πσ respectively,
and must always be used when word formation brings κ or π immediately
before σ: e.g. when σ is added to the stem Αἰθιοπ- we must write Αἰθίοψ
Ethiopian, never Αἰθίοπς (5.l/l(a)). Note that zêta (ζ) was not pronounced
1
as a double consonant in NT times, as is sometimes stated.
Examples of the second pronunciation of γ are: σπόγγος (spóngos)

sponge, σάλπιγξ (sálpinx) trumpet, ἔλεγχος (élenchos) proof (on accents
see below).
There are two forms of lower case sigma: σ which is used for an initial and
medial sigma, ς which is used for a final sigma, e.g. σύστασις gathering. In
upper case, sigma has only one form, e.g. ΣϒΣΤΑΣΙΣ (accents are not
indicated with upper case).
b) Vowels
(
In the fifth and fourth centuries BC all Greek vowels had a long and short
pronunciation, although only in the case of ε/η and ο/ω were these values
given separate letters. By the first century AD this distinction between
long and short vowels had disappeared but this was not reflected in
writing, where ε/η and ο/ω were retained. The pronunciation given above
is convenient for us today, even though it is not historical. The New
Testament was written in a conventional spelling which reflected the
pronunciation of Greek several centuries earlier and not that current at
the time of its authors.
(c) Diphthongs
Here too modern pronunciation does not aim at strict historical accuracy
and the pronunciation given below is that of the earlier language.
Greek had two types of diphthongs:

i) where both vowels are written normally and pronounced as follows:
αι as ai in aisle οι as oi in soil
αυ as ow in now ου as oo in pool
ει as ei in rein υι as we
ευ/ηυ as eu in feud
When one of these combinations is not to be pronounced as a diphthong,

the second is marked with a diaeresis (¨): Ἑβραϊστί (Hebra-istí) in
Hebrew.
ii) where η, ω or an original long α, is combined with an ι. Here the iota is
placed below the vowel (iota subscript), not after it: ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ. In the first
century AD these were pronounced as simple α, η, ω, and the same
practice is followed today.
(d) Breathings
When a word begins with a vowel or diphthong it must have either a

rough (̒) or smooth (̓) breathing. The first denotes an initial h, the second
its absence: ἡμέρα (hêméra) day, ἀγαθός (agathós) good. A breathing is
placed over the second vowel of a type (i) diphthong: αἴνιγμα (aínigma)
riddle; Αἴγυπτος (Aíguptos) Egypt; but when an initial vowel which does
not form part of a diphthong is in upper case, the breathing is placed in
front: Άνδρέας (Andréas) Andrew. All words beginning with υ have a rough
breathing ὕδωρ (húdor) water; ὕψος (húpsos) height. Initial ρ is always
given a rough breathing because it was pronounced rh: ῥῆμα (rhêma)
word. Breathings are written before an acute or grave accent (see
below), but under a circumflex accent, e.g. ἄγγελος angel, αἷμα blood.
Notes
1 Greek proper names (and also many Greek derivatives) are spelled and
pronounced in English according to the Roman system of transliteration:
Λιβύα (Libúa) Libya; Κρίσπος (Kríspos) Crispus (cf. καταστροϕή
[katastrophé] catastrophe). However, the English form of Hebrew proper
names usually reflects the Hebrew original and cannot always be

predicted from the Greek version. This is particularly the case when the
Hebrew name has been given a Greek ending e.g. Ἰερεμίας Jeremiah (for
further details see 4.1/3).
2 Greek has four marks of punctuation. The full stop and comma are used
as in English but our colon and semicolon are represented by a single

sign, which is a dot at the top of the line (·). A question mark in Greek is
the same as our semicolon (;). The exclamation mark is not used and
direct speech is not indicated by inverted commas. A capital letter is used
at the beginning of a paragraph but not with each new sentence (see also
7.1/3).
1.1/2 Accents
Accents are often supposed to strike terror into the hearts of beginners,
and some elementary books either wholly dispense with them or retain
them for a very limited number of words. However, as the Greek New
Testament is always printed with accents, a beginner completely
unfamiliar with them will be somewhat disoriented on progressing to the
stage of reading in a normal modern edition. In any case, they are vital for
distinguishing certain homographs.
This aversion to accents arises from the fact that they are often not used
today for their original purpose, viz to assist pronunciation. They should
be taken to indicate where a word should be stressed. The three marks
used (´ acute, ` grave, ^ circumflex) indicate where the pitch accent of
earlier Greek fell (and what type of pitch it was), but by the first centuries
of the Christian era the three varieties of pitch had changed into a single
stress accent of the same sort as we use in English. This should be our
practice when reading NT Greek aloud. The few words without an
accent, which all have only one or two syllables, should be lightly
pronounced; words with a single accent (the vast majority) should be
given a stress accent as in English; and the occasional word bearing two
accents should bestressed on the first with the second ignored.
The theory of accentuation and its rules are given in Appendix 7 and can
be consulted and mastered when desired. However, for the purposes of
learning the language, readers should follow the practice recommended
above.
Insight
Our earliest evidence for the Greek alphabet as we know it
dates from the eighth century BC. This was adapted from a
script used by the Phoenicians, a Semitic people living on the
coast of modern Syria and Lebanon. The novelty of the Greek
alphabet was the introduction of letters representing vowels,
which had been lacking in its Phoenician precursor. To this day
it has remained the instrument for writing Greek. The adapted
form used by the Romans has always been used in Western
Europe, while another derivative, the Cyrillic alphabet, is used in
Russia and other countries where the dominant religion is
Orthodox Christianity.
1.2 Exercise
1 Read aloud and transliterate the following names and then find the
normal form used in English:
Άσία, Βηθλέεμ, Βεελζεβούλ, Ἰερουσαλήμ, Ἰωάννης, Ἰώβ, Ἰωνᾶς, Ἰωσή ϕ, Καῖσαρ,

Λουκᾶς, Μαθθαῖος, Μαρία, Μάρκος, Παῦλος, Πέτρος, Πιλᾶτος, Ῥώμη, Σίμων.
2 Read aloud and transliterate the following words and then look up their
meaning in the vocabulary (all have been taken into English, though in
different ways):
ἄγγελος, ἀνάθεμα, ἀνάλυσις, ἀντίθεσις, ἄρωμα, ἄσβεστος, αὐτόματον, βάθος, γένεσις,
διάγνωσις, δόγμα, δρᾶμα, ζώνη, ἦθος, ἠχώ, θέατρον, θερμός, ἰδέα, κάμηλος, κίνησις,
κλῖμαξ, κόσμος, κρίσις, κριτήριον, κῶλον, μανία, μέτρον, μητρόπολις, μίασμα,
ὀρϕανός, πάθος, παραλυτικός, σκηνή, στίγμα, τραῦμα, ὕβρις, ϕαντασία, χαρακτήρ,

χάσμα, ψυχή.
1.3 Excursus
The nature of New Testament Greek and its history
In the first century AD the Roman empire extended over all countries
bordering on the Mediterranean as well as most of what we now call
Western Europe. However, it was only in the western half of the empire
that Latin was the official language. In the east the language used for
administration and many, if not most, forms of communication was
Greek, which had been imposed on the area several centuries before.
Languages such as Aramaic (spoken in Syria, Palestine and other
regions to the east) and Coptic (the descendant of the language
represented in Egyptian hieroglyphs) survived in the countries to which
they were native, but the official use of Greek, combined with the prestige
accorded to Greek culture, gave it an authority which the local
vernaculars could not rival. The history of the Greek language and how it
came to be the dominant language in half the Roman empire is important
for the study of the form it had developed when the New Testament was
written.
The original speakers of Greek entered Greece in several waves over the
course of the second millennium BC, each wave speaking its own
particular dialect. When Greeks first appear in recorded history we find
them organized into hundreds of separate independent communities,
which we call city states. These varied in size and were not confined to
what we now think of as Greece. As a result of colonization, which started
in the eighth century BC, settlements were established from the western
coast of Asia Minor to southern Italy and Sicily, and even beyond. Many
developed into flourishing cities but, whether in the Greek homeland or
abroad, the independence they claimed always led to interminable
squabbles and wars, to which no external threat or attempted internal
union could bring a lasting conclusion. The linguistic consequence of this
political discord was that the dialects of Greek, which had multiplied
greatly over the centuries, remained.
By the beginning of the fourth century BC the cultural pre-eminence of

Athens had established its dialect, Attic Greek, as the language of most
forms of literature, including prose. This is the form of Greek used by the
tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and by Aristophanes,
Thucydides, Plato and Demosthenes. When ancient Greek was still an
important part of the school curriculum in countries where the humanistic
traditions of the Renaissance persisted, pupils always began with the
Attic dialect. Because it has always been used as a standard with which
other forms of the language are compared, it is often referred to by the
term classical Greek, in contrast to Homeric Greek (the language of the
Iliad and Odyssey), New Testament Greek, Byzantine Greek and so on.
However, despite its primacy in matters of culture Athens came to be

eclipsed politically, a fate shared by the rest of mainland Greece. The
middle of the fourth century BC saw the appearance of a new power in
the Greek world. Under Philip II (382–336 BC) Macedonia, a kingdom to
the north of Greece, developed to such an extent that it began to threaten
the old city states of the south. Philip’s territorial ambitions were achieved
and far surpassed by his son, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC). After
establishing dominion over Greece itself, Alexander successfully overran
the vast empire of the Persians, which encompassed all of what we now
call the Middle East, as well as Egypt. On his death this area was divided
into different kingdoms, all of which were ruled by Greeks. Greek was the
official language and the form this took was a modified Attic. Three
centuries later when the Romans finally gained complete control of the
countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean, they made no attempt
to supplant Greek as the dominant language of the area. Hence it was
that Greek was spoken in the Roman province of Judaea at the time of
Christ, although it had not supplanted the native Aramaic.
The principal form of Greek of this period is called the koine (from ἡ κοινὴ
διάλεκτος the common dialect). It was basically Attic but without many of
the latter’s subtleties and grammatical complexities. Some of its

vocabulary came from other dialects of Greek or from the native
languages of the countries where it was used. Its most important feature
was that it was the language of the street, akin to the form of English
spoken today by the relatively uneducated, and not to the standard
English we use today for communication in quality newspapers and the
like; and although the koine was spoken over most of the eastern
Mediterranean, the form it took in a particular area reflected the local
culture.
What we call New Testament Greek is the koine as used in Judaea of the
first century AD. Most of the differences between it and the koine of other
parts of the eastern Roman empire came from its Jewish environment.
When we compare New Testament Greek with the form of the language
spoken in other parts of the contemporary Greek world or with the
classical language (i.e. Attic of the fifth and fourth centuries BC) we find
that it contains Semitic elements of Hebrew or Aramaic origin. These are
of three kinds:
Points of style
An example is Hebrew practice of joining clauses by and rather than by

subordinating one to another, as was normal in Greek. Mark gives the
time of the crucifixion with the words ἦν δὲ ὥρα τρίτη καὶ ἐσταύρωσαν αὐτόν (Mk
15.25), lit. and it was [the] third hour and they crucified him whereas in
English (and classical Greek) we would subordinate one clause to the

other and say either and when it was the third hour they crucified him or
and it was the third hour when they crucified him.
Semitic idioms
Many expressions occur in the NT which are a literal translation of a

Semitic expression but quite unidiomatic by the standards of classical
Greek. Examples are:
The future indicative is used to express an order where classical Greek

used an imperative (17.1.1). The most notable instances are the ten
commandments as given in the Septuagint (the koine Greek version of
the Old Testament; see 12.3), which are quoted in the NT, e.g. Κύριον τὸν
θεόν σου προσκυνήσεις καὶ αὐτῷ μόνῳ λατρεύσεις (Lk 4.8) you shall worship the
Lord your God and serve him alone.
The word υἱός son is used metaphorically in the sense of person

associated with and followed by a genitive; classical Greek (and English)
would require a completely different expression, e.g. υἱὸς εἰρήνης (Lk 10.6)
lit. son of peace, i.e. a peaceful person; οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμϕῶνος (Mk 2.19) lit.
sons of the bridal chamber, i.e. the wedding party.
For expressions to be translated as it happened or it came to pass, which

have a Semitic origin, see 8.1/2.
Transliterations
Semitic names of people and places were put into the Greek alphabet.
Sometimes they were given a Greek ending and declined, e.g. Ἰωάννης
John, but sometimes they were simply transliterated and treated as
indeclinable, with one fixed form, e.g. Βηθλέεμ Bethlehem. See 4.1/3.
1
This does not apply to compounds of ἐκ, e.g. ἔκστασις (from ἐκ + στάσις).
Unit 02
2.1 Grammar
2.1/1 Nouns in Greek
In Greek, as in English, we consider that a noun has gender, but in

English this depends upon its meaning; man is masculine, woman is
feminine, house is neuter, and he, she, it are the pronouns we use when
referring to these. The gender of a Greek noun is often arbitrary and does
not necessarily indicate anything about what the noun denotes. For
example, ἀνήρ man is masculine and γυνή woman is feminine, but λόγος
word is masculine, γλῶσσα tongue is feminine, though ἔργον work is,
understandably, neuter. In most cases we cannot see any reason for the
gender of a particular noun but it is often possible to identify a noun’s
gender by its ending in the nominative and genitive singular, and these
endings also determine to which of the three classes or declensions it
belongs. Each declension has a distinctive set of endings which indicate
both case and number (see Glossary of grammatical and other
terms), just as in English we have child (nominative or accusative
singular), child’s (genitive singular), children (nominative or accusative
plural), children’s (genitive plural), but Greek distinguishes more cases.
To list all possible forms of a noun is to decline it.
Because the second declension presents the fewest complications we

shall take it first.
2.1/2 Second declension and the masculine and neuter definite

article
The second declension is divided into two groups:

i) Nouns whose nominative singular ends in -ος, which, with a few
exceptions, are masculine.
ii) Nouns whose nominative singular ends in -ον, which are all neuter.
It should be noted that:
a) Except for ὁ and τό, the endings of the definite article are the same as
those of the nouns in each group.
b) The endings for the genitive and dative (both singular and plural) of the
first group are the same as those of the second.
c) The genitive plural of all nouns, regardless of declension, has the
ending -ων.
d) The nominative plural, vocative plural and accusative plural of all
neuter nouns, regardless of declension, have the ending -α (for an
apparent exception see 6.1/1(c)).
Notes
1 The definite article must agree with the noun it qualifies in number,
gender, and case: τῶν ἔργων of the works (genitive plural), τοὺς ἀνθρώπους
the human beings (accusative plural). This does not necessarily mean
that the ending of the article will be the same as that of the noun with
which it agrees (see 3.1/1 note 2).
Contexts where the definite article is used in Greek but not in English are:
i with proper nouns and with abstract nouns, where it is optional (there
( )
is no difference in sense; in English we do not use the definite article

with either); examples are: ὁ Παῦλος or simply Παῦλος Paul; ὁ θάνατος or
θάνατος death. When referring to the Judeo-Christian God the definite
article is also optional: ὁ θεός or θεός God, ὁ κύριος or κύριος the Lord (in
English we use the article with the latter but not the former; note that
θεός and κύριος are not given an initial capital).
(ii) with nouns (usually plural) when they indicate a general class: οἱ
ἄνθρωποι human beings (as a class); οἱ ἄνθρωποι can also mean the
(particular) human beings where the context requires. An example of
this use with a singular noun is τὸ ἀκάθαρτον πνεῦμα (Mt 12.43); as the
context here shows us that we have an account of the behaviour of
unclean spirits in general, English idiom requires the translation an
unclean spirit.
In translating a common noun in the singular without the definite article, a

should be supplied in English:, ἵππος a horse but ὁ ἵππος the horse.
However, NT use is inconsistent and we often must supply the definite
article in English where it does not occur in Greek, e.g. γῆ Σοδόμων (Mt
10.15) which is to be translated as the land of Sodom, not land of Sodom.
2 Neuter nouns do not necessarily denote inanimate objects. Examples
are παιδίον, τέκνον both child, δαιμόνιον evil spirit.

3 It is a rule in Attic Greek (the language of Athens in the fifth and fourth
centuries BC) that a finite verb which has a plural neuter noun as its
subject is always singular. This curious idiom, which has not been
satisfactorily explained, is observed sometimes, but not always, in the
New Testament; we see it in Jn 10.3 τὰ πρόβατα τῆς ϕωνῆς αὐτοῦ ἀκούει the
sheep (τὰ πρόβατα) hear his voice (τῆς ϕωνῆς αὐτοῦ; ἀκούει is 3rd s. pres. ind.
act. of ἀκούω – see below 2.1/5; it is followed by the genitive), but not in
*Jn 10.27 τὰ πρόβατα τῆς ϕωνῆς μου ἀκούουσιν the sheep hear my voice (τῆς
ϕωνῆς μου; ἀκούουσιν is 3rd pl. pres. ind. act. of ἀκούω – see below 2.1/5).
4 The proper name Ἰησοῦς Jesus belongs to the second declension but is
irregular: nom. Ἰησοῦς, voc. Ἰησοῦ, acc. Ἰησοῦν, gen. Ἰησοῦ, dat. Ἰησοῦ (note
that the genitive and dative are the same).
5 For the few feminine nouns of the second declension, which are declined
in exactly the same way as masculines, see 3.1/1 note 2.

6 In the second declension (and in the first declension) when the final
syllable bears an acute in the nominative, as in ποταμός river, the accent

becomes a circumflex in the genitive and dative, e.g. nom. s ποταμός, gen.
s. ποταμοῦ, dat. s. ποταμῷ, gen. pl. ποταμῶν, dat. pl. ποταμοῖς (for further
information on accents see Appendix 7).
2.1/3 Basic uses of cases
The only case ending for nouns in English is that of the genitive (as in
girl’s, men’s, etc.). Elsewhere, a noun’s function is shown by its position
in relation to the other words in its clause (the difference in meaning
between the peasant hit the tax collector and the tax collector hit the
peasant depends solely on the word order) or by a preposition, e.g. the
tax collector was hit by a stone (here the part played by the stone is
indicated by the preposition by). In Greek, however, the function of a
noun is indicated by its case:
a) The subject of a clause must be put in the nominative.
b) When we address a person the vocative is used; this is sometimes
preceded by ὦ O and followed by a mark of punctuation. The vocative is
given for ἔργον because, although ἔργον itself does not occur in this case,
we do find the vocative of other nouns of the same class, e.g. τέκνον child.
c) The direct object of a verb must be put in the accusative.
d) The genitive can express possession: the Samaritan’s donkey (in
English we can also say the donkey of the Samaritan). The genitive in
Greek has other uses (e.g. to express separation 20.1/3(g)).
e) With nouns denoting living things the dative expresses the indirect
object after verbs of saying, giving and promising (21.1/1(a)(i)). In the
Samaritan gave a donkey to the teacher the direct object is donkey
(answering the question gave what?), which in Greek would be put into
the accusative ὄνον; the indirect object is the teacher (gave to whom?),
which would be put in the dative τῷ διδασκάλῳ with no preposition (we may
also say in English the Samaritan gave the teacher a donkey but there is
no alternative of this sort in Greek). With nouns denoting living things the
dative has other uses which can nearly always be translated by to or for.
With inanimate nouns (e.g. Tyre, arrow, boat) different uses are possible.
The term oblique cases is used for referring to the accusative, genitive,
and dative as a group. In addition to the uses given above, these cases
are also used after prepositions, which perform the same function in
Greek as in English, i.e. they define the relation between the word they
govern and the rest of the clause in which they are used. In Greek the
word governed is normally a noun or pronoun. The rules for prepositions
indicating motion and rest are:
f) Prepositions indicating motion towards govern (i.e. are followed by)
the accusative, e.g. εἲς τὸν οἶκον into the house, πρὸς τὸν ἀγρόν towards the
field.
g) Prepositions indicating motion away from govern the genitive, e.g. ἀπὸ
τοῦ θρόνου from the throne, ἐκ τοῦ ἀγροῦ out of the field.
h) Prepositions indicating rest or fixed position govern the dative, e.g. ἐν

τῷ ἀγρῷ in the field.
All the above prepositions, except πρός (3.1/5), take only the case given
above.
2.1/4 Verbs in Greek
A finite form of a verb is one that can function as the verb of a clause (see
Glossary of grammatical and other terms). In Greek a finite verb is
defined in terms of person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Person and
number are determined by its subject: a finite verb must agree with its
subject in both (just as in English we cannot say we is). First person is the
person(s) speaking, i.e. I or we; second person is the person(s) spoken
to, i.e. you; third person is the person(s) or thing(s) spoken about, which
can be a pronoun (he, she, it, they) or a noun (e.g. the donkeys are in
the field). The concept of number is the same as with nouns; we have
either singular (e.g. is, was) or plural (e.g. are, were). Tense indicates
the time in which the action of the verb takes place. Mood tells us
something about the nature of the verb’s action in a particular context, but
we are now only concerned with the indicative mood, which is used to
express facts (e.g. John baptized by the Jordan). Voice shows the
relation of the subject to the verb. We shall first deal with the active,
which is the voice used when the subject is the doer of the action (e.g.
The Romans captured Jerusalem).
With a finite Greek verb the person, number, tense, mood and voice are
shown by the stem and ending. For example, we can tell by the stem and
ending that λύσουσι is third person plural future indicative active of the verb
λύω I loosen, and therefore means they will loosen. It is superfluous to
add the Greek word for they (unless for emphasis), as this is part of the
information conveyed by the ending. Auxiliary verbs (shall/will, have, be
etc.) are used to form most tenses of an English verb (I shall teach, he
has taught, we shall be taught); Greek has similar composite verbal
forms, but they are much less common than in English and need not
concern us at this point.
Verbs in Greek belong to one of two groups (called conjugations).

These are distinguished from each other by the ending of the first person
singular present indicative active, the form in which Greek verbs are
customarily cited in works of reference (contrast the convention in
English of referring to a verb by its present infinitive active):
-ω verbs, e.g. λύω I loosen (this is by far the larger class);
-μι verbs, e.g. εἰμί I am (3.1/6), δίδωμι I give (18.1/2).
The meaning given in the vocabulary for these verbs is simply loosen, be,
give.
2.1/5 Present and future indicative active of -ω verbs
The present indicative active (and the present infinitive active) is formed
by taking the present stem (λυ- i.e. λύω minus ω) and adding the endings
given above. For the future indicative active we make up the future stem
by adding sigma to that of the present (i.e. λυ + σ > λυσ-) and we then
apply the same endings.
Notes
1 In English the present tense has different forms, I loosen, I am loosening,
I do loosen and so on, and there are distinctions in usage between these.
Greek has only one present tense and we must decide from the context
which English form we should use to translate a Greek verb in this tense.
In one context λύουσι might mean they loosen, in another they are
loosening or do they loosen. Likewise, λύσω can also mean I shall be
loosening.
2 In a narrative about the past, Greek often uses the present tense for
vividness (vivid present); we have the same idiom in English but it is by

no means as common.
3 The Greek second person singular is always used when addressing one
person, the plural when addressing more than one person. There are no
familiar or polite forms of the second person, as in French, German and
other modern languages.
4 The forms λύει and λύσει are given the meanings he, she, it loosens/will
loosen. Which pronoun is required in English will be obvious in a

particular context, but if there is any possibility of confusion a pronoun in
the nominative will be given in the Greek (9.1/1). Where a noun is the
subject these forms simply mean loosens/will loosen, e.g. ὁ ἀδελϕὸς λύει
τὸν ὄνον the brother loosens the donkey.
5 In each form of the above table the stem is followed by an o- or e- sound.
This is called the thematic vowel, and it is most clearly seen in the first
and second persons plural. The same pattern, which marks these tenses
as thematic, is repeated in the imperfect (4.1/1). The thematic vowel
occurs in the endings of some tenses (present, future, imperfect), but not
in others (aorist, perfect, pluperfect). It is a useful aid in remembering the
differences between sets of endings.
6 The final ν shown in brackets in the ending of the third person plural is
called the movable ν. Ancient grammarians state that it should be used

(without brackets) only when a word with this ending is followed by a
word beginning with a vowel or diphthong or stands at the end of a

clause; however, this rule is very often broken in the New Testament.
Movable ν occurs here and in a few other endings.
7 To form the future of πέμπω send, the final π of the present stem is
combined with σ to give πέμψ-ω I will send. Other final consonants in
present stems will be treated at 6.1/4 and 11.1/3.
8 A future infinitive occurs in the verb to be (8.1/1 note 3) but elsewhere is
rare and its authenticity open to question.
2.1/6 Word order and elision

a) The arrangement of words within a Greek sentence is often similar to
that of English, but Greek word order is generally much less predictable
than in English. In English there is a close link between the order in which
words occur and their function (see above 2.1/3). In Greek, however,
where the grammatical function of a word is indicated by its form, not by
its position, word order can be varied much more than in English. This is
mainly done to emphasize a particular word or phrase. If in the English
sentence the brother is good we wished to emphasize good we would, in
speech, articulate it with greater weight (in writing we could underline it or
put it in italics). In Greek the emphasis would be conveyed by a change in
the word order; ὁ ἀδελϕός ἐστιν (is) ἀγαθός (good) would become ἀγαθός ἐστιν
ὁ ἀδελϕός. Emphasis apart, two further points regarding word order should
be noted here:
i The negative οὐ(κ) not precedes the word it negates: οὐκ ἔχω … I do
( )
not have … (οὐκ is the form used before vowels and diphthongs with a
smooth breathing; it becomes οὐχ if the following vowel or diphthong
has a rough breathing, e.g. οὐχ εὑρίσκω I do not find. Before consonants
it is simply οὐ).
(ii) Just as in English we can say the field of the Cyrenian or the
Cyrenian’s field, so in Greek we have ὁ ἀγρὸς τοῦ Κυρηναίου and ὁ τοῦ

Κυρηναίου ἀγρός (note that the article of ἀγρός must be retained in the
latter). As a third possibility we have ὁ ἀγρὸς ὁ τοῦ Κυρηναίου with no

difference in meaning.
b) Prepositions and conjunctions ending in α, ε, ο lose this vowel when
standing before a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong, e.g. ἀπ̓ ἀγροῦ
(= ἀπὸ ἀγροῦ) from a field; δἰ ἐσόπτρου (= διὰ ἐσόπτρου) through a mirror; this
loss is called elision and is marked with an apostrophe as shown. If the

vowel or diphthong of the second word has a rough breathing and the
letter before the lost α, ε, ο is π or τ, this letter becomes ϕ or θ respectively,
e.g. ἀϕ̓ ἁμαρτωλοῦ (= ἀπὸ ἁμαρτωλοῦ) from a sinner, μεθ̓ ἁμαρτωλοῦ (= μετὰ
ἁμαρτωλοῦ) with a sinner. Elision is not consistently found with
prepositions; it sometimes occurs with other parts of speech.

Insight
Two cities that have played a part in the history of Christianity
are Smyrna and Nicaea. The former is mentioned in the NT, the
latter was the site of two ecumenical councils (AD 325 and AD
787). Their ancient names are preserved today in a disguised
form, Izmir and Iznik, and are within modern Turkey. Both
modern versions go back to the phrases εἰς Νικαίαν and εἰς
Σμύρναν i.e. to Nicaea, to Smyrna. Presumably the first Turks in
the area mistook a direction to a city ([the road] to

Nicaea/Smyrna) for the name of a city itself and instead of
saying Nicaea or Smyrna fell into the habit of saying to Nicaea
or to Smyrna. The words were adapted to Turkish by dropping
the last element of the Greek names. On εἰς + acc. See 2.1/3f.
2.2 Greek reading

In reading Greek the following steps should be followed:
a) Look up each word in the vocabulary at 2.2/1 and parse it (i.e. define it
grammatically; this is particularly necessary with words which vary in
form).
b) Mark all finite verbs as this will indicate the number of clauses.
c) By observing punctuation and conjunctions used to join clauses, work
out where each clause begins and ends.
d) Take each clause separately and see how each word relates to the
finite verb of its clause (subject, object, part of an adverbial phrase, etc.).
e) See from the conjunctions how the clauses are related to each other
and work out the overall meaning of the sentence.
An analysis of sentences 4 and 11 will be found in the key.

Mt 21.34)
1 ἐγγίζει ὁ καιρὸς τῶν καρπῶν. (* 1
Mt 12.24)
2 οὐκ ἐκβαλλει τὰ δαιμόνια. (
3 ἀποστέλλει πρὸς τοὺς γεωργοὺς δοῦλον. (* Mk 12.2)
4 διὰ τί μετὰ τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν ἐσθίετε καὶ πίνετε; (*Lk 5.30)
5 βλέπεις τὸν ὄχλον. (Mk 5.31)
6 διδάσκαλε, ὀρθῶς λέγεις καὶ διδάσκεις καὶ οὐ λαμβάνεις πρόσωπον. (*Lk 20.21)
7 βλέπω τοὺς ἀνθρώπους. ( Mk 8.24)
8 οὐδὲν κακὸν (nothing wrong) εὑρίσκομεν ἐν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ. (Ac 23.9)
9 δῶρα πέμψουσιν. (Rv 11.10)
10 τότε νηστεύσουσιν. (Lk 5.35)
11 ὁ δοῦλος μισθὸν λαμβάνει καὶ συνάγει καρπόν. (*Jn 4.36)
12 πῶς κρίνει ὁ θεὸς τὸν κόσμον; (*Ro 3.6)
13 νεκροὺς ἐγείρετε, λεπροὺς καθαρίζετε, δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλετε. (*Mt 10.8)
14 τὸ πρόσωπον τοῦ οὐρανοῦ γινώσκετε διακρίνειν. (*Mt 16.3)
15 ἀκούετε καὶ βλέπετε. (Mt 11.4)
16 δαιμόνιον ἔχεις. (Jn 7.20)
17 οἱ νεκροὶ ἀκούσουσιν. (Jn 5.25)
18 ἤρξατο (began) ὁ Ἰησοῦς κηρύσσειν καὶ λέγειν. (Mt 4.17)
19 τότε οἱ δίκαιοι ἐκλάμψουσιν ὡς ὁ ἥλιος. (Mt 13.43)
20 κηρύσσομεν Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν κύριον. (*2 Cor 4.5)
Notes
1 ὁ καιρὸς τῶν καρπῶν lit. the time of the fruits, i.e. the harvest; καρπῶν has the
definite article τῶν because fruits generally are meant and so constitute a
general class – 2.1/2 note 1(ii) – trans. the time of fruits.
4 τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν the article indicates that a general class is meant – it can
be omitted in English.
6 Take ὀρθῶς with both λέγεις and διδάσκεις. The expression λαμβάνω πρόσωπον
(lit. take face) is a Semitism meaning show partiality.
7 τοὺς ἀνθρώπους the context of this clause indicates that a general class is
meant.
8 ἄνθρωπος in the singular means human being and in the plural can be
translated as people (as in 7). The singular here is to be translated as

man because it is preceded by the masculine definite article (if a woman
had been meant the article would be feminine).
11 Supply his with μισθόν and the with καρπόν (here simply harvest).
13 Take the verbs as indicative (in their original context they are
imperatives – 17.1/1).
19 οἱ δίκαιοι the general class is meant; ἐκλάμψουσιν fut. of ἐκλάμπω.
2.2/1 Vocabulary
Individual vocabularies are provided for Units 2–9. The meaning given to
each word is that appropriate to its use in the preceding reading; for a
fuller range of meanings the main vocabulary should be consulted.
Words already given in a grammatical table (or in an earlier vocabulary)
are not repeated, except where a different meaning is involved.
It is normal practice in Greek dictionaries and lists of Greek words to give

the nominative singular of a noun, its genitive (usually in abbreviated
form) and the appropriate nominative singular form of the article; this
information establishes both its declension and gender, e.g. ἥλιος, -ου, ὁ
(note that the accent in the genitive – here ἡλίου – is not always on the
same syllable as in the nominative; see Appendix 7, a). Verbs are cited
in the first person singular present indicative, e.g. κρίνω.
ἄγω lead, bring

ἀκούω hear
ἁμαρτωλός, -οῦ, ὁ sinner

ἄνθρωπος, -ου, ὁ human being, person
ἀποστέλλω send, dispatch
ἀπόστολος, -ου, ὁ apostle
βλέπω see
γεωργός, -οῦ, ὁ tenant farmer
γινώσκω know
δαιμόνιον, -ου, τό evil spirit
διὰ τί; on account of what? why?
διακρίνω judge correctly
διδάσκαλος, -ου, ὁ teacher, master
διδάσκω teach
δίκαιος, -ου, ὁ just person
δοῦλος, -ου, ὁ slave (often translated servant)
δῶρον, -ου, τό gift
ἐγγίζω approach (intr.)
ἐγείρω raise
ἐκ (prep. + gen.) out of, from
ἐκβάλλω cast out
ἐκλάμπω shine forth
ἐν (prep. + dat.) in
ἐσθίω eat
εὑρίσκω find
ἔχω have
ἥλιος, -ου, ὁ sun
θεός, -οῦ, ὁ God
καθαρίζω cleanse
καί (conj.) and
καιρός, -οῦ, ὁ time
καρπός, -οῦ, ὁ fruit, harvest
κηρύσσω make known, preach
κόσμος, -ου, ὁ world
κρίνω judge
κύριος, -ου, ὁ the Lord
λαμβάνω take
λέγω say, speak
λεπρός, -οῦ, ὁ leper
μετά (prep. + gen.) in the company of, with
μισθός, -οῦ, ὁ pay, salary
νεκρός, -ου, ὁ dead (person)
νηστεύω fast
ὀρθῶς (adv.) rightly
οὐ, οὐκ not
οὐρανός, -οῦ, ὁ sky, heavens
ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ crowd
πέμπω send
πίνω drink
πρός (prep. + acc.) towards, to
πρόσωπον, -ου, τό face

πῶς ( interrog.) how?
συνάγω gather up
τότε then
ὡς (conj.) like
Main points
Nouns in Greek have gender (masculine, feminine, neuter)
Second declension nouns are divided into two classes, masculine and
neuter
The few feminine nouns of the second declension are declined like the
masculine
Neuter nouns have the same ending in the n.v.a. (the plural n.v.a ending
is -α)
The endings of a noun change to indicate its number and case
The definite article must agree with its noun in number, gender and case
The case of a noun shows how it relates to the other words in its clause
When the subject of a verb is a pronoun it is usually omitted
Verb endings indicate when an action occurs and whether the subject is
first person (I, we), second person (you singular or plural, or third person
(he, she, it, they, or a noun such as Pericles, slave, cart)
The present tense describes something that is happening in the present

The future tense describes something that will happen in the future
Word order in Greek is more flexible than in English
Elision can occur when a word ending with a vowel is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel or diphthong
1
An asterisk before a reference indicates that a slight change has been made in
the text.
Unit 03
3.1 Grammar
3.1/1 First declension (feminine nouns) and the feminine definite
article
The majority of first declension nouns are feminine and end in -η or -α (for
the few masculines see 3.1/2). Those in -α change alpha to eta in the
genitive and dative singular unless the alpha is preceded by a vowel or ρ,
but all first declension nouns have the same endings in the plural. The
feminine form of the definite article is declined in the same way as the
feminines in -η.
Notes
1 The vocative is the same as the nominative, e.g. Μαρία.
2 There are a few feminine nouns in the second declension, which are
declined in exactly the same way as masculine nouns. These require the
feminine form of the definite article (and of adjectives; see 3.1/3): ἡ νῆσος
the island, τῆς νήσου of the island. Only rarely can they be recognized as
feminine by their meaning, e.g. ἡ παρθένος the girl.
3 Some nouns in -ρα are irregular and follow τιμή in the genitive and dative
singular, e.g. σπεῖρα cohort, gen. σπείρηςͅ. Conversely, some nouns whose
final alpha is not preceded by a vowel or rho follow ἡμέρα, e.g. Μάρθα
Martha, gen. Μάρθας.
4 In the genitive plural all first declension nouns have a circumflex on their
final syllable.
3.1/2 First declension (masculine nouns)
Masculine nouns of the first declension end in -ας or -ης and have the
same -ου ending for the genitive singular as the second declension,
except those in -ας with a final circumflex (i.e. -ᾶς, as Σατανᾶς), which have
a genitive singular in -ᾶ. Many common nouns in -ης involve males or
male occupations (e.g. ναύτης sailor, στρατιώτης soldier); most ending in -ας
are proper nouns.
Notes
1 As shown above, the definite article (and adjectives) must be masculine
when used with these nouns.
2 The very few common nouns in -ας are declined in the same way as
Άνδρέας in the singular and follow κριτής in the plural.
3 The proper noun Μωϋσῆς Moses does not belong here (see 11.1/4), but
its nominative form (Μωϋσῆς) will be found in the Greek reading.
3.1/3 First and second declension adjectives
With the exception of this (pl. these) and that (pl. those) adjectives in
English have only one form (as good, bad, etc.). In Greek, adjectives
must agree with the nouns they qualify (i.e. go with and describe) in case,
number and gender.
Like nouns, adjectives in Greek are classified according to how they are
declined. The first category of adjectives is called first and second
declension adjectives because they are declined in the feminine like
first declension feminine nouns and in the masculine and neuter like
nouns of the second declension. First and second declension adjectives
thus have a feminine in -η (or -α, when preceded by ε, ι or ρ) when used
with feminine nouns, a masculine in -ος when used with masculine
nouns, and a neuter in -ον when used with neuter nouns. For the other
categories of adjectives see 10.1/3, 10.1/4.
καλός beautiful, noble is declined:
ἅγιοςholy and αἰσχρός ugly, shameful are declined as follows in the

singular:
The plural is the same as for καλός. 1
In the vocabulary (and in dictionaries) these adjectives are cited as καλός,

-ή, -όν; ἅγιος, -α, -ον; αἰσχρός, -ά, -όν.
Some first and second declension adjectives have no separate feminine

form (two-termination adjectives) and employ the -ος forms for
masculine and feminine alike. These are mostly compounds, e.g.
ἀνθρωποκτόνος murderer (ἄνθρωπος person + κτόνος killing); ἔντιμος honoured
(ἐν + τιμή honour). Compounds with the negative ἀ- prefix (or ἀν- before a
vowel; cf. English in-, un-) are common, e.g. ἄπιστος unbelieving (ἀ +
πιστός believing); ἀνάξιος unworthy (ἀν + ἄξιος worthy). These adjectives are
cited in the form ἄπιστος, -ον; ἔντιμος, -ον. Examples of them in agreement
with feminine nouns are: ἡ ἄγαμος δούλη the unmarried female slave; αἱ
ἔντιμοι παιδίσκαι the respected slave girls. Common two-termination
adjectives which are not compounds are: αἰώνιος eternal; ἁμαρτωλός sinful;
οὐράνιος heavenly.
Two common adjectives, πολύς much (pl. many), and μέγας great, big, are
irregular in the masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular.
Elsewhere they are declined exactly as if their nominative singular
masculine were πολλ-ός and μεγάλ-ος. In the singular they are declined:
The plural is regular and follows καλός.
Position of adjectives
a) When the noun qualified has no definite article:
An adjective usually comes after its noun: ἄνθρωπος ἐχθρός a hostile man;
however, an adjective may come first without any difference in meaning
διὰ ἀνύδρων τόπων (Mt 12.43) through waterless places.
b) When the noun qualified has the definite article:

There are several possibilities. An attributive adjective (see Glossary of
grammatical and other terms) may occupy the same position as in
English: τὸ αἰώνιον πῦρ the eternal fire. But this can also be expressed as τὸ
πῦρ τὸ αἰώνιον with the article repeated (both these positions are regarded
as attributive); we may even have πῦρ τὸ αἰώνιον with exactly the same
meaning. However, where the adjective without an article appears
outside the article-noun complex, as in ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἀγαθός or ἀγαθὸς ὁ
ἄνθρωπος, it is considered as functioning predicatively, and so the
meaning is the man is good (on the omission of ἐστί is see 3.1/6).
3.1/4 Adverbs
Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ως to the stem. In
effect this means changing the final ν of the gen. pl. m. of the adjective to
ς, e.g. δίκαιος (gen. pl. m. δικαίων) just, adv. δικαίως justly; κακός (gen. pl. m.
κακῶν) bad, adv. κακῶς badly.

A few adverbs are the same as the neuter nom./acc. singular of the
adjective: μικρόν for a short while, τρίτον (for) the third time. Others have
no special ending: νῦν (or νυνί) now, τότε then, εὖ well.
3.1/5 Prepositions
We have already seen some prepositions (εἰς, ἐκ, ἐν) which indicate
motion or rest (2.1/3(f), (g), (h)). While some prepositions only govern
one case (as ἐν + dat. in), some govern both the accusative and genitive
(as διά, see below), some the accusative, genitive and dative (as παρά).
There are always differences of meaning involved, e.g. παρά + acc. =

to(wards); + gen. = from; + dat. = at, beside, e.g. παρὰ Κάρπῳ (2 Ti 4.13) lit.
at Carpus, i.e. at [the house of] Carpus (Carpus is a man’s name, cf. Fr.
chez moi).
The following are particularly common:
3.1/6 Present indicative and infinitive of εἰμί I am
The verb εἰμί is irregular. Although classified as a -μι verb it has little in
common with other verbs in this class (18.1/1).
On the accentuation of εἰμί see Appendix 7, (d).
As εἰμί does not express an action inflicted by the subject on the object it
never governs an accusative. What is said about the subject in clauses
involving this verb is put into the nominative: εἰμὶ πρεσβύτης (Lk 1.18) I am
an old man; εἰμὶ ὁ ἄρτος τῆς ζωῆς (Jn 6.35) I am the bread of life; οἱ θερισταὶ
ἄγγελοί εἰσιν (*Mt 13.39) the reapers are angels. In this type of clause the
appropriate form of εἰμί is often omitted; this is most common with ἐστί or
εἰσί (cf. above 3.1/3(b)): ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ (*Lk 10.7) the
labourer [is] worthy of his (αὐτοῦ) wage; μακάριοι οἱ εἰρηνοποιοί (Mt 5.9)
blessed [are] the peacemakers.
Sometimes we can translate ἐστί and εἰσί by there is and there are
respectively; ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ τοῦ πατρός μου μοναὶ πολλαί εἰσιν (Jn 14.2) in my
father’s (τοῦ πατρός μου) house there are many dwelling places (we could
also say in English in my father’s house are many dwelling places).
Insight
A common linguistic feature that English shares with Greek is
diminutives. A suffix is added to a noun to indicate a smaller
version of what the noun denotes, and we speak of a booklet to
indicate a small book. Sometimes the meaning of the diminutive
has changed. A leaflet is no longer a small leaf but a single
printed sheet of paper. In classical Greek diminutives signified
smallness or were used to convey an emotion, as in πατρίδιον (<
πατήρ; suffix -ιδιον) dear little father. By the first century AD some
diminutives had replaced the original noun and this is evident in

the NT. The older word for girl κόρη had been supplanted by
κοράσιον (suffix -ασιον). Likewise στρουθίον sparrow and ποίμνιον
flock (both with the suffix -ιον) had ousted στρουθός and ποίμνη.
Παῖς (gen. παιδός) child was still current in its original sense but
had also acquired the additional meaning of servant or slave.

Because of this the diminutive παιδίον was coming to be used as
the normal word for child (e.g. Mt 14.21 χωρὶς γυναικῶν καὶ παιδίων
apart from women and children). Another diminutive of the
same word παιδίσκη (suffix -ισκη) was exclusively used to mean
slave girl. Diminutives have always been a feature of popular
speech and it is significant that they are common in Mark’s
gospel, which is closer to the vernacular than the other gospels.
Despite their meaning κοράσιον, στρουθίον and παιδίον are neuter
nouns and declined as ἔργον (2.1/2).
3.2 Greek reading

An analysis of sentence 15 will be found in the key.
ϕθαλμὸς ἀντὶ
1 μετὰ πολὺν χρόνον. περὶ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ. περὶ τρίτην ὥραν. ὀ
ὀ ϕθαλμοῦ. διὰ τῆς πύλης. ὑπὲρ πολλῶν. ἐν τῇ νήσῳ. εἰς τὰς συναγωγάς.
2 οὐ βάλλουσιν οἶνον νέον εἰς ἀσκοὺς παλαιούς. (*Mt 9.17)
3 Μωϋσῆς γράϕει τὴν δικαιοσύνην τὴν ἐκ τοῦ νόμου. (*Ro 10.5)

4 ἤδη καθαροί ἐστε διὰ τὸν λόγον. (* Jn 15.3)
5 ὁ ϕίλος τοῦ νυμϕίου χαρᾷ χαίρει διὰ τὴν ϕωνὴν τοῦ νυμϕίου. (*Jn 3.29)
6 διὰ τί μετὰ τῶν τελωνῶν καὶ ἁμαρτωλῶν ἐσθίει ὁ διδάσκαλος; (*Mt 9,11)
7 οὐκ ἐσμὲν ὑπὸ νόμον. (Ro 6.15)
8 ἐλέγξει τὸν κόσμον περὶ ἁμαρτίας καὶ περὶ δικαιοσύνης. (Jn 16.8)
9 οὐκ ἔστιν μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον. (Lk 6.40)
10 εἶ ὁ Χριστὸς ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (Mt 16.16)
11 τί δειλοί ἐστε, ὀλιγόπιστοι; (Mt 8.26)
12 διδάσκαλε, ποία ἐντολὴ μεγάλη ἐν τῷ νόμῳ; (Mt 22.36)
13 μετὰ ϕωνῆς μεγάλης δοξάζει τὸν θεόν. (*Lk 17.15)
14 ἔστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ προϕήτης. (Jn 7.40)
15 εἰ νόμον κρίνεις, οὐκ εἶ ποιητὴς νόμου ἀλλὰ κριτής. (*Js 4.11)
16 τὸ σάββατον διὰ τον ἄνθρωπον ἐγένετο (was made) καὶ οὐχ ὁ ἄνθρωπος διὰ τὸ
σάββατον. (Mk 2.27)
17 ὁ πιστεύων (the man believing) εἰς τὸν υἱὸν ἔχει ζωὴν αἰώνιον. (Jn 3.36)
18 ὁ μισθὸς πολὺς ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς. (*Mt 5.12)
19 πολλοὶ ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν καὶ δυσμῶν ἥξουσιν. (Mt 8.11)
20 ἡ θάλασσα οὐκ ἔστιν ἔτι. (Rev 21.1)
Notes
1 On the meaning of the prepositions used in these phrases see 3.1/5.
3 τὴν δικαιοσύνην τὴν ἐκ τοῦ νόμου lit. the justice from the law i.e. the just
practices which a person would derive from the prescriptions of Moses.

4 The ‘word’ is Christ’s message.
5 χαρᾷ χαίρει lit. rejoices in joy a Hebraism used to intensify the verb, trans.
rejoices greatly.
8 ἐλέγξει (< ἐλέγχ-σει) fut. of ἐλέγχω.
11 ὀλιγόπιστοι is vocative; in English we must supply you and translate
[you] of little faith.
12 Supply ἐστί; ποία which agrees with ἐντολή and introduces the question.
14 ὁ προϕήτης is the predicate; the subject is [he].
17 εἰς here should be translated by in rather than into.

18 Supply ἐστί; τοῖς οὐρανοῖς translate by the singular heaven; the plural is
often used of heaven when conceived as the abode of God.
19 ἀνατολῶν … δυσμῶν Greek uses the plural for the directions east and
west; ἥξουσιν fut. of ἥκω.
3.2/1 Vocabulary
The prepositions given in 3.1/5 are not listed below.
αἰώνιος, -ον eternal

ἀληθῶς (adv.) truly
ἁμαρτία, -ας, ἡ sin
ἀνατολή, -ῆς, ἡ (in pl.) east
ἀσκός, -οῦ, ὁ wine-skin
βάλλω put
βασιλεία, -ας, ἡ kingdom
γράϕω write, write of
δειλός, -ή, -όν timid
δικαιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ justice
δοξάζω praise
δυσμή, -ῆς, ἡ (in pl.) west
ἐλέγχω convict
ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ commandment
ἔτι (adv.) still
οὐ … ἔτι no longer
ζωή, -ῆς, ἡ life
ἤδη (adv.) already
ἥκω come
καθαρός, -ά, -όν pure
λόγος, -ου, ὁ word
μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ pupil
Μωϋσῆς, -έως, ὁ Moses (11.1/4)
νέος, -α, -ον new, young
νῆσος, -ου, ἡ island
νόμος, -ου, ὁ law
νυμϕίος, -ου, ὁ bridegroom
οἶνος, -ου, ὁ wine

ὀλιγόπιστος, -ον possessing little faith
ὀϕθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ eye
παλαιός, -ά, -όν old
ποιητής, -οῦ, ὁ doer, one who complies with
ποῖος, -α, -ον which?, what?
προϕήτης, -ου, ὁ prophet
πύλη, -ης, ἡ door
σάββατον, -ου, τό sabbath
συναγωγή, -ῆς, ἡ synagogue
τελώνης -ου, ὁ tax-collector
τί (interrog.) why?
τρίτος, -η, -ον third
υἱός, -οῦ, ὁ son
ὑπό (prep. + acc.) under
ϕίλος, -ου, ὁ friend

ϕωνή, -ῆς, ἡ voice
χαίρω rejoice
χαρά, -ᾶς, ἡ joy
Χριστός, -οῦ, ὁ Anointed One
χρόνος, -ου, ὁ time
ὥρα, -ας, ἡ hour
Main points
Most first declension nouns are feminine
First declension masculine nouns have -ς in the nom. s. and -ου in the
gen. s.
First and second declension adjectives are declined in the same way as
first and second declension nouns
An adjective must agree with its noun in number, gender and case
The distinction between the attributive and predicative use of adjectives
(the good man attributive; the man is good predicative) depends on
whether or not the adjective is immediately preceded by the definite

article
Many adverbs end in -ως
Some prepositions take different cases according to the meaning
required
The irregular εἰμί never governs an accusative and is often omitted
1
The accent in the genitive plural feminine is ἁγίων, not ἁγιῶν which we would have
expected on the analogy of first declension nouns (3.1/1 note 4).
Unit 04
4.1 Grammar
4.1/1Imperfect indicative, weak aorist indicative and infinitive of -ω
verbs (active)
Both English and Greek have an imperfect tense (I was giving money to
the poor; normally called the past continuous in English; in Greek it would
be better termed the past imperfect) and an aorist (I gave money to the
poor; normally called the simple past or past indefinite in English). The
Greek imperfect can also refer to habitual action in the past, which we
translate as I used to give money to the poor, but the aorist (in the
indicative) simply tells us that an action (or state) occurred in the past.
In λύω and other verbs beginning with a consonant, the stem of the
imperfect consists of the present stem (λυ-) with a prefixed ἐ, giving us
ἔλυ-. This prefix is called the augment because it increases the length of
the stem.
The aorist stem is formed in one of two ways:

The weak aorist, where σ is added to the present stem: λυ + σ > λυσ- (the
stem is identical to that of the future).
The strong aorist, where the present stem is modified in some other way,
such as changing the vowel (cf. English break > broke). This form of the
aorist is treated at 7.1/1.
It is necessary to learn whether the aorist of a particular verb is weak or

strong, but most are weak. The augment must be used with both aorists
in the indicative (e.g. the aorist indicative stem of λύω is ἐλυσ-) but not in
the other moods.
There are similarities between the endings of the imperfect and the weak
aorist but in the latter the vowel immediately following the stem is α in five
of the six forms, while in the imperfect there is the same pattern of o- and
e- sounds as in the present (cf. 2.1/5 note 5):
While the aorist indicative views something that happened in the past as
a simple event, the imperfect indicative views it as a process, either
continuous or habitual; the choice between I was loosening (continuous
action) and I used to loosen (habitual action) depends on the context.
The difference between the two tenses usually depends on how we
perceive a past happening. In a particular context we may see this simply
as something that occurred in the past (we stayed in Spain last year; the
aorist would be used here in Greek), but in another context we may want
to describe the same happening as something continuous (we were
staying in Spain last year when the hijacking occurred) or repeated (we
used to stay in Spain every time we had sufficient money; the imperfect
would be used for both in Greek).There are, of course, many past actions
and events which we do not normally describe in more than one way
(Queen Victoria died in 1901). The term aspect is used for this distinction
in perspective. Both these tenses of the indicative describe something

that happened in the past, but the aorist indicative expresses a
momentary aspect while the imperfect a continuous or habitual
aspect.
The distinction between the imperfect and the aorist applies to the
infinitives of the present and aorist (the imperfect does not have an
infinitive); λύειν and λῦσαι can both be translated as to loosen with no
specific time reference. Here Greek has a distinction we do not have in
English: the present infinitive is used for an action or event which is seen
as going on, in the process of happening or being repeated, while the
aorist infinitive is used for an action or event which is seen simply as a
single happening. Often both are to be translated in English simply by a
present infinitive:
ἔπεμψεν αὐτὸν ( him) εἰς τοὺς ἀγροὺς βόσκειν χοίρους. (*Lk 15.15) He sent him
into the fields to feed pigs. (the prodigal son is not to feed pigs on one
single occasion but whenever this is required).
ϕραγῖδας; (*Rev 5.2) Who [is] worthy
τίς ἄξιος ἀνοῖξαι τὸ βιβλίον καὶ λῦσαι τὰς σ
to open the book and loosen the seals? (two single actions are
mentioned; ἀνοῖξαι (ἀνοῖγ- + σαι from ἀνοίγω open) and λῦσαι are both
aorist infinitives).
The imperfect exists only in the indicative but the aorist has other moods
(13.1/1). The distinction of aspect, not time, between the present and
aorist infinitives also exists between the present and aorist subjunctive
and imperative (13.1/2, 17.1/1).
Notes
1 The indicative forms of the three historic tenses (the tenses whose
indicative describes something in the past, viz imperfect, aorist,
pluperfect (16.1/2)) must be prefixed with the augment, but the augment
is not used with the three primary tenses (the tenses whose indicative
describes something in the present or future, viz present, future, perfect
(14.1/2)). An important difference in form exists between the two groups
in the 3rd pl. ind. act. ending where the historic tenses have a final -ν (e.g.
ἔλυον, ἔλυσαν), but the primary tenses end in -σι(ν) (e.g. λύουσι(ν), λύσουσι(ν)).
2 There are two types of augment:
i the syllabic augment (see above), which is used with verbs

( )
beginning with a consonant. It is called syllabic because an extra

syllable is added to the forms where it is used. In earlier Greek an initial
ρ was doubled (e.g. ῥίπτω throw, impf. ἔρριπτον), but in NT Greek this
rule is not always observed; hence we find ἔρρ- and ἔρ- .

(ii) the temporal augment, which is used with verbs beginning with a
vowel or diphthong. It is called temporal because it originally

lengthened the time required to pronounce the initial syllable according
to the following table:
Note that α is lengthened to η and that ι, when the second element of a
diphthong, becomes subscript. Examples of the temporal augment are:
ἀκούω hear, impf. ἤκουον, aor. ἤκουσα; ἐλπίζω hope, impf. ἤλπιζον, aor. ἤλπισα;
οἰκοδομέω build, impf. ᾠκοδόμουν, aor. ᾠκοδόμησα (the forms ἤλπισα,
ᾠκοδόμουν, ᾠκοδόμησα will be explained at 6.1/4(b) and 5.1/2 respectively).
ευ and οι are often not changed, e.g. εὐκαιρέω spend time, impf. stem
εὐκαιρε- or ηὐκαιρε-. ἔχω have forms its imperfect irregularly: εἶχον; ἐάω allow
has the same temporal augment (ει) in both the imperfect and aorist.
3 The imperfect has two other meanings, which are less common: began
to (I began to teach etc. inceptive imperfect) and tried to (I tried to

prevent etc. conative imperfect); the context will show what meaning is
intended.
4 As the endings of the lst s. and 3rd pl. of the imperfect indicative active
are the same we must always use the context of a particular form to
determine which person is meant.
5 The imperfect of εἰμί is irregular: ἤμην I was, ἦς or ἦσθα you (s.) were, ἦν
he/she/it was, ἦμεν or ἤμεθα we were, ἦτε you (pl.) were, ἦσαν they were.
This is the only past tense of εἰμί. For a table of the forms of εἰμί see
Appendix 3.
4.1/2 Personal pronouns
The first and second person pronouns are declined in Greek as follows:
The forms without an accent (με, μου, μοι, σε, σου, σοι) are unemphatic and
enclitic, i.e. their accent is thrown back on to the preceding word (see
Appendix 7, (d)): διώκει με ὁ τελώνης the tax-collector is pursuing me. The
other forms are emphatic: οὐ σέ, ἀλλὰ ἐμὲ διώκει ὁ τελώνης it’s me, not you,
that the tax-collector is pursuing (lit. the tax-collector is pursuing not you
but me). With prepositions the emphatic forms are used, e.g. μετὰ σοῦ with
you, except usually with πρός: πρός με towards me. The nominative forms,
ἐγώ, σύ, ἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖς, are only used when emphasis is required because the
endings of verbs indicate the person involved, e.g. διώκομεν τὸν τελώνην we
are pursuing the tax-collector but if emphasis is needed we have ἡμεῖς
διώκομεν τὸν τελώνην we are pursuing the tax-collector or it’s us who are
pursuing the tax-collector.
As an unemphatic third person pronoun Greek has αὐτός, -ή, -ό he, she, it
(pl. they), which is declined exactly like the corresponding forms of καλός
(3.1/3) except that the neuter nominative and accusative singular is αὐτό;
the -o ending in these cases also occurs in the definite article (τό), the
relative pronoun (ὅ, 9.1/2) the demonstratives τοῦτο, ἐκεῖνο (9.1/1) and ἄλλο
other.
Examples of αὐτός are: οἳ ἑπτὰ ἔσχον αὐτὴν γυναῖκα (*Lk 20.33) the seven had
her [as] wife; ἐδίδασκεν αὐτοὺς ἐν τῇ συναγωγῇ αὐτῶν (Mt 13.54) he used to
teach them in their synagogue.
In earlier Greek αὐτός, -ή, -ό was employed in the nominative with the
meaning (he) himself, (she) herself, (it) itself (although the oblique cases
were used without any notion of emphasis in the sense him, her, it, as in
NT Greek). Vestiges of this older use remain in the NT, but generally the
nominative forms occur where no particular emphasis is involved, e.g.
αὐτὸς δὲ ἐκάθευδεν (Mt 8.24) but he was sleeping, although a pronoun is
unnecessary in such a context (cf. 2.1/4). Where emphasis is required in

the nominative or the oblique cases Greek uses the demonstrative
pronouns (9.1/1). For other uses of αὐτός see 9.1/3.
Notes
1 The possessive genitive of the unemphatic personal pronoun is usually
placed after the noun which it qualifies, εἰς τὸν οἶκον μου into my house (lit.
into the house of me); ἐκ τοῦ οἴκου αὐτῶν from their house (lit. from the
house of them); occasionally it occurs before the phrase containing the
word it qualifies, μου ὑπὸ τὴν στέγην (Mt 8.8) under my roof. For the position
of the genitive of the emphatic personal pronouns see 9.1/5.
2 In the plural of αὐτός Greek distinguishes between the genders, but as we
cannot do this in English we must translate αὐτοί and αὐταί by they or by

the men, the women if the reference is to people and greater precision is
required, e.g. εἶχεν αὐτὰς τρόμος (*Mk 16.8) lit. fear held them but as αὐτάς is
feminine (and we know from the context that the reference is to people)
we could also render fear held the women. The translation of the neuter
αὐτά depends on the context (they/them/these things is usually
adequate).
3 Because all nouns in Greek have gender, αὐτός is used to refer to a
masculine noun of any sort, αὐτή to a feminine and αὐτό to a neuter, and in
some contexts each would be translated by it, e.g. in τοῦ κυρίου γὰρ ἡ γῆ καὶ
τὸ πλήρωμα αὐτῆς (1 Cor 10.26) for the earth is the Lord’s and everything in
it (lit. and the contents of it) αὐτῆς is feminine because it refers to the
feminine noun γῆ but we must translate by of it because in English we
have natural gender and nouns such as earth are regarded as neuter.
4.1/3 Non-Greek proper nouns
The vast majority of proper nouns in the New Testament, whether the
names of people or those of places, are Semitic. In the Greek form given
to these we see a distinction between those which in their original
Hebrew or Aramaic form end in a consonant and those which end in a
vowel.
The former are represented by a simple transliteration into Greek

characters and are not declined. Because of differences between the
Hebrew and Greek alphabets, the Greek form is often not a completely
accurate representation. For example, Hebrew has a consonant which
we represent in English as j, but nothing similar exists in Greek. Where
this occurs at the beginning of a Semitic proper noun the Greek
transliteration has an iota, although this is a vowel, not a consonant:
Ἰακώβ Jacob. The English version of names of this type is often
somewhat different from the Greek because we have gone back to the
original, e.g. Δαυίδ David, Βηθλέεμ Bethlehem.1
As these nouns are not declined, we must discover their case from the
context. Very often they are preceded by the definite article, e.g. Σαλμὼν
ἐγέννησεν τὸν Βόες ἐκ τῆς Ῥαχάβ (*Mt 1.5) Salmon begat Boaz from Rahab;
here τόν and τῆς indicate the case of the noun which each precedes;
Σαλμών, which has no article, can only be the subject (who else is there to
do the begetting?).
Names which in their Hebrew or Aramaic original end in a vowel are

adapted to the Greek system of declension, e.g. Ἰησοῦς Jesus (2.1/2 note
4), Μαθθαῖος (2nd decl.) Matthew, Ἅννα (1st decl.; note rough breathing!)
Anna, Ἰωάννης (1st decl. m.; gen. Ἰωάννου) John.
Among the exceptions to this general pattern are a few proper nouns
which have both an indeclinable and a declinable form: Μαριάμ
(indeclinable) and Μαρία (1st decl.) Mary, Ἰεροσαλήμ (indeclinable, used
with the feminine article) and Ἱεροσόλυμα (2nd declension neuter plural;
gen. Ἱεροσολύμων) Jerusalem (note that the second form has a rough
breathing as well as other differences).
4.1/4 Connecting particles
Two striking differences between Greek and English style are:

a) The connection of a sentence or phrase with what precedes to an
extent that we would consider quite unnecessary in English.
b) The use of an additional word to express a particular nuance with a
word, phrase or sentence where in spoken English we would use a
variation in the tone or emphasis of the voice.
For both purposes Greek employs particles. These are short,

indeclinable words some of which are postpositive, i.e. they cannot
occur as first word in the phrase or sentence where they are used (here
and in the vocabulary these are marked with #); others such as καί and
and ἀλλά but, which are not postpositive, are also called conjunctions.
Here we will deal mainly with connectives. Other particles will be
explained as they occur in the reading and at 15.1/2.
After the beginning in a passage of Greek, most main clauses, whether

they make up a full sentence or not, are connected to what precedes by a
connecting particle. The commonest of these is δέ# and, which is
regularly used to connect a string of main clauses where in English we
would avoid any connecting word at all, e.g. Άβραὰμ ἐγέννησεν τὸν Ἰσαάκ,
Ἰσαὰκ δὲ ἐγέννησεν τὸν Ἰακώβ, Ἰακὼβ δὲ ἐγέννησεν τὸν Ἰούδαν καὶ τοὺς ἀδελϕοὺς
αὐτοῦ (Mt 1.2) lit. Abraham begat Isaac, and Isaac begat Jacob, and
Jacob begat Judas and his brothers but in English we would normally say
Abraham begat Isaac, Isaac begat Jacob, Jacob begat Judas and his
brothers. δέ# can also denote a slight contrast and be translated by but:
ὑμεῖς ἔνδοξοι, ἡμεῖς δὲ ἄτιμοι (1 Cor 4.10) You [are] famous but (or while) we
[are] without honour. A strongly contrasting but is expressed by ἀλλά, e.g.
οὐκέτι ἐστὲ ξένοι καὶ πάροικοι, ἀλλὰ ἐστὲ συμπολῖται τῶν ἁγίων (Eph 2.19) you are
no longer strangers and aliens but you are fellow-citizens of God’s

people.
The particle γάρ# for, as, which introduces the reason for what goes
before, τίμιος ὁ γάμος … πόρνους γὰρ καὶ μοιχοὺς κρίνει ὁ θεός. (*Hb 13.4)
marriage [is] honourable, for God judges fornicators and adulterers.
Similarly οὖν# therefore, so, introduces the result of what goes before, οἱ
ἀδελϕοὶ αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἐπίστευον εἰς αὐτόν. λέγει οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ὁ καιρὸς ὁ ἐμὸς
οὔπω πάρεστιν (*Jn 7.5f.) his brothers did not believe in (εἰς) him. Therefore
Jesus said to them, ‘My (ὁ ἐμὸς 9.1/5) time is not yet come.’
καίand is most often used as a simple conjunction connecting words,

clauses or sentences, Πέτρος καὶ Άνδρέας Peter and Andrew. καὶ … καί
means both … and καὶ ὁ ἄνεμος καὶ ἡ θάλασσα both the wind and the sea,
and the same sense can also be conveyed by τε# … καί, but since τε# is
postpositive (and enclitic; see Appendix 7, (d)), the above phrase would
become ὅ τε ἄνεμος καὶ ἡ θάλασσα. τε# most commonly means and, e.g. ἡ
Μεσοποταμία Ἰουδαία τε καὶ Καππαδοκία Mesopotamia and Judaea and
Cappadocia.
καίis used adverbially in the sense also, even, actually, καὶ σύ, τέκνον
even you (or you too), [my] child; in this usage καί stands immediately
before the word it modifies. The negative of adverbial καί is οὐδέ, not even,
e.g. οὐδὲ Σολομών (Mt 6.29) not even Solomon. As a conjunction οὐδέ also
means nor or and … not: ὅπου κλέπται οὐ διορύσσουσιν οὐδὲ κλέπτουσιν (Mt
6.20) where thieves do not break in [lit. dig through] nor steal (we could
also translate and do not steal).

Insight
The practice grew up among early Christian communities of
giving children names connected with their religion and the
favourite source was the NT. This continued after the adoption
of surnames in the late Middle Ages and is still with us. Some
names are a simple transliteration of the Greek, as Θωμᾶς
becoming Thomas. Others take the form adopted in early
English translations (and ultimately in the Authorised Version)
and so we have Matthew for Ματθαῖος. Others again have
undergone a more complex transformation. Of the two forms
Μαρία/Μαριάμ (4.1/3) the former has been taken without change
as Maria, but more commonly with a slight change as Mary. The

indeclinable form (Μαριάμ) has given us Mariam, Marian,
Miriam, etc. Ἅννα with its rough breathing has given us Hannah
but because the Latin translation of the Bible (the Vulgate, see
p. 177) has Anna and this form was adopted by English
translators we also have the more common Anna, Anne, etc.
4.2 Greek reading

An analysis of sentence 9 will be found in the key.
ςͅ. (Jn 1.1)
1 ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν, καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγο
2 ποῦ σου, θάνατε, τὸ κέντρον; (1 Cor 15.55)

3 εἶπαν (they said) αὐτῷ, Τί οὖν βαπτίζεις εἰ σὺ οὐκ εἶ ὁ Χριστὸς οὐδὲ Ἠλίας οὐδὲ ὁ
προϕήτης; (Jn 1.25)
4 ὁμοίως καθὼς ἐγένετο (happened) ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις Λώτ, ἤσθιον, ἔπινον. (Lk 17.28)
5 εὐθὺς λέγουσιν αὐτῷ περὶ αὐτῆς. (Mk 1.30)
6 ἄγγελος δὲ κυρίου ἤνοιξε τὰς θύρας τῆς ϕυλακῆς. (*Ac 5.19)
7 κύριε, καλόν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι. (Mt 17.4)
8 νῦν ὑμεῖς οἱ Φαρισαῖοι τὸ ἔξωθεν τοῦ ποτηρίου καθαρίζετε, τὸ δὲ ἔσωθεν ὑμῶν γέμει
ἁρπαγῆς καὶ πονηρίας. (* Lk 11.39)

ἶ
Gal 4.7)
9 οὐκέτι εἶ δοῦλος ἀλλὰ υἱός· εἰ δὲ υἱός, καὶ κληρονόμος διὰ θεοῦ. (
10 διό, ἀδελϕοί, οὐκ ἐσμὲν παιδίσκης τέκνα ἀλλὰ τῆς ἐλευθέρας. (Gal 4.31)
11 ἐγὼ ἤμην δυνατὸς κωλῦσαι τὸν θεόν; (*Ac 11.17)
12 οὕτως καὶ ἡμεῖς, ὅτε ἦμεν νήπιοι, ὑπὸ τὰ στοιχεῖα τοῦ κόσμου ἤμεθα δεδουλωμένοι
( enslaved). (Gal 4.3)

13 ἐδίδασκεν γὰρ τοὺς μαθητὰς αὐτοῦ καὶ ἔλεγεν αὐτοῖς. ( Mk 9.31)
14 ἦσαν δὲ ἐν Άντιοχείᾳ προ ϕῆται καὶ διδάσκαλοι ὅ τε Βαρναβᾶς καὶ Συμεών. (*Ac
13.1)
15 ἐξουσίαν ἔχω ἀπολῦσαί σε. ( Jn 19.10)

16 ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ θεὸς Άβραὰμ καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰσαὰκ καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ. ( Mt 22.32)
17 ἔλεγεν γὰρ ὁ Ἰωάννης αὐτῷ, Οὐκ ἔξεστίν σοι ἔχειν αὐτήν. ( Mt 14.4)
18 ἴδε νῦν ἠκούσατε τὴν βλασ ϕημίαν. (Mt 26.65)
19 ἰδοὺ ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω ὑμᾶς ὡς πρόβατα ἐν μέσῳ λύκων. ( Mt 10.16)
20 καὶ οἱ ἄνεμοι καὶ ἡ θάλασσα αὐτῷ ὑπακούουσιν. ( Mt 8.27)
Notes
1 πρός here with.
2 Supply ἐστί.
3 Τί note the capital letter; as Greek does not use inverted commas to
mark off direct speech (7.1/2), modern editions of the New Testament
indicate its beginning in this way.
6 ἤνοιξε aorist of ἀνοίγω.
7 καλόν ἐστιν in impersonal expressions of this type the neuter form of the
adjective is used; trans. it is good.

8 οἱ Φαρισαῖοι is in apposition to ὑμεῖς (trans. you, the Pharisees, or you
Pharisees); ἔξωθεν and ἔσωθεν are adverbs used as noun-substitutes in

much the same way as their English equivalents outside and inside.
9 Supply εἶ twice in the second sentence; καί also.
12 καί even; both forms of the 1st pl. imperf. of εἰμί (ἦμεν, ἤμεθα) occur in this
verse; στοιχεῖα the exact meaning is disputed – perhaps the elemental

spirits of contemporary paganism.
13 ἐδίδασκεν and ἔλεγεν are inceptive imperfects (4.1/1 note 3) – translate
began to …
16 Άβραάμ, Ἰσαάκ, Ἰακώβ are all indeclinable names and the context shows
that they must be understood as genitives (of Abraham etc.).
18 ἴδε a common particle (originally an imperative 17.1/1) used as an
exclamation to draw attention to something, there (you are!).

19 ἰδού another particle used as an exclamation, behold!
20 ὑπακούω (lit. be obedient) is followed by the dative (here αὐτῷ)
4.2/1 Vocabulary
Άβραάμ, ὁ ( indecl.) Abraham

ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ angel
ἀδελϕός, -οῦ, ὁ brother
ἀλλά (conj.) but
ἄνεμος, -ου, ὁ wind
ἀνοίγω open
Άντιόχεια, -ας, ἡ Antioch
ἀπολύω free
ἁρπαγή, -ῆς, ἡ greed
ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ beginning
βαπτίζω baptize
Βαρναβᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Barnabas
βλασϕημία, -ας, ἡ blasphemy
γέμω (+ gen.) be full (of)
διό (adv.) therefore
δυνατός, -ή, -όν able
εἰ (conj.) if
ἐλεύθερος, -α, -ον free
ἔξεστι(ν) (+ dat.) it is permitted (to)
ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ authority, power
ἔξωθεν (adv.) outside
ἔσωθεν (adv.) inside
εὐθύς (adv.) immediately
Ἠλίας, -ου, ὁ Elijah
ἡμέρα, -ας, ἡ day
θάνατος, -ου, ὁ death
θύρα, -ας, ἡ door
Ἰακώβ, ὁ (indecl.) Jacob

ἴδε (exclamation) there (you are!)
ἰδού (exclamation) behold!
Ἰσαάκ, ὁ (indecl.) Isaac
Ἰωάννης, -ου, ὁ John
καθώς (conj.) just as
κέντρον, -ου, τό sting
κληρονόμος, -ου, ὁ heir
κωλύω hinder
λύκος, -ου, ὁ wolf
Λώτ, ὁ (indecl.) Lot
μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ disciple
μέσῳ (+ gen.) in the midst (of)
νήπιος, -α, -ον very young, (as noun) young child
νῦν (adv.) now
ὁμοίως (adv.) similarly
ὅτε (conj.) when
οὐκέτι (adv.) no longer
οὕτως (adv.) thus, in this way
παιδίσκη, -ης, ἡ slave girl
πονηρία, -ας, ἡ wickedness
ποτήριον, -ου, τό cup
ποῦ (interrog.) where?
πρόβατον, -ου, τό sheep
στοιχεῖον, -ου, τό element (see note on 12)
Συμεών, ὁ (indecl.) Symeon
τέκνον, -ου, τό child
ὑπακούω (+ dat.) be obedient (to), obey
Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ Pharisee
ϕυλακή, -ῆς, ἡ prison

ὧδε (adv.) here
Main points
The imperfect tense is used for a continuous or repeated past action
The aorist simply indicates that an action happened in the past
Both the aorist indicative and the imperfect add an augment to their stem
The initial letter or letters of a verb determine whether it takes a syllabic or
a temporal augment
The nominative of the personal pronouns is only used for emphasis
Some Semitic proper nouns are not declined; their case is shown by the
context
Particles are short indeclinable words that either act as a connective or
convey a particular nuance
4.3 Excursus
Books in antiquity – the papyrus roll
In the first century AD, when the New Testament was written, the normal
form of books and the manner of producing them were completely
different from what we have today. Books throughout the whole of the
Roman empire were the same as they had been four centuries earlier in
the heyday of Greek civilization; the Greeks themselves had taken over
techniques from Egypt, where both writing and papyrus, the ancient
equivalent of paper, had been invented.
Printing was over a thousand years away, and every copy of a book had
to be individually written out by hand. This did not make the cost of books
high as the scribes who produced them were usually slaves. However,
apart from the time and labour needed to transcribe each and every copy
of a book, the method had a fatal flaw: unlike the results of printing, no
two copies could ever be guaranteed to be exactly identical. Even today
with computers it is difficult to avoid introducing errors when making a
copy of a document – how much more so when the person doing the
copy is using pen and ink. To ensure that a book would circulate in a
reasonably accurate form, it would have been necessary to proofread
every copy, and this required a person of some education. Even with this
precaution it was inevitable that each copy of a book had its own peculiar
variations and, as the process was repeated over centuries, more
variations crept into the text. To know exactly what the author had
originally written became progressively more difficult.
Equally surprising to a modern reader was the traditional form of a book.
Ever since its invention by the Egyptians a book consisted of a roll of
papyrus, a material resembling paper, with a length of 6–8 metres (20 to
26 feet) and a width of 250 mm (10 inches), though sizes varied
considerably. The text was written on this in narrow columns which were
at right angles to the roll’s length. A roll consisted of up to twenty papyrus
sheets, which were slightly overlapped to allow for gluing. To make up the
sheets themselves, the stalks of the papyrus plant, which resembled a
very large reed and grew in profusion by the Nile, were shredded into thin
strips. A number of these were placed side by side to make up the
dimension of the sheet required (usually about 250 × 200 mm. [10 × 8
inches]) and these were completely covered with another layer of strips
placed at right-angles to the first. As this was done with the strips still
moist, the sap acted as a glue when the sheet was placed in a press.
After removal the sheet was smoothed with pumice, or some similar
abrasive, and trimmed. Many examples of papyrus rolls have survived
and show that as a material for writing it is comparable to paper, though it
differs in being less flexible.
After a roll had been made up, a turned wooden rod, resembling a small
rolling pin, was added to each end, and their projecting handles allowed
the long papyrus strip to be rolled up from either direction. A text could
then be transcribed on to one side of the roll – the back was left blank –
and the roll was then ready for use. The lower handle of the rod on the
outer end was held in the left hand and the corresponding handle of the
other rod in the right. As the beginning of the roll was unwound, the first
columns were read. The reader’s right and left hands kept unrolling and
rolling up respectively until the end was reached, when the roll, like a
modern video cassette, had to be rewound for the next user. The whole
procedure was best performed if the roll was on the knees of the reader
when seated (much the same as when we read a book by the fire), and it
is in this position that ancient sculptures depict a person reading.
Papyrus rolls were not suited to desks as we know them.
However, the reader’s problems were not confined to manipulating the

roll, as conventions of presenting a text were different from those today.
Scribes wrote in capitals as an equivalent of our lower case had yet to
develop. This in itself would not have created difficulty, but a line of
capitals gave no indication of where one word ended and the next began;
words were simply not separated. In addition, breathings and accents
were omitted and punctuation was rarely given. The unfortunate reader
was faced with a string of letters and was obliged to split these up, first
into words, then into clauses and then into sentences. As an example we
may take a sentence from 1 Cor 12.15, which would have appeared in a
text of the early centuries of the Christian era as follows:
ΟΤΙΟ ϒΚΕΙΜΙΧΕΙΡΟϒΚΕἹΜῚΕΚΤΟϒCΩΜΑΤΟC i.e. ὅτι οὐκ
εἰμὶ χείρ, οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐκ τοῦ σώματος because I am not a hand I am not
[part] of the body (note that the form of the sigma used at this
period was different).
It is little wonder that ancient readers always read aloud. The act of
articulation would have helped them recognize the different divisions
(words, clauses, sentences) which had to be made before a text could be
understood.
The upper limit of what could be put on one roll was about 18,000 words
(seventy pages of a modern book); a longer one would have been too
cumbersome to use. Most works of Greek and Roman literature are of

course much longer and so had to be accommodated on two or more
rolls, and this led to longer poems and prose works being written (i.e. split
up) in sections, each of which was contained within one roll. The Greek
and Latin terms which we translate by book (βιβλίον, liber) refer to a single
papyrus roll. Thus a longer literary work contained as many books as the
rolls necessary to record it; the Aeneid of the Roman poet Vergil is in
twelve books and so took up twelve rolls. For the New Testament this
meant that the Gospels and Acts would have originally circulated and
been preserved in five separate rolls. Shorter books could have been
combined on to a single roll. No roll contained what we today would
consider a book of normal size (i.e. 200–300 pages).
We do not have the original author’s copy of any part of the New
Testament. The earliest texts we possess are papyrus fragments dating
from the third century AD. we have no way of knowing how many times
their words had been re-copied since the author first put pen to papyrus.
1
Where the English version of these names differs, the form used in this book is
that given in A Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature (see Suggestions for further study).
Unit 05
5.1 Grammar
5.1/1 Third declension – consonant stem nouns (1)
The third declension contains nouns of all three genders and is divided
into two classes, nouns with stems ending in a consonant and nouns with
stems ending in a vowel or diphthong. Within the sub-groups of each
class masculine and feminine nouns have the same case endings but
neuters always follow the rule previously given (3.1/1) for the nominative,
vocative and accusative (not every sub-group has each gender). The
gender of a third declension noun is only sometimes predictable from its
ending.
The stem of all consonant stem nouns is obtained by subtracting -ος from
the genitive singular (e.g. ϕλόξ flame, gen. ϕλογός, stem ϕλογ-); the other
case endings are added to this. As the stem is modified in the nominative
singular, both nominative and genitive singular must be learnt. The
vocative is only given in the following tables and elsewhere for nouns
where a form different from the nominative occurs in the NT.
a) Stems in κ, γ, χ (palatals), π, β, ϕ (labials), and τ, δ, θ (dentals)
(
Masculine and feminine nouns in these sub-groups have a

nominative singular in ς, which combines with, or replaces, the final
consonant of the stem as follows:
ϕ + ς > ψ; τ/δ/θ + ς > ς

κ/γ/χ + ς >ξ; π/β/
Similar changes occur with the dative ending -σι(ν) (and with the σ of
the weak aorist stem – see 6.1/4).
A number of abstract nouns (all feminine) have a stem in τητ and
only occur in the singular, e.g. νεότης youth, ἁγιότης holiness, σεμνότης
dignity. The first is declined: nom. νεότης, acc. νεότητα, gen. νεότητος,
dat. νεότητι.
Neuters all have a τ stem. The vast majority of these have a

nominative singular in -μα and are declined like σῶμα. A few have -ας
in the nominative singular but are otherwise declined in the same
way, e.g. κέρας, κέρατος horn.
(b) Stems in ντ (all masculine)
Nouns in -ντ have a nominative singular in -ας or -ων. In the dative

plural ντ + σ becomes σ, with lengthening of the preceding α (as is
shown by the accent) but in ἄρχων and similar words the ο of the stem
is lengthened to ου (not ω). This lengthening occurs to compensate
for the reduction of three consonants to one.
Notes
1 Some nouns with these stems are slightly irregular, mostly in the
nominative singular. The most common are:
γόνυ, γόνατος ( n) knee
γυνή, γυναικός (f) woman (voc. s. γύναι)
θρίξ, τριχός (f) hair (dat. pl. θριξί(ν))
νύξ, νυκτός (f) night (dat. pl. νυξί(ν))
ὀδούς, ὀδόντος (m) tooth
οὖς, ὠτός (n) ear
παῖς, παιδός (m or f) child; slave
πούς, ποδός (m) foot
ὕδωρ, ὕδατος (n) water
ϕῶς, ϕωτός (n) light

2 ἔρις, ἔριδος (f) strife, has an irregular accusative singular ἔριν. χάρις, χάριτος
(f) favour, grace has an accusative χάριν or χάριτα.
5.1/2 Contracted verbs
We have already met verbs with stems ending in ι and υ (ἐσθί-ω eat, λύ-ω
loosen) where an ending is simply added to the stem. However, verbs
whose stems end in α, ε or ο contract their stem vowel with the initial
vowel of the endings in the present and imperfect; in other tenses, where
the stem is formed by the addition of a consonant (e.g. σ in the future and
aorist – see note 2), the possibility of contraction does not arise.
Examples of contracted verbs are: τιμά-ω honour, ποιέ-ω do, make, δηλό-
ω make clear, show. These verbs are always cited in dictionaries and
vocabularies in their uncontracted form (τιμάω, ποιέω, δηλόω) to allow the

user to identify the stem. Paradigms for the three types are given in
Appendix 2. The endings are the same as for λύω. The rules for
1
contraction are as follows:

a) Stems in α (model τιμάω)
α + an e-sound (ε, η) > α: ἐτίμα (ἐτίμα-ε)
α + an o-sound (ο, ου, ω) > ω: τιμῶσι (τιμά-ουσι); τιμῶμεν (τιμά-ομεν)
α + an ι-diphthong (ει, ῃ, οι) obeys the above rules but retains the iota as
a subscript in the contracted form: τιμᾷ (τιμά-ει)

The combinations of α + ῃῃ/οι occur in forms treated in future units.
b) Stems in ε (model ποιέω)
ε + ε > ει: ποιεῖτε (ποιέ-ετε)
ε + ο > ου: ἐποίουν (ἐποίε-ον)
ε disappears before a long vowel or diphthong: ποιῶ (ποιέ-ω); ποιοῦσι

(ποιέ-ουσι).
c) Stems in ο (model δηλόω)

ο + ε/ο/ου > ου: ἐδήλου (ἐδήλο-ε); δηλοῦμεν (δηλό-ομεν); δηλοῦσι (δηλό-ουσι)
ο + ῃ/ω > ω: δηλῶ (δηλό-ω)
an ι-diphthong (ει, οι, ῃ) > οι: δηλοῖ (δηλό-ει)

ο +
The combinations ο + ῃ/οι/ῃ occur in forms treated in future units.
The above vowel contractions cover all forms of contracted verbs; they
also occur in other parts of speech.
Future and weak aorist active of contracted verbs
The future and weak aorist active stems of contracted verbs are formed
by lengthening the stem vowel before adding the usual σ (see 2.1/5,
4.1/1):
A few verbs do not lengthen the final vowel of the stem:
Notes
1 In the present infinitive active α- and ο-stems contract to -αν and -ουν
respectively (not -ᾳν and -οιν) giving τιμᾶν from τιμάω and δηλοῦν from
δηλόω. The corresponding form of ποιέω is the expected ποιεῖν.
2 Contracted verbs in α where the alpha is preceeded by ε, ι or ρ form their
future and aorist stem in -ασ (not -ησ), e.g. κοπιάω work hard, aorist
ἐκοπίασα.
3 A contracted future sometimes occurs in a few verbs in -ίζω (6.1/4(b))
and in all verbs with stems in λ, ν, ρ (11.1/3). These futures have a stem in
ε (i.e. the contraction is -ῶ, -εῖς, -εῖ, etc., exactly as the present of ποιέω),
e.g. ἐλπίζω hope, future ἐλπιῶ.

4 ζάω be alive contracts to η where other -άω verbs have α: pres. ind. act.
ζῶ, ζῇς, ζῇ, ζῶμεν, ζῆτε, ζῶσι(ν), inf. ζῆν; in the impf. ind. act. the only forms
that occur are ἔζων (1st s.), ἐζῆτε (2nd pl.).

5 Disyllabic verbs in -εω (as πλέω sail, πνέω breathe, ῥέω flow) contract only
when ε is followed by ε. The pres. ind. act. of πλέω is πλέω, πλεῖς, πλεῖ,
πλέομεν, πλεῖτε, πλέουσι(ν); impf. ἔπλεον, ἔπλεις, ἔπλει, ἐπλέομεν, ἐπλεῖτε, ἔπλεον.
The 3rd s. act. of an otherwise obsolete verb of this type δέω need, pres.
δεῖ, impf. ἔδει, is used impersonally in the sense of it is/was necessary. It is
construed with the accusative of the person involved and an infinitive: τί

με δεῖ ποιεῖν; (Ac 16.30) What is it necessary for me to do?
5.1/3 Further uses of the definite article
In English the definite article can be used with an adjective to form a

noun-equivalent: only the good die young; only the brave deserve the
fair. This type of expression is more common in Greek where the definite
article can be prefixed to various parts of speech (adjective, adverb,
infinitive) or a prepositional phrase to form a noun equivalent: ὁ πονηρός
the evil [one], i.e. the Devil; ἡ σοϕή the wise [woman]; ὁ πλησίον the nearby
[man] i.e. the neighbour; οἱ παρὰ τὴν ὁδόν (Mk 4.15) the [men] by the road
(the last example can also mean the [people] by the road, as Greek uses
the masculine article to refer to mixed groups); Πέτρος καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ (Lk
9.32) Peter and those with him. The neuter singular article (τό) is used
with adjectives to express abstractions: τὸ ἀγαθόν σου (Phlm 14) your

goodness, τὸ χρηστὸν τοῦ θεοῦ (Ro 2.4) the kindness of God. Similarly, the
neuter plural article (τά) can be followed by a phrase and has the literal
meaning of the [things] … : τὰ νῦν the [things] now i.e. the present; τὰ ὧδε
(Col 4.9) the [things] here i.e. matters here; τὰ κατὰ τὸν Παῦλον (Ac 25.14)
lit. the [things] concerning Paul i.e. Paul’s circumstances; τὰ περὶ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ
(Ac 18.25) the [things, i.e. facts] about Jesus: our translation must take
the context into account.

The article used with a prepositional phrase can follow a noun and qualify
it; such expressions must sometimes be translated by an adjectival
clause: Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς (Mt 6.9) lit. Father (Πάτερ) of us, the
[one] in the heavens, i.e. our Father who art in heaven.
Each of these noun-equivalents functions exactly like any normal noun,

and the case of the article (and of an accompanying adjective) varies
according to a particular context: λέγει τοῖς ἐκεῖ … (Mt 26.71) he says to the
men there…; περὶ τοῦ κακοῦ (Jn 18.23) concerning the evil [thing] i.e.
crime.
When put before an infinitive (the articular infinitive, i.e. the article + an
infinitive) τό forms an equivalent of a verbal noun in English: τὸ γράϕειν ὑμῖν
(2 Cor 9.1) the [act of] writing to you or simply writing to you; τὸ ϕεύγειν the
[act of] fleeing, flight. This construction is very common in the NT and it
can occur after prepositions with the article put in the appropriate case: ἐν
τῷ ἐλαύνειν (Mk 6.48) in the [act of] rowing; διὰ τὸ ἀκούειν περὶ αὐτοῦ (Lk 23.8)
on account of hearing about him. Its use after the preposition ἐν is often
the equivalent of an adverbial clause of time and must be so translated: ἐν
τῷ σπείρειν αὐτὸν (Mt 13.4) in the [act of] him sowing i.e. while he was
sowing. When the subject of the infinitive is expressed, as it is here, it is

put in the accusative (here αὐτόν; cf. the accusative pronoun him in the
English for him to want more money is ridiculous); an example of a noun
so used is ἐν τῷ καθεύδειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους (*Mt 13.25) while the people were
sleeping.
The article can also be used as a third person pronoun when followed by
δέ viz ὁ δὲ … and he …; ἡ δὲ … and she …; οἱ δὲ … and they…: ὁ δὲ ἔϕη
αὐτοῖς (Mt 13.28) and he said to them; ἡ δὲ ἤνοιξεν τοὺς ὀϕθαλμοὺς αὐτῆς (Ac
9.40) and she opened her eyes (lit. the eyes of her); οἱ δὲ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ (Mt
14.17) and they say to him.
Notes
1 Adjectives without the definite article can also be used as nouns but they
then have an indefinite sense: προνοοῦμεν γὰρ καλά (2 Cor 8.21) for we
have regard for fair [actions]. When used indefinitely in the singular an
adjective is normally accompanied by the indefinite pronoun τις (10.1/1).
2 In expressions such as Ἰάκωβος ὁ τοῦ Ζεβεδαίου (Mt 10.2) James, the [son]
of Zebedee the article is followed by the genitive and the word for son or
daughter is omitted. In societies which do not use surnames, the name of
a person’s father is often given to achieve greater precision.
Insight
The three most common words in ancient Greek for love were
ἔρως (gen. ἔρωτος m), ϕιλία, ἀγάπη (both first declension). Of these
the first signified sexual love, the other two asexual love, as
between friends, parents and children, etc. The preferred word
in the New Testament is ἀγάπη, while ἔρως is completely absent.
In the Latin translation that became standard (the Vulgate – see
p. 177) the Latin amor, which covered the semantic range of all
three Greek words, is not used to translate ἀγάπη. To avoid any
sexual connotation it sometimes employs dīlectiō and
sometimes cāritās for the one Greek word. Some early English
versions of the Bible were made from the Latin and because of
the lack of other words denoting strong affection in English the
translators were obliged to employ the word love for dīlectiō,
but at the time charity had the sense of man’s love of God and
his neighbour and so could be used for cāritās. Charity
continued to appear in later English translations and in the
Authorised Version we find the rendering of 1 Cor 13.1 though I
speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.
This meaning of charity has now disappeared from normal use,
but the phrase faith, hope, charity (the Authorised Version of 1
Cor 13.13) is still current; the Greek original is πίστις, ἐλπίς,
ἀγάπη.
5.2 Greek reading

1 The following are phrases; some of those containing an infinitive would
be best translated by a subordinate clause. (i) εἰς τὸ πέραν. (Mt 8.18) (ii) ἐν
δὲ τῷ ὑποστρέϕειν τὸν Ἰησοῦν. (Lk 8.40) (iii) ἐν δὲ τῷ λαλῆσαι. (Lk 11.37) (iv) τὸ
ἀγαπᾶν τὸν πλησίον. (Mk 12.33) (v) πρὸ τοῦ ὑμᾶς αἰτῆσαι αὐτόν. (Mt 6.8) (vi) τὰ
Καίσαρος (Mt 22.21) (vii) τὰ παρ’ ὑμῶν. (Phil 4.18) (viii) οἱ ἀπὸ τῆς ἐκκλησίας.
(*Ac 12.1) (ix) τὰ μωρὰ τοῦ κόσμου. (1 Cor 1.27) (x) τὰ κρυπτὰ τῆς καρδίας. (1
Cor 14.25)
2 Ἰησοῦς ἐμαρτύρησεν ὅτι προϕήτης ἐν τῇ ἰδίᾳ πατρίδι τιμὴν οὐκ ἔχει. (Jn 4.44)
3 καὶ διὰ τὸ ὁμότεχνον εἶναι ἔμενεν παῤ αὐτοῖς. (Ac 18.3)
4 ἠρώτησαν αὐτόν, Τί οὖν σύ; Ἠλίας εἶ; καὶ λέγει, Οὐκ εἰμί. (Jn 1.21)
5 ἐθαύμαζον ἐν τῷ χρονίζειν ἐν τῷ ναῷ αὐτόν. (Lk 1.21)
6 λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Πιλᾶτος, Τί οὖν ποιήσω Ἰησοῦν; (Mt 27.22)
7 ὁ λύχνος τοῦ σώματός ἐστιν ὁ ὀϕθαλμός. (Lk 11.34)
8 εἰ γὰρ κατὰ σάρκα ζῆτε, μέλλετε ἀποθνῄσκειν. (Ro 8.13)
9 εἶπεν (he spoke) παραβολὴν διὰ τὸ ἐγγὺς εἶναι Ἰερουσαλὴμ αὐτόν. (Lk 19.11)
10 ὅτε ἤμην νήπιος, ἐλάλουν ὡς νήπιος, ἐϕρόνουν ὡς νήπιος. (1 Cor 13.11)
11 οἱ δὲ ἀρχιερεῖς (high priests) καὶ ὅλον τὸ συνέδριον ἐζήτουν κατὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ
μαρτυρίαν εἰς τὸ θανατῶσαι αὐτόν, καὶ οὐχ ηὕρισκον. (Mk 14.55)
12 ὑμεῖς ἐκ τῶν κάτω ἐστέ, ἐγὼ ἐκ τῶν ἄνω εἰμί. (Jn 8.23)
13 λέγει αὐτῇ Ἰησοῦς, Γύναι, τί κλαίεις; (Jn 20.15)
14 Λοιπὸν οὖν, ἀδελϕοί, ἐρωτῶμεν ὑμᾶς καὶ παρακαλοῦμεν ἐν κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ. (1 Th 4.1)
15 δεῖ τοὺς δούλους ὑπακούειν τοῖς κατὰ σάρκα κυρίοις μετὰ ϕόβου καὶ τρόμου ἐν
ἁπλότητι τῆς καρδίας ὡς τῷ Χριστῷ. (*Eph 6.5)
16 ἐδάκρυσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς. ἔλεγον οὖν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι, Ἴδε πῶς ἐϕίλει αὐτόν. (Jn 11.35f.)
17 ϕύλακες πρὸ τῆς θύρας ἐτήρουν τὴν ϕυλακήν. (Ac 12.6)
18 σπουδάζετε τηρεῖν τὴν ἑνότητα τοῦ πνεύματος ἐν τῷ συνδέσμῳ τῆς εἰρήνης. (*Eph
4.3)
19 οἱ δὲ Φαρισαῖοι ἔλεγον, Ἐν τῷ ἄρχοντι τῶν δαιμονίων ἐκβάλλει τὰ δαιμόνια. (Mt

9.34)
ϕη αὐτῷ, Άγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ καρδίᾳ σου καὶ ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ
20 ὁ δὲ ἔ
ψυχῇ σου. (Mt 22.37)
Notes
i here to; πέραν is an adverb on the other side but τὸ πέραν simply
1 ( ) εἰς
means the other side. (iii) Supply αὐτόν as the subject of λαλῆσαι. (iv) Take
τὸν πλησίον as the object of the infinitive. (v) The context shows that ὑμᾶς is
the subject of αἰτῆσαι and αὐτόν the object. (vii) παῤ = παρά (2.1/6(b) also in
3 below).
2 ἰδίᾳ lit. one’s own takes its meaning from its context; here it refers to the
prophet’s own country.
3 ἔμενεν is an inceptive imperfect (4.1/1 note 3), lit. began to stay, but trans.
simply stayed.
4 τί here means what (10.1/1), but in 13 it means why; λἐγει vivid pres.
(2.1/5 note 2).
5 The first ἐν gives the reason for their amazement; trans. at his staying.
6 ποιέω here has two accusatives and the meaning is do [something]
to/with [somebody].
9 The context shows that we must take Ἰερουσαλήμ (the indecl. form of
Jerusalem – 4.1/3) as dative with the adverb ἐγγύς close [to].

10 What is the sense of the imperfects ἐλάλουν and ἐϕρόνουν (and ἐζήτουν in
11)?
11 εἰς here means for and is used to express purpose.
15 δεῖ it is necessary takes the accusative (here τοὺς δούλους); ὑπακούειν obey
takes the dative (here τοῖς κυρίοις and τῷ Χριστῷ, cf. 4.2.20); on such verbs
see 15.1.1(b); κατὰ σάρκα in the flesh, i.e masters here on earth by
contrast with Christ (the phrase has a different connotation in 8).
16 ἔλεγον lit. were saying the imperfect indicates that the words were
uttered more than once, but English idiom requires said (the same
applies in 19).
18 Take σπουδάζετε as indicative you take pains (in the original context it is
imperative – 17.1/1).
19 Ἐν τῷ ἄρχοντι i.e. in [the name of] the leader.
20 ἀγαπήσεις the future is used here to express an emphatic command
(17.1/1 note 5(i)); ἐν trans. with (cf. 11.1/2)
5.2/1 Vocabulary
ἀγαπάω love
αἰτέω ask [someone a request]
ἄνω (adv.) above
ἁπλότης, -ητος, ἡ sincerity
ἀπό (prep. + gen.) from
ἀποθνῄσκω (note iota subscript) die

δακρύω weep
δεῖ (impers.) it is necessary
ἐγγύς (adv.) near, close
εἰρήνη, -ης, ἡ peace
ἐκκλησία, -ας, ἡ church
ἑνότης, -ητος, ἡ unity
ἐρωτάω ask [someone a question]
ζάω live, be alive
ζητέω seek, look for
θανατόω kill
θαυμάζω marvel, be surprised
ἴδιος, -α, -ον one’s own
Ἰουδαῖος, -ου, ὁ Jew
Καῖσαρ, -αρος, ὁ Caesar
καρδία, -ας, ἡ heart
κατά (+ acc.) according to; (+ gen.) against
κάτω (adv.) below
κλαίω weep
κρυπτός, -ή, -όν hidden, secret
λαλέω speak
λοιπόν (adv.) furthermore
λύχνος, -ου, ὁ lamp
μαρτυρέω declare
μαρτυρία, -ας, ἡ testimony
μέλλω (+ inf.) be going to, be destined to
μένω stay, dwell
μωρός, -ά, -όν foolish
ναός, -οῦ, ὁ temple
ὅλος, -η, -ον whole, entire, all
ὁμότεχνος, -ον of [i.e. belong to] the same trade (τέχνη)
παρά (+ dat.) at the house of
παραβολή, -ῆς, ἡ parable
παρακαλέω entreat
πατρίς, -ίδος, ἡ homeland, [one’s own] country
πέραν (adv.) on the other side
Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ Pilate
πλησίον (adv.) near, (as indecl. noun) neighbour

πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό spirit
ποιέω do (see note on 6)
πρό (prep. + gen.) before
πῶς (exclamation) how …!
σάρξ, σαρκός, ἡ flesh
σπουδάζω be eager, take pains
σύνδεσμος, -ου, ὁ bond
συνέδριον, -ου, τό council
τηρέω keep watch over, guard; preserve
τιμή, -ῆς, ἡ honour, reverence
τρόμος, -ου, ὁ trembling
ὑποστρέϕω return
ϕιλέω love
ϕόβος, -ου, ὁ fear
ϕρονέω think, have an opinion
χρονίζω linger
Main points
The third declension contains masculine, feminine and neuter nouns
The genitive singular must be learnt to discover a noun’s stem
The third declension has consonant stems in palatals, labials and dentals
(including -ντ)
Contracted verbs end in -αω, -εω, -οω

The definite article can be used to turn an adjective, infinitive or phrase
into a noun-equivalent
A common idiom is ὁ μέν … ὁ δέ the one … the other
1
For the rules governing the accentuation of contracted verbs see Appendix 7,
(b) (i).
Unit 06
6.1 Grammar
6.1/1 Third declension – consonant stem nouns (2)
a) Stems in ν (masculine with an occasional feminine)
The nominative singular ends in -ην or -ων with a genitive -ενος/-ηνος or

-ονος/-ωνος (there is no rule to determine whether a particular word has a
long or short vowel in its stem). Those with a short vowel do not lengthen
it in the dative plural because here we have ν + σ > σ, not ντ + σ > σ (cf.
5.1/1(b)).
Here, as elsewhere, the vocative is only given when a form different from
the nominative occurs in the NT.
Notes
f pain of childbirth has a stem in -ιν and is declined in the
1 ὠδίν, ὠδῖνος ( )
same way as αἰών.

2 κύων, κυνός (m or f) dog has an irregular stem κυν-.
b) Stems in ρ (mainly masculine)
A few nouns have a nom. s. -ηρ, gen. -ηρος or nom. s. -ωρ, gen. -ορος. Two
other nouns belong here, μάρτυς witness and χείρ hand (the dat. pl. of both
is irregular) as well as πῦρ πυρός (n) fire which only occurs in the singular
and is regular.
Three relationship nouns with a nom. s. in -ηρ form a special sub-group

and are declined alike: πατήρ father, μήτηρ mother, θυγάτηρ daughter
(γαστήρ (f) stomach follows the same pattern). Also given below is the
slightly irregular ἀνήρ man, male, husband.
c) Neuters in -ος
Neuters in -ος, as γένος, γένους race, clan (original stem γενεσ-), form a
large class. They appear to be irregular because they were affected by a
sound change at an earlier stage of Greek whereby intervocal sigma was
lost and the two previously separated vowels were contracted in Attic
Greek; these contracted forms passed over into the Koine. The original
forms are given in brackets.
6.1/2 οἶδα know
We shall meet the perfect tense at 14.1/2 but οἶδα, which is perfect in
form, can be conveniently introduced here because it presents no special
difficulty and occurs frequently throughout the entire NT.
Although οἶδα has the endings of the perfect tense, its meaning is present,
viz know. It does not have any forms which can grammatically be
classified as present, imperfect or aorist. Its perfect forms are
The endings are the same as for the weak aorist except for the 3 pl. (on
this see 4.1/1 note 1). For the other forms of οἶδα see 20.1/4(b). Examples
of its use are: οὐκ οἶδα τί λέγεις (Mt 26.70) I do not know what you are
saying; οἴδασιν τὴν ϕωνὴν αὐτοῦ (Jn 10.4) they know his voice (lit. the voice
of him).
6.1/3 Compound verbs formed with prepositional prefixes
Greek has many compounds where a verb is prefixed with one (or
sometimes more than one) preposition. An example which we have
already seen is ἐκβάλλω cast out (2.2.2) from ἐκ out of and βάλλω throw,
cast. In these compounds sound changes occur when certain vowels and
consonants are juxtaposed:
a) With the exception of περί, πρό and one instance of ἀμϕί around
(ἀμϕιέννυμι), prepositions ending in a vowel drop this vowel (by elision)
when compounded with a verb which begins with a vowel or diphthong:

ἀπάγω (ἀπό + ἄγω) lead away, παρέχω (παρά + ἔχω) provide, but προάγω lead
forward, περιάγω lead round.

b) When, owing to the elision of the final vowel of the preposition, π and τ
are brought into contact with an initial aspirated vowel or diphthong,
these consonants must themselves adopt their aspirated forms, ϕ and θ
respectively: ἀϕαιρέω (ἀπό + αἱρέω) take away; καθαιρέω (κατά + αἱρέω) take
down, destroy.
c) When compounded with a verb beginning with a vowel or diphthong, ἐκ
becomes ἐξ: ἐξάγω (ἐκ + ἄγω) lead out; ἐξαιρέω (ἐκ + αἱρέω) take out.
d) When compounded with a verb beginning with a consonant, the ν of ἐν
and σύν is assimilated as follows:
ν before π, β, ϕ, ψ and μ becomes μ: συμβουλεύω (συν + βουλεύω) advise
ν before γ, κ, χ, and ξ becomes nasal γ: ἐγγράϕω (ἐν + γράϕω) write in,
enrol
ν before λ becomes λ: συλλαμβάνω (συν + λαμβάνω) seize
ν of σύν is dropped before σ: συστρέϕω (συν + στρέϕω) gather together.
e) When a verb compounded with a preposition is used in a tense which

requires the augment, the augment comes between the preposition and
the verb, not in front of the preposition: προσεκύνησα (<προσκυνέω) I
worshipped. If the insertion of the augment results in the clash of two
vowels, e.g. κατά + ἐ-γίνωσκον the same process as in (a) above will apply:
so κατεγίνωσκον (<καταγινώσκω) I was condemning; κατεγέλων (<καταγελάω) I
was ridiculing; but προέκοπτον (<προκόπτω) I was progressing, περιεπάτησα
(<περιπατέω) I walked around because πρό and περί are not elided (see (a)
above).
f) The assimilation of ἐν and σύν described in (d) is blocked by the syllabic
augment in the augmented tenses; thus συμβουλεύω but συνεβούλευον.
Notes
1 The meaning of a compound verb cannot always be predicted from its
constituent parts (e.g. παρέχω provide).
2 Some compound verbs have completely replaced the simple verbs from
which they are formed, e.g. ἀποκτείνω is the normal word for kill and κτείνω
is no longer used. Similarly, ἀνοίγω open replaced the earlier οἴγω but is
usually treated as a simple verb with the augment applied to the initial
vowel, viz. ἤνοιξα (the highly irregular forms ἠνέῳξα and ἀνέῳξα also occur).
3 With compound verbs of this type the prefix is often repeated as a normal
preposition, e.g. ἐνοικήσω ἐν αὐτοῖς (2 Cor 6.16) I shall dwell in them.
4 οἰκοδομέω originally meant build a house (οἶκος house) but came to mean
simply build. Its augmented form is ᾠκοδόμησα because its first element is
not a preposition.
5 The manuscripts of the New Testament (21.3) are inconsistent in the
application of rule (d) and sometimes have forms where the ν of ἐν and σύν
is not assimilated to a following consonant. This is reflected in some
editions of the New Testament but not in that of the United Bible
Societies, which is recommended.
6.1/4 -ω verbs with stems in palatals, labials, dentals
The sound changes shown by nouns with these stems (5.1/1(a)) also
occur in the corresponding verbs when a sigma is added to form the
future or weak aorist. Some have a simple present stem to which the
sigma is added (as happens with λύω), but the majority have a suffix in
their present stem which is not kept elsewhere.
a) Verbs of the above type with no suffix in the present stem
b) Verbs with a suffix in the present stem
A consonant pronounced as the y in the English yes originally existed in

Greek but had disappeared before the introduction of the alphabet. This
sound had been used as a suffix to form the present stem of many -ω
verbs whose original stem ended in a consonant. In this context it
combined with the preceding consonants and the combinations which
concern us here are κ/γ/χ + y > σσ; π/β/ϕ + y > πτ; τ/δ/θ + y > ζ. As this suffix
(and others – see below) was used to form only the present stem, the
future and weak aorist are formed by applying σ to the original stem.
Examples are (the original stem is given in brackets):
The original stem occurs in cognate words (e.g. ϕυλακή act of guarding,
κλοπή damage). Note that a few verbs in -ζω are palatals, not dentals, as
e.g. σϕάζω slaughter (σϕαγ-) fut. σϕάξω, aor. ἔσϕαξα (cf. σϕαγή [act of]
slaughtering).
Verbs in -ίζω form a large class as ιζ (stem ιδ), which began as an integral
part of verbs such ἐλπίζω hope, was in turn employed as a suffix and used
to form verbs from nouns, e.g. γαμίζω give in marriage (from γάμος
marriage), ἀποκεϕαλίζω behead (from κεϕαλή head). A few verbs in -ίζω
have a contracted future in -ιῶ (<-ιέω), e.g. ἐλπίζω, fut. ἐλπιῶ, ἐλπιεῖς, ἐλπιεῖ
etc. (cf. 5.1/2 note 3), but the majority follow ϕράζω, e.g. χωρίζω separate,
fut. χωρίσω.
Another suffix used to form the present stem is σκ, e.g. διδάσκω (<διδαχ +
σκ-ω) teach, fut. διδάξω (<διδαχ + σ-ω), aor. ἐδίδαξα (<ἐδίδαχ + σ-α). On the
suffix αν see 7.1/1 note 4.

Insight
The verb καλύπτω means conceal, hide. In the NT it is more often
used in a metaphorical sense, e.g. ἀγάπη καλύπτει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν
(1 Pt 4.8) love covers a multitude of sins. Its compound
ἀποκαλύπτω (cf. 6.1/3) has the opposite meaning uncover, reveal
as in ἔκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοϕῶν καὶ ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις (*Mt

11.25) you hid these things (for ταῦτα see 9.1/1) from the wise
and revealed them to young children. From ἀποκαλύπτω we have

the noun ἀποκάλυψις revelation, disclosure. This is also part of
the name of the last book of the NT, the ’Aποκάλυψις ’Iωάννου, so
called because it revealed what the author saw as happening in
the future.
6.2 Greek reading

i ii) οἱ ποιμένες τὰ πρόβατα ἐϕύλαξαν. (iii) οἱ
1 ( ) τὸν σωτῆρα τοῦ ἔθνους οἴδαμεν. (
ῥήτορες τοὺς ἡγεμόνας κατεθεμάτιζον. (iv) τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ ἀπαγγελῶ. (v) αἱ
μητέρες τὰ τῶν θυγατέρων ὀνόματα ἤλλαξαν. (vi) οἶδας τὸν ἄνδρα τε καὶ τὴν θυγατέρα;
(vii) βασιλεύσει ἐπὶ τὸν οἶκον Ἰακὼβ εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας. (Lk 1.33) (viii) πέμψω τὸν υἱόν
μου τὸν ἀγαπητόν. (Lk 20.13) (ix) οἱ λόγοι τῶν μαρτύρων τὴν ἀπάτην ἀπεκάλυψαν.
(x) ῥήματα ζωῆς αἰωνίου ἔχεις. (Jn 6.68)
2 βλέπουσι τὸ πρόσωπον τοῦ πατρός μου τοῦ ἐν οὐρανοῖς. (Mt 18.10)
3 κατήγγελλον τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς τῶν Ἰουδαίων. (Ac 13.5)
4 δαιμόνια πολλὰ ἐξέβαλλον, καὶ ἤλειϕον ἐλαίῳ πολλοὺς ἀρρώστους καὶ ἐθεράπευον. (Mk
6.13)
5 ἐλαίῳ τὴν κεϕαλήν μου οὐκ ἤλειψας· αὕτη (this woman) δὲ μύρῳ ἤλειψεν τοὺς πόδας
μου. ( Lk 7.46)
6 ἀνήρ ἐστιν κεϕαλὴ τῆς γυναικὸς ὡς καὶ ὁ Χριστὸς κεϕαλὴ τῆς ἐκκλησίας. (Eph 5.23)
7 θυγάτηρ ἦν αὐτῷ ὡς ἐτῶν δώδεκα. (*Lk 8.42)
8 ἡ μέριμνα τοῦ αἰῶνος καὶ ἡ ἀπάτη τοῦ πλούτου συμπνίγει τὸν λόγον. (Mt 13.22)
9 τί δὲ βλέπεις τὸ κάρϕος τὸ ἐν τῷ ὀϕθαλμῷ τοῦ ἀδελϕοῦ σου, τὴν δὲ ἐν τῷ σῷ ὀϕθαλμῷ
δοκὸν οὐ κατανοεῖς; (Mt 7.3)
ἶ
10 τότε ἤρξατο ( he began) καταθεματίζειν καὶ ὀμνύειν, Οὐκ οἶδα τὸν ἄνθρωπον. καὶ
εὐθέως ἀλέκτωρ ἐϕώνησεν. (*Mt 26.74)
11 οὐκ ἐπίστευσαν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι ὅτι ἦν τυϕλὸς καὶ ἀνέβλεψεν. (*Jn 9.18)
12 μακάριος εἶ, Σίμων Βαριωνᾶ, ὅτι σὰρξ καὶ αἷμα οὐκ ἀπεκάλυψέν σοι ἀλλ̓ ὁ πατήρ μου
ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς. (Mt 16.17)
13 ἐκόπασεν ὁ ἄνεμος. οἱ δὲ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ προσεκύνησαν αὐτῷ λέγοντες (saying),
Άληθῶς θεοῦ υἱὸς εἶ. (Mt 14.32f.)
14 οὐ ϕονεύσεις, οὐ μοιχεύσεις, οὐ κλέψεις, οὐ ψευδομαρτυρήσεις. (Mt 19.18)
15 ὑποκριταί, τὸ πρόσωπον τῆς γῆς καὶ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ οἴδατε δοκιμάζειν. (Lk 12.56)
16 ἐγὼ πάντοτε ἐδίδαξα ἐν συναγωγῇ καὶ ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ. (Jn 18.20)
17 ἔρριψαν αὐτοὺς παρὰ τοὺς πόδας αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν αὐτούς. (Mt 15.30)
18 καὶ ἰδοὺ ἄνδρες δύο συνελάλουν αὐτῷ. (Lk 9.30)
19 τῷ ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ ἔθνη ἐλπιοῦσιν. (Mt 12.21)
20 ἐγὼ ἐβάπτισα ὑμᾶς ὕδατι, αὐτὸς δὲ βαπτίσει ὑμᾶς ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. (Mk 1.8)
Notes
1 (ii) τὰ πρόβατα trans. [their] sheep; the shepherds were guarding their own
sheep – if the sheep had belonged to someone else this would have
been stated (cf. note on 6 below). (iv) ἀπαγγελῶ fut. of ἀπαγγέλλω – 5.1/2
note 3 and 11.1/3. (v) τῶν θυγατέρων trans. of [their] daughters (cf. note on
(ii)). (vi) τὴν θυγατέρα [his] daughter (cf. note on (ii)). (vii) lit. for the ages
[to come], i.e. forever.
2 τοῦ πατρός μου lit. of the Father of me.
3 The context shows that κατήγγελλον is 3 pl. not 1 s. (likewise ἐξέβαλλον,
ἤλειϕον and ἐθεράπευον in 4).
5 ἤλειψας < ἀλείϕω; trans. δέ by but because the two clauses are contrasted
(4.1/4).
6 ἀνήρ has no article because it is indefinite a man, but γυναικός has the
definite article because the meaning is his wife (Greek often uses the
article where English has the possessive adjective my, your, his etc.; see
9.1/5 and cf. 1(i, ii, vi) above); κεϕαλή lit. head, i.e. leader, master
(patriarchy was the social norm in the 1st century AD).
7 αὐτῷ for him; ὡς (here about) qualifies δώδεκα; ἐτῶν is a genitive qualifying
θυγάτηρ (in English we would express this sentence in a different way).

8 The original meaning of αἰών is lengthy period of time, an age (cf. 1(vii)
above), and this occurs in the NT; it is also used in a more restricted
sense of the present age, as here in ἡ μέριμνα τοῦ αἰῶνος the anxiety (i.e.
worries) of the present time; the verb (συμπνίγει) is singular because it
agrees only with the closer of the two nouns in the nominative (ἀπάτη) (in
English we must use the pl. choke not chokes – this is a common Greek
idiom and also occurs in 12 – σὰρξ καὶ αἷμα).
9 ἐν τῷ σῷ ὀϕθαλμῷ lit. in the your eye, i.e. in your eye (on possessive
adjectives see 9.1/5).

12 σὰρξ καὶ αἷμα is a poetical way of saying any human being (on the double
subject with a singular verb see note on 8); in translating supply this as
the object of ἀπεκάλυψεν (the reference is to the previous verse); ὁ ἐν τοῖς
οὐρανοῖς lit. the [one] in heaven is best translated by an adjectival clause,
who is …
13 προσεκύνησαν did obeisance, this was a regular way of showing extreme
respect in the ancient East; it consisted of prostrating oneself in front of

the other person.
14 As in English, the future tense can be used for strong commands, cf.
5.2.20 and 17.1/1.
15 οἴδατε … you know [how] …
16 ἱερόν has the article because the temple at Jerusalem is meant; συναγωγή
does not because its basic meaning is meeting place of which there were
many.
17 ἔρριψαν < ῥίπτω; translate the first αὐτούς by themselves (9.1/4).
18 συνελάλουν < συλλαλέω.
19 Translate the dative by in the name …; ἐλπιοῦσιν fut. of ἐλπίζω (6.1/4(b));

the verb is plural although we have a neuter plural subject (ἔθνη) – this
neglect of the rule given at 2.1/2 note 3 is common in the NT.
20 Translate the dative ὕδατι by with (ἐν here should be translated in the
same way; see 11.1/2). πνεῦμα ἅγιον Holy Ghost (hence no article just as
with θεός God), lit. Holy Spirit.
6.2/1 Vocabulary
ἀγαπητός, -ή, -όν beloved aa
ἅγιος, -α, -ον holy
αἷμα, -ατος, τό blood
ἀλείϕω anoint
ἀλέκτωρ, -ορος, ὁ cock
ἀναβλέπω gain one’s sight
ἀπαγγέλλω proclaim
ἀπάτη, -ης, ἡ deception
ἀποκαλύπτω reveal
ἄρρωστος, -ον sick
Βαριωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ son of Jonah
βασιλεύω rule
γῆ, γῆς, ἡ earth
γυνή, γυναικός, ἡ woman, wife
δοκιμάζω examine
δοκός, -οῦ, ἡ beam
δώδεκα (indecl.) twelve
ἔθνος, -ους, τό nation, people
ἔλαιον, -ου, τό (olive) oil
ἐν (prep. + dat.) with (in 20)
ἐπί (prep. + acc.) over
ἔτος, -ους, τό year
εὐθέως (adv.) immediately
ἤ (conj.) or
θεραπεύω heal
ἱερόν, -οῦ, τό temple
κάρϕος, -ους, τό speck
καταγγέλλω proclaim
καταθεματίζω curse
κατανοέω notice
κεϕαλή, -ῆς, ἡ head
κλέπτω steal
κοπάζω abate
μακάριος, -α, -ον fortunate
μέριμνα, -ης, ἡ anxiety, care
μοιχεύω commit adultery
μύρον, -ου, τό perfume

ὀμνύω swear
ὄνομα, -ατος, τό name
ὅτι (conj.) because
πάντοτε (adv.) always
παρά (+ acc.) to, towards
Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ Peter
πιστεύω believe
πλοῖον, -ου, τό boat
πλοῦτος, -ου, ὁ wealth
πούς, ποδός, ὁ foot
προσκυνέω (+ dat.) do obeisance to
ῥῆμα, -ατος, τό word
ῥίπτω throw
Σίμων, -ωνος, ὁ Simon
σός, σή, σόν (poss. adj.) your (s.)
συλλαλέω (+ dat.) talk (with)
συμπνίγω choke
τυϕλός, -ή, -όν blind
ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό water
ὑποκριτής, -οῦ, ὁ hypocrite
ϕονεύω murder
ϕωνέω make a sound, crow
ψευδομαρτυρέω bear false witness
ὡς (conj. in 6) just as; (adv. in 7) about
Main points
The third declension also has consonant stems in ν, ρ (m and f) and in –ος
(all n)
οἶδα know has perfect endings but a present meaning
The final sound of a preposition used to form a compound verb is

sometimes omitted or changed according to certain rules
Verbs with prepositional prefixes insert the augment after the preposition
-ω verbs with a palatal, labial or dental stem sometimes have a suffix in
the present tense that hides their final consonant (e.g. ϕυλάσσω guard,
stem ϕυλακ-)
Unit 07
7.1 Grammar
7.1/1 Strong aorist indicative and infinitive active of -ω verbs
-ω verbs have either a weak or a strong aorist (4.1/1); the distinction

between the two is solely one of form. The endings of the strong aorist
indicative are the same as those of the imperfect; the strong aorist
infinitive has the same ending as the present infinitive. The strong aorist
needs no suffix because its stem always differs from that of the present;
the present stem can have a special suffix (6.1/4(b)) and/or a different
vowel, or be based on a completely different verb. Some strong aorist
stems are simply irregular and must be learnt.
The following are the most common verbs with a strong aorist. Forms
preceded by a hyphen occur only in compounds; those in square
brackets are not found in the NT but are included to give a full
presentation:
Notes
1 The aorists of -αἱρέω, ἐσθίω, λέγω, ὁράω are irregular as they come from
roots entirely different from their presents (cf. English go/went). Their
unaugmented aorist stems (ἑλ-, εἰπ-, ἰδ-) require particular attention.
2 The strong aorist ἦλθον I came/went is not listed above because it is
peculiar in having an active aorist but a deponent present (ἔρχομαι 8.1/2

note).
3 The strong aorist endings are sometimes replaced by those of the weak
aorist, although the strong aorist stem is kept. In some verbs this occurs
erratically and we find the same strong aorist stem used with both sets of
endings, e.g. εὕρομεν (Ac 5.23) and εὕραμεν (Lk 23.2). With other verbs the
weak aorist endings predominate. An example is ϕέρω carry, bring whose
aorist indicative active always has weak endings (e.g. ἤνεγκα, which was
ἤνεγκον in earlier Greek); however, its aorist infinitive active has the
normal strong aorist ending, -ἐνεγκεῖν.

4 In λαμβάνω, μανθάνω, τυγχάνω the suffix αν (cf. 6.1/4) is accompanied by a
nasal infix (i.e. a nasal inserted before the final consonant of the root);
neither αν nor the infix occur outside the present stem, e.g. λαμβάνω take,
aor. stem λαβ-. In λα-μ-β-αν-ω the nasal infix takes the form of the labial
nasal μ before the following labial; in μα-ν-θ-άν-ω learn (aor. stem μαθ-) it
takes the form of the dental nasal ν; in τυ-γ-χ-άν-ω happen (aor. stem
τυχ-) it takes the form of the guttural nasal γ (for this pronunciation of γ
see 1.1/1).
5 By this stage you should be confident enough to consult the table of
Principal parts of verbs, which sets out the principal parts of important
verbs which have some irregularity. A normal transitive verb in Greek has
six principal parts and from these all possible forms can be deduced.
These parts are:
i lst s. present indicative active (λύω; 2.1/5)
( )
(ii) lst s. future indicative active (λύσω; 2.1/5)
(iii) lst s. aorist indicative active (ἔλυσα; 4.1/1; for strong aorist see above)
(iv) lst s. perfect indicative active (λέλυκα; 14.1/2)
(v) lst s. perfect indicative middle and passive (λέλυμαι; 16.1/3)
(vi) lst s. aorist indicative passive (ἐλύθην; 11.1/1).

This list is not as formidable as it might seem at first sight as some verbs
do not exist in every possible part, while many (such as λύω) are
completely regular and all their principal parts can be deduced from their
present stem. However, do not, at this stage, try to digest the list in its
entirety (in any case, we have not yet dealt with principal parts (iv)–(vi)),
but familiarize yourself with its arrangement and get into the habit of
using it. When individual principal parts are wildly irregular (e.g. εἶπον),
they are given separate entries in the Vocabulary.
7.1/2 Direct and indirect speech
There are two ways of reporting what someone has said; we may either
quote the speaker’s words exactly: ‘Greek,’ said the teacher to his
students, ‘need have no terrrors for you’; or we may subordinate what has
been said to an introductory verb and make any adjustments required:
The teacher said to his students that Greek need have no terrors for
them. The former is called direct speech, the latter indirect (or
reported) speech.
For grammatical purposes we may classify direct speech into statement,

question and command, and to these there are three corresponding
forms of indirect speech:
a) Indirect statement: The teacher said that learning Greek was pure joy.
(Direct Learning Greek is pure joy.)
b) Indirect question: The students asked if he was serious. (Direct Are

you serious?)
c) Indirect command: The teacher ordered them to adopt a more positive
attitude. (Direct Adopt a more positive attitude!)
These examples show the adjustments in pronouns that are nearly

always necessary in English. Greek does the same with pronouns but
does not, as we shall see, make the tense adjustments required by
English in (a) and (b).
7.1/3 ϕημί say and direct speech

ϕημί is a -μι verb (2.1/4) which has survived in the New Testament only in
the following forms:
As indicated by the translation, the imperfect ἔϕη has the sense of an

aorist.
These four forms are often used to indicate the speaker in direct speech.
They usually occur before the words quoted: ὁ ἑκατόνταρχος ἔϕη, Κύριε, οὐκ
εἰμὶ ἱκανός (Mt 8.8) the centurion said, ‘Lord, I am not worthy.’ (As this
sentence illustrates, the normal convention in printing Greek is to

introduce direct speech with a capital letter (Κύριε), but not to use inverted
commas).
is a statement but ϕημί can introduce a question: ὁ δὲ

Κύριε, οὐκ εἰμὶ ἱκανός
ἔϕη, Τί κακὸν ἐποίησεν; (*Mt 27.23) and he said, ‘What wrong did he do?’
although the normal words for putting a question are ἐρωτάω and ἐπερωτάω
(both ask):
ἐπερωτῶσιν αὐτὸν οἱ Φαρισαῖοι, Διὰ τί οὐ περιπατοῦσιν οἱ μαθηταί σου κατὰ τὴν
Mk 7.5) The Pharisees ask him, ‘Why (lit. on

παράδοσιν τῶν πρεσβυτέρων; (*
account of what) do your disciples not walk according to the tradition of

the elders?’
ϕημί is also used to introduce direct commands but as these require

verbal forms not yet treated (imperative and subjunctive) we may cite
what is a virtual command (cf. 5.2.20): ὁ δὲ ἔϕη αὐτῷ, Άγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν
θεόν σου (Mt 22.37) and he said to him, ‘You shall love the Lord your God.’
λέγω (aorist εἶπον or εἶπα – see above) can be used in the same way as
ϕημί: οἱ μαθηταὶ εἶπαν αὐτῷ, Διὰ τί ἐν παραβολαῖς λαλεῖς αὐτοῖς; (Mt 13.10) the
disciples said to him, ‘Why do you talk to them in parables?’
7.1/4 Indirect command

After certain verbs of ordering Greek has the same construction as
English, viz an infinitive: ἐκέλευσεν συνελθεῖν τοὺς ἀρχιερεῖς (Ac 22.30) he
ordered the high priests to assemble (συνελθεῖν < συνέρχομαι, see 7.1/1 note
2); δεῖ αὐτοὺς παραγγέλλειν τηρεῖν τὸν νόμον Μωϋσέως. (*Ac 15.5) it is necessary
to order them to observe the law of Moses. The tense of the infinitive is a
matter of aspect (4.1/1). In the above examples the aorist συνελθεῖν is used
because the high priests are to assemble on one particular occasion,
whereas τηρεῖν indicates that those receiving the order must always
observe the law of Moses. For the construction after other verbs of
ordering see 13.1/3(b)(ii).
7.1/5 Numerals (see also Appendix 6)
There are three types of numerals in Greek (the range of each which
occurs in the NT is restricted):
a) Cardinals (in English one, two, three, four, etc.)
These function as adjectives. The numbers one to four are declined as

follows:
These must agree in gender and case with the noun qualified, e.g. ἐπὶ
κλίνης μιᾶς (Lk 17.34) on one bed; ἀλεύρου σάτα τρία (Mt 13.33) three
measures (σάτα) of flour.
The numbers five to one hundred are indeclinable (i.e. have no variable
inflections), except when they contain any of the numbers one to four,
e.g. εἴκοσι τέσσαρες twenty-four, where τέσσαρες would alter its ending as
required: εἴκοσι τέσσαρας πρεσβυτέρους twenty-four elders (accusative). The
words for two hundred, three hundred, etc. follow the plural of καλός
(3.1/3): so διακόσιοι, -αι, -α, two hundred. Similarly the word for a
thousand is an adjective χίλιοι (-αι, -α); for 2,000, 3,000 etc. χίλιοι is
compounded with the numeral adverb (δίς twice, τρίς three times etc., see
below) to give δισχίλιοι, τρισχίλιοι etc., but there are also alternatives which
employ the noun χιλιάς (-άδος, ἡ) lit. group of a thousand, e.g. χιλιάδες πέντε
five thousand (Ac 4.4; most examples are in Revelation). A word exists
for ten thousand, viz. μύριοι (-αι, -α), which has a corresponding noun
μυριάς (-άδος, ἡ) lit. group of a ten thousand. Neither χιλιάς nor μυριάς is
used in the singular.

b) Ordinals (in English, first, second, third, etc.) These are first and
second declension adjectives (3.1/3), e.g. ἡ πρώτη ἐντολή the first
commandment.
c) Numeral adverbs (in English, once, twice, three times, etc.) The
following occur: ἅπαξ once, δίς twice, τρίς three times, τετράκις four times,
πεντάκις five times, ἑπτάκις seven times, ἑβδομηκοντάκις seventy times (cf.
πολλάκις often, lit. many times).
Note
Like εἷς is declined the pronoun οὐδείς (<οὐδέ + εἷς not even one), οὐδεμία,
οὐδέν, gen. οὐδενός, οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδενός no one, nobody, none. The neuter οὐδέν
means nothing, but is often used adverbially in the sense in no respect,

not at all. οὐδείς can also be used as an adjective meaning no, e.g. oὐδεμία
γυνή no woman.
7.1/6 Phrases expressing time and space
In English many temporal phrases contain a preposition, e.g. on Sunday,

for three months (but cf. I will visit you next year). Three common types
are expressed in Greek as follows:
a) Time how long can be expressed by the accusative: ἦν ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ
τεσσαράκοντα ἡμέρας (Mk 1.13) he was in the desert for forty days. Very
occasionally the dative is used in the same way: χρόνῳ ἱκανῷ οὐκ ἐνεδύσατο
ἱμάτιον (Lk 8.27) he did not put on (ἐνεδύσατο is middle voice; see 8.1/1) a
garment for a long time.

b) Time when can be expressed by the dative without a preposition: τῇ
ἐνάτῃ ὥρᾳ (Mk 15.34) at the ninth hour; but the preposition ἐν (+ dat.) is
used in the same sense: ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῇ ὀγδόῃ (Lk 1.59) on the eighth day.
c) Time within which (something happened) is expressed by the
genitive: Νικόδημος ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτός (*Jn 3.2) Nicodemus came to
him by night (or during the night). Here too a preposition is found: διὰ
νυκτός (with the same meaning as νυκτός alone).
d) Spatial extent is expressed by the accusative: ἡ κώμη ἀπέχει σταδίους

ἑξήκοντα ἀπὸ Ἰερουσαλήμ (cf. Lk 24.13) the village is distant sixty stades
from Jerusalem.
Insight
Because of the author’s love of detail the Book of Revelations
provides many examples of numerals (cf. 7.1/5). The account of
his vision begins with how a lamb opens the first seal of a
mysterious book containing the four horsemen of the
Apocalypse, and the first horseman is summoned forth by one
for the four beasts present:
Kαὶ εἶδον ὅτε ἤνοιξεν τὸ ἀρνίον μίαν ἐκ τῶν ἑπτὰ σϕραγίδων, καὶ ἤκουσα
ἑνὸς ἐκ τῶν τεσσάρων ζῴων λέγοντος ὡς ϕωνὴ βροντῆς, Ἔρχου.

And I watched when the lamb opened one of the seven seals,
and I heard one of the four beasts say like the sound of thunder,
‘Come!’
λέγοντος is the genitive singular masculine of the present active

participle of λέγω (see 12.1/1) and agrees with ἑνός; ἔρχου is the
imperative of ἔρχομαι (see 17.1/1).
7.2 Greek reading

1 ὁ χιλίαρχος ἐκέλευσεν τὸ στράτευμα ἁρπάσαι τὸν Παῦλον ἐκ μέσου αὐτῶν, ἄγειν τε εἰς
τὴν παρεμβολήν. (* Ac 22.24)

2 εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἔτι μικρὸν χρόνον τὸ ϕῶς ἐν ὑμῖν ἐστιν. (Jn 12.35)
3 ὁ δὲ παρέλαβεν τὸ παιδίον καὶ τὴν μητέρα αὐτοῦ νυκτὸς καὶ ἀνεχώρησεν εἰς Αἴγυπτον.
(*Mt 2.14)
4 εἶπεν δὲ Ἡρῴδης, Ἰωάννην ἐγὼ ἀπεκε ϕάλισα. (Lk 9.9)
5 τετάρτῃ δὲ ϕυλακῇ τῆς νυκτὸς ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτοὺς περιπατῶν (walking) ἐπὶ τὴν
θάλασσαν. (Mt 14.25)
6 οἱ δὲ ἐπέβαλον τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῷ καὶ ἐκράτησαν αὐτόν. (Mk 14.46)
7 ἐξῆλθεν οὖν ὁ Πιλᾶτος ἔξω πρὸς αὐτοὺς καὶ ϕησίν, Τίνα (what) κατηγορίαν ϕέρετε
κατὰ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; (Jn 18.29)
8 μετὰ ἡμέρας τρεῖς εὗρον αὐτὸν ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ. (Lk 2.46)
ἦ
9 καὶ με θ̓ ἡμέρας ὀκτὼ πάλιν ἦσαν ἔσω οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ καὶ Θωμᾶς μετ̓ αὐτῶν. (Jn
20.26)
10 εἶπαν, Διδάσκαλε, καλῶς εἶπας· οὐκέτι γὰρ ἐτόλμων ἐπερωτᾶν αὐτὸν οὐδέν. ( Lk
20.39 .) f
11 Άβραὰμ δύο υἱοὺς ἔσχεν, ἕνα ἐκ τῆς παιδίσκης καὶ ἕνα ἐκ τῆς ἐλευθέρας. ( Gal 4.22)
12 Άπὸ τότε ἤρξατο ( began) ὁ Ἰησοῦς δεικνύειν τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ ὅτι δεῖ αὐτὸν εἰς
Ἱεροσόλυμα ἀπελθεῖν καὶ πολλὰ παθεῖν ἀπὸ τῶν πρεσβυτέρων. (Mt 16.21)
13 νηστεύω δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου. (Lk 18.12)
14 εἰ θέλεις, ποιήσω ὧδε τρεῖς σκηνάς, σοὶ μίαν καὶ Μωϋσεῖ μίαν καὶ Ἠλίᾳ μίαν. (Mt
17.4)
Mt 12.40)
15 ἦν Ἰωνᾶς ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ τοῦ κήτους τρεῖς ἡμέρας καὶ τρεῖς νύκτας. (
16 The Magnificat
Mary’s song of praise takes its name from the first word of its translation
in the Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible; see 17.3), magnificat
being Latin for μεγαλύνει. The following are the first six of its nine verses,
together with the introductory verse.
Καὶ εἶπεν Μαριάμ, Μεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή μου τὸν κύριον, καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου
ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου, ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν ( lowly station) τῆς
δούλης αὐτοῦ. ἰδοὺ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν μακαριοῦσίν με πᾶσαι ( all) αἱ γενεαί, ὅτι ἐποίησέν
μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός. καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ, καὶ τὸ ἔλεος αὐτοῦ εἰς γενεὰς καὶ
γενεὰς τοῖςϕοβουμένοις (those fearing) αὐτόν. ἐποίησεν κράτος ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ,

διεσκόρπισεν ὑπερηϕάνους διανοίᾳ καρδίας αὐτῶν· καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων καὶ
ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς. (Lk 1.46–52)
Notes
1 αὐτῶν refers to the mob that has surrounded Paul.
2 Translate ἐν by among.
5 ϕυλακή has a different sense here from that in 4.2.6 (prison) and should
be translated watch (the night was divided into four equal periods which
were called ϕυλακαί).
6 ἐπέβαλον could be 1 s. or 3 pl. but the context tells us it is the latter – this is
also the case in 8 (εὗρον) and 10 (ἐτόλμων).

7 ἔξω is superfluous after ἐξῆλθεν.
9 με θ̓ ἡμέρας in this verse and μετὰ ἡμέρας in 8 illustrate the inconsistency in
elision (2.1/6(b)) we meet in the New Testament.
10 εἶπαν and εἶπας are strong aorists with weak aorist endings (7.1/1 note 3);
we tell from the capital of Διδάσκαλε that direct speech is starting but only
the sense tells us that it ends with εἶπας; οὐκέτι … οὐδέν the two negatives
are for emphasis and do not cancel each other as they would in English
(8.1/3(e)); γάρ for gives the reason why they did not say anything else;
ἐτόλμων (< τολμάω) lit. they were not daring (their not daring is regarded as
happening over a period) but translate they did not dare; like the English
ask ἐπερωτάω can be followed by two accusatives.
12 Άπὸ τότε from then; ὅτι here introduces an indirect statement (7.1/2) and
must be translated that (in 6.2.11 we have already seen ὅτι in the sense
of because); translate δεῖ it was necessary as in indirect speech Greek
uses the tense employed in the original direct speech (8.1/4(a); Jesus
actually said δεῖ it is necessary).
13 σάββατον here means week, not sabbath.
16 l.2 ἠγαλλίασεν < ἀγαλλιάω; ἐπί trans. in. l.4 ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν from now. ll.5f.
Supply ἐστί with ἅγιον and with τὸ ἔλεος; εἰς γενεὰς καὶ γενεάς lit. to generations
and generations, i.e. from generation to generation. l.7 ἐποίησεν κράτος
trans. he produced strength – the meaning is that God showed his
strength and scattered his enemies. ll.8f. ὑπερηϕάνους διανοίᾳ καρδίας αὐτῶν
lit. [people] proud by reason of the thought of their heart, i.e. the proud in
the imagination of their hearts (some were proud because of high and
ambitious ideas about themselves but despite this God laid them low);
καθεῖλεν < καθαιρέω.
7.2/1 Vocabulary
ἀγαλλιάω exult
Αἴγυπτος, -ου, ἡ Egypt
ἀναχωρέω go away
ἀπελθεῖν aor. of ἀπέρχομαι go away
ἀπό (prep. + gen.) from
ἀποκεϕαλίζω behead
ἁρπάζω seize
βραχίων, -ονος, ὁ arm
γενεά, -ᾶς, ἡ generation

δεικνύω indicate to
διάνοια, -ας, ἡ thought, imagination
διασκορπίζω scatter
δίς (adv.) twice
δούλη, -ης, ἡ female slave, bondmaid
δυνάστης, -ου, ὁ ruler
δυνατός, -ή, -όν mighty
ἔλεος, -ους, τό mercy
ἐξῆλθεν aor. of ἐξέρχομαι come out
ἔξω (adv.) outside
ἐπερωτάω ask
ἐπί (prep. + acc.) on, on top of; (+ dat.) in, because of
ἐπιβάλλω put (acc.) … on (dat.)
ἐπιβλέπω look upon
ἔσω (adv.) inside, within
Ἡρῴδης, -ου, ὁ Herod
θέλω wish
θρόνος, -ου, ὁ throne
Θωμᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Thomas
Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Jonah
καθαιρέω bring down, destroy
καλῶς (adv.) well
κατηγορία, -ας, ἡ charge
κελεύω order
κῆτος, -ους, τό sea monster
κοιλία, -ας, ἡ belly
κρατέω apprehend
κράτος, -ους, τό power, strength
μακαρίζω call blessed
Μαριάμ, ἡ (indecl.) Mary
μεγαλύνω magnify
μέσος, -η, -ον middle
ἐκ μέσου from the midst (of)
μικρός, -ά, -όν small, little
ὀκτώ (indecl.) eight
ὅτι (conj.) that (see note on 12)
παιδίον, -ου, τό child

πάλιν (adv.) again
παραλαμβάνω take
παρεμβολή, -ῆς, ἡ barracks
πάσχω suffer
Παῦλος, -ου, ὁ Paul
πρεσβύτερος, -ου, ὁ an elder
σκηνή, -ῆς, ἡ tabernacle
στράτευμα, -ατος, τό army
σωτήρ, -ῆρος, ὁ saviour
ταπεινός, -ή, -όν lowly, humble
τέταρτος, -η, -ον fourth
τολμάω dare
ὑπερήϕανος, -ον proud, haughty
ὑψόω raise, exalt
ϕέρω bring
ϕυλακή, -ῆς, ἡ watch (of the night)
ϕῶς, ϕωτός, τό light
χιλίαρχος, -ου, ὁ captain
ψυχή, -ῆς, ἡ soul
Main points
The distinction between the weak and strong aorist is one of form, not of
meaning
The strong aorist has no suffix; its endings in the indicative are the same
as those of the imperfect, and its infinitive ending is the same as that of
the present
Direct and indirect speech can have one of three forms, statement,
question or command
ϕημί say is an irregular -μι verb.
Indirect command is expressed by an infinitive with certain verbs (as
κελεύω)
The cardinal numbers 1-4, 200-900, 1000+ are declined; the other
cardinals are not
Ordinal numbers (πρῶτος first, δεύτερος second, etc.) are first and second
declension adjectives
ἅπαξ (once), δίς (twice), etc. are numeral adverbs
Time how long and spatial extent are expressed by the accusative,
time when by the dative, time within which by the genitive
Unit 08
8.1 Grammar
8.1/1 Middle and passive voices
When the finite verb of a clause is active the subject is the doer (the man
bit the dog; the Egyptian is running towards the pyramid); there may or
may not be an object, depending on whether the verb is transitive or
intransitive. When the finite verb of a clause is passive the subject is the
sufferer (the dog was bitten by the man; the tax-collector was ignored in
the street); the agent or instrument (11.1/2) may or may not be specified.
In Greek these voices are used in much the same way as in English.
However, in addition to active and passive, Greek has a third voice, the
middle, which has no English equivalent. Its forms coincide with those of
the passive except in the future and aorist. In earlier Greek this mood
was used in fairly well defined ways, but in NT Greek its exact nuances
can sometimes be hard to discern, and one of its earlier uses (to express
reflexive action, see below) has almost disappeared.
With normal verbs the middle generally indicates that the subject has an
even greater involvement in the action than would be the case if the verb
were active. Often it can be considered as meaning to do something for
oneself. The active ἐνδύω means I put [clothes] on [someone], I dress
[someone]; the middle ἐνδύομαι means I put [clothes] on myself, I wear: ὁ
Ἡρῴδης ἐνδύεται ἐσθῆτα βασιλικήν Herod is putting on a royal garment
(ἐνδύεται 3rd s. pres. middle). In a few cases the middle voice of a verb
has developed a meaning different from that of the active: κόπτω strike,
κόπτομαι mourn for; ἄρχω rule, ἄρχομαι begin. However, by far the greatest
use of the middle is to be seen in deponent verbs, which will be described

in the next subsection.
The forms of the middle and passive indicative are identical in the
present and imperfect (and also in the perfect and pluperfect – 16.1/3).
This does not create ambiguity as the context of a particular verb shows
its voice. The future and aorist passive differ in form from the middle and
will be treated separately in 11.1/1. The present and imperfect
middle/passive and the future and aorist middle are as follows:
It is much easier to remember these forms if we note that:

a) In each tense the stem is the same as for the active, and the link vowel
between the stem and the ending proper (which is more easily
distinguishable in these forms) is ο/ε in the present, imperfect (and strong
aorist) and future, but α in the weak aorist (on -ω of the 2nd s., see
below).
b) In each tense the 2nd s. ending has undergone contraction. The
present and future ending was originally -εσαι, the imperfect -εσο and the
aorist -ασο. With the loss of intervocal σ (cf. 6.1/1(c)) these became ῃ, ου,
ω respectively (we have already met the second and third contractions
with contracted verbs – 5.1/2)

c) When allowance has been made for the 2nd s., the endings, except for
the lst pl. and 2nd pl. which do not vary, fall into two classes. For the
primary tenses they are -μαι, -σαι, -ται, -νται and for the historic -μην, -σο,
-το, -ντο (cf. 4.1/1 note 1)
d) The endings of the strong aorist indicative middle are the same as
those of the imperfect: αἰσθάνομαι perceive, impf. ᾐσθανόμην, aor. ᾐσθόμην;
the infinitive ending of the strong aorist is the same as that of the present:
αἰσθάνεσθαι (pres.), αἰσθέσθαι (aor.).
Notes
1 Some verbs have, for no perceptible reason, their future in the middle
voice, not the active, e.g. ϕεύγω flee, ϕεύξομαι; λαμβάνω take, λήμψομαι;
τίκτω give birth to, τέξομαι. These are verbs which would not otherwise
have had reason to be used in the middle.

2 The future of ἀκούω hear, ζάω live and κλαίω weep can be either active or
middle: ἀκούσω or ἀκούσομαι I shall hear; ζήσω or ζήσομαι I shall live; κλαύσω
or κλαύσομαι I shall weep.
3 For the future of εἰμί be middle endings are added to the stem ἐσ-: ἔσομαι,
ἔσῃ, ἔσται, ἐσόμεθα, ἔσεσθε, ἔσονται, infinitive ἔσεσθαι (to be going to be; this is
the only future middle infinitive in the NT, apart from εἰσελεύσεσθαι at Hb
3.18).
4 Contracted verbs form their present and imperfect middle/passive

according to the rules given at 5.1/2, except that the 2nd s. present
middle/passive of verbs in -αω has the irregular ending -ᾶσαι, e.g. τιμᾶσα
(see Appendix 2).
5 The middle is also used in a causative sense, i.e. to cause something to
be done, as in ἀπογράϕεσθαι to have oneself registered from ἀπογράϕω

register.
6 The earlier use of the middle to indicate reflexive action occurs rarely,
e.g. ἀπήγξατο (Mt 27.5) he hanged himself from ἀπάγχω throttle. The
normal way of expressing reflexive action is by using the reflexive
pronoun as in English; see 9.1/4.
8.1/2 Deponent verbs
Deponent verbs are a linguistic peculiarity for which English offers no

parallel. These are middle or passive in form but active in meaning
and may be transitive (as κτάομαι acquire) or intransitive (as πορεύομαι go,
travel). In some cases the meaning of a deponent exemplifies one of the
uses of the middle voice (κτάομαι originally meant procure for oneself),
but elsewhere (as δέχομαι receive) no explanation seems possible,
although these verbs are among the most commonly used in Greek.
Examples of middle deponents are:

Cor 16.10) For he carries
τὸ γὰρ ἔργον κυρίου ἐργάζεται ὡς κἀγώ (= καὶ ἐγώ) (1
out the work of the Lord as I [do] too. (ἐργάζομαι work, carry out,
accomplish)
Cor 2.14) And a
ψυχικὸς δὲ ἄνθρωπος οὐ δέχεται τὰ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ θεοῦ (1
worldly man does not receive the [things] of God’s spirit. (δέχομαι
receive)
J 2) Beloved, I pray [for] you
ἀγαπητέ, εὔχομαί σε εὐοδοῦσθαι καὶ ὑγιαίνειν. (*3
to prosper and be healthy. (εὔχομαι pray; εὐοδόομαι prosper)
For deponents with passive forms in the future and aorist see 11.1/11
note 1.
A common deponent is γίνομαι (fut. γενήσομαι) which has a strong aorist

middle ἐγενόμην as well as an aorist passive ἐγενήθην (both forms have the
same meaning). Its basic meaning is be born, become, happen but
sometimes English requires a more specific word, e.g. ϕωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῶν
οὐρανῶν (Mk 1.11) a voice came (lit. came into existence, happened) from
heaven. Other examples of its use are:

τὰ ἱμάτια ἐγένετο λευκὰ ὡς τὸ ϕῶς. (*Mt 17.2) The garments became white as
the light.
καὶ ἰδοὺ σεισμὸς μέγας ἐγένετο ἐν τῇ θαλάσσῃ. ( Mt 8.24) And behold! a great
storm arose on the sea.
The form ἐγένετο in the sense of it happened [that], it came to pass [that]
is used to reproduce a Semitic expression employed to mark a new stage
in a narrative. There are three forms of this construction and in each
ἐγένετο is usually accompanied by a phrase or subordinate clause which
fixes the time of the event described:

a) καὶ ἐγένετο or ἐγένετο δέ followed by a finite verb without any conjunction:
καὶ ἐγένετο ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῇ ὀγδόῃ ἦλθον περιτεμεῖν τὸ παιδίον (Lk 1.59) and it
happened on the eighth day [that] they came to circumcise the child.
Here the phrase ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῇ ὀγδόῃ defines the time but there is no
conjunction connecting the two finite verbs ἐγένετο andἦλθον, and
consequently we supply that in English; note, however, that we can say
in English it happened I was in the country last week.
b) καὶ ἐγένετο or ἐγένετο δέ followed by καί and a finite verb: καὶ ἐγένετο ἐν μιᾷ
τῶν ἡμερῶν καὶ αὐτὸς ἦν διδάσκων (Lk 5.17) and it happened on one of the
days that (lit. and) he was teaching. Despite the use of καί we translate in
the same way as in (a).
c) καὶ ἐγένετο or ἐγένετο δέ followed by an accusative and infinitive (see also
below 8.1/4(b)). Here the noun or pronoun in the accusative is the
subject of the infinitive: ἐγένετο δὲ ἐν σαββάτῳ διαπορεύεσθαι αὐτὸν διὰ σπορίμων
(Lk 6.1) lit. and it happened on the sabbath him to be going through
standing grain i.e and it happened that on the sabbath he was going, etc.
The idiom is common in Luke and also occurs in the other gospels and in
Acts.
Note
The deponent ἔρχομαι come, go has a middle future (ἐλεύσομαι I shall

come/go) but a strong aorist active ἦλθον (I came/went; 7.1/1 note 2).
8.1/3 Negatives
Greek has two negatives οὐ (οὐκ, οὐχ, 2.1/6(a)(i)), which we have already
met, and μή. Although they must both be translated by not their uses are
quite distinct. μή is used in a number of constructions and contexts, the
first of which is treated in the next subsection. The following should be
noted:
a) οὐ is used to negate statements and so is the negative used with a verb
in the indicative in main clauses.
b) μή is used to negate wishes, commands and in certain types of
subordinate clauses.
c) μή is the usual negative used with infinitives and participles.
d) For every compound of οὐ (e.g. οὐδέ nor, οὐδείς no-one) there is a
corresponding compound of μή (e.g. μηδέ, μηδείς). The latter are to be
translated in the same way but are used, where appropriate, in
constructions otherwise requiring μή.
e) A second negative normally reinforces an earlier negative in the same
clause: οὐκ ἔϕαγεν οὐδέν (Lk 4.2) he did not eat anything (cf. 7.2.10).
8.1/4 Indirect statement
(For the term indirect statement see 7.1/2.)
In English we can say, with the same meaning, he considers that I am

clever or he considers me to be clever. Both ways of expressing an
indirect statement (a noun clause introduced by that or an infinitive
phrase without that) have their equivalents in Greek, but Greek, like
English, shows a distinct preference for the former after verbs of saying.
Verbs of thinking, seeing, hearing and knowing such as νομίζω think,
consider, ὁράω see, ἀκούω hear, γινώσκω know may also take this
construction.
a) Construction with finite verb
The noun clause expressing the indirect statement is introduced by ὅτι
that:
Mt
λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι πλούσιος δυσκόλως εἰσελεύσεται εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν. (
19.23) I tell you that with difficulty will a rich man enter the Kingdom
of heaven. (εἰσελεύσεται fut. of εἰσέρχομαι)
The only difference from the English construction is that the tense of the
verb in the original statement is normally retained in the reported version
if the introductory verb is in a past tense:
ἤκουσε ὅτι Άρχέλαος βασιλεύει τῆς Ἰουδαίας. (*Mt. 2.22). He heard that
Archelaos was king of Judaea (original Άρχέλαος βασιλεύει τῆς Ἰουδαίας
Archelaos is king of Judaea).

οἱ πρῶτοι ἐνόμισαν ὅτι πλεῖον λήμψονται. ( Mt 20.10) The first thought that
they would receive more (original πλεῖον λημψόμεθα we will receive
more).
Notes
1 As we have already seen, ὅτι can also mean because; this meaning
will be obvious from the context: οὐαὶ ὑμῖν τοῖς Φαρισαίοις, ὅτι ἀγαπᾶτε τὴν
πρωτοκαθεδρίαν ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς (Lk 11.43) woe to you Pharisees (lit. to
you the Pharisees) because you love the seat of honour in the
synagogues.
2 Often even a direct statement is introduced by ὅτι; here ὅτι is not to be
translated and the quote should be put between inverted commas:

εἶπεν γὰρ ὅτι Θεοῦ εἰμι υἱός (Mt 27.43) for he said, ‘I am the son of God’.
b) Infinitive construction
In this alternative construction, which is not so common as (a), the
original direct statement is recast so that a finite verb becomes an
infinitive and its subject is changed from nominative to accusative; the
name given to this construction is the accusative and infinitive. No
introductory word similiar to ὅτι is used:
λέγουσιν αὐτὸν ζῆν. ( Lk 24.23) They say that he is alive. (lit. him to be
alive).
Ac 28.6) They were saying that he was a god. (lit.
ἔλεγον αὐτὸν εἶναι θεόν. (
him to be a god).
If the original statement is negated, οὐ is replaced by μή when it is

converted into an accusative and infinitive:
Ac 23.8) Sadducees say that there
Σαδδουκαῖοι λέγουσιν μὴ εἶναι ἀνάστασιν (
is no resurrection (original οὐκ ἔστιν ἀνάστασις there is no resurrection).
Note
A variation of this construction can be used when the subject of the

infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb (nominative and
infinitive). If the statement σοϕοί εἰμεν we are wise is reported as a claim
made by others, the English version will be they claim to be wise;
because the subject of claim and of to be wise is the same, Greek can
use the nominative and infinitive: ϕάσκουσιν εἶναι σοϕοί (cf. Ro 1.22).
However, here too the accusative and infinitive is possible. In English we
can say with the same meaning they claim themselves to be wise and we
use the accusative themselves; Greek has the same construction, e.g.
Θευδᾶς ἔλεγεν εἶναί τινα ἑαυτόν (*Ac 5.36) Theudas was saying that he was
an important person, lit. was saying himself (ἑαυτόν 9.1/4) to be somebody

(τινά 10.1/1).
8.1/5 Third declension nouns – stems in ι and υ
Stems in ι are feminine, except for ὄϕις (m) snake and σίναπι (n) mustard.
Many are abstract nouns ending in -σις, e.g. ϕύσις nature. The original ι of
the stem has been lost in most forms. The genitive singular has the
irregular ending -εως.
A few masculine and feminine nouns have a stem in υ, which is kept in all
forms (except πηχῶν – see below).
In the accusative singular all masculine or feminine nouns with these
stems have ν (not α as with stems in consonants 5.1/1, 6.1/1).
Other nouns declined like ἰχθύς are: ἰσχύς (f) strength; στάχυς (m) ear of
corn; ὀσϕῦς (f.) loins.
Notes
1 The sole ι stem neuter σίναπι mustard occurs only in the genitive singular:
σινάπεως. δακρύων (gen. pl.) and δάκρυσι (dat. pl.) from δάκρυ (or δάκρυον) tear
are the only forms from a υ stem neuter.

2 πῆχυς (m) cubit (measure of length) only occurs in the acc. s. πῆχυν and in
the gen. pl. πηχῶν.

Insight
Istanbul affords the most curious example of the survival of a
Greek place name in modern Turkey. The city began as a Greek
colony with the name of Byzantium (Bυζάντιον) but was
refounded in AD 330 by Constantine the Great to be the eastern
capital of the now divided Roman empire. To perpetuate his
memory he changed its name to Kωνσταντινουπόλις
(Constantinople) the city of Constantine. When the western
Roman empire fell in the fifth century its eastern counterpart

continued and its capital, Constantinople was popularly called ἡ
Πόλις, i.e. the city par excellence. When it eventually fell to the
Turks in 1453 it was known amongst them as Istanbul, which

was an adaptation of the Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν lit. to the
City. The name has remained ever since.
8.2 Greek reading

1 Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς Θεοῦ ϒἱὸς Σωτήρ (the name of an early Christian symbol is
concealed in the initial letters of this formula).
2 ὁ δὲ Παῦλος, Οὐ μαίνομαι, ϕησίν, κράτιστε Φῆστε, ἀλλὰ ἀληθείας καὶ σωϕροσύνης
ῥήματα ἀποϕθέγγομαι. (Ac 26.25)
3 διὰ τί οἱ μαθηταί σου παραβαίνουσιν τὴν παράδοσιν τῶν πρεσβυτέρων; οὐ γὰρ
νίπτονται τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν. ( Mt 15.2)

4 πῶς οὐ νοεῖτε ὅτι οὐ περὶ ἄρτων εἶπον ὑμῖν; (Mt 16.11)
5 λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Άμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι οἱ τελῶναι καὶ αἱ πόρναι προάγουσιν ὑμᾶς
εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ. (Mt 21.31)

6 εἶδεν ὁ ὄχλος ὅτι Ἰησοῦς οὐκ ἔστιν ἐκεῖ. (Jn 6.24)
7 οὐκ ἠρνήσατο, καὶ ὡμολόγησεν ὅτι Ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμὶ ὁ Χριστός. ( Jn 1.20)
8 ἀπὸ δὲ ἕκτης ὥρας σκότος ἐγένετο ἐπὶ ὅλην τὴν γῆν ἕως ὥρας ἐνάτης. (*Mt 27.45)
9 καὶ ἐγένετο ὡς ἤγγισεν εἰς Βηθϕαγὴ καὶ Βηθανιὰ πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τὸ καλούμενον Ἐλαιῶν,
ἀπέστειλεν (dispatched) δύο τῶν μαθητῶν. (Lk 19.29)

10 ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν μὴ ὀμόσαι ( swear) ὅλως· μήτε ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, ὅτι θρόνος ἐστὶν τοῦ
θεοῦ· μήτε ἐν τῇ γῇ, ὅτι ὑποπόδιόν ἐστιν τῶν ποδῶν αὐτοῦ. (Mt 5.34f.)
11 ἐγένετο ϕόβος μέγας ἐϕ̓ ὅλην τὴν ἐκκλησίαν. (Ac 5.11)
12 εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτούς, Πῶς λέγουσιν τὸν Χριστὸν εἶναι Δαυὶδ υἱόν; (Lk 20.41)
13 ὁ γεωργὸς ἐκδέχεται τὸν τίμιον καρπὸν τῆς γῆς. (Js 5.7)
14 ἐγένετο ἐν τῷ προσεύχεσθαι αὐτὸν τὸ εἶδος τοῦ προσώπου αὐτοῦ ἕτερον. (Lk 9.29)
15 Καὶ ἐξῆλθεν πάλιν παρὰ τὴν θάλασσαν· καὶ ὅλος ὁ ὄχλος ἤρχετο πρὸς αὐτόν, καὶ
ἐδίδασκεν αὐτούς. (* Mk 2.13)

16 καὶ ἐγένετο ὅτε ἐτέλεσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τοὺς λόγους τούτους (these) ἐξεπλήσσοντο οἱ
ὄχλοι ἐπὶ τῇ διδαχῇ αὐτοῦ. ( Mt 7.28)
17 λέγει αὐτοῖς Σίμων Πέτρος, Ὑπάγω ἁλιεύειν. λέγουσιν αὐτῷ, Ἐρχόμεθα καὶ ἡμεῖς
σὺν σοί. (Jn 21.3)

18 οἱ δὲ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ἐπείνασαν, καὶ ἤρξαντο τίλλειν στάχυας καὶ ἐσθίειν. ( Mt 12.1)
19 καὶ ἐγένετο ἐν τῷ καθεξῆς καὶ αὐτὸς διώδευεν κατὰ πόλιν καὶ κώμην. ( Lk 8.1)
20 τότε ἐξεπορεύετο πρὸς αὐτὸν Ἱεροσόλυμα καὶ ὅλη ἡ Ἰουδαία καὶ ὅλη ἡ περίχωρος τοῦ
Ἰορδάνου, καὶ ἐβαπτίζοντο ἐν τῷ Ἰορδάνῃ ποταμῷ ὑ π̓ αὐτοῦ. (*Mt 3.5f.)
Notes
5 λέγει is a vivid present (2.1/4 note 2) and should be translated by the
English simple past (said); οἱ τελῶναι καὶ αἱ πόρναι are meant as general
classes and do not require the definite article in English (2.1/2 note 1(ii)).
6 ἐστίν translate by was; although the main verb (εἶδεν) is not a verb of
saying, the same construction is used (8.1/4(a)) because the thought in

the crowd’s mind was Jesus is not there.
7 ἠρνήσατο < ἀρνέομαι; ὡμολόγησεν < ὁμολογέω; do not translate ὅτι (8.1/4(a)
note 2).
8 The time of day was divided in twelve equal parts starting with sunrise, so
that at the equinox the sixth hour corresponded to our twelve noon and
the ninth hour to our 3 p.m.; correspondence with our system of time
reckoning varied at other times of the year.
9 τὸ ὄρος τὸ καλούμενον Ἐλαιῶν lit. the mountain, the [one] called [that] of
Olives, i.e. the Mount of Olives (καλούμενον is a participle and will be

treated at 12.1/1).
10 The full context shows that δέ here is to be translated by but; ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ
and ἐν τῇ γῇ lit. on the heaven, on the earth but English requires by; ὅτι
because; predicates (see Glossary of grammatical and other terms)
such as θρόνος and ὑποπόδιον do not have the definite article but it is
required in English.
12 πρός + acc. can be used with the same meaning as the dat. without a
preposition after verbs of saying (21.1/1(a)(i)); λέγουσιν is here followed by

the accusative and infinitive construction (8.1/4(b)); the sense shows that
the indeclinable Δαυίδ must be taken as genitive.
14 ἐγένετο has εἶδος as its subject (it is not used here in the sense it
happened); ἐν τῷ προσεύχεσθαι αὐτόν see 5.1/3 (αὐτόν is the subject of the

infinitive).
15 ἤρχετο < ἔρχομαι (the impf. of ἄρχομαι would be the same); ἤρχετο and
ἐδίδασκεν are imperfect because the actions are regarded as happening
over a period, but trans. came … taught.

16 Take τοὺς λόγους τούτους together these words (for τούτους see 9.1/1);
ἐξεπλήσσοντο < ἐκπλήσσω.
the infinitive in Greek is used to express purpose just as it is in

17 ἁλιεύειν
English (11.1/3(b)(i)) – trans. to fish.

18 ἤρξαντο < ἄρχομαι.
19 Translate the second καί by that (8.1/2(b)).

20 ἐξεπορεύετο (<ἐκπορεύομαι) is singular because it agrees only with the
nearest subject (Ἱεροσόλυμα which is neut. pl. and so can take a singular
verb – 2.1/2 note 3) – this is a common idiom; ὑπ̓ = ὑπό.
8.2/1 Vocabulary
ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ truth

ἁλιεύω fish
ἀμήν (adv.) truly
ἀποϕθέγγομαι speak
ἀρνέομαι deny
ἄρτος, -ου, ὁ loaf of bread
ἄρχομαι begin
Βηθανιά, ἡ (indecl.), Bethany (village on Mt of Olives)
Βηθϕαγή, ἡ (indecl.) Bethphage (place on Mt of Olives)

Δαυίδ, ὁ (indecl.), David
διδαχή, -ῆς, ἡ teaching
διοδεύω journey, travel
ἐγγίζω come near
εἶδος, -ους, τό appearance
ἐκδέχομαι wait for
ἐκεῖ (adv.) there, in that place
ἐκπλήσσω amaze
ἐκπορεύομαι come out
ἕκτος, -η, -ον sixth
ἐλαία, -ας, ἡ olive tree
ἔνατος, -η, -ον ninth
ἔρχομαι come
ἕτερος, -α, -ον different
ἕως (prep. + gen.) up to
Ἰορδάνης, -ου, ὁ Jordan (largest river in Palestine)
Ἰουδαία, -ας, ἡ Judaea
καθεξῆς (adv.) next in order
ἐν τῷ καθεξῆς in the next in order i.e. afterwards
κατά (prep. + acc.) through
κράτιστος, -η, -ον most excellent
κώμη, -ης, ἡ village
μαίνομαι be mad
μήτε … μήτε (conj.) neither … nor
νίπτω wash
νοέω understand
ὅλος, -η, -ον all
ὅλως (adv.) at all
ὁμολογέω admit
ὄρος, -ους, τό mountain
παρά (prep. + acc.) to
παραβαίνω transgress
παράδοσις, -εως, ἡ tradition
πεινάω be hungry
περίχωρος, -ον neighbouring
ἡ περίχωρος (sc. γῆ) neighbourhood
πόρνη, -ης, ἡ prostitute

ποταμός, -οῦ, ὁ river
προάγω go before, precede
προσεύχομαι pray
στάχυς, -υος, ὁ ear of corn
σύν (prep. + dat.) with, in the company of
σωϕροσύνη, -ης, ἡ rationality
τελέω finish
τίλλω pick
τίμιος, -α, -ον precious
ὑπάγω go out
ὑπό (prep. + gen.) by (used of an agent)
ὑποπόδιον, -ου, τό footstool
Φῆστος, -ου, ὁ Festus (Roman procurator of Palestine)
ὡς (conj.) when
Main points
With the passive voice the subject is the sufferer
The middle voice often means to do something for oneself; some verbs
have a different meaning in the middle
The endings of the middle and passive voice are the same except in
aorist and future
Deponent verbs are middle or passive in form but active in meaning
Greek has two negatives οὐ and μή
Indirect statement is expressed by either the finite verb construction
(introduced by ὅτι that) or the infinitive construction
Third declension nouns in ι (as πόλις) lose the iota in forms other than the
nom. and acc. singular; those in υ (as ἰχθύς) keep the upsilon in all forms
8.3 Excursus
Books in antiquity – the codex
As we have seen (4.3), the traditional form of the book in antiquity, the
papyrus roll, was not a user-friendly production. It was awkward to read
and cumbersome to consult. Whereas today we simply flick through a
book’s pages for a reference or to check the accuracy of a quotation, an
ancient scholar was obliged to work through a roll until the necessary
passage appeared; there was no equivalent to pagination. The limited
amount of material which a roll could contain was also a grave
disadvantage. It could not accommodate what today we would consider a
book of medium size, such as the New Testament; anything as large as
the whole Bible was completely unthinkable.
In the first century of the Christian era a new type of book was beginning
to appear, the codex. An earlier form had already existed for several
centuries and consisted of a small number of thin wooden boards
smeared on each side with wax and held together by a leather thong
which was threaded through holes in one side of each board, in much the
same way as what we call spirex binding. This allowed the user to turn
the boards over and inscribe a message on either side with a sharp-
pointed stylus into the wax. The original codex was not meant for
anything like the amount of text that even a papyrus roll could hold. It was
for letters, messages and the like, and it could be re-used simply by
applying a new coating of wax to the boards. When papyrus was
substituted for wood, recycling became more difficult, but the modern
form of the book was born. Sheets of papyrus were folded in two and a
number of such foldings were held together by stitching along the spine,
just as in better quality books today. Front, back and spine were
protected by what we now call binding. With this new form of book,
readers had something which was considerably easier to use, more
convenient to consult when a particular reference or passage was
required, and capable of holding the contents of many rolls. It is not
surprising that it was soon adopted by Christians, since a single codex
could hold the entire New Testament and more. From the second century
AD it was by far the preferred form of book for producing copies of the
Scriptures.
However, papyrus had one disadvantage when used as the leaves of a

codex. Because of its inflexibility the folds which formed the spine of the
codex tended to crack and split. Fortunately, a superior substitute was
available. The ancient world had long known of parchment (also called
vellum), which was the result of a special treatment of animal skins. It
was not only thin and white but also extremely strong and durable,
superior in this to any form of modern paper. It was ideal for the codex.
A few codices of the Scriptures dating from before AD 500 have survived,
all unfortunately in a fragmentary state. One of the most celebrated is the
Codex Sinaiticus (c. AD 350), a parchment codex which originally
contained the entire Greek Bible (on the Septuagint, the name given to
the Greek Old Testament, see 12.3). Its original length was over 700
pages of 380 × 343 mm (15 × 13.5 inches), each of which contained three
or four narrow columns; the use of a narrow column goes back to the old
papyrus roll. Part of one of the surviving sections of this codex is
reproduced on the inside front cover of the present volume and gives an
idea of how an ancient scribe presented a text. What we have here is
from the first chapter of John’s gospel, and the middle column from
immediately under the title box reads:
ΑϒΤΟϒΔΟΞΑΝΩC
ΜΟΝΟΓΕΝΟϒCΠΑ
ΡΑΠΑΤΡΟCΠΛΗΡϒC
ΧΑΡΙΤΟCΚΑΙΑΛΗΘΕΙΑC
A modern reader might be forgiven for preferring a modern presentation,

which would be αὐτοῦ, δόξαν, ὡς μονογενοῦς παρὰ πατρός, πλήρης χάριτος καὶ
ἀληθείας (part of Jn 1.14) [and the word became flesh and dwelt among us
and we saw the glory] of him, glory of the only begotten [son] of his
father, full of love and truth (the translation is of the full verse). As well as
using the old conventions mentioned in 4.3 (capitals including the
different form of sigma, no word division, no punctuation, no accents or
breathings) the scribe reduced the size of the final letters of the third and
fourth lines in order to prevent the last words of each from running into
the next line, although he had no compunction in splitting παρά between
lines two and three. It is odd to learn that the Codex Sinaiticus is
considered by experts to be particularly easy to read.
By the fourth and fifth centuries AD the codex had superseded the
papyrus roll. The many copies of the Scriptures dating from later
centuries are in the codex form. Styles of writing developed and in the
Middle Ages we find a cursive script of a kind similar to normal
handwriting today. In this period greater attention was given to produce a
text which could be more easily read; spaces were left between words,
and accents and breathings were added. But the basic failing that had
always plagued the production of books remained: no two copies were
exactly identical. Indeed, in the course of centuries the mistakes of
scribes accumulated and often became worse. Consequently the oldest
surviving texts of the New Testament are the most valuable; because
they are closer in time to the original authors we can usually assume that
they reproduce the words of the authors more faithfully.
The codex is, of course, still with us in the form of the modern book, but
the middle of the fifteenth century saw a change which revolutionized
scholarship and book production alike, viz. the invention of printing.
When in 1456 Gutenberg used movable type to print the Latin version of
the Bible (the Vulgate, 20.3), the possibility of having multiple identical
copies of a particular edition came into being. The text used by a printer
may have contained corruptions inherited from the earlier period, but
further scribal error was eliminated. Technology enabled every type of
book to be transmitted in a completely accurate form, and a new era of
scholarship came into being.
It was not until 1516 that the Greek New Testament appeared under the
editorship of Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536). From then on scholars
could have in front of them a printed edition of the NT and be sure that,
except for the odd misprint, it contained exactly what its editor had
intended.
Unit 09
9.1 Grammar
9.1/1 Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstratives draw our attention to persons and things. Both Greek

and English have two: οὗτος this and ἐκεῖνος that. In both languages these
words can function as pronouns or adjectives, although the pronominal
use of this and that is more restricted than their Greek equivalents (this in
this horse is an adjective, that in I do not like that is a pronoun).
is declined as a first and second declension adjective (3.1/3),

ἐκεῖνος
except that the neuter nom. and acc. s. is ἐκεῖνο (for other words with this
ending -ο see 4.1/2). οὗτος is similarly declined but the first syllable
undergoes changes according to the following rules:
a) an initial vowel with a rough breathing occurs in the same forms as in
the definite article (2.1/2, 3.1/1);
b) an initial τ occurs in the same forms as in the definite article;
c) where the ending contains α or η the diphthong of the first syllable
changes from ου to αυ.
When a demonstrative is used as an adjective, the noun which it qualifies

must retain the definite article and the demonstrative must not be placed
between them: ἐκεῖνος ὁ νεανίας that young man; ἡ γυνὴ αὕτη this woman.
A demonstrative is used as a pronoun when emphasis is required and it

is to be translated in the singular as this/that man, woman, thing and in
the plural these/those men, women, things or simply by a third person
pronoun (he, she, it, they etc.): οὐ θέλομεν τοῦτον βασιλεῦσαι ἐϕ̓ ἡμᾶς (Lk
19.14) we do not want him (or this man) to be king over us; ἐκεῖνον δεῖ
αὐξάνειν (Jn 3.30) he (or that man) must become great (lit. it is necessary
for him to increase).
Note
Earlier Greek had a third demonstrative ὅδε lit. this near me. This has
survived in the NT in only two forms, τῇδε for her (only at Lk 10.39) and
τάδε these things (eight occurrences, always in the expression τάδε λέγει
he says this, lit. these things).
9.1/2 The relative pronoun ὅς and adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses qualify nouns or pronouns, and so perform the same

function as adjectives. They are introduced by a relative pronoun (in
English who, whom, whose, which, that):
I am the man who met you at Jerusalem.
The horse which you then sold me has since died.
An adjectival clause normally has an antecedent, i.e. a noun or pronoun

to which the clause refers and which it qualifies (in the above examples
man and horse). In English the forms of the relative pronoun are not
interchangeable but are influenced by the antecedent (the man which or
the horse who are clearly impossible). Further, we cannot say I know the
man whom visited Bethlehem because, although man, the antecedent of
the adjectival clause, is the object of know (and so would be in the
accusative in Greek), the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause it
introduces and must take the nominative form who, not the accusative
form whom. The same holds for Greek, where the rule is a relative
pronoun takes its number and gender from its antecedent but its
case from the function it performs in its own clause (but see note 3
below). Greek cannot, moreover, omit the relative pronoun as we so
often do in English (the man you visited cannot come into my house;
Greek must say the man whom).
The normal relative pronoun in Greek is ὅς, which is declined as a first

and second declension adjective (3.1/3) except that the neuter s. nom.
and acc. is ὅ without ν (for other words with this ending see 4.1/2):
The Greek relative pronoun, unlike its English equivalent, cannot be used
as an interrogative (in which is your horse? which introduces a question
and therefore is an interrogative).
Examples of adjectival clauses are (the relative pronouns are in bold

type):
Lk
μακάριαι αἱ στεῖραι καὶ αἱ κοιλίαι αἳ οὐκ ἐγέννησαν καὶ μαστοὶ οἳ οὐκ ἔθρεψαν. (
23.29) Fortunate are the infertile and the wombs that have not given
birth and breasts that have not nourished.

Mt 2.9) And behold, the
καὶ ἰδοὺ ὁ ἀστὴρ, ὃν εἶδον ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ, προῆγεν αὐτοὺς. (
star which they saw in the east was leading them.

Mk 14.32) And they came to a
καὶ ἔρχονται εἰς χωρίον οὗ τὸ ὄνομα Γεθσημανί. (
place whose name [was] Gethsemane. (ἔρχονται vivid present 2.1/5

note 2)
π̓ αὐτῶν δώδεκα, οὓς καὶ ἀποστόλους ὠνόμασεν. (*Lk 6.13) From them
ἐξελέξατο ἀ
he chose twelve, whom he also called apostles.
Notes
1 Greek has an alternative relative pronoun which is a combination of the
normal relative pronoun and the indefinite τις (10.1/1). Its use is almost
wholly restricted to the nominative forms, which are:
The neuter singular is written ὅ τι to distinguish it from ὅτι that and ὅτι
because.
ὅστις can be used as a relative pronoun in the same way as ὅς: ἄνθρωπος ἦν
οἰκοδεσπότης ὅστις ἐ ϕύτευσεν ἀμπελῶνα (Mt 21.33) there was a man, a master
of a house, who planted a vineyard. For other uses of ὅστις see 14.1/1(c).
The only other part of ὅστις in the NT is the genitive ὅτου which appears as
the second element in ἕως ὅτου until (lit. up to whatever; see 14.1/1(b)(ii)).
2 The antecedent of an adjectival clause, if a pronoun, can be omitted: εἰσὶν
ἔσχατοι οἳ ἔσονται πρῶτοι καὶ εἰσὶν πρῶτοι οἳ ἔσονται ἔσχατοι (Lk 13.30) [Those]
who will be first are last and [those] who will be last are first.
3 Contrary to the rule given above, the Greek relative pronoun is
sometimes put into the same case as its antecedent. This quite illogical
attraction is most frequent when a relative pronoun in the accusative
case has an antecedent in the genitive or dative: θάμβος περιέσχεν Πέτρον
ἐπὶ τῇ ἄγρᾳ τῶν ἰχθύων ὧν (for οὓς) συνέλαβον (*Lk 5.9) amazement seized
Peter on the catch of fish which they took. Sometimes the antecedent, if a
pronoun, is omitted (cf. note 2); οὐθὲν εὗρον ἐν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ τούτῳ αἴτιον ὧν (for
τούτων ἃ) κατηγορεῖτε κατ̓ αὐτοῦ (Lk 23.14) I found this man not guilty of the
charges which you bring against him (lit. I found in this man no [οὐθέν] guilt
of which things you bring as charges [κατηγορεῖτε] against him).
4 Sometimes when both the relative and its antecedent are in the same
case the latter is put into the adjectival clause: οἱ ἄνθρωποι εἶδον ὃ ἐποίησεν
σημεῖον (for τὸ σημεῖον ὃ ἐποίησεν) (*Jn 6.14) the people saw the miracle
which he performed; here the relative is used as an adjective.
9.1/3 Other uses of αὐτός
For the terms attributive position and predicative position see

3.1/3(b).
We have already seen αὐτός as a pronoun (4.1/2). It has two other uses:
a) As an emphasizing adjective meaning self. Greek has no separate
words corresponding to the English emphatic myself, yourself, etc. (as
opposed to the reflexive myself, yourself, etc., see 9.1/4) and instead
uses αὐτός for all persons. When used with a noun it stands in the
predicative position (i.e. it is not placed between the noun and the
article): αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνήρ the man himself, περὶ τῆς γυναικὸς αὐτῆς concerning the
woman herself.
b) ὁ αὐτός means the same. In the attributive position (i.e. between the
article and the noun) αὐτός always has this meaning: τὸν αὐτὸν ἀγῶνα (Phil
1.30) the same contest (acc. s.); τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον (Mt 26.44) the same
speech (acc. s.). Examples in the neuter are: καὶ οἱ ἁμαρτωλοὶ τὸ αὐτὸ
ποιοῦσιν (Lk 6.33) even sinners do the same [thing]; τὰ αὐτὰ ἐπάθετε (1 Th
2.14) you suffered the same [things].
9.1/4 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns

a) A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of a sentence or clause,
as in he killed himself. In English all reflexive pronouns end in -self
(myself, yourself, himself, themselves, etc.) and are to be carefully
distinguished from the emphatic adjectives of the same form, e.g. he

himself killed the soldier.
In the singular the reflexives of the first and second persons are formed
by joining the stems of the personal pronouns (4.1/2) to the appropriate
parts of αὐτός. The third person reflexive is formed by prefixing αὐτός with ἑ;
this formation is also used in all persons of the plural. Reflexive pronouns
can occur only in the oblique cases and the possibility of a neuter exists
only in the third person forms.
Examples of these pronouns in use are:

Lk 7.7) Nor did I think myself worthy to
οὐδὲ ἐμαυτὸν ἠξίωσα πρὸς σὲ ἐλθεῖν. (
come to you.
Jn 1.22) What do you say about yourself?
τί λέγεις περὶ σεαυτοῦ; (
οὐκ ἔχει ῥίζαν ἐν ἑαυτῷ ἀλλὰ πρόσκαιρός ἐστιν. (*Mt 13.21) He has no root in
himself but lasts only for a time (lit. is short-lasting).
θ̓ ἑαυτῶν. (Mt 26.11) For you have
πάντοτε γὰρ τοὺς πτωχοὺς ἔχετε με
the poor with you (lit. yourselves) always.
The third singular reflexive has alternative forms in which the first two
syllables are contracted: αὑτόν (< ἑαυτόν), etc. In the manuscripts of the
New Testament (21.3) these contracted forms (which have a rough
breathing) are sometimes confused with the corresponding forms of
αὐτός (which do not have a rough breathing). As it is difficult in some
cases, if not impossible, to judge whether this confusion is a scribal

error in the manuscripts or goes back to the original author, modern
editors sometimes print αὐτόν, etc, where strict grammar requires αὑτόν,
etc. An example is Jn 2.24 where the recommended edition prints
Ἰησοῦς οὐκ ἐπίστευεν αὐτὸν αὐτοῖς, which clearly means Jesus did not
entrust himself to them; other editions print αὑτὸν, which is required by

strict grammar. The question is made more complex by passages
where the normal personal pronouns are used instead of reflexives,
e.g. εὑρήσετε ἀνάπαυσιν ταῖς ψυχαῖς ὑμῶν (Mt 11.29) you will find rest for
your souls (strict grammar would require ταῖς ψυχαῖς ἑαυτῶν the souls of
you yourselves because the pronoun refers back to the understood
subject you).
b) Reciprocal action can be expressed by the pronoun ἀλλήλους (acc. pl.)
each other (gen. pl. ἀλλήλων, dat. pl. ἀλλήλοις are the only other forms that
occur), e.g. ἔλεγον πρὸς ἀλλήλους (Mk 4.41) they were saying to each other.
However, the reflexive pronoun can be used in the same sense: κρίματα
ἔχετε μεθ̓ ἑαυτῶν (1 Cor 6.7) you have lawsuits with each other (μετ̓ ἀλλήλων
would have the same meaning).
9.1/5 Possessive adjectives and pronouns
English has possessive adjectives of two types: attributive (my, your, his,
her, its; our, your, their, which occur in phrases such as my house) and
predicative (mine, yours, his, hers; ours, yours, theirs, which occur in
clauses such as the house is mine). Greek has similar possessive
adjectives for the first and second persons only, and these may be used
either attributively or predicatively (we have already seen σός in 6.2.9).
These are:
ἐμός my ἡμέτερος our
σόςyour (with ref. to one your (with ref. to two or more
ὑμέτερος
person) persons)
In the attributive use the possessive adjective is preceded by the definite

article, and this can take two forms: τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα (Mt 18.20) or τὸ ὄνομα τὸ
ἐμόν my name; ἡ χαρὰ ἡ ἐμή (Jn 3.29) or ἡ ἐμή χαρά my joy.
An example of the predicative use, where the possessive is not

preceded by the definite article, is: ὁ λόγος ὃν ἀκούετε οὐκ ἔστιν ἐμός (Jn
14.24) the word which you hear is not mine.
To indicate possession Greek also uses the genitive of pronouns, e.g. ὁ

πατὴρ ἡμῶν lit. the father of us, i.e. our father. This type of expression is
the only one possible with the third person as Greek has no third person
possessive adjectives, but in the NT it has also largely replaced the first
and second person possessive adjectives described above. The forms
involved are μου, of me; σου of you (s.) (the unemphatic forms are used;
see 4.1/2); αὐτοῦ of him, αὐτῆς of her, αὐτοῦ of it; ἡμῶν of us; ὑμῶν of you (pl.);
αὐτῶν of them. In this context these pronouns are to be translated my,
your, his, her, its, our, your, their respectively. They normally (but not
always) follow the noun qualified and are not preceded by the definite
article. Examples with αὐτοῦ have already occurred in the reading (as
4.2.13). Examples with other pronouns are:
Mt 3.17) This is my son.

οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου. (
ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου καὶ μισήσεις τὸν ἐχθρόν σου. ( Mt 5.43) You will love
your neighbour and hate your enemy.
If, however, the noun is also qualified by an attributive adjective (i.e. we

have definite article + adjective + noun), then the pronoun is put after the
adjective, e.g. εἰ ἡ δεξιά σου χεὶρ σκανδαλίζει σε … (Mt 5.30) if your right hand
offends you … (lit. the right of you hand).
The genitive of reflexive pronouns is used when ownership is referred

back to the subject of a clause; this use is almost wholly confined to ἑαυτοῦ
and ἑαυτῶν, which can be placed in the attributive or predicative position.
Examples are:
ἐπορεύοντο ἀπογράϕεσθαι, ἕκαστος εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ πόλιν. (Lk 2.3) They went to
have themselves registered, each to his own city.
… (Lk
εἴ τις ἔρχεται πρός με καὶ οὐ μισεῖ τὸν πατέρα ἑαυτοῦ 14.26) If anyone
comes to me and does not hate his own father …
ὀϕείλουσιν καὶ οἱ ἄνδρες ἀγαπᾶν τὰς ἑαυτῶν γυναῖκας ὡς τὰ ἑαυτῶν σώματα. (Eph
5.28) Men too are obliged to love their wives (lit. their own women) as
their own bodies.
However, as noted in the previous subsection, the simple pronoun is

sometimes used in place of the reflexive, e.g. ὃς οὐ λαμβάνει τὸν σταυρὸν
αὐτοῦ… (Mt 10.38) [He] who does not take up his cross … (we would
expect ἑαυτοῦ as the reference is to the subject of λαμβάνει).

Insight
A regular practice of ancient artists was to place a circle of light
around or above representations of gods and heroes to
distinguish them from ordinary mortals. In sculpture this took the
form of a metal disk held above a statue by a rod. In addition to
indicating the distinction of the figure portrayed, this also gave
protection against birds. Christianity adopted the device both in
painting and statuary, and in time it became the normal badge
of sainthood. Our English word halo comes from the Greek ἅλως
threshing-floor, a flat, circular area on which grain was
separated from chaff. Because of a threshing-floor’s shape the
word came to be used for the circle of light around the sun,
moon and other celestial bodies. The word was taken in English
with the latter meaning and subsequently applied to the
luminous circle we associate with religious art.
9.2 Greek reading

1 ὁ δὲ ἔϕη αὐτοῖς, Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν. (Mt 13.28)
2 ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἄλλα πολλὰ ἃ ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς. (Jn 21.25)
3 οἶδεν γὰρ ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὧν χρείαν ἔχετε πρὸ τοῦ ὑμᾶς αἰτῆσαι αὐτόν. ( Mt 6.8)
4 ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου ὡς σεαυτόν. ( Mt 19.19)
5 ὁ λόγος ὁ σὸς ἀλήθειά ἐστιν. (Jn 17.17)
6 αὐτὸ τὸ πνεῦμα συμμαρτυρεῖ τῷ πνεύματι ἡμῶν ὅτι ἐσμὲν τέκνα θεοῦ. ( Ro 8.16)
7 ᾗ δὲ ἡμέρᾳ ἐξῆλθεν Λὼτ ἀπὸ Σοδόμων, ἔβρεξεν πῦρ καὶ θεῖον ἀπ̓ οὐρανοῦ. (Lk 17.29)
8 εἰσὶν εὐνοῦχοι οἵτινες εὐνούχισαν ἑαυτοὺς διὰ τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν. (Mt 19.12)
9 ὑμεῖς ἐκ τούτου τοῦ κόσμου ἐστέ, ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐκ τοῦ κόσμου τούτου. (Jn 8.23)
10 καὶ ἐγὼ δέ σοι λέγω ὅτι σὺ εἶ Πέτρος, καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν
ἐκκλησίαν, καὶ πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς. (* Mt 16.18)

Mt 21.38)
11 ἐκεῖνοι δὲ οἱ γεωργοὶ πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς εἶπαν ὅτι Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ κληρονόμος. (
Hb 1.12)
12 σὺ δὲ ὁ αὐτὸς εἶ καὶ τὰ ἔτη σου οὐκ ἐκλείψουσιν. (
13 τότε γνώσεσθε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι, καὶ ἀ π̓ ἐμαυτοῦ ποιῶ οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ καθὼς ἐδίδαξέν με ὁ
πατὴρ ταῦτα. ( Jn 8.28)
Jn 7.11)
14 οἱ οὖν Ἰουδαῖοι ἐζήτουν αὐτὸν ἐν τῇ ἑορτῇ καὶ ἔλεγον, Ποῦ ἐστιν ἐκεῖνος; (
15 εἰ οὖν ἐγὼ ἔνιψα ὑμῶν τοὺς πόδας ὁ κύριος καὶ ὁ διδάσκαλος, καὶ ὑμεῖς ὀϕείλετε
ἀλλήλων νίπτειν τοὺς πόδας. (Jn 13.14)
16 λέγει οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ὁ καιρὸς ὁ ἐμὸς οὔπω πάρεστιν, ὁ δὲ καιρὸς ὁ ὑμέτερος
πάντοτέ ἐστιν ἕτοιμος. (Jn 7.6)

17 ὁ οὖν Ἰησοῦς πρὸ ἓξ ἡμερῶν τοῦ πάσχα ἦλθεν εἰς Βηθανίαν, ὅπου ἦν Λάζαρος, ὃν
ἤγειρεν ἐκ νεκρῶν Ἰησοῦς. (Jn 12.1)

18 παράκλητον ἔχομεν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα, Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν δίκαιον· καὶ αὐτὸς ἱλασμός
ἐστιν περὶ τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν, οὐ περὶ τῶν ἡμετέρων δὲ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ὅλου τοῦ
κόσμου. (1 J 2.1f.)
19 Ὁμοία γάρ ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν ἀνθρώπῳ οἰκοδεσπότῃ ὅστις ἐξῆλθεν ἅμα
πρωῒ μισθώσασθαι ἐργάτας εἰς τὸν ἀμπελῶνα αὐτοῦ. ( Mt 20.1)

20 ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ποιμὴν ὁ καλός, καὶ γινώσκω τὰ ἐμὰ πρόβατα καὶ γινώσκουσί με τὰ ἐμά.
(*Jn 10.14)
21 τοὺς πτωχοὺς γὰρ πάντοτε ἔχετε με θ̓ ἑαυτῶν, ἐμὲ δὲ οὐ πάντοτε ἔχετε. (Jn 12.8)
Notes
2 The neuter pl. subject (ἄλλα πολλα) has a singular verb ἐστί (2.1/2 note 3).
3 ὧν χρείαν ἔχετε lit. of what [things] you have need, i.e. the things of which
you have need (9.1./2 note 2); we must tell from the context that ὑμᾶς is
the subject of αἰτῆσαι and αὐτόν the object.
7 ᾗ δὲ ἡμέρᾳ lit. and on what day, i.e. and on the day on which (9.1/2 note 2).
10 καὶ ἐγὼ δέ and (δέ) I also (καί); there is a play on the words Πέτρος/πέτρᾳ;
ᾅδης Hades was the Underworld of the Greeks and Romans to which all
the dead were consigned, regardless of how they had spent their lives –
here it is probably meant to be synonymous with death.
11 ὅτι should be ignored for purposes of translation (8.1/4(a) note 2).
13 The context of this verse shows that δέ should be translated but.
13 γνώσεσθε < γινώσκω which has a middle future (8.1/1 note 1); ἐγώ is
predicative, so trans. ἐγώ εἰμι it is I.

15 ὁ κύριος καὶ ὁ διδάσκαλος (translate your, not the) is in apposition to ἐγώ; καὶ
ὑμεῖς you too

16 λέγει vivid present (2.1/5 note 2).
17 πρὸ ἓξ ἡμερῶν τοῦ πάσχα idiomatic for six days before the Passover; ἤγειρεν
< ἐγείρω.
18 παράκλητον is in apposition to Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν, translate as intercessor;

take δίκαιον attributively with Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν.
19 μισθώσασθαι to hire the infinitive in Greek is used to express purpose just
as in English (11.1/3(b)(i)); εἰς for, i.e. to work in his vineyard.
9.2/1 Vocabulary
ᾅδης, -ου, ὁ Hades, the Underworld

ἄλλος, -η, -ο other
ἅμα see πρωΐ
ἀμπελών, -ῶνος, ὁ vineyard
βρέχω rain
δίκαιος, -α, -ον just
ἐκλείπω fail, come to an end
ἕξ (indecl.) six
ἑορτή, -ῆς, ἡ feast
ἐργάτης, -ου, ὁ labourer
ἕτοιμος, -η, -ον ready, at hand
εὐνουχίζω emasculate
εὐνοῦχος, -ου, ὁ eunuch
ἐχθρός, -ά, -όν hostile
θεῖον, -ου, τό sulphur
ἱλασμός, -οῦ, ὁ expiation, remedy
κατισχύω (+ gen.) win a victory over
Λάζαρος, -ου, ὁ Lazarus
μισθόομαι hire
οἰκοδεσπότης, -ου, ὁ master of the house
οἰκοδομέω build
ὅμοιος, -α, -ον (+ dat.) like, resembling
οὔπω (adv.) not yet
ὀϕείλω be obligated, must, ought
παράκλητος, -ου, ὁ mediator, intercessor
πάρειμι be present, be here
πάσχα, τό (indecl.) Passover

πέτρα, -ας, ἡ rock
ποιμήν, -ένος, ὁ shepherd
πρωΐ (adv.) early
ἅμα πρωΐ early in the morning
πύλη, -ης, ἡ gate
πῦρ, πυρός, τό fire
Σόδομα, -ων, τά Sodom
συμμαρτυρέω (+ dat.) testify with
ϕοβέομαι fear
χρεία, -ας, ἡ need
Main points
The demonstrative pronoun ἐκεῖνος is declined as a first and second
declension adjective except for ἐκεῖνο (n.v.a. singular); οὗτος is irregular
Adjectival clauses are introduced by the relative pronoun ὅς or sometimes
ὅστις
ὅςnormally takes its case from the clause it introduces

αὐτός can mean self; ὁ αὐτος means the same
Reflexive pronouns (ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν, etc.) and the reciprocal pronoun

(ἀλλήλους) refer back to the subject
Possessive adjectives (ἐμὀς etc.) and pronouns (μου etc.) are not used as
much as in English
Unit 10
10.1 Grammar
10.1/1 Interrogative τίς and indefinite τις
The interrogative and indefinite pronouns belong to the third declension.

They have identical forms except for the accent: when the first syllable is
accented (always an acute), we have the interrogative, viz. τίς who, τί
what; when the first syllable has no accent, we have the indefinite, viz. τις
someone, anyone, τι something, anything. The forms of two syllables in
the latter have an accent (as shown below) in certain circumstances (see
Appendix 7, (d)); since τις is enclitic it does not normally stand as first
word in its clause, and when used as an adjective (see below) it follows
the word it qualifies.
Both the interrogative and the indefinite pronouns may also be used as
adjectives: τίς (τίς ἀνὴρ) τοῦτο ἐποίησεν; who (what man) did this? λέγει τις
τοῦτο someone says this; κλέπτης τις τοῦτο ἐποίησεν some thief did this. Used
in this way, indefinite τις is often little more than the equivalent of the
English indefinite article (the singular is sometimes translated a certain).
Examples of both words are:
Interrogative
Mt 21.31) Who of (lit. from) the
τίς ἐκ τῶν δύο ἐποίησεν τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πατρός; (
two did the will of their father? (pronominal use)
ἶ
…; (Mt 12.11) And he said to
ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Τίς ἔσται ἐξ ὑμῶν ἄνθρωπος
them, ‘What man will there be among you …?’ (adjectival use)
Mt 22.42) Whose son is he? (lit. of whom is he the son?)
τίνος υἱός ἐστιν; (
(pronominal use)
Rv 7.13) Who are they and from where did they

τίνες εἰσὶν καὶ πόθεν ἦλθον; (
come? (pronominal use)
Indefinite
οὐδὲ ἀκούσει τις ἐν ταῖς πλατείαις τὴνϕωνὴν αὐτοῦ. (Mt 12.19) Nor will anyone
hear his voice in the streets. (pronominal use)
ἀποστέλλουσιν πρὸς αὐτόν τινας τῶν Φαρισαίων. ( Mk 12.13) They send some of
the Pharisees to him. (pronominal use)
ἑκατοντάρχου τινος δοῦλος. (*Lk 7.2) A slave of some centurion (or a certain
centurion). (adjectival use)
Μετὰ δέ τινας ἡμέρας εἶπεν πρὸς Βαρναβᾶν Παῦλος. ( Ac 15.36) After some days
Paul said to Barnabas. (adjectival use)
Note
1 As we have already seen, the neuter τί often means why: περὶ ἐνδύματος τί
μεριμνᾶτε; (Mt 6.28) Why do you care about clothing?
2 Phrases involving τί are: διὰ τί…; (lit. on account of what…?), εἰς τί…; (lit.
for what…?), τί ὅτι…; (lit. why [is it] that…?) all to be translated why…?; τί
γὰρ…; τί οὖν…; both why then…?
10.1/2 Questions, direct and indirect
(a) Direct questions
Direct questions are those which are directly asked of someone else. In
Greek, as in English, they are, where appropriate, introduced by an
interrogative pronoun, adjective or adverb. The most common pronoun
and adjective is τίς; others which can function as a pronoun or adjective
are:
ποῖος,-α, -ον of what kind? or simply who?, what? (in the latter meaning
virtually the same as τίς)
ποταπός, -ή, -όν of what kind?
πόσος, -η, -ον how much, how many?
There are also the interrogative adverbs πότε when, πῶς how, ποῦ where,
to where, πόθεν from where. These introduce questions but cannot be
used in adverbial clauses as when and where can in English, e.g. when
we go to Jerusalem I always visit the Dome of the Rock (Greek here uses
the conjunction ὅταν, 14.1/1(b)(i)).
Notice that all interrogatives except τίς begin with a π (cf. wh in the
English interrogatives: who, when, why, what, etc.).
Examples of direct questions introduced by an interrogative are (for

examples with τίς see above):
Mt 8.27)
ποταπός ἐστιν οὗτος ὅτι καὶ οἱ ἄνεμοι καὶ ἡ θάλασσα αὐτῷ ὑπακούουσιν; (
What kind of person is this that both the winds and the sea obey him?
(ὑπακούω takes the dative, 15.1/1)
ποῦ ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν; ( Lk 8.25) Where [is] your faith?

πόσον ὀ ϕείλεις τῷ κυρίῳ μου; (Lk 16.5) How much do you owe to my lord?
διδάσκαλε, πότε οὖν ταῦτα ἔσται; ( Lk 21.7) Master, so when will these things
be?
Where there is no interrogative word and English uses inversion (are you
sick?) spoken Greek used some variation in tone to indicate a question,
as we can also do in English: you have been sick? In written Greek this is
shown by the punctuation: ἦλθες ὧδε πρὸ καιροῦ βασανίσαι ἡμᾶς; (Mt 8.29) did
you come here before [the right] time to torture us?
Questions not introduced by an interrogative can also be framed in such

a way as to invite (but not necessarily receive) a negative answer: you
didn’t say this, did you? or surely you didn’t say this? In Greek such a
question is prefixed with μή or μήτι:
μήτι συλλέγουσιν ἀπὸ ἀκανθῶν σταϕυλάς; (Mt 7.16) Surely they do not pick
bunches of grapes from thorn-bushes?
Jn 7.52) You too aren’t from Galilee, are you?
μὴ καὶ σὺ ἐκ τῆς Γαλιλαίας εἶ; (
(here the question is sarcastic; the Pharisees wish to imply that the
speaker could very well be a Galilean).
Sometimes, however, μή or μήτι is used to introduce what is simply a

hesitant question: μήτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ Χριστός; (Jn 4.29) Isn’t this the Anointed
One? Μήτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς Δαυίδ; (Mt 12.23) Isn’t this the son of David?
Translations often leave the exact nuance in questions introduced by μῄ/

μήτι to be implied. The AV, for example, translates Mt 7.16 by Do men
gather grapes of thorns?
We may also have a question which invites a positive answer: you did
say this, didn’t you? or surely you said this? In Greek such questions
begin with οὐ or οὐχί:
οὐχὶ καὶ οἱ ἐθνικοὶ τὸ αὐτὸ ποιοῦσιν; (Mt 5.47) Even (καί) the heathen do the
same thing, don’t they?
οὐχὶ δώδεκα ὧραί εἰσιν τῆς ἡμέρας; (Jn 11.9) There are twelve hours in the day,
aren’t there?
(b) Indirect questions
Indirect questions are another form of indirect speech (7.1/2) and are
expressed in Greek by a subordinate clause, just as in English. If the
original question began with an interrogative, this is kept. As with indirect
statement (8.1/4(a)) the tense of the original is also retained:
Mt 2.4) He asked of them where
ἐπυνθάνετο παῤ αὐτῶν ποῦ ὁ Χριστὸς γεννᾶται. (
the Anointed One was being born. (original ποῦ ὁ Χριστὸς γεννᾶται; where
is the Anointed One being born?)
If the original question did not contain an interrogative, its indirect form is
introduced by εἰ if (cf. the English he asked if I was sick; original are you
sick?):
Πιλᾶτος ἐπηρώτησεν εἰ ὁ ἄνθρωπος Γαλιλαῖός ἐστιν· (* Lk 23.6) Pilate asked if the
man was Galilean. (original ὁ ἄνθρωπος Γαλιλαῖός ἐστιν; is the man
Galilean?)
εἶπεν δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς πρὸς αὐτούς, Ἐπερωτῶ ὑμᾶς, εἰ ἔξεστιν τῷ σαββάτῳ ἀγαθοποιῆσαι ἢ
Lk 6.9) And Jesus said to them, ‘I ask you if it is permitted

κακοποιῆσαι. (
to do good or to do evil on the sabbath.’
Indirect questions can be introduced by ἐρωτάω (or its compound

ἐπερωτάω) and πυνθάνομαι both ask, inquire (αἰτέω is also to be translated
ask but it is used in the context of asking requests or favours).
Note
Just as a direct statement can be introduced by ὅτι (8.1/4(a) note 2) so a

direct question can be introduced by εἰ (example at 21.2.2); in these
cases neither ὅτι nor εἰ should be translated.
10.1/3 First and third declension adjectives
The masculine and neuter of adjectives in this category belong to the

third declension, but their feminine to the first. There are two classes:
a) Stems in υ
In this class the nom. s. ends in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ (always so accented). ταχύς
swift is declined:
b) Stems in ντ
This class contains only a few adjectives but very many participles
(12.1/1). The ντ of the stem is lost in all feminine forms and in the
masculine and neuter dat. pl. (cf. ἱμάς 5.1/1(b)). πᾶς all is declined:
Like πᾶς is declined its emphatic form ἅπας (which we must also translate
by all).
Notes
1 In the predicative position πᾶς means all: πᾶσαι αἱ γενεαί (Mt 1.17) all the
generations or all generations; πᾶσα ἡ Ἰουδαία (Mt 3.5) all Judea. In the
attributive position it means whole: ὁ πᾶς χρόνος (*Ac 20.18) the whole
time. Without the article it means every in the singular, but all in the
plural: πᾶσα βασιλεία (Mt 12.25) every kingdom; πάντες ἄνθρωποι (*Ac 22.15)
all men. Unfortunately these distinctions are not always rigidly observed.
πᾶςmay also stand alone: πᾶς ἔσται ὡς ὁ διδάσκαλος αὐτοῦ (Lk 6.40) everyone
will be as his teacher; καὶ ἔϕαγον πάντες (Mt 14.20) and all ate.
2 μέλας, μέλαινα, μέλαν black has a stem in ν (not ντ); gen. s. μέλανος, μελαίνης,
μέλανος; dat. pl. μέλασι(ν), μελαίναις, μέλασι(ν).
10.1/4 Third declension adjectives
Third declension adjectives are declined wholly within the third

declension and fall into two classes. In both, the masculine and feminine
have the same form.
a) Stems in εσ
This large class resembles neuter nouns in -ος (6.1/1(c)), as is most

obvious in the genitive and dative, where we find similar endings. ἀληθής
true (stem ἀληθεσ-) is declined:
ἀληθῆ, ἀληθεῖς are contractions of ἀληθέ(σ)α, ἀληθέ(σ)ες. ἀληθεῖς as acc. pl. (m.
and f.) is irregular – we would have expected ἀληθῆς (< -ε(σ)ας). The n. pl.
nom. and acc. ἀληθῆ are only an apparent exception to the rule given at
3.1/1 (cf. γένος: pl. γένη < γένεσ-α, 6.1/1(c)).
συγγενής related by family is used as a noun in the sense relative. Its

dative plural is irregular συγγενεῦσι(ν).
b) Stems in ον
These are declined like ἡγεμών (6.1/1(a)) in the masculine and feminine
forms; in the neuter the nom. and acc. ends in -ον in the singular and -ονα
in the plural. An example is σώϕρων sensible, modest:
Comparative adjectives in -ων (17.1/2(b)) are similarly declined, as well

as ἄϕρων foolish. ἄρσην male differs only in having ῃ/ε instead of ῳ/ο.
Insight
One of the stranger practices current in early Christianity was
that of residing on the top of a pillar (στῦλος), and a person who
did so was called a στυλίτης. The surface area on the top of a
pillar was extended by constructing a small platform and on this
the stylite endured the vagaries of the weather. It was
connected to the outside world by a ladder which was used to
supply the stylite with daily necessities. The first stylite was the
elder St. Symeon (d. AD 459), who, after finding other forms of
asceticism unsatisfactory, took up life on a low column. This he
extended vertically to avoid being touched by admirers and its
final height was sixteen metres. His example was followed
among eastern Christians and the pilgrims who visited stylites
proved to be a stimulus for local trade.
10.2 Greek reading

Starting with this unit no separate vocabularies will be given and you
should look up all unfamiliar words in the vocabulary at the end of the
book.
Mt 5.46)
1 οὐχὶ καὶ οἱ τελῶναι τὸ αὐτὸ ποιοῦσιν; (
2 καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Πόσους ἄρτους ἔχετε; ( Mt 15.34)

3 Τίς ἐστιν ἡ μήτηρ μου, καὶ τίνες εἰσὶν οἱ ἀδελϕοί μου; (Mt 12.48)
4 εἴ τις θέλει πρῶτος εἶναι ἔσται πάντων ἔσχατος καὶ πάντων διάκονος. ( Mk 9.35)
5 κατεδίωξεν αὐτὸν Σίμων καὶ οἱ με τ̓ αὐτοῦ, καὶ εὗρον αὐτὸν καὶ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ ὅτι
Πάντες ζητοῦσίν σε. ( Mk 1.36f.)
Ac 4.7)
6 ἐν ποίᾳ δυνάμει ἢ ἐν ποίῳ ὀνόματι ἐποιήσατε τοῦτο ὑμεῖς; (
7 μήτι ἡ πηγὴ ἐκ τῆς αὐτῆς ὀπῆς βρύει τὸ γλυκὺ καὶ τὸ πικρόν; (Js 3.11)
8 ἤρξαντο λέγειν αὐτῷ εἷς ἕκαστος, Μήτι ἐγώ εἰμι, κύριε; (Mt 26.22)
9 δεῖ οὖν τὸν ἐπίσκοπον ἀνεπίλημπτον εἶναι, μιᾶς γυναικὸς ἄνδρα, νηϕάλιον, σώϕρονα.
(1 Ti 3.2)
ἶ ἢ ἶ
10 τί γὰρ οἶδας, γύναι, εἰ τὸν ἄνδρα σώσεις; ἢ τί οἶδας, ἄνερ, εἰ τὴν γυναῖκα σώσεις; (1
Cor 7.16)
11 διδάσκαλε, οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἀληθὴς εἶ καὶ τὴν ὁδὸν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐν ἀληθείᾳ διδάσκεις. ( Mt
22.16)
12 θυγάτηρ μονογενὴς ἦν αὐτῷ ὡς ἐτῶν δώδεκα καὶ αὐτὴ ἀπέθνῃσκεν. ( Lk 8.42)

13 τίνα λέγουσιν οἱ ἄνθρωποι εἶναι τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; ( Mt 16.13)
14 τότε λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλᾶτος, Οὐκ ἀκούεις πόσα σου καταμαρτυροῦσιν; ( Mt 27.13)
15 ἐγὼ οἶδα ὅτι εἰσελεύσονται μετὰ τὴν ἄϕιξίν μου λύκοι βαρεῖς εἰς ὑμᾶς. (Ac 20.29)
16 ἐν δὲ τῷ πορεύεσθαι αὐτοὺς αὐτὸς εἰσῆλθεν εἰς κώμην τινά· γυνὴ δέ τις ὀνόματι Μάρθα
ὑπεδέξατο αὐτόν. ( Lk 10.38)

17 ξένος ἤμην καὶ οὐ συνηγάγετέ με, γυμνὸς καὶ οὐ περιεβάλετέ με, ἀσθενὴς καὶ ἐν
ϕυλακῇ καὶ οὐκ ἐπεσκέψασθέ με. (Mt 25.43)

18 κατ̓ ἐκεῖνον δὲ τὸν καιρὸν ἐπέβαλεν Ἡρῴδης ὁ βασιλεὺς τὰς χεῖρας κακῶσαί τινας τῶν
ἀπὸ τῆς ἐκκλησίας. (Ac 12.1)
19 Ταῦτα πάντα ἐλάλησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐν παραβολαῖς τοῖς ὄχλοις, καὶ χωρὶς παραβολῆς
οὐδὲν ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς. (Mt 13.34)

20 ὁ Ἰησοῦς λέγει αὐτοῖς, Οὐδὲ ἐγὼ λέγω ὑμῖν ἐν ποίᾳ ἐξουσίᾳ ταῦτα ποιῶ. ( Mk
11.33)
Notes
2 λέγει vivid present (2.1/5 note 2), as also in 14 and 20 below.
5 λέγουσιν vivid present (2.1/5 note 2) although two aorists precede – trans.
all three verbs by the English past.

6 Translate ποίᾳ what; ποίῳ ὀνόματι in what name is the equivalent of in
whose name.
7 ἡ πηγή because the definite article is used, a general class is meant
(2.1/2 note 1(ii)) – translate a fountain; with τὸ γλυκύ and τὸ πικρόν supply
ὕδωρ water.
8 ἤρξαντο is plural but the subject εἷς ἕκαστος is singular (agreement
according to the sense; each one indicates that a group is involved);

such grammatical irregularities are typical of the colloquial language of
the NT.
10 γύναι and ἄνερ are vocative; Paul is here saying that those in a mixed
marriage of a Christian and pagan should live peacefully together as one

might be the salvation of the other.
12 ἦν αὐτῷ lit. there was to him i.e. he had.
17 συνηγάγετε < συνάγω; with γυμνός and ἀσθενὴς καὶ ἐν ϕυλακῇ supply ἤμην I
was.
18 ἐπέβαλεν … τὰς χεῖρας lit. put his hands on i.e. set about (cf. the English
put his hand to).

20 The overall context shows that οὐδέ here means neither.
Main points
Both τίς (interrogative) and τις (indefinite) can be used as pronouns or
adjectives
Direct questions are introduced by an interrogative (as τίς who? ποῦ
where?) if appropriate; in other cases a direct question is indicated by the
punctuation
Indirect questions are also introduced by an interrogative if appropriate;
otherwise we have εἰ if
First and third declension adjectives decline their feminine form in the first
declension but their masculine and neuter in the third
Third declension adjectives have the same form for the masculine and
feminine
Unit 11
11.1 Grammar
11.1/1 Aorist passive, root aorist, and future passive
As noted above (8.1/1), the aorist passive and future passive differ in
form from the aorist middle and future middle. The stem of the aorist
passive is formed by adding θη to a form of the verbal root, and in λύω this
gives us λυθη (as the aorist is an historic tense the indicative requires the
augment ἐλυθη-). To this are added active endings (-ν, -ς, -, -μεν, -τε,
-σαν). This odd and confusing anomaly extends throughout all the aorist
passive. The indicative of the aorist passive is:
The form of the verbal root to which θη is added cannot always be

predicted from the present (or any other) stem; for this reason the aorist
passive is one of the parts of a Greek verb that must be learnt (7.1/1).
However, the following guidelines will be of help:
a) Most verbs with a present stem ending in a vowel or diphthong simply
add θη to this: λύω loosen, free > ἐλύθην I was freed, μνηστεύω betroth >
ἐμνηστεύθην I was betrothed. Two common verbs of this type add σθη: ἀκούω
hear > ἠκούσθην I was heard; κλείω shut > ἐκλείσθην (ἐκλείσθη ἡ θύρα the door
was shut). In regular contracted verbs the final vowel of the present stem
is lengthened in the same way as in the aorist active (5.1/2), e.g.
ἐπλανήθην I was led astray (πλανάω); ὠϕελήθην I was helped (ὠϕελέω);
ἐπληρώθην I was filled (πληρόω).
b) In both palatal and labial stems the final consonant of the stem is
assimilated to the θ of the aorist passive ending by becoming an aspirate,
i.e. κ and γ > χ; π and β > ϕ, (stems ending in χ and ϕ have no need to
change). An example of a palatal stem is ἐκηρύχθην I was announced
(κηρύσσω, stem κηρυκ-; verbs of this type have a present in -σσω, see
6.1/4( b)). An example of a labial stem is ἐπέμϕθην I was sent (πέμπω, stem
πέμπ-); some labial-stem verbs have a present in -πτω (6.1/4(b)), e.g.
ἀποκαλύπτω, stem ἀποκαλυπ-, aor. pass. ἀπεκαλύϕθην I was revealed.
c) In dental stems the final consonant (whether τ, δ or θ) becomes σ, e.g.

ἐπείσθην I was persuaded (πείθω, stem πειθ-); many dental stems have a
present in -ζω (6.1/4(b)), e.g. ἁγιάζω sanctify, stem ἁγιαδ-, aor. pass.
ἡγιάσθην I was sanctified.
A further complication is what we term the root aorist. In earlier Greek a

few verbs have an active aorist form which differs from both the weak
and strong aorist of other verbs, and this is called the root aorist because
the endings, which either are a single consonant or begin with a
consonant, are added directly to the basic stem (also known as the root)
of the verb. It differs from the other aorists in having neither suffix (σ as in
the weak aorist) nor link vowel as in both weak and strong aorist (α in
weak and ο/ε in strong). Some of these verbs survive in New Testament
Greek. Prominent examples are γινώσκω ascertain, know (root γνω-) and
compounds of -βαίνω go (root βη-). The active aorist of these verbs is as
1
follows:
ἔβηνis to be analysed as ἔ-βη-ν (augment + stem + ending). As with the

aorist passive the endings -ν, -ς, -, -μεν, -τε, -σαν are added to a stem
ending in a long vowel. All forms of the root aorist of these two verbs will
be found in Appendix 4.
A second class of aorist passive follows ἔβην and does not contain the
characteristic θ of ἐλύθην, but there is no difference in meaning. There are
fewer verbs of this type and they cannot be identified by their present
form. Examples are: ἐξεπλάγην I was astounded (ἐκπλήσσω); ἀπεστάλην I
was sent (ἀποστέλλω). For convenience, these forms are called root aorist
passives.
The future tense in Greek resembles the aorist in distinguishing between
the middle and passive. The future passive is formed by adding σ to the
stem of the aorist passive and then applying the same endings as for the
future (and present) middle. As the future is a primary tense there is no
augment, and from λύω we have a future passive stem λυθησ- (λυθη + σ-);
this is conjugated:
A future passive infinitive does not occur in the NT.
Notes
1 Some deponents are passive in both the future and the aorist, e.g.
κοιμάομαι sleep; fut. κοιμηθήσομαι; aor. ἐκοιμήθην. Others have a future
middle but an aorist passive, e.g. πορεύομαι go, travel; fut. πορεύσομαι; aor.
ἐπορεύθην. Others again show both middle and passive forms, e.g.
ἀποκρίνομαι answer; fut. ἀποκριθήσομαι; aor. ἀπεκρινάμην or ἀπεκρίθην (the
latter is by far the more common). βούλομαι wish has a passive aorist
ἐβουλήθην but its future does not occur in the NT. The difference between
the different types of deponents is simply one of form; all are active in
meaning.
2 The deponent δύναμαι be able (fut. δυνήσομαι; aor. ἐδυνήθην and ἠδυνήθην)
has α (not ο/ε) as a link vowel in the present tense: -αμαι, -ασαι, -αται, etc.,
not -ομαι -ῃ, -εται, etc. (a full treatment of its forms is given at 19.1/3).
3 Some aorist passives appear to defy classification, e.g. ἐτύθην < θύω
sacrifice; ἐτάϕην < θάπτω bury.

4 Compounds of -βαίνω which occur frequently are ἀναβαίνω go up, ἐμβαίνω
embark, καταβαίνω come/go down, συμβαίνω happen.
11.1/2 Agent and instrument
We have already met examples of both agent and instrument in the

reading (agent 8.2.20, instrument 6.2.20).
In English we can say the tax-collector was hit by a peasant and the tax-
collector was hit by (or with) a pitchfork but Greek makes a distinction
between agent (peasant) and instrument (pitchfork).
An agent is a living being and agency is normally expressed by ὑπό with

the genitive: ἐβαπτίσθη εἰς τὸν Ἰορδάνην ὑπὸ Ἰωάννου (Mk 1.9) he was baptized
in the Jordan by John. Sometimes ἀπό and διά (both with the genitive) are
used in the same sense: ἀπεστάλη ὁ ἄγγελος Γαβριὴλ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ (Lk 1.26)
the angel Gabriel was sent by God; πιστὸς ὁ θεὸς δἰ οὗ ἐκλήθητε εἰς κοινωνίαν
τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτου (1 Cor 1.9) faithful [is] God, by whom you were called into
the fellowship of his Son.
On the other hand, an instrument is nearly always inanimate. It may be

expressed by the dative alone; ἐγὼ ὕδατι βαπτίζω ὑμᾶς (Lk 3.16) I am
baptizing you with water. More commonly, however, ἐν with the dative is
used: ἐν αἵματι πάντα καθαρίζεται (Hb 9.22) everything is cleansed with
blood.
11.1/3 -ω verbs with stems in λ, ν, ρ
The present stem of most verbs of this type was originally formed with a y
suffix (6.1/4(b)). This combined with a preceding λ to give λλ; it
disappeared after ν and ρ, but a preceding α or ε was lengthened to αι or ει
respectively. These verbs have a contracted future (-ῶ < -έω; 5.1/2 note
3), and where a y suffix has been used in the present the future reverts to
the original stem (e.g. βάλλω throw, future stem βαλ-). In the weak aorist
(which occurs in all common verbs of this group, except βάλλω) the sigma
is dropped with a preceding α lengthened to η (if not following a vowel or

ρ) and a preceding ε to ει. The υ of stems in -υνω does not undergo any
change. The following table shows the different possibilities:

Notes
1 ἀποκτείνω has an alternative present form ἀποκτεννύω.
2 The aorist passive of verbs in -αίνω and -ύνω ends in -άνθην and -ύνθην, e.g.
ἐμεγαλύνθην (μεγαλύνὼ). Likewise, we have ἤρθην from αἴρω, but the aorist
passive of βάλλω and -στέλλω are irregular: ἐβλήθην, -εστάλην (the latter is a
root aorist passive).
3 ἐλαύνω drive and ϕέρω carry belong here but are highly irregular; see
Principal parts of verbs.

4 For verbs with a present stem in -αν such as λαμβάνω and μανθάνω see
7.1/1 note 4.
11.1/4 Third declension nouns – stems in ευ and ου
A number of masculine nouns end in -εύς (always so accented); most

involve male occupations, e.g. βασιλεύς king, ἱερεύς priest, ἀρχιερεύς high
priest, γραμματεύς doctor of law. The genitive and dative singular endings
are the same as for stems in ι (8.1/5). βασιλεύς is declined:
Μωϋσῆς Moses is declined as βασιλεύς (with two alternative forms): acc.

Μωϋσέα (or Μωϋσῆν), gen. Μωϋσέως, dat. Μωϋσεῖ (or Μωϋσῇ).
Four nouns end in -ους: βοῦς ox, νοῦς mind, πλοῦς voyage, χοῦς dust. βοῦς
may be masculine or feminine, depending on the sex of the animal; the
other three are masculine but follow βοῦς in their declension:
11.1/5 Crasis
Crasis (κρᾶσις mixing, blending) is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong
at the end of one word with a vowel at the beginning of the following
word. It can occur in the NT when the first word is καί or the definite
article, but it is not consistently applied. The two words are written
together and the contraction is marked by ̓ (technically called coronis but
identical in form with a smooth breathing). We find the following
examples with καί:
κἀγώ (καὶ ἐγώ) and I κἀκεῖθεν (καὶ ἐκεῖθεν) and from there
κἀμοί (καὶ ἐμοί) and to/for me κἀκεῖνος (καὶ ἐκεῖνος) and that man
κἀκεῖ (καὶ ἐκεῖ) and there κἄν (καὶ ἐάν) and if, even if
With the definite article we have only: τοὐναντίον (τὸ ἐναντίον) on the other
hand (lit. the opposite) and τοὔνομα (τὸ ὄνομα) by name (lit. the name).
Insight
Julian, commonly called the Apostate, was the Roman emperor
who during his brief reign (AD 361 to 363) attempted to
suppress Christianity, the officially recognised religion for the
previous thirty years. He was an accomplished scholar and on
one occasion he was presented with a petition from Greek
bishops anxious to preserve the rights of the Christian church.
After glancing over it Julian replied ἔγνων, ἀνέγνων, κατέγνων I
recognised [it], I read [it], I condemned [it], thus rivalling Julius
Caesar’s famous vēnī, vīdī, vīcī. On ἔγνων see 11.1/1.
11.2 Greek reading

1 οὐκ ἀνέγνωτε ἐν τῷ νόμῳ ὅτι οἱ ἱερεῖς ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ τὸ σάββατον βεβηλοῦσιν καὶ ἀναίτιοί
εἰσιν; (*Mt 12.5)

2 κύριε, τοὺς προϕήτας σου ἀπέκτειναν, τὰ θυσιαστήριά σου κατέσκαψαν, κἀγὼ
ὑπελείϕθην μόνος, καὶ ζητοῦσιν τὴν ψυχήν μου. (Ro 11.3)
3 λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν ὅτι δύναται ὁ θεὸς ἐκ τῶν λίθων τούτων ἐγεῖραι τέκνα τῷ Άβραάμ. ( Mt
3.9)
4 ἀπεκρίθη δὲ αὐτῷ ὁ κύριος καὶ εἶπεν, Ὑποκριταί, ἕκαστος ὑμῶν τῷ σαββάτῳ οὐ λύει
τὸν βοῦν αὐτοῦ ἢ τὸν ὄνον ἀπὸ τῆς ϕάτνης; (Lk 13.15)
5 νῦν μεγαλυνθήσεται Χριστὸς ἐν τῷ σώματί μου, εἴτε διὰ ζωῆς εἴτε διὰ θανάτου. (Phil
1.20)
6 τίς γὰρ ἔγνω νοῦν κυρίου; ἢ τίς σύμβουλος αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο; ( Ro 11.34)
7 τότε ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἀνήχθη εἰς τὴν ἔρημον ὑπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος, πειρασθῆναι ὑπὸ τοῦ
διαβόλου. ( Mt 4.1)
8 καὶ κατέβη ἡ βροχὴ καὶ ἦλθον οἱ ποταμοὶ καὶ ἔπνευσαν οἱ ἄνεμοι καὶ προσέκοψαν τῇ
οἰκίᾳ ἐκείνῃ, καὶ ἔπεσεν, καὶ ἦν ἡ πτῶσις αὐτῆς μεγάλη. (Mt 7.27)
9 τοῦτο οὖν λέγω καὶ μαρτύρομαι ἐν κυρίῳ, μηκέτι ὑμᾶς περιπατεῖν, καθὼς καὶ τὰ ἔθνη
περιπατεῖ ἐν ματαιότητι τοῦ νοὸς αὐτῶν. ( Eph 4.17)

Lk
10 ἐγένετο δὲ ἐν μιᾷ τῶν ἡμερῶν καὶ αὐτὸς ἐνέβη εἰς πλοῖον καὶ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ. (
8.22)
11 πολλοὶ ἐροῦσίν μοι ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, Κύριε κύριε, οὐ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι
ἐπρο ϕητεύσαμεν, καὶ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι δαιμόνια ἐξεβάλομεν, καὶ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι δυνάμεις

πολλὰς ἐποιήσαμεν; (Mt 7.22)
12 ἔμεινεν δὲ Μαριὰμ σὺν αὐτῇ ὡς μῆνας τρεῖς, καὶ ὑπέστρεψεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτῆς. (Lk
1.56)
13 ὅτε δὲ ἤγγισεν ὁ καιρὸς τῶν καρπῶν, ἀπέστειλεν τοὺς δούλους αὐτοῦ πρὸς τοὺς
γεωργοὺς λαβεῖν τοὺς καρποὺς αὐτοῦ. ( Mt 21.34)

14 Φωνὴ ἐν Ῥαμὰ ἠκούσθη, κλαυθμὸς καὶ ὀδυρμὸς πολύς. ( Mt 2.18)
15 ἔσται γὰρ ἀνάγκη μεγάλη ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς καὶ ὀργὴ τῷ λαῷ τούτῳ, καὶ πεσοῦνται
στόματι μαχαίρης καὶ αἰχμαλωτισθήσονται εἰς τὰ ἔθνη πάντα. ( Lk 21.23f.)

16 Οἱ δὲ ἕνδεκα μαθηταὶ ἐπορεύθησαν εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν εἰς τὸ ὄρος οὗ ἐτάξατο αὐτοῖς ὁ
Ἰησοῦς. ( Mt 28.16)
17 καὶ ἀπεκρίθησαν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ὅτι Πόθεν τούτους δυνήσεταί τις ὧδε
χορτάσαι ἄρτων ἐ π̓ ἐρημίας; (Mk 8.4)

18 ἀνέβη δὲ καὶ Ἰωσὴϕ ἀπὸ τῆς Γαλιλαίας ἐκ πόλεως Ναζαρὲθ εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν εἰς πόλιν
Δαυὶδ ἥτις καλεῖται Βηθλέεμ, διὰ τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸν ἐξ οἴκου καὶ πατριᾶς Δαυίδ. (Lk 2.4)
19 ἐγὼ χρείαν ἔχω ὑπὸ σοῦ βαπτισθῆναι, καὶ σὺ ἔρχῃ πρός με; (Mt 3.14)
20 ἐπὶ τῆς Μωϋσέως καθέδρας ἐκάθισαν οἱ γραμματεῖς καὶ οἱ Φαρισαῖοι. (Mt 23.2)
Notes
1 ἀνέγνωτε < ἀναγινώσκω.
2 κἀγώ crasis for καί ἐγώ (11.1/5).

3 ἐγεῖραι aor. act. inf. of ἐγείρω raise; trans. τῷ Άβραάμ for Abraham.
5 μεγαλυνθήσεται fut. pass. of μεγαλύνω.
7 ἀνήχθη aor. pass. ind. of ἀνάγω; πειρασθῆναι aor. pass. inf. of πειράζω.
8 κατέβη < καταβαίνω; ἔπνευσαν < πνέω; προσέκοψαν < προσκόπτω; ἦν ἡ πτῶσις αὐτῆς
μεγάλη presumably the house made a loud noise when it fell.

9 ἐν κυρίῳ in [the name of the] Lord; μηκέτι, not οὐκέτι, is used because it
qualifies the infinitive περιπατεῖν (8.1/3(c)); trans. νοός by the plural.

10 ἐγένετο etc. see 8.1/2(b); ἐν μιᾷ τῶν ἡμερῶν lit. on one of the days but trans.
one day; ἐνέβη < ἐμβαίνω.

11 ἐροῦσιν < λέγω; ἐπροϕητεύσαμεν the augment is not placed after προ-
because the verb προϕητεύω is not regarded as a compound but as formed
from προϕήτης prophet.
12 ἔμεινεν < μένω; ὑπέστρεψεν < ὑποστρέϕω.
13 ἤγγισεν < ἐγγίζω; ὁ καιρὸς τῶν καρπῶν trans. harvest time; λαβεῖν < λαμβάνω.
14 ἠκούσθη < ἀκούω.
15 αἰχμαλωτισθήσονται fut. pass. of αἰχμαλωτίζω; πεσοῦνται and

αἰχμαλωτισθήσονται are pl. but the understood subject is the singular
collective noun λαός (agreement according to the sense; cf. note on

10.2.8) – trans. they will fall … will be taken …
16 οὗ when.
17 χορτάζω takes the acc. of the person fed and the gen. of the food given;
trans. ἄρτων by the singular bread.

18 καί too, also the previous verse states that everyone was going to be
registered – Joseph too went; Δαυίδ is to be taken as genitive in both

places; trans. διὰ τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸν … as a clause because he was … (5.1/3).
19 βαπτισθῆναι aor. pass. inf.; only the second clause is a question.
20 γραμματεῖς used to be translated by scribes, which reflects the meaning
of the word in earlier Greek; in the NT the term refers to experts in Jewish
law who were associated with the high priests (ἀρχιερεῖς) and the elders
(πρεσβύτεροι) – it is better translated by doctors of law.
Main points
The aorist passive has active endings (-ν, -ς, (no ending), -μεν, -τε, -σαν)
Instead of a strong or weak aorist, a few verbs have a root aorist with the
same endings as the aorist passive; these root aorists are active in
meaning, e.g. ἔβην I went (< -βαίνω)
The future passive is formed from the stem of the aorist passive
An agent is expressed by ὑπό/ἀπό/διά + gen., an instrument by ἐν + dat. or
the dative without a preposition
Most verbs in λ, ν, ρ have a suffix in the present tense that hides their
basic stem (e.g. μιαίνω stain, basic stem μιαν-)
The declension of nouns in -εύς (as βασιλεύς) differs from that of other third
declension nouns
The declension of νοῦς mind, πλοῦς voyage, and χοῦς dust follows that of
βοῦς ox
Crasis can occur when καί or the definite article is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel or diphthong (as καὶ ἐγώ > κἀγώ)
1
A dash before a verb indicates that it only occurs in compounds in the NT; forms
in square brackets do not occur in the NT.
Unit 12
12.1 Grammar
12.1/1 Participles
Participles are those parts of verbs which function as adjectives. They

have tense (killing is present, going to kill future) and voice (killing is
active, being killed passive). In Greek there are participles for all three
voices in the present, future, and aorist (and also the perfect, 16.1/4),
and they use the same stem as the corresponding indicatives (but the
augment is dropped in the historic tenses). For the sake of completeness
the following table includes perfect participles, which can be ignored until
we treat these in 16.1/4.
ACTIVE
Present m. λύ-ων (gen. λύ-οντος), f. λύ-ουσα, n. λῦ-ον loosening
Future m. λύσ-ων (gen. λύσ-οντος), f. λύσ-ουσα, n. λῦσ-ον going to loosen,
about to loosen
Aorist m. λύσ-ας (gen. λύσ-αντος), f. λύσ-ασα, n. λῦσ-αν having loosened,
after loosening
Perfect m. λελυκ-ώς (gen. λελυκ-ότος), f. λελυκ-υῖα, n. λελυκ-ός (in a state
of) having loosened
MIDDLE
Present loosening for oneself
λυ-όμενος, -ομένη, -όμενον
Future λυσ-όμενος, -ομένη, -όμενον going to loosen for oneself, about to
loosen for oneself

Aorist λυσ-άμενος, -αμένη, -άμενον having loosened for oneself, after
loosening for oneself
Perfect λελυ-μένος, -μένη, -μένον (in a state of) having loosened for
oneself
PASSIVE
Present λυ-όμενος, -ομένη, -όμενον being loosened
Aorist m. λυθ-είς (gen. λυθ-έντος), f. λυθεῖσα, n. λυθέν having been
loosened, after being loosened
Perfect in a state of) having been loosened
λελυ-μένος, -μένη, -μένον (
All active participles, together with that of the aorist passive, are declined
like first and third declension adjectives (10.1/3). The declension of the
aorist active participle is identical with that of πᾶς (10.1/3(b)). The present
active and aorist passive are declined as follows:
All middle participles follow καλός (3.1/3). The present (and perfect)
participle passive has the same form as the middle. The future active
participle follows λύων.
Notes
1 The present participle of εἰμί (I am) is ὤν, which is div:
Its future participle is ἐσόμενος, -η, -ον (cf. 8.1/1 note 3); it has no other
participles.
2 In tenses where they differ from λύω, contracted verbs, verbs with a
contracted future, and verbs with stems in λ, ν, ρ form their participles

according to the rules already given for those tenses, e.g. the present
active participle of ϕιλέω is ϕιλῶν, -οῦσα, -οῦν; the aorist active participle of
μένω is μείν-ας, -ασα, -αν.
3 Strong aorists take the participial endings of the present (cf. 7.1/1), e.g.
active λαβών, -οῦσα, -όν; middle λαβόμενος (< λαμβάνω).

1
4 The participles of root aorists are similar to those of the weak aorist
active and the aorist passive:
ἔγνων (γινώσκω): m. γνούς (gen. γνόντος), f. γνοῦσα, n. γνόν.

-ἔβην (βαίνω): m. -βάς gen.
( -βάντος), f. -βᾶσα, n. -βάν cf.
( ἔστην
19.1/2).
5 The future passive participle occurs once in the NT (Hb 3.5 λαληθησομένων
[< λαληθησόμενος]) and can be ignored.
12.1/2 Uses of participles
The tense of a participle reflects the temporal relationship between the

action it expresses and that of the finite verb of its clause, e.g. οἱ μαθηταὶ
αὐτοῦ ἤρξαντο ὁδὸν ποιεῖν τίλλοντες τοὺς στάχυας (Mk 2.23) his disciples began
to make a journey [while] plucking ears of wheat; the participle τίλλοντες is

present because the action it describes happened at the same time as
that of the finite verb ἤρξαντο (in English we often add while to a participle
used in this way). Similarly an aorist participle can be used for an action
which took place before that of the main verb: καὶ ἐλθόντες πρὸς τοὺς μαθητὰς
εἶδον ὄχλον πολὺν περὶ αὐτοὺς καὶ γραμματεῖς συζητοῦντας πρὸς αὐτούς. (Mk 9.14)
and having come to the disciples they saw a large crowd around them
and doctors of law disputing with them; here ἐλθόντες is aorist because it
describes an action that occurred before that of the finite verb εἶδον, but
συζητοῦντας is present because the doctors of law were disputing with the
disciples when the new arrivals saw them.
However, the aorist participle can be used in another way, which involves
the concept of aspect (4.1/1). A type of expression frequently used in the
NT is ἀποκριθεὶς δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν πρὸς αὐτόν (Mt 3.15), which must be
translated and Jesus replying (or in reply) said to him as what Jesus went
on to say was in fact his reply; to understand the sentence as meaning
and Jesus having replied said to him would be contrary to the sense of
the passage. An aorist participle so used simply denotes the action itself;
the time when it occurred is shown by the finite verb of its clause. In the
sentence quoted above it is used because the writer, Matthew, regarded
the reply of Jesus as a single simple act, rather than a continuous one
(which would have required the present participles as τίλλοντες and
συζητοῦντας above). It is only from the context that we can distinguish
between the two functions of aorist participles.
For the future participle see below. The perfect participle will be treated at
16.1/4.
The negative used with participles is μή. The twenty or so exceptions in

the New Testament (where a participle is negated by οὐ) have been
explained in various ways but do not reflect any regular uses or
distinctions.
Bearing in mind that there is always a temporal relation between the

participle and the finite verb of its clause, we may describe the main uses
of participles as follows:
a) Adjective equivalent
Participles can function as ordinary adjectives and qualify a noun: ὁ
κοπιῶν γεωργός (*2 Tim 2.6) the hard-working farmer; Σίμων ὁ λεγόμενος
Πέτρος (Mt 10.2) Simon, the [so-] called Peter, i.e the one called Peter. A
participle used in this way may also take an accusative: ὁ πέμψας με πατήρ
(Jn 8.18) lit. the having-sent-me father, i.e. the father who sent me.
b) Noun equivalent
Participles can function as nouns in the same way as adjectives: ὁ
κλέπτων (Eph 4.28) lit. the stealing [person], i.e the thief. Here too the
participle may govern a word or phrase: ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ μαρτυρῶν περὶ ἐμαυτοῦ (Jn
8.18) lit. I am the witnessing-about-myself [person], i.e. I am one that
bears witness of myself. Both uses (a) and (b) are often to be translated
by an adjectival clause.
c) Adverbial clause equivalent
Participles can perform the same function as an adverbial clause, and
are often best translated as such. The two sentences given above could
be rendered his disciples began to make a journey while they were
plucking ears of wheat (οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ἤρξαντο ὁδὸν ποιεῖν τίλλοντες τοὺς
στάχυας) and when they had come to the disciples they saw … (ἐλθόντες
πρὸς τοὺς μαθητὰς εἶδον …). In both cases the participle indicates the time
when the action of the finite verb took place, and consequently if we
decide to translate by a clause, we shall use an adverbial clause of time
( temporal use). There are other possibilities. At Mt 1.19 Ἰωσὴϕ, … δίκαιος
ὢν καὶ μὴ θέλων αὐτὴν δειγματίσαι … a literal translation is Joseph, being just
and not wishing to expose her …; the context shows that the participle
phrases give the reason for Joseph’s intended action, and so we may
translate Joseph, because he was just and did not want to expose her…
(causal use). At Lk 9.25 τί γὰρ ὠϕελεῖται ἄνθρωπος κερδήσας τὸν κόσμον ὅλον
the literal meaning is for how is a man benefited having gained the the
whole world; here the participial phrase clearly expresses a condition and
the AV elegantly translates for what is a man advantaged if he gain the
whole world (conditional use). Finally, a participle can express a
concession: ἐλεύθερος ὢν ἐκ πάντων πᾶσιν ἐμαυτὸν ἐδούλωσα (*1 Cor 9.19), lit.
being free from everyone I enslaved myself to everyone. The sense
indicates that ἐλεύθερος ὢν ἐκ πάντων is a concession; although Paul was
without obligations to anyone he made himself the servant of everyone,
and we should translate although I was independent of everyone, I made
myself the servant of everyone (concessive use). This use is
occasionally reinforced by prefixing the participle with καίπερ although:
καίπερ ὢν υἱὸς (Hb 5.8) lit. although being a son, i.e. although he was a son.
d) The future participle (which is by no means common) can be used to

express purpose: εἰς Δαμασκὸν ἐπορευόμην ἄξων καὶ τοὺς ἐκεῖσε ὄντας (Ac 22.5) I
was travelling to Damascus in order to bring those there as well (lit. I was
travelling to Damascus going-to-bring those being there as well); on
other ways of expressing purpose see 13.1/3(b)(i). Elsewhere it refers to
something which is going to happen: ἰδόντες δὲ οἱ περὶ αὐτὸν τὸ ἐσόμενον … (Lk
22.49) and those around him, seeing what was going to happen (lit.
seeing the going-to-be [thing]).

e) Verbs of knowing and perceiving can be followed by a participle. In
English we have this construction with verbs of perceiving but not with
those of knowing:
Mt 24.30) They will see the Son of

ὄψονται τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐρχόμενον. (
Man coming. (ὄψονται < ὁράω, which counts as a verb of perceiving).

ἐθεώρουν τὸν Σατανᾶν ὡς ἀστραπὴν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανου πεσόντα. (Lk 10.18) I was
watching Satan falling like lightning from the sky.
ὖ
τίς γάρ ἐστιν ἀνθρώπων ὃς οὐ γινώσκει τὴν Ἐ ϕεσίων πόλιν νεωκόρον οὖσαν τῆς
μεγάλης Άρτέμιδος; (Ac 19.35) For what man is there who does not
know that the city of the Ephesians is guardian of mighty Artemis?

(lit. know the city of the Ephesians being guardian …).
… (Mk 5.30)
εὐθὺς ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐπιγνοὺς ἐν ἑαυτῷ τὴν ἐξ αὐτοῦ δύναμιν ἐξελθοῦσαν
Straightway Jesus, knowing in himself that the power had gone from
him … (lit. knowing the power having gone).
f) Genitive absolute
This construction (absolute here means independent), in its simplest
form, involves a noun or pronoun and a participle which are both in the
genitive case and which stand apart from (i.e. are grammatically
independent of) the rest of the sentence; there is, of course, a connection
in sense as otherwise there would be no point in putting the two together.
We have an absolute construction (the nominative absolute) in English.
Although it is a little clumsy, we can say the messengers of John having
gone away, he began to talk to the crowds. In Greek this is ἀπελθόντων τῶν
ἀγγέλων Ἰωάννου ἤρξατο λέγειν πρὸς τοὺς ὄχλους (*Lk 7.24); a better translation
would be when the messengers of John had gone away, etc. Genitive
absolutes are almost always to be translated by a clause. Other
examples are:
Lk 9.57) As they were
πορευομένων αὐτῶν ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ εἶπέν τις πρὸς αὐτόν. (
travelling on the road a certain [man] said to him.

ϕίου ἐνύσταξαν πᾶσαι καὶ ἐκάθευδον. (Mt 25.5) And when
χρονίζοντος δὲ τοῦ νυμ
the bridegroom failed to come, all [the maidens] became drowsy and
began to sleep.
When the subject of the participle in the genitive is a pronoun, it is

sometimes omitted: καὶ ἐλθόντων πρὸς τὸν ὄχλον προσῆλθεν αὐτῷ ἄνθρωπος (Mt
17.14) when [they] had come to the crowd a man came up to him (we
might have expected ἐλθόντων αὐτῶν). Often the subject of the participle is
mentioned elsewhere in the clause in another case: καταβάντος δὲ αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ
τοῦ ὄρους ἠκολούθησαν αὐτῷ ὄχλοι πολλοί (Mt 8.1) when he had come down
from the mountain many crowds followed him (ἀκολουθέω takes the dative,
15.1/1); here αὐτοῦ and αὐτῷ refer to the same person, viz. Jesus, and
according to strict grammar we should have καταβάντι δὲ αὐτῷ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄρους
ἠκολούθησαν ὄχλοι πολλοί (lit. … followed him having come down …).
g) Composite tenses
A composite tense is one formed with an auxiliary verb, and we have
many in English (I was going, we were praying). In the same way εἰμί be
is often combined with a participle as a substitute for the finite form of a
verb: ἦν γὰρ διδάσκων αὐτούς (Mt 7.29) for he was teaching them (ἦν διδάσκων
is the equivalent of the imperfect ἐδίδασκε).
Notes
1 Various expressions occur in the NT similar to ἀποκριθεὶς … εἶπεν
(discussed above) where the action expressed by the participle is
involved in the action of the finite verb. Most cases contain a verb of
saying and require some change in English, e.g. ἔγραψεν λέγων (Lk 1.63)
he wrote saying, i.e. he wrote as follows; εἶπεν μαρτυρήσας (Ac 13.22) he
spoke approving i.e. he said in approval.
2 We sometimes meet an accumulation of participles in one clause with no
connecting word between them, e.g. ποιήσας χρόνον τινὰ ἐξῆλθεν διερχόμενος
καθεξῆς τὴν Γαλατικὴν χώραν καὶ Φρυγίαν, ἐπιστηρίζων πάντας τοὺς μαθητάς (Ac
18.23) lit. after making [i.e. spending] a certain time he went out, going
successively through the Galatian country and Phrygia strengthening all

the disciples. English idiom requires us to break such a sentence up into
at least two clauses: after spending a certain time [there] (or after he had
spent a certain time [there]) he went out and travelled through the
Galatian country and Phrygia in succession, strengthening all the
disciples.
Insight
Each gospel gives a different version of the inscription put on
the cross when Christ was crucified.
Οὗτός ἐστιν Ἰησοῦς ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων. (Mt 27.37)
This is Jesus the king of the Jews

Ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων (Mk 15.26)
The king of the Jews

Ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων oὗτος (Lk 23.38)
This [is] the king of the Jews

Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων (Jn 19.19)
Jesus of Nazareth the king of the Jews

John adds that the inscription was written in Hebrew, Latin and
Greek (see 14.2.12 for John’s account). The letters INRI, which
appear on many representations of the crucifixion in
Renaissance and later art, represent IESUS NAZARENUS REX
IUDAEORUM, the Latin translation of John’s version as given
by the Vulgate (p. 177)
The variation between the gospels is no doubt due to the lapse
of time between the crucifixion and when they were composed.
The mocking title (ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων), which is common to all
four, was what stuck in people’s minds.
12.2 Greek reading

From this point the reading will include longer passages. Some of these
will contain sentences already given in previous reading exercises or as
illustrations of points of grammar.
1 ὑπάρχων πανοῦργος δόλῳ ὑμᾶς ἔλαβον. (2 Cor 12.16)
2 ἀνέβην προσκυνήσων εἰς Ἰερουσαλήμ. (Ac 24.11)
3 ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ νεανίσκος τὸν λόγον ἀπῆλθεν λυπούμενος, ἦν γὰρ ἔχων κτήματα πολλά.
(Mt 19.22)
4 Paul on the road to Damascus
ἐγένετο δέ μοι πορευομένῳ καὶ ἐγγίζοντι τῇ Δαμασκῷ περὶ μεσημβρίαν ἐξαί ϕνης ἐκ
τοῦ οὐρανοῦ περιαστράψαι ϕῶς ἱκανὸν περὶ ἐμέ, ἔπεσά τε εἰς τὸ ἔδαϕος καὶ ἤκουσα
ϕωνῆς λεγούσης μοι, Σαοὺλ Σαούλ, τί με διώκεις; ἐγὼ δὲ ἀπεκρίθην, Τίς εἶ, κύριε;
εἶπέν τε πρός με, Ἐγώ εἰμι Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὃν σὺ διώκεις. (Ac 22.6ff.)
5 The parable of the sower
ἐλάλησεν αὐτοῖς πολλὰ ἐν παραβολαῖς λέγων, Ἰδοὺ ἐξῆλθεν ὁ σπείρων τοῦ σπείρειν. καὶ
ἐν τῷ σπείρειν αὐτὸν ἃ μὲν (some [seeds]) ἔπεσεν παρὰ τὴν ὁδόν, καὶ ἐλθόντα τὰ
πετεινὰ κατέ ϕαγεν αὐτά. ἄλλα δὲ ἔπεσεν ἐπὶ τὰ πετρώδη ὅπου οὐκ εἶχεν γῆν πολλήν,
καὶ εὐθέως ἐξανέτειλεν διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν βάθος γῆς. ἡλίου δὲ ἀνατείλαντος ἐκαυματίσθη
καὶ διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν ῥίζαν ἐξηράνθη. ἄλλα δὲ ἔπεσεν ἐπὶ τὰς ἀκάνθας, καὶ ἀνέβησαν αἱ
ἄκανθαι καὶ ἔπνιξαν αὐτά. ἄλλα δὲ ἔπεσεν ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν τὴν καλὴν καὶ ἐδίδου
produced) καρπόν. (Mt 13.3ff.)

(
6 The widow’s mite
Άναβλέψας δὲ εἶδεν τοὺς βάλλοντας εἰς τὸ γαζο ϕυλάκιον τὰ δῶρα αὐτῶν πλουσίους.
εἶδεν δέ τινα χήραν πενιχρὰν βάλλουσαν ἐκεῖ λεπτὰ δύο, καὶ εἶπεν, Άληθῶς λέγω ὑμῖν
ὅτι ἡ χήρα αὕτη ἡ πτωχὴ πλεῖον πάντων ἔβαλεν· πάντες γὰρ οὗτοι ἐκ τοῦ περισσεύοντος
αὐτοῖς ἔβαλον εἰς τὰ δῶρα, αὕτη δὲ ἐκ τοῦ ὑστερήματος αὐτῆς πάντα τὸν βίον ὃν εἶχεν
Lk 21.1ff.)
ἔβαλεν. (
7 Paul sails for Rome
As the result of a dispute with the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem, Paul

was held prisoner by the Roman governor. Because he was a Roman
citizen Paul had the right to appeal to the Emperor, and when his request
to do so was granted he was dispatched under guard for Rome. He left in
the company of Luke, who, in the Acts of the Apostles, describes the
journey from Caesarea, the capital of the Roman province at the time.
There is a map of Paul’s journey inside the back cover of the

recommended edition of the NT.
Ὡς δὲ ἐκρίθη τοῦ ἀποπλεῖν ἡμᾶς εἰς τὴν Ἰταλίαν, παρεδίδουν ( they handed over)
τόν τε Παῦλον καί τινας ἑτέρους δεσμώτας ἑκατοντάρχῃ ὀνόματι Ἰουλίῳ σπείρης
Σεβαστῆς. ἐπιβάντες δὲ πλοίῳ Άδραμυττηνῷ μέλλοντι πλεῖν εἰς τοὺς κατὰ τὴν Άσίαν
τόπους ἀνήχθημεν, ὄντος σὺν ἡμῖν Άριστάρχου Μακεδόνος Θεσσαλονικέως· τῇ τε ἑτέρᾳ
κατήχθημεν εἰς Σιδῶνα, ϕιλανθρώπως τε ὁ Ἰούλιος τῷ Παύλῳ χρησάμενος ἐπέτρεψεν

πρὸς τοὺς ϕίλους πορευθέντι ἐπιμελείας τυχεῖν. κἀκεῖθεν ἀναχθέντες ὑπεπλεύσαμεν τὴν
ἶ
Κύπρον διὰ τὸ τοὺς ἀνέμους εἶναι ἐναντίους, τό τε πέλαγος τὸ κατὰ τὴν Κιλικίαν καὶ
Παμ ϕυλίαν διαπλεύσαντες κατήλθομεν εἰς Μύρα τῆς Λυκίας. κἀκεῖ εὑρὼν ὁ
ἑκατοντάρχης πλοῖον Άλεξανδρῖνον πλέον εἰς τὴν Ἰταλίαν ἐνεβίβασεν ἡμᾶς εἰς αὐτό. ἐν
ἱκαναῖς δὲ ἡμέραις βραδυπλοοῦντες καὶ μόλις γενόμενοι κατὰ τὴν Κνίδον, μὴ
προσεῶντος ἡμᾶς τοῦ ἀνέμου, ὑπεπλεύσαμεν τὴν Κρήτην κατὰ Σαλμώνην, μόλις τε
παραλεγόμενοι αὐτὴν ἤλθομεν εἰς τόπον τινὰ καλούμενον Καλοὺς Λιμένας, ᾧ ἐγγὺς
πόλις ἦν Λασαία. (Ac 27.1ff.)
Notes
1 The participial phrase ὑπάρχων πανοῦργος gives the reason for δόλῳ ὑμᾶς
ἔλαβον, and should be translated accordingly.
2 προσκυνήσων 12.1/2(d).
3 τὸν λόγον here refers to what had just been said, trans. this; ἦν … ἔχων
12.1/2(g).
4 The subject of ἐγένετο is ϕῶς (ἐγένετο is not used here in the way described
at 8.1/2); μοι πορευομένῳ etc. is dat. after ἐγένετο, for me travelling … a great
light happened to flash …, but the phrase should be translated by a
clause; ἀκούω takes the gen. of what is heard, hence ϕωνῆς.
5 ll.1f. ὁ σπείρων the sowing [man], i.e. the sower but trans. a sower – a
general class is meant (2.1/2 note 1(ii)) as the parable is about sowers
generally and what always happens in sowing a crop (likewise the article
with πετεινά, πετρώδη, ἀκάνθας and γῆν is not to be translated); τοῦ σπείρειν we
have already seen the infinitive used alone to express purpose (e.g.
9.2.19) but it may be preceded by τοῦ with the same meaning (13.1/3(b)
(i)); trans. ἐν τῷ σπείρειν αὐτόν by a clause (5.1/3, αὐτόν is the subject of the
infinitive); the seeds are not mentioned by name but simply referred to in
the neuter plural (ἅ, αὐτά, ἄλλα) – this is in keeping with the colloquial tone;
the neut. pl. subject (ἅ) is correctly followed by a singular verb ἔπεσεν
(2.1/2 note 3) – likewise we have the singular verbs κατέϕαγεν (<κατεσθίω),
εἶχεν (<ἔχω), ἐξανέτειλεν (<ἐξανατέλλω), etc., all of which are governed by a
neut. pl. subject; in the phrase ἃ μέν the neut. pl. relative pronoun (ἅ) is
the equivalent of the article (τά) when used as a pronoun (cf. ὁ δέ 5.1/3) –
here, in conjunction with μέν (15.1/2(b)), it introduces a slight contrast
with the three following instances of ἄλλα δέ, i.e. some [seed] … and other
[seed] … and other [seed again] etc. (on μὲν … δέ see 15.1.2(b)). l.4 The
subject of κατέϕαγεν is τὰ πετεινά; τὰ πετρώδη lit. the stoney [parts], i.e

stoney ground. ll.6f. διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν lit. on account of [them i.e. the seeds]
not having (the same construction occurs in the next sentence); ἡλίου …
ἀνατείλαντος (<ἀνατέλλω) gen. absolute 12.1/2f.
6 τινά trans. a (10.1/1); πάντων trans. than all (17.1/4(a)); ἐκ τοῦ περισσεύοντος
αὐτοῖς lit. from the [state of] being abundant for them i.e. from their
abundance, from their ample wealth (the neuter pple. τὸ περισσεῦον is used
as a noun); ἐκ τοῦ ὑστερήματος αὐτῆς in (lit. from) her poverty.
7 l.1 ὡς when; τοῦ is idiomatically used with the infinitive after ἐκρίθη (it was
decided) and can be ignored for purposes of translation; ἡμᾶς is the

subject of ἀποπλεῖν us to sail i.e. that we sail. l.3 ὀνόματι by name; Ἰουλίῳ is
in apposition to ἑκατοντάρχῃ and hence in the same case; σπείρης Σεβαστῆς
of the Imperial cohort the unit of the Roman army to which Julius
belonged. l.7 τῷ Παύλῳ is governed by χρησάμενος (<χράομαι) and ἐπέτρεψεν
(<ἐπιτρέπω; both verbs take the dat.). ll.8f. πορευθέντι agrees with τῷ Παύλῳ;
take ἐπιμελείας with τυχεῖν (which takes the gen., 15.1/1); κἀκεῖθεν = καὶ
ἐκεῖθεν (crasis 11.1/5 cf. κἀκεῖ in l.12); ἀναχθέντες aor. pass. pple. of ἀνάγω;
ὑπεπλεύσαμεν (<ὑποπλέω) they sail to the east of Cyprus to avoid the strong
westerly winds. l.10 The τε of τό τε πέλαγος joins the clause which begins
here with the preceding one. l.12 εἰς Μύρα τῆς Λυκίας lit. to Myra of Lycia,
i.e. at Myra in Lycia. l.13 Take πλέον (<πλέω) with πλοῖον. l.14 δέ can be put
after the second word when the first word is a preposition. l.15 γενόμενοι
κατὰ τὴν Κνίδον getting to; προσεῶντος < προσεάω.
Main points
Participles are the parts of verbs that function as adjectives
Participles have tense (present, future, aorist, perfect) and voice
Participles use the same stem as the indicative but drop the augment in
the aorist
Active participles and aorist passive participles are declined as first and
third declension adjectives; other participles are declined as first and
second declension adjectives
When preceded by the definite article participles are used as nouns
Participles are used to show a temporal relationship, a cause, etc.
The genitive absolute consists of a noun or pronoun and a participle
12.3 Excursus
The Septuagint
Ptolemy Philadelphus (308–246 BC), the second Greek king of Egypt, did
much to foster Greek culture in the alien environment where he ruled,
and one of his most significant initiatives was to found the famous library
at Alexandria. In the course of building up its holdings he commissioned
the librarian to obtain for the library a Greek translation of the
Pentateuch, the first five books of what we now call the Old Testament;
perhaps his motive was to win the support of his Jewish subjects.
According to an early account the librarian applied to the high priest at
Jerusalem for scholars to do the work and was sent seventy-two, who
completed the task in seventy-two days. Whatever the truth of this, the
translation of the remainder of the Hebrew scriptures was continued in
subsequent generations and by the beginning of the Christian era there
existed a Greek version of the whole. The work came to be known as the
Ἑβδομήκοντα Seventy (the English name, Septuagint, comes from the
Latin septuaginta seventy); this appears to be a distorted folk memory of

the number of scholars originally employed. A story subsequently
became current that of these seventy thirty knew Greek but not Hebrew,
thirty Hebrew but not Greek, while the remaining ten were administrators
with no knowledge of either language. This slander may have been
prompted by the colloquial nature of the Septuagint’s language.
As would be expected given its history, the Septuagint shows variations

in style and methods of translation; some sections are a free rendering,
while others are overlaid with Hebrew idioms and expressions in an
attempt to give a close translation of the original. Its language is the
Greek koine (see 1.3) of the three centuries before the beginning of the
Christian era, and is very close to that of the New Testament.
The Septuagint played an important part in Jewish communities which

had developed beyond the traditional boundaries of Palestine and which
had forgotten their ancestral language, Hebrew. With the rise of
Christianity early Christians also had this version to read if they wished to
consult the Hebrew scriptures, and it is the source of the many quotations
from the Old Testament in the Gospels. Jewish scholars, however, were
exasperated by the use made by this new sect of what was only a
translation of their holy writings and finally rejected it as inadequate, but
the Septuagint continued to be used in eastern Christianity. The western
church, centred on Rome, adopted the Latin translation of St Jerome (c.
AD 400) which, together with his translation of the New Testament, forms
the Vulgate (see 17.3). The Septuagint remains the version of the Old
Testament used by the Greek Orthodox Church.
The Septuagint contains more than what is accepted today as the Old
Testament. The extra material, known as the Old Testament Apocrypha
(from ἀπόκρυϕος hidden, spurious), was rejected by Protestants at the time
of the Reformation because no original existed in the canonical form of

the Hebrew Bible (it is interesting that the Hebrew text of some parts of
the Apocrypha has been discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls). Despite its
lack of authority, the Apocrypha contains passages of considerable
literary merit; perhaps the most famous is from Ecclesiasticus (44.1ff.)
Let us now praise famous men and our fathers that begat us, etc.
1
Unlike the present active participle, the strong aorist active participle is always
accented on the first syllable of its ending, hence λαμβάνων (pres.) but λαβών (aor.).
Unit 13
13.1 Grammar
13.1/1 Moods of the Greek verb
All finite forms of the Greek verb can be classified according to mood. Up
to now we have dealt only with the indicative, the mood used for facts.
There are three other moods, the imperative, which expresses
commands (17.1/1), and the subjunctive and optative.
The original distinction between the subjunctive and optative appears to

have been between what is willed or expected (subjunctive) and what is
desired or considered possible (optative); for example, in a main clause
the subjunctive can express the will of the speaker, e.g. ἄγωμεν (pres.
subj. act. of ἄγω) ἀλλαχοῦ εἰς τὰς ἐχομένας κωμοπόλεις (Mk 1.38) let us go
elsewhere to the neighbouring towns, while the optative can express the
speaker’s wish, e.g. ὁ δὲ θεὸς τῆς ἐλπίδος πληρώσαι (aor. opt. act. of πληρόω)
ὑμᾶς πάσης χαρᾶς (Ro 15.13) and may the God of hope fill you with every
joy! Both are used in subordinate clauses but in ways that go far beyond
any original meaning.
In English we still possess some single-word subjunctive forms (be that

as it may; if I were you). Apart from these few relics, we use auxiliary
verbs (let, may, would etc.) for uses covered by the subjunctive (and
optative) in Greek.
In earlier times both subjunctive and optative were an integral part of

Greek, but in the Koine of the first century AD the latter was almost
extinct, surviving only in a few fossilized expressions and in writers with
literary pretensions. It occurs sixty-seven times in the NT (mainly in Luke
and Acts) but a significant proportion of these consists of the time-
honoured clichés γένοιτο may it happen and μὴ γένοιτο may it not happen.
As a result the total number of different optative forms found in the NT is
small.
13.1/2 Subjunctive mood
The subjunctive exists in the present and aorist (and perfect, 16.1/4
note). There is only one set of endings, which are applied to the present
and aorist stems (the latter without the augment). The endings are
formed by lengthening all the initial short vowels (even when the first
element of a diphthong) of the present indicative endings:
Active: -ω, -ῃς, -ῃ, -ωμεν, -ητε, -ωσι(ν).
Middle and passive: -ωμαι, -ῃ, -ηται, -ωμεθα, -ησθε, -ωνται.
Note that in ου > ω (3rd pl. act.) the second element of the diphthong
disappears. As in all its other forms, the aorist passive has active
endings.
The subjunctive forms of λύω are:
In the present subjunctive of contracted verbs the rules of contraction

apply as for the indicative (5.1/2). Paradigms will be found in Appendix
2.
The endings for the subjunctive are classified as primary (4.1/1 note 1
and 8.1/1(c); we have -σι(ν) in the 3rd pl. act., -μαι in the 1st s. mid./pass.,
etc.).
Notes
1 The indicative and subjunctive coincide in a few forms, e.g. λύω, τιμῶ,
τιμᾷς.
2 Strong aorists and root aorists have the normal subjunctive endings,
except for the root aorist ἔγνων (< γινώσκω), whose subjunctive is γνῶ,
γνῷς, γνῷ, γνῶμεν, γνῶτε, γνῶσι(ν) (cf. the present and aorist subjunctive
active of δίδωμι, 18.1/2).
3 The subjunctive of εἰμί is identical with the endings of the present
subjunctive of λύω, viz. ὦ, ᾖς, ᾖ, ὦμεν, ἦτε, ὦσι(ν).

4 The difference between the present and aorist subjunctive is one of
aspect, not time, just as with infinitives (4.1/1).
13.1/3 Uses of the subjunctive (1)
The subjunctive is used in both main and subordinate clauses; the latter
use is far more common than the former.
a) Subjunctive in main clauses
i The jussive subjunctive (negated by μή) is used for giving orders but,
( )
because we also have the imperative (17.1/1), its use is limited. In the
first person plural (the singular is possible but not as common) it
expresses self-exhortation or self-encouragement: ϕάγωμεν καὶ πίωμεν,
αὔριον γὰρ ἀποθνῄσκομεν (1 Cor 15.32) let us eat and drink for tomorrow
we die. The use of the second and third persons of the jussive
subjunctive complements the imperative mood in the aorist. Both are
treated at 17.1/1.
(ii) The deliberative subjunctive (negated by μή) is used exclusively in
questions and indicates the uncertainty of the speaker about the future
and what should be done (in English we use the verb to be followed by
an infinitive): τί ϕάγωμεν; τί πίωμεν; τί περιβαλώμεθα; (*Mt 6.31) what are
we to eat? what are we to drink? what are we to clothe ourselves in?
(iii) A strong denial is expressed by οὐ μή and the subjunctive: οὐ μὴ
εἰσέλθητε εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν (Mt 5.20) you shall not enter into the
kingdom of heaven.
b) Subjunctive in subordinate clauses
In uses (i) and (ii) the verb in the subjunctive can be literally translated by
may or might. In (iii) it is to be translated by an indicative in English:
i Purpose clauses
( )
These can be expressed by ἵνα or ὅπως (both conjunctions meaning in

order that, so that) and the subjunctive. The negative is μή
2
(sometimes a negated purpose clause is introduced by μή alone).

Mt 19.16) Master, what
Διδάσκαλε, τί ἀγαθὸν ποιήσω ἵνα σχῶ ζωὴν αἰώνιον; (
good shall I do so that I may gain eternal life? (σχῶ 1st s. aor. subj.
act. of ἔχω)
τ̓ αὐτοῦ ὅπως αὐτὸν ἀπολέσωσιν.
ἐξελθόντες δὲ οἱ Φαρισαῖοι συμβούλιον ἔλαβον κα
(Mt 12.14) And the Pharisees went out and took counsel against
him so that they might destroy him. (ἀπολέσωσιν 3rd pl. aor. subj.
act. of ἀπόλλυμι)
ἔρχεται ὁ διάβολος καὶ αἴρει τὸν λόγον ἀπὸ τῆς καρδίας αὐτῶν, ἵνα μὴ
Lk 8.12) The devil comes and takes the word

πιστεύσαντες σωθῶσιν. (
from their hearts so that they are not saved [by] believing. (σωθῶσιν
3rd pl. aor. subj. pass. of σῴζω)
As we have already seen in the reading exercises, Greek, like English,

can use an infinitive to express purpose: ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου οὐκ ἦλθεν
διακονηθῆναι ἀλλὰ διακονῆσαι (Mt 20.28) the Son of Man did not come to be
served but to serve; other examples occur at 9.2.19 (μισθώσασθαι),

11.2.7 (πειρασθῆναι), 11.2.13 (λαβεῖν). Sometimes an infinitive used in
this way is preceded by τοῦ with no difference in meaning: μετέβη ἐκεῖθεν

τοῦ διδάσκειν καὶ κηρύσσειν ἐν ταῖς πόλεσιν αὐτῶν (Mt 11.1) he went from there
to instruct and preach in their cities (another example at 12.2.5). The

infinitive may also be introduced by εἰς τό or πρός τό: πάντα τὰ ἔργα αὐτῶν
ποιοῦσιν πρὸς τὸ θεαθῆναι (*Mt 23.5) they do all their works [in order] to be
seen (another example at 5.2.11).

(ii) Other subordinate clauses expressed by ἵνα and the subjunctive
Verbs of wishing, requesting, encouraging and some verbs of

ordering are followed by ἵνα and the subjunctive (on verbs of ordering
see also 7.1/4). Here the ἵνα clause is to be translated by an infinitive
phrase (or occasionally a that clause).
Jn 4.47) He
ἀπῆλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν καὶ ἠρώτα ἵνα καταβῇ καὶ ἰάσηται αὐτοῦ τὸν υἱόν (
went out to him and asked him to go down and heal his son. (καταβῇ
3rd s. aor. subj. of καταβαίνω; ἰάσηται 3rd s. aor. subj. of ἰάομαι)
Mk 6.8) He
παρήγγειλεν αὐτοῖς ἵνα μηδὲν ἄρωσιν εἰς ὁδὸν εἰ μὴ ῥάβδον μόνον. (
ordered them to take nothing for the journey except a staff.

(παραγγέλλω takes the dative, 15.1/1(b); we could translate that they
take …; ἄρωσιν 3rd pl. aor. subj. act. of αἴρω)

Explanatory ἵνα is used to explain, or give more information about,
what precedes: τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ ἔργον τοῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα πιστεύητε εἰς ὃν ἀπέστειλεν
ἐκεῖνος (Jn 6.29) this is the work of (i.e. required by) God [namely] that
you should believe in him whom he sent.
Consecutive ἵνα gives the consequence or result: τίς ἥμαρτεν, οὗτος ἢ οἱ

γονεῖς αὐτοῦ, ἵνα τυϕλὸς γεννηθῇ; (Jn 9.2) who sinned, this man or his
parents, that he should be born blind? The dividing line between this
use and purpose clauses is blurred and some examples have been
interpreted in both ways; is the meaning of ἦν ἐκεῖ ἕως τῆς τελευτῆς
Ἡρῴδου, ἵνα πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν ὑπὸ κυρίου (Mt 2.15) he was there until the
death of Herod, so that the word of the Lord (lit. the [thing] said by the
Lord) was fulfilled … (result), or does it mean so that the word of the
Lord should be fulfilled … (purpose)? We cannot decide on linguistic
grounds. (On consecutive expressions see also 16.1/1.)
13.1/4 Optative mood and its uses

a) Optative in main clauses
The optative to express a wish is the use most frequently found in the NT
(negated by μή). Apart from μὴ γένοιτο may it not happen! (a favourite
expression of Paul) we may instance:

Ὁ δὲ κύριος κατευθύναι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας εἰς τὴν ἀγάπην τοῦ θεοῦ. (2 Th 3.5) And
may the Lord direct your hearts towards the love of God. (κατευθύναι 3
s. aor. opt. act. of κατευθύνω).
The potential optative (negated by οὐ) expresses something that could

happen and is accompanied by the particle ἄν (see 18.1/4):
Ac 17.18) What would this chatterer
τί ἂν θέλοι ὁ σπερμολόγος οὗτος λέγειν; (
want to say? (θέλοι 3 s. pres. opt. act. of θέλω).

b) Optative in subordinate clauses
In indirect speech introduced by a verb in a historic tense (he said that …;
he asked if … etc.) it was optional in the older language for all finite verbs
to be put into the optative. A few examples of this occur in the writings of
Luke (both in his gospel and Acts). There is no change in sense, and
optatives of this sort are to be translated as indicatives:
ὗ
Lk
ἡ δὲ ἐπὶ τῷ λόγῳ διεταράχθη καὶ διελογίζετο ποταπὸς εἴη ὁ ἀσπασμὸς οὗτος. (
1.29) And she was perplexed by the statement and wondered what
sort of greeting this was. (εἴη 3 s. pres. opt. of εἰμί; instead of εἴη we
could have ἐστί; on the tense see 10.1/2(b).)
Because of the extremely limited use of the optative there is obviously no

point in giving full paradigms as the vast majority of possible forms are
not found in the NT. A complete list of the forms that do occur is given
below. A characteristic of the optative is that all endings contain a
diphthong with an iota as its second element (αι, ει, οι, ῳ). Forms marked
with asterisks occur more than once; those marked with two asterisks
should be committed to memory.
Of these twenty-seven forms three come from -μι verbs (εἴη, δῴη, ὀναίμην);
there are none from the present tense of contracted verbs. The endings
of the optative are historic (8.1/1(c)), hence -μην and -(ν)το in the middle.
Further knowledge of this mood is not necessary to read the NT, but the
curious will find full tables in any grammar of classical Greek.
Insight
The Nicene creed is a statement of fundamental Christian
beliefs. It was issued at an ecumenical council held by
Constantine I in AD 325 at Nicaea, a city in what is now north-
western Turkey. The purpose of the council was to combat a
heresy that had been advanced by a contemporary priest,
Arius. The latter was excommunicated and the creed became
established doctrine throughout the Christian world. However,
further trouble lay ahead. The creed had been written in Greek
but the western church, which was centred on Rome, used a
Latin translation. At a council in AD 589 held at Toledo in Spain
an alteration was made to the Latin version. Where the Greek
had πιστεύομεν … εἰς τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον … τὸ ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς
ἐκπορευόμενον we believe in the Holy Ghost who proceeds (lit. the
[one] proceeding; on ἐκπορευόμενον see 12.1/1) from the Father
the Latin now had crēdō … in spīritum sanctum … quī ex

patre fīliōque prōcēdit I believe in the Holy Ghost who
proceeds from the Father and [from] the Son. The addition of
fīliōque and [from] the Son remained in the accepted version of
the West. When the eastern church learnt of this it was
appalled. Councils were held on each side to condemn the
other. The Greeks eventually gave way at a conference held at
Florence in 1438-9 in order to gain western aid against the
Turkish menace, but when Constantinople fell to the Turks in
1453 the eastern church returned to its previous position.
13.2 Greek reading

Ro 6.15)
1 Τί οὖν; ἁμαρτήσωμεν ὅτι οὐκ ἐσμὲν ὑπὸ νόμον ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ χάριν; μὴ γένοιτο. (
Mt 24.35)
2 ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ παρελεύσεται, οἱ δὲ λόγοι μου οὐ μὴ παρέλθωσιν. (
3 Τότε πορευθέντες οἱ Φαρισαῖοι συμβούλιον ἔλαβον ὅπως αὐτὸν παγιδεύσωσιν ἐν λόγῳ.
(Mt 22.15)
Mt 8.8)
4 Κύριε, οὐκ εἰμὶ ἱκανὸς ἵνα μου ὑπὸ τὴν στέγην εἰσέλθῃς. (
5 τοῦτο γάρ ἐστιν τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πατρός μου, ἵνα πᾶς ὁ θεωρῶν τὸν υἱὸν καὶ πιστεύων εἰς
αὐτὸν ἔχῃ ζωὴν αἰώνιον. ( Jn 6.40)

6 νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας ἐργαζόμενοι πρὸς τὸ μὴ ἐπιβαρῆσαί τινα ὑμῶν ἐκηρύξαμεν εἰς ὑμᾶς
τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ θεοῦ. (1 Th 2.9)

7 Καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ὀψίας γενομένης, Διέλθωμεν εἰς τὸ πέραν. ( Mk
4.35)
8 οὐ γὰρ ἀπέστειλεν ὁ θεὸς τὸν υἱὸν εἰς τὸν κόσμον ἵνα κρίνῃ τὸν κόσμον, ἀλ λ̓ ἵνα σωθῇ ὁ
κόσμος δἰ αὐτοῦ. ( Jn 3.17)
9 εἶπεν τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ ἵνα πλοιάριον προσκαρτερῇ αὐτῷ διὰ τὸν ὄχλον ἵνα μὴ
θλίβωσιν αὐτόν. ( Mk 3.9)

10 ὑμεῖς δέ, ἀδελϕοί, οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει, ἵνα ἡ ἡμέρα ὑμᾶς ὡς κλέπτης καταλάβῃ, πάντες
γὰρ ὑμεῖς υἱοὶ ϕωτός ἐστε καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας. οὐκ ἐσμὲν νυκτὸς οὐδὲ σκότους. (1 Th 5.4f.)
11 ἡ δὲ γυνὴ ἦν Ἑλληνίς, Συροϕοινίκισσα τῷ γένει· καὶ ἠρώτα αὐτὸν ἵνα τὸ δαιμόνιον
ἐκβάλῃ ἐκ τῆς θυγατρὸς αὐτῆς. (Mk 7.26)
12 ὄϕεις, γεννήματα ἐχιδνῶν, πῶς ϕύγητε ἀπὸ τῆς κρίσεως τῆς γεέννης; (Mt 23.33)
13 The mob demands that Jesus be crucified
λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Πιλᾶτος, Τί οὖν ποιήσω Ἰησοῦν τὸν λεγόμενον Χριστόν; λέγουσιν
πάντες, Σταυρωθήτω ( let him be crucified). ὁ δὲ ἔϕη, Τί γὰρ κακὸν ἐποίησεν; οἱ δὲ

περισσῶς ἔκραζον λέγοντες, Σταυρωθήτω. ἰδὼν δὲ ὁ Πιλᾶτος ὅτι οὐδὲν ὠϕελεῖ ἀλλὰ
μᾶλλον θόρυβος γίνεται, λαβὼν ὕδωρ ἀπενίψατο τὰς χεῖρας ἀπέναντι τοῦ ὄχλου λέγων,
Άθῷός εἰμι ἀπὸ τοῦ αἵματος τούτου· ὑμεῖς ὄψεσθε. καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς πᾶς ὁ λαὸς εἶπεν, Τὸ
ϕ̓ ἡμᾶς καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ τέκνα ἡμῶν. τότε ἀπέλυσεν αὐτοῖς τὸν Βαραββᾶν, τὸν δὲ
αἷμα αὐτοῦ ἐ
Ἰησοῦν ϕραγελλώσας παρέδωκεν (handed over) ἵνα σταυρωθῇ. (Mt 27.22ff.)
14 Lazarus
Ἦν δέ τις ἀσθενῶν, Λάζαρος ἀπὸ Βηθανίας, ἐκ τῆς κώμης Μαρίας καὶ Μάρθας τῆς
ἀδελ ϕῆς αὐτῆς. ἦν δὲ Μαριὰμ ἡ ἀλείψασα τὸν κύριον μύρῳ καὶ ἐκμάξασα τοὺς πόδας
αὐτοῦ ταῖς θριξὶν αὐτῆς, ἧς ὁ ἀδελϕὸς Λάζαρος ἠσθένει. ἀπέστειλαν οὖν αἱ ἀδελϕαὶ πρὸς
αὐτὸν λέγουσαι, Κύριε, ἴδε ὃν ϕιλεῖς ἀσθενεῖ. ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν, Αὕτη ἡ
ἀσθένεια οὐκ ἔστιν πρὸς θάνατον ἀλλ̓ ὑπὲρ τῆς δόξης τοῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα δοξασθῇ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ
θεοῦ δἰ αὐτῆς. ἠγάπα δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς τὴν Μάρθαν καὶ τὴν ἀδελϕὴν αὐτῆς καὶ τὸν Λάζαρον.
ὡς οὖν ἤκουσεν ὅτι ἀσθενεῖ, τότε ἔμεινεν ἐν ᾧ ἦν τόπῳ δύο ἡμέρας· ἔπειτα μετὰ τοῦτο
λέγει τοῖς μαθηταῖς, Ἅγωμεν εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν πάλιν. λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταί,
Ῥαββί, νῦν ἐζήτουν σε λιθάσαι οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι, καὶ πάλιν ὑπάγεις ἐκεῖ; (* Jn 11.1–8)
Notes
1 ἁμαρτήσωμεν (<ἁμαρτάνω) deliberative subj. (13.1/3(a)(ii)).
2 παρελεύσεται singular because it agrees with the closer subject; οὐ μή
13.1/3(a)(iii).
6 νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας gen. of time within which (7.1/6(c)); πρός introduces a
phrase of purpose; τινά is the object of the infinitive ἐπιβαρῆσαι.

7 λέγει vivid present, trans. he said (also in 13 and 14); ὀψίας γενομένης gen.
absolute (12.1/2(f)), lit. evening having become, i.e. when it had become
evening; διέλθωμεν jussive subj. (13.1/3(a)(i)).
8 ἀπέστειλεν < ἀποστέλλω; σωθῇ < σῴζω.
9 εἶπεν the following construction (ἵνα + subj.) shows that the verb is used
here in the sense of tell [someone to do something], order (13.1/3(b)(ii));
πλοιάριον is the subject of the ἵνα clause.
10 The ἵνα clause expresses what would happen if the people addressed
were in fact in the dark – it should be translated by a phrase for the day to
catch you …
12 ϕύγητε deliberative subj. (13.1/3(a)(iii)), trans. are you to flee?
13 l.1 ποιήσω could be either fut. (what shall I do with …) or aor. subj. (what
am I to do with …). l.3 γάρ has the sense of well [granted that this is what
you want], what wrong etc.; ἔκραζον inceptive impf. (4.1/1 note 3) started
to shout. l.4 οὐδὲν ὠϕελεῖ lit. he was accomplishing nothing (on the tense of
ὠϕελεῖ and γίνεται see 8.1/4(a)). l.5 γίνεται lit. was being born, i.e. was
starting. l.7 ὑμεῖς ὄψεσθε lit. you will see [to it yourselves], an idiomatic
expression meaning it is your business.
14 l.3 ἐκμάξασα < ἐκμάσσω. l.4 ἀπέστειλαν < ἀποστέλλω. l.5 ὃν ϕιλεῖς the
antecedent is not expressed (9.1/2 note 2), trans. [the man] whom …
ll.6f. οὐκ ἔστιν πρὸς θάνατον lit. is not towards death a condensed expression
for is not leading/extending up to death, i.e will not cause his death. l.8 δἰ
αὐτῆς i.e. the sickness (ἀσθένεια is feminine, and a pronoun referring back
to it must also be feminine); ἠγάπα because in English we use the verb

love for an emotion extending over a period, we can translate the impf. by
loved, rather than was loving. l.9 οὖν here has the rarer sense of however.
l.10 ἐν ᾧ ἦν τόπῳ lit. in what place he was, i.e. in the place where he was
(9.1/4 note 4).
Main points
In addition to the indicate Greek also has a subjunctive, optative and
imperative mood
The subjunctive mood in main clauses expresses an order, an uncertain
question or, with οὐ μή, a strong denial
ἵνα + subj. is used for subordinate clauses of purpose, result, and after
verbs of wishing, requesting, etc.

The optative mood is rare in the NT; the most common use is to express a
wish, as in [μὴ] γένοιτο may it [not] happen!
2
Very occasionally ἵνα is used with the future indicative to express purpose.
Unit 14
14.1 Grammar
14.1/1 Uses of the subjunctive (2)
a) Noun clauses after verbs of fearing and taking precautions
The deponent ϕοβέομαι can be followed by a noun in the accusative: ὁ
Ἡρῴδης ἐϕοβεῖτο τὸν Ἰωάννην (*Mk 6.20) Herod was afraid of John. It may
also be followed by a clause which performs the same function as a noun

(and hence is called a noun clause): Herod was afraid that there might be
a revolt. Most (but not all) clauses of this sort have reference to a time
subsequent to that of the main verb and in Greek are expressed by μή
and the subjunctive; μή here, and elsewhere when used as a conjunction,
can be literally translated by lest. The same construction is used after
verbs meaning take precautions, take heed.
ϕοβηθεὶς π̓ αὐτῶν ἐκέλευσεν τὸ στράτευμα
ὁ χιλίαρχος μὴ διασπασθῇ ὁ Παῦλος ὑ
καταβὰν ἁρπάσαι αὐτὸν. (Ac 23.10) The captain, fearing lest (or that)
Paul might be torn apart by them, ordered the soldiers to go down

and seize him. (lit. having gone down to seize him)
The negative used to negate the μή clause is οὐ:

ϕοβοῦμαι γὰρ μή πως ἐλθὼν οὐχ οἵους θέλω εὕρω ὑμᾶς. (2 Cor 12.20) For I am
afraid lest when I come I may perhaps not find you such as (οἵους) I
wish.
ϕοβέομαι is followed by an infinitive where English has the same

construction: ἐϕοβήθη ἐκεῖ ἀπελθεῖν (Mt 2.22) he was afraid to go there.
As well as meaning see βλέπω can also mean take precautions, take
heed (cf. our see to it). In this use βλέπω is normally in the imperative
mood (17.1/1): βλέπετε μή τις ὑμᾶς πλανήσῃ (Mt 24.4) take heed lest anyone
lead you astray (or that no-one).
b) Indefinite adverbial clauses
i Certain temporal conjunctions (e.g. ὅτε when) may introduce a
( )
subordinate clause and be followed by the indicative. Greek idiom here

is very similar to that of English and we have already met examples
(4.2.12; 5.2.10; 8.2.16; 11.2.13). Such a clause refers to a single
definite event. Another type of adverbial clause is that with an indefinite

sense and is often expressed in English by the addition of ever. In
when I went to the Middle East I visited the remains of Crusader
castles the subordinate clause refers to a specific event (viz. the
occasion of my visit to the Middle East), but in whenever I go to the
Middle East I visit the remains of Crusader castles the subordinate
clause refers to a number of events, and so is called indefinite. To
express this in Greek the particle ἄν, which is here the equivalent of
ever, is added to the subordinate clause; in addition its verb is put into
the subjunctive if the reference is to the present or future. ἄν
coalesces with certain conjunctions, the most common being ὅτε when;
the resulting ὅταν (ὅτε + ἄν) means whenever:
Mt 5.11) Blessed are you
μακάριοί ἐστε ὅταν ὀνειδίσωσιν ὑμᾶς καὶ διώξωσιν. (
whenever they abuse and persecute you.

οὐ νίπτονται τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν ὅταν ἄρτον ἐσθίωσιν. (* Mt 15.2) They do not
wash their hands whenever they eat bread.
In both sentences we would normally say when in English but the

sense would be the same. Compare the following where a single event
is described in the subordinate clause:
ὅτε ἐγένετο ϕώνησεν τοὺς μαθητὰς
ἡμέρα, προσε αὐτοῦ. Lk
( 6.13) When it
became day he summoned his disciples.
If the reference of a sentence involving repeated action is to the past,
the verb of the ὅταν clause is in the indicative:
Mk 3.11)
τὰ πνεύματα τὰ ἀκάθαρτα, ὅταν αὐτὸν ἐθεώρουν, προσέπιπτον αὐτῷ. (
Whenever they used to see him, the unclean spirits used to fall
down before him.
There are, however, variations in use of these conjunctions and we

find examples of ὅτε with the subjunctive and ὅταν with the indicative
where we would expect the reverse. NT usage is inconsistent here,
and we must judge from the context whether a single event or repeated
action is involved; to translate both ὅτε and ὅταν by when is generally
satisfactory.
ὡς,which has other meanings (see Vocabulary), can also be used as

a conjunction in the sense of when: ὡς ἐπλήσθησαν αἱ ἡμέραι τῆς λειτουργίας
αὐτοῦ, ἀπῆλθεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ (Lk 1.23) when the days of his service
were completed, he went away to his house (other examples at 8.2.9,

12.2.7).
ii) ἕως (also ἕως οὗ, ἕως ὅτου with no difference in sense) until is used with
(
the indicative when the clause it introduces describes an event that

actually happened: οὐκ ἐγίνωσκεν αὐτὴν ἕως οὗ ἔτεκεν υἱόν (Mt 1.25) he did
not know her until she bore a son. When its clause refers to something
expected, the subjunctive is used, with or without ἄν; most clauses of
this sort refer to the future:
οὐ μὴ παρέλθῃ ἡ γενεὰ αὕτη ἕως ἂν πάντα ταῦτα γένηται. ( Mt 24.34) This
generation shall not pass away until all these things happen.
οὐ μὴ ἀλέκτωρ ϕωνήσῃ ἕως οὗ ἀρνήσῃ με τρίς. (Jn 13.38) A cock shall not
crow until you deny me three times.
ἕως can also function as a preposition (+ gen.):
In a temporal sense until: ἦν ἐκεῖ ἕως τῆς τελευτῆς Ἡρῴδου ( Mt 2.15) he
was there until the death of Herod.
In a spatial sense: ἕως τῆς αὐλῆς τοῦ ἀρχιερέως ( Mt 26.58) up to the
courtyard of the high priest.
To indicate degree or measure: ἕως ἑπτάκις up to seven times.
There is an overlap in meaning between ἕως and two other words, ἄχρι
and μέχρι (sometimes written ἄχρις, μέχρις). As prepositions (+ gen.)
they mean until, up to: ἄχρι τῆς ἡμέρας ταύτης (Ac 2.29) up to this day;
μέχρι ταύτης τῆς ὥρας (Ac 10.30) until this hour but they can also be used
as conjunctions (sometimes in the form ἄχρις οὗ, μέχρις οὗ): ἄχρις οὗ ἔλθῃ
(1 Cor 11.26) until he comes; μέχρις οὗ ταῦτα πάντα γένηται (Mk 13.30)
until all these things happen.

(iii) πρίν (also πρὶν ἤ) before can be conveniently treated here. With two
exceptions in the NT it is followed, not by a clause, but by the
accusative and infinitive (8.1/4(b)); this must be translated by a
clause in English: ὁ ἥλιος μεταστραϕήσεται εἰς σκότος καὶ ἡ σελήνη εἰς αἷμα πρὶν
ἐλθεῖν ἡμέραν κυρίου τὴν μεγάλην (Ac 2.20) the sun will be changed to
darkness and the moon to blood before the great day of the Lord
comes.
c) Indefinite adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses also can be given an indefinite sense by using the
subjunctive with ἄν. In the sentence ὃς ἀπολύει τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ καὶ γαμεῖ
ἄλλην, μοιχᾶται we are referring to a particular person and we must
translate [the man] who is divorcing his wife and marrying another, is
committing adultery. But if we wish to make a general statement and
refer to all such men we must say ὃς ἂν ἀπολύσῃ τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ καὶ γαμήσῃ
ἄλλην μοιχᾶται (*Mt 19.9) whoever divorces his wife and marries another,
commits adultery; here the adjectival clause ὃς ἂν ἀπολύσῃ τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ
καὶ γαμήσῃ ἄλλην is given an indefinite meaning by the subjunctives
ἀπολύσῃ, γαμήσῃ and ἄν.
ὅστις,which we have already seen at 9.1/2 note 1 as an alternative for the

normal relative pronoun (ὅς, ἥ, ὅ), was originally an indefinite relative in its
own right in the sense whoever and it is sometimes so used in the NT. It
can be followed by the indicative (and we must judge from the context
whether it means who or whoever): ὅστις ὑψώσει ἑαυτὸν ταπεινωθήσεται (*Mt
23.12) whoever exalts himself will be humbled. It is also used with ἄν and
the subjunctive in the same sense: ὅστις γὰρ ἂν ποιήσῃ τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πατρός
μου τοῦ ἐν οὐρανοῖς, αὐτός μου ἀδελϕὸς καὶ ἀδελϕὴ καὶ μήτηρ ἐστίν (Mt 12.50) for
whoever does the will of my Father in heaven, he is my brother and sister

and mother.
Notes
has an alternative form ἐάν: ὃς ἐὰν δέξηται ἓν παιδίον τοιοῦτο ἐπὶ τῷ ὀνόματί
1 ἄν
μου, ἐμὲ δέχεται (Mt 18.5) whoever receives one such child in my name
receives me; this ἐάν is more frequent as a substitute for ἄν in indefinite

adjectival clauses. It must not be confused with the other ἐάν, which has
the meaning if ever (18.1/3 note 2).
2 The negative for indefinite clauses is μή: ὃς ἂν μὴ δέξηται τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ
θεοῦ ὡς παιδίον, οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθῃ εἰς αὐτήν (Mk 10.15) whoever does not accept
the kingdom of God as a child will not enter into it.

3 The ἄν of indefinite clauses has a completely different sense and use
from the ἄν which we shall meet in potential clauses (18.1/3).
14.1/2 Perfect indicative active
The perfect tense in both Greek and English expresses a present state
resulting from an action in the past. κέκλεικα τὴν θύραν I have closed the
door means that the door is now closed as a result of my past action of
closing it. The aorist ἔκλεισα τὴν θύραν I closed the door describes a single
past action, but tells us nothing about the present state of the door, not
even whether it is still in existence. Because the perfect tense describes
a present state it is classified as a primary tense (4.1/1 note 1). The
perfect is by no means as common as the aorist and does not exist in
every Greek verb.
The perfect active is formed in two ways, called strong and weak. These
have a common set of endings (in the indicative -α, -ας, -ε(ν), -αμεν, -ατε,
-ασι(ν)), but, whereas the strong perfect, like the strong aorist, has no
suffix, the weak perfect has a suffixed κ which is attached in a way similar
to that of the σ of the weak aorist (see below). There is no difference in
meaning between the two, and in NT Greek no verb has both.
The stems of both strong and weak perfects must have either
reduplication or an augment.
a) Reduplication
This occurs with most verbs beginning with a consonant. If a verb begins
with a single consonant (except ρ) or with two consonants of which the
second is λ, μ, ν, or ρ, the initial consonant is doubled with the insertion of
ε; hence weak λέλυκα (λύω) I have loosened; πεπίστευκα (πιστεύω) I have
trusted; strong γέγραϕα (γράϕω) I have written. When, however, the initial
consonant is an aspirate (θ, ϕ, χ), it is reduplicated in its unaspirated
form: τέθυκα (θύω) I have sacrificed; πέϕευγα (ϕεύγω) I have fled.
b) Augment
i The temporal augment (4.1/1 note 2(ii)) is used with verbs with an
( )
initial vowel or diphthong: ἡμάρτηκα (ἁμαρτάνω) I have sinned.

(ii) The syllabic augment (4.1/1 note 2(i)) is used with verbs beginning
with ρ, a double consonant (ζ, ξ, ψ), or two consonants (the second not
being λ, μ, ν, ρ): -ἔσταλκα (-στέλλω) I have sent; ἔρριμμαι (ῥίπτω) I have
been thrown; ἐζώγρημαι (ζωγρέω) I have been captured alive (the last
two examples are perfect passive as perfect active forms of these
types of verb do not occur in the NT; see 16.1/3).
The perfect indicative active of λύω (weak) and γράϕω (strong) is:
The weak perfect occurs mostly in:

(a) Stems ending in vowels or diphthongs. Here the κ suffix is added to
the present stem: πεπίστευκα (πιστεύω trust). As in the aorist, the final
vowel of most contracted verbs is lengthened: πεποίηκα (ποιέω do,
make).
(b) Stems ending in λ and ρ, where the κ suffix must be added to the
original stem (i.e. the present stem stripped of any suffix, cf. 11.1/3):
ἦρκα (αἴρω lift, i.e. ἄρ-γω, stem ἀρ-).
(c) Dental stems (6.1/4), where the final dental is lost before the κ suffix:
ἤλπικα (ἐλπίζω hope, stem ἐλπιδ-).
The strong perfect occurs in other consonant stems: πέϕευγα (ϕεύγω flee);
γέγραϕα (γράϕω write). Sometimes a final unaspirated consonant is
aspirated, e.g. γ/κ > χ, πέπραχα (πράσσω do stem πραγ-). An ο appears in

some strong perfects: πέποιθα (πείθω persuade); πέπονθα (πάσχω suffer);
γέγονα (γίνομαι become – note change in voice).
Notes
1 Some strong perfects have an intransitive sense although their other
active tenses are transitive, e.g. πέποιθα (< πείθω persuade) which takes
the dative and has a present sense I have confidence in, i.e. I trust.
2 A few perfects are highly irregular, e.g. ἀκήκοα (ἀκούω hear – the only
common verb in a vowel stem which has a strong perfect); εἴληϕα
(λαμβάνω take); many are less anomalous, e.g. βέβληκα (βάλλω throw);
κέκληκα (καλέω call); πέπτωκα (πίπτω fall). The perfect of ἀποθνῄσκω die is
aslways τέθνηκα (without the ἀπο- prefix) I have died, i.e. I am dead.
Insight
For administrative purposes the Roman empire was divided into
provinces. As Christianity grew in the first centuries after its
establishment the church authorities found it convenient to
group provinces into larger units that were placed under the
jurisdiction of a bishop. In this way five districts, which took in
the whole empire, were formed. These were called πατριαρχεῖα
patriarchates, and the bishop in charge of each was a πατριάρχης
patriarch. After some dispute the number of patriarchates was
kept at five in AD 451. These were, in order of precedence,
Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem.
Rome was placed first as its see had been established by St
Peter. The old patriarchates still continue although the patriarch
of Rome has taken the late Latin title of Papa and the patriarch
of Antioch has long since moved to Damascus.
14.2 Greek reading

1 εὑρίσκει οὗτος πρῶτον τὸν ἀδελ ϕὸν τὸν ἴδιον Σίμωνα καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ, Εὑρήκαμεν τὸν
Μεσσίαν. (Jn 1.41)
2 ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς
ἀνθρώπους, ἐλάχιστος κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν· ὃς δ̓ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ

Mt 5.19)
διδάξῃ, οὗτος μέγας κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν. (
3 ϕοβοῦμαι δὲ μή πως, ὡς ὁ ὄϕις ἐξηπάτησεν Εὕαν ἐν τῇ πανουργίᾳ αὐτοῦ, ϕθαρῇ τὰ

νοήματα ὑμῶν. (2 Cor 11.3)
4 ἀλλὰ ταῦτα λελάληκα ὑμῖν ἵνα ὅταν ἔλθῃ ἡ ὥρα αὐτῶν μνημονεύητε αὐτῶν. (Jn 16.4)
5 ὅτε γέγονα ἀνήρ, κατήργηκα τὰ τοῦ νηπίου. (1 Cor 13.11)
6 ὃς ἂν βλασϕημήσῃ εἰς τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον, οὐκ ἔχει ἄϕεσιν εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. (*Mk 3.29)
7 ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω ὑμῖν, ἕως ἂν παρέλθῃ ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ, ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία οὐ μὴ
παρέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται. ( Mt 5.18)

8 λέγω δὲ ὑμῖν, οὐ μὴ πίω ἀ π̓ ἄρτι ἐκ τούτου τοῦ γενήματος τῆς ἀμπέλου ἕως τῆς ἡμέρας
ἐκείνης ὅταν αὐτὸ πίνω μεθ̓ ὑμῶν καινὸν ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τοῦ πατρός μου. (Mt 26.29)
9 Καὶ ὅταν ὀψὲ ἐγένετο, ἐξεπορεύοντο ἔξω τῆς πόλεως. (Mk 11.19)
10 ὅστιςδ̓ ἂν ἀρνήσηταί με ἔμπροσθεν τῶν ἀνθρώπων, ἀρνήσομαι κἀγὼ αὐτὸν ἔμπροσθεν
τοῦ πατρός μου. (Mt 10.33)
11 Peter denies Christ
Συλλαβόντες δὲ αὐτὸν ἤγαγον καὶ εἰσήγαγον εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν τοῦ ἀρχιερέως· ὁ δὲ Πέτρος
ἠκολούθει μακρόθεν. περιαψάντων δὲ πῦρ ἐν μέσῳ τῆς αὐλῆς καὶ συγκαθισάντων
ἐκάθητο ( sat) ὁ Πέτρος μέσος αὐτῶν. ἰδοῦσα δὲ αὐτὸν παιδίσκη τις καθήμενον
(sitting) πρὸς τὸ ϕῶς καὶ ἀτενίσασα αὐτῷ εἶπεν, Καὶ οὗτος σὺν αὐτῷ ἦν· ὁ δὲ ἠρνήσατο
λέγων, Οὐκ οἶδα αὐτόν, γύναι. καὶ μετὰ βραχὺ ἕτερος ἰδὼν αὐτὸν ἔϕη, Καὶ σὺ ἐξ αὐτῶν
εἶ· ὁ δὲ Πέτρος ἔϕη, Ἄνθρωπε, οὐκ εἰμί. καὶ διαστάσης ὡσεὶ ὥρας μιᾶς (when about
an hour had passed) ἄλλος τις διϊσχυρίζετο λέγων, Ἐπ̓ ἀληθείας καὶ οὗτος μετ̓
αὐτοῦ ἦν, καὶ γὰρ Γαλιλαῖός ἐστιν· εἶπεν δὲ ὁ Πέτρος, Ἄνθρωπε, οὐκ οἶδα ὃ λέγεις. καὶ
παραχρῆμα ἔτι λαλοῦντος αὐτοῦ ἐ ϕώνησεν ἀλέκτωρ. καὶ στραϕεὶς ὁ κύριος ἐνέβλεψεν
τῷ Πέτρῳ, καὶ ὑπεμνήσθη ὁ Πέτρος τοῦ ῥήματος τοῦ κυρίου ὡς εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι Πρὶν
ἀλέκτορα ϕωνῆσαι σήμερον ἀπαρνήσῃ με τρίς· καὶ ἐξελθὼν ἔξω ἔκλαυσεν πικρῶς. (Lk
22.54–62)
12 The crucifixion
Παρέλαβον οὖν τὸν Ἰησοῦν· καὶ βαστάζων ἑαυτῷ τὸν σταυρὸν ἐξῆλθεν εἰς τὸν λεγόμενον
Κρανίου Τόπον, ὃ λέγεται Ἑβραϊστὶ Γολγοθᾶ, ὅπου αὐτὸν ἐσταύρωσαν, καὶ με τ̓ αὐτοῦ
ἄλλους δύο ἐντεῦθεν καὶ ἐντεῦθεν, μέσον δὲ τὸν Ἰησοῦν. ἔγραψεν δὲ καὶ τίτλον ὁ Πιλᾶτος
put) ἐπὶ τοῦ σταυροῦ· ἦν δὲ γεγραμμένον (written), ἸΗΣΟϒΣ Ὁ

καὶ ἔθηκεν (
ΝΑΖΩΡΑΙΟΣ Ὁ ΒΑΣΙΛΕϒΣ ΤΩΝ ἸΟϒΔΑΙΩΝ. τοῦτον οὖν τὸν τίτλον πολλοὶ
ἀνέγνωσαν τῶν Ἰουδαίων, ὅτι ἐγγὺς ἦν ὁ τόπος τῆς πόλεως ὅπου ἐσταυρώθη ὁ Ἰησοῦς·
καὶ ἦν γεγραμμένον Ἑβραϊστί, Ῥωμαϊστί, Ἑλληνιστί. ἔλεγον οὖν τῷ Πιλάτῳ οἱ
ἀρχιερεῖς τῶν Ἰουδαίων, Μὴ γρά ϕε (do not write), Ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων, ἀλλ̓
ὅτι ἐκεῖνος εἶπεν, Βασιλεύς εἰμι τῶν Ἰουδαίων. ἀπεκρίθη ὁ Πιλᾶτος, Ὃ γέγραϕα,
γέγραϕα. (John 19.16–22)
Notes
lit. one of the least of these
2 μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων
commandments, but trans. the least of these commandments; the

second half of the sentence has its main verb in the future, κληθήσεται, and
so we must supply ἔσται will be (not ἐστί) as the main verb in the first; with
ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ we must supply an object them, i.e. these
commandments.
3 The n. pl. subject τὰ νοήματα has a singular verb ϕθαρῇ (2.1/2 note 3; also
below in 7).
4 μνημονεύω takes the gen. (here αὐτῶν), 15.1/1.
5 ὅτε γέγονα ἀνήρ lit. when I have become a man but trans. now that I have
become a man; τοῦ νηπίου represents a general class and should be

translated a child (2.1/2 note 1 (ii)).
8 πίω 1 s. aor. subj. act. of πίνω; take καινόν with αὐτό, drink it new
(presumably it will be a new wine).
9 ὀψέ is an adverb in the evening but trans. the clause when it became
evening; ἐξεπορεύοντο is best taken as an inceptive impf. started to go

(4.1/1 note 3).
10 κἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ I too (crasis 11.1/5).
11 l.3 The subject of the gen. absol. περιαψάντων … συγκαθισάντων is those
who had arrested Jesus – if expressed it would be αὐτῶν (12.1/2f). l.4

μέσος αὐτῶν lit. middle of them, i.e. in the middle of them; ἰδοῦσα nom. fem.
s. of the aor. act. pple. of ὁράω. l.7 μετὰ βραχύ after a little (while). l.10 καὶ
οὗτος this man too. l.11 καὶ γάρ for indeed. l.13 ἐμβλέπω takes the dat.
(15.1/1).
l
12 .4 ἐντεῦθεν καὶ ἐντεῦθεν lit. from here and from there, i.e. on each side. l.6
Accents are not used with capitals. ll.7f. Take πολλοί with τῶν Ἰουδαίων and
ἐγγύς with τῆς πόλεως; ἀνέγνωσαν < ἀναγινώσκω. l.10 ἔλεγον said the imperfect
is used because the subject is an unspecified number of individuals.
Main points
The subjunctive is used in noun clauses after verbs of fearing and taking
precautions
The subjunctive is used in indefinite adverbial and adjectival clauses
The perfect tense expresses a present state
Strong and weak perfects take the same endings (-α, -ας, -ε(ν), -αμεν,
-ατε, ασι(ν))
The perfect stem of a verb has either reduplication or the

temporal/syllabic augment
Unit 15
15.1 Grammar
15.1/1 Verbs used with the genitive or dative
A transitive verb is one that can be followed by the accusative case. Both
the Greek πέμπω and the English send are transitive, and in the clause
ἔπεμψεν ϕίλους ὁ ἑκατοντάρχης (Lk 7.6) and its English translation the
centurion sent friends both ϕίλους and friends are direct objects and
therefore accusative. We might at first assume that if a verb is transitive
in English its Greek equivalent will be the same. However, although this
is true for the greater number of verbs, there are some which are
transitive in one language but intransitive in the other.
The verb βλέπω is used transitively in πᾶς ὁ βλέπων γυναῖκα πρὸς τὸ ἐπιθυμῆσαι
αὐτὴν (Mt 5.28) because it governs the accusative γυναῖκα, and we would
translate it by every [man] looking at a woman with a view to (πρός)

desiring her. However, we could not say every man looking a woman
because the English verb look is intransitive (the word woman in looking
at a woman is accusative after the preposition at). Similarly, there are
verbs which are transitive in English but not in Greek, but, whereas in
English the logical object of an intransitive verb is always preceded by a
preposition (looking at a woman), in Greek it can sometimes be
preceded by a preposition, sometimes be put into the genitive or dative.
Greek verbs that take the genitive or dative can, to a large extent, be
classified according to their meaning. We have already seen some
examples (with gen. τυγχάνω 12.2.7, μνημονεύω 14.2.4; with dat. ὑπακούω
5.2.15, ἐμβλέπω 14.2.11). The following are the main groups:
a) Verbs followed by the genitive

i Verbs of ruling and prevailing, e.g. ἄρχω rule; βασιλεύω lit. be king
( )
(βασιλεύς) of; κυριεύω rule, control; κατισχύω prevail over:
πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς ( Mt 16.18) [The] gates of hell will not
prevail over it (viz τῆς ἐκκλησίας the church).
(ii) Some verbs of emotion or concern and their opposites, e.g. ἐπιθυμέω
desire (which can also take the acc.; see example quoted above);
ἐπιμελέομαι care for; ϕείδομαι spare; ἀμελέω neglect:
ϕειδόμενος ὑμῶν οὐκ ἦλθον εἰς Κόρινθον. (*2 Cor 1.23) to spare you (lit.
sparing you) I did not come to Corinth.
κἀγὼ ἠμέλησα αὐτῶν. ( Hb 8.9) I too neglected them.
(iii) Verbs of perceiving, remembering, forgetting, e.g. ἀκούω hear,
listen to (+ acc. of thing heard, gen. of person heard; also with gen. of
thing heard); μιμνῄσκομαι, μνημονεύω remember; ἐπιλανθάνομαι forget:
οἱ δὲ ἀκούσαντες τοῦ βασιλέως ἐπορεύθησαν. Mt
( 2.9) And they, having
heard the king, departed.
ἡ γυνὴ οὐκέτι μνημονεύει τῆς θλίψεως. (* Jn 16.21) The woman no longer
remembers her affliction.
(iv) Verbs of laying hold of, obtaining, e.g. τυγχάνω receive, attain;
ἀντέχομαι hold fast to; ἅπτομαι touch:
ἀντεχόμενος τοῦ πιστοῦ λόγου. (* Tit 1.9) Holding fast to the trustworthy
word.
πολλῆς εἰρήνης τυγχάνοντες διὰ σοῦ. Ac
( 24.2) Receiving long peace
through you.
(v) Verbs of sharing, e.g. μετέχω, μεταλαμβάνω share, have a share in:
μετελάμβανον τρο ϕῆς. (Ac 2.46) They used to share food.
b) Verbs followed by the dative
i Verbs indicating that the subject is asserting himself in some way
( )
over someone else, e.g.

βοηθέω help, assist; ἐπιτιμάω rebuke, censure; παραγγέλλω order;
ἐπιτρέπω allow:
παρήγγειλεν ἡμῖν κηρύξαι τῷ λαῷ. ( Ac 10.42) He ordered us to preach to

the people.
(ii) Verbs indicating that the subject is submitting himself in some
way to somebody else, e.g. ὑπακούω obey; πιστεύω believe in; δουλεύω
serve; λατρεύω worship:
δουλεύων τῷ κυρίῳ μετὰ πάσης ταπεινο ϕροσύνης. (Ac 20.19) Serving the
Lord with all humility.
(iii) Verbs indicating association of some sort, e.g. ἀκολουθέω follow;
ἐντυγχάνω fall in with; ἐγγίζω approach; χράομαι use; ὁμοιόομαι be like:
ἀκολουθοῦσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ. ( Mk 6.1) His disciples followed him.

οὐκ ἐχρησάμεθα τῇ ἐξουσίᾳ ταύτῃ. (1 Cor 9.12) we did not use that right.
(iv) Verbs compounded with the prepositional prefixes ἀντι, εἰσ-, ἐν-,
ἐπι-, παρα-, περι-, προσ-, συν-, ὑπο- are sometimes followed by the
dative, sometimes by a preposition:

τότε προσέρχονται αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ Ἰωάννου. ( Mt 9.14) Then the disciples
of John come to him.
καὶ ἰδοὺ ἄνδρες δύο συνελάλουν αὐτῷ ( Lk 9.30) And behold! two [men] were
talking with him.
ὁ Φῆστος συλλαλήσας μετὰ τοῦ συμβουλίου ἀπεκρίθη. Ac
( 25.12) Festos
having talked with his council replied.
Not all verbs which, by virtue of their meaning, we would expect to belong
to these groups do in fact take the genitive or dative without a
preposition; e.g. σπλαγχνίζομαι pity, which we might have expected to
come under verbs of emotion or concern, is followed by ἐπί with the
accusative or dative: σπλαγχνίζομαι ἐπὶ τὸν ὄχλον (Mt 15.32) I feel pity for the
crowd.
Apart from those given in (b)(iv), other verbs listed above are sometimes
used with prepositions, e.g. ὅτε ἤγγισαν εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα καὶ ἦλθον εἰς Βηθϕαγὴ
εἰς τὸ ςΟρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν (Mt 21.1) when they approached Jerusalem and
went to Bethphage on [lit. to] the Mount of Olives. The same variation
can be seen with λέγω say, speak, which normally takes the accusative
for what is said and the dative for the person addressed: ἔλεγεν δὲ
παραβολὴν αὐτοῖς (Lk 18.1) and he began to tell them a parable; but in the
same gospel we have ἔλεγεν δὲ καὶ παραβολὴν πρὸς αὐτούς (Lk 5.36) and he
began to tell them a parable as well (other examples at 8.2.12 and
9.2.11).
15.1/2 Further particles

We have already seen the more common particles at 4.1/4. We can
classify the remaining examples into two groups:
a) Particles which convey shades of tone, colour or emphasis
• ἀμήν, which we have already met (14.2.7), is a Hebrew word taken over
into NT Greek with the meaning truly, verily. It is always combined with
λέγω (ἀμὴν λέγω, ἀμὴν δὲ λέγω, ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω, ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω) and is used
only by Christ. When used at the end of prayers in Christian practice it

has a secondary meaning, so be it.
• γε# is an emphasizing and restrictive particle which affects the
preceding word. Its literal meaning is at least, at any rate, certainly,
indeed, and it is nearly always used in combination with conjunctions:
εἴ γε if indeed, ἄρα γε strengthened form of ἄρα (see below); ἀλλά γε but
at any rate.
• μέντοι# has an adversative sense, however: παρακύψας βλέπει κείμενα τὰ
ὀθόνια, οὐ μέντοι εἰσῆλθεν (Jn 20.5) he stooped and saw the linen
bandages lying [there]; he did not, however, go in.

• ποτέ# formerly, once: ὅ ποτε τυϕλός (*Jn 9.13) the man [who was] once
blind; after a negative it has the sense ever: οὐδεὶς γάρ ποτε τὴν ἑαυτοῦ
σάρκα ἐμίσησεν (Eph 5.29) for no-one ever hated his own flesh.
b) Other connecting particles

• ἄρα so, then, consequently introduces the result of what has preceded:
εἰ δὲ ὑμεῖς Χριστοῦ, ἄρα τοῦ Άβραὰμ σπέρμα ἐστέ (Gal 3.29) and if you [are] of
Christ, then you are the seed of Abraham. It is frequently used in

questions which pose a problem arising from what has happened or
been said immediately before; in Lk 8.22ff. when Christ has amazed
the apostles by calming a storm in the Sea of Galilee, they are at a loss
and say τίς ἄρα οὗτός ἐστιν ὅτι καὶ τοῖς ἀνέμοις ἐπιτάσσει καὶ τῷ ὕδατι, καὶ
ὑπακούουσιν αὐτῷ; (Lk 8.25) so who is this man that he commands both
the winds and the water, and they obey him?

• καὶ γάρ for even, for indeed gives a justification of what has preceded.
When Zechariah has regained his speech at the circumcision of his
son, John the Baptist, the populace is amazed and says τί ἄρα τὸ παιδίον
τοῦτο ἔσται; καὶ γὰρ χεὶρ κυρίου ἦν μετ̓ αὐτοῦ. (Lk 1.66) so what will this child
be? for indeed the hand of the Lord was with him (the second clause
gives the reason for posing the question of what the child will be).
• μὲν#… δέ# when used together present two parallel balanced or
contrasted items, which may be words, phrases or clauses. We may
think of the pair as meaning on the one hand … and/but on the other
hand, but in most cases such a translation would be heavy or clumsy.
For example, ὁ μὲν θερισμὸς πολύς, οἱ δὲ ἐργάται ὀλίγοι (Mt 9.37) should not
be translated by the harvest on the one hand [is] great but on the other
hand the workers [are] few but by the harvest is great but the workers
are few or by although the harvest is great the workers are few. In ὁ μὲν
… ὁ δέ one man … but another man the article is used as a pronoun (cf.
5.1/3). When μέν occurs alone (except in the combination μὲν οὖν; see
below) a contrast is implied; as we have seen, δέ is very commonly

used by itself in the sense of and or but (4.1/4).
• μὲν# οὖν as a combination is most frequently used to resume or redirect
the narrative; it is to be translated so, and so. At Mk 16.14ff. Christ
gives his final instructions to the disciples; when he has finished the
narrative is taken up again with the verse ὁ μὲν οὖν κύριος Ἰησοῦς μετὰ τὸ
λαλῆσαι αὐτοῖς ἀνελήμϕθη εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν (Mk 16.19) and so the Lord Jesus
after talking to them was taken up into heaven. When the two are
written together, μενοῦν (also with the addition of γε as μενοῦνγε), the
sense is rather, on the contrary.
Insight
One of the principal grievances that the Roman authorities had
against the early Christians was their refusal to swear
allegiance to the Roman emperor and the state divinities such
as Jupiter. Roman religion embraced a multiplicity of gods and
goddesses and, far from rejecting foreign divinites, the Romans
had actually adopted them when this seemed desirable. Such
an elastic attitude made it hard for the Romans of the first
centuries of our era to understand the attitude of Christians with
their claims to exclusive possession of religious truth. No
Roman divinity was endowed with the mind-reading ability of
the Christian god, and consequently it did not matter for
Romans what private beliefs an individual might hold. Christians
could not accept this. Their obstinacy in rejecting any religious
compromise that might indicate acceptance of other gods made
them appear as a group of dissidents who posed a threat to the
state by not accepting its authority. This, rather than religious
intolerance, was the main reason for their persecution.
15.2 Greek reading

1 οἱ γὰρ τοιοῦτοι τῷ κυρίῳ ἡμῶν Χριστῷ οὐ δουλεύουσιν ἀλλὰ τῇ ἑαυτῶν κοιλίᾳ. ( Ro
16.18)
2 εἰσελεύσονται μετὰ τὴν ἄϕιξίν μου λύκοι βαρεῖς εἰς ὑμᾶς μὴ ϕειδόμενοι τοῦ ποιμνίου.
(Ac 20.29)
3 τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα πρόθυμον ἡ δὲ σὰρξ ἀσθενής. (Mt 26.41)
4 εἰ ἀγαπᾶτε τοὺς ἀγαπῶντας ὑμᾶς, ποία ὑμῖν χάρις ἐστίν; καὶ γὰρ οἱ ἁμαρτωλοὶ τοὺς
ἀγαπῶντας αὐτοὺς ἀγαπῶσιν. ( Lk 6.32)

5 παραγγείλας τῷ ὄχλῳ ἀναπεσεῖν ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν ἔλαβεν τοὺς ἑπτὰ ἄρτους καὶ τοὺς ἰχθύας.
(Mt 15.35f.)
6 ὁ διώκων ἡμᾶς ποτε νῦν εὐαγγελίζεται τὴν πίστιν ἥν ποτε ἐπόρθει. (Gal 1.23)
7 Paul escapes from Jerusalem but the Church enjoys peace
καὶ ἦν μετ̓ αὐτῶν εἰσπορευόμενος καὶ ἐκπορευόμενος εἰς Ἰερουσαλήμ, παρρησιαζόμενος
ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ κυρίου, ἐλάλει τε καὶ συνεζήτει πρὸς τοὺς Ἑλληνιστάς, οἱ δὲ
ϕοὶ κατήγαγον αὐτὸν εἰς Καισάρειαν

ἐπεχείρουν ἀνελεῖν αὐτόν. ἐπιγνόντες δὲ οἱ ἀδελ
καὶ ἐξαπέστειλαν αὐτὸν εἰς Ταρσόν. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἐκκλησία καθ̓ ὅλης τῆς Ἰουδαίας καὶ
Γαλιλαίας καὶ Σαμαρείας εἶχεν εἰρήνην. (Ac 9.28ff.)
8 πᾶν δένδρον μὴ ποιοῦν καρπὸν καλὸν ἐκκόπτεται καὶ εἰς πῦρ βάλλεται. ἄρα γε ἀπὸ τῶν
καρπῶν αὐτῶν ἐπιγνώσεσθε αὐτούς. ( Mt 7.19f.)

9 ἦλθαν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐθαύμαζον ὅτι μετὰ γυναικὸς ἐλάλει· οὐδεὶς μέντοι εἶπεν,
Τί ζητεῖς; ἤ, Τί λαλεῖς με τ̓ αὐτῆς; (Jn 4.27)

10 ἔχωμεν χάριν, δἰ ἧς λατρεύωμεν εὐαρέστως τῷ θεῷ μετὰ εὐλαβείας καὶ δέους· καὶ γὰρ
ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν πῦρ καταναλίσκον. ( Hb 12.28f.)

11 εἰς τοῦτο γὰρ Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἔζησεν, ἵνα καὶ νεκρῶν καὶ ζώντων κυριεύσῃ. ( Ro
14.9)
12 εἰ ἄλλοις οὐκ εἰμὶ ἀπόστολος, ἀλλά γε ὑμῖν εἰμι. (1 Cor 9.2)

13 ὅτε δὲ ἐξεβλήθη ὁ ὄχλος, εἰσελθὼν ἐκράτησεν τῆς χειρὸς αὐτῆς, καὶ ἠγέρθη τὸ
ϕήμη αὕτη εἰς ὅλην τὴν γῆν ἐκείνην. (Mt 9.25)

κοράσιον. καὶ ἐξῆλθεν ἡ
14 The good Samaritan
ἄνθρωπός τις κατέβαινεν ἀπὸ Ἰερουσαλὴμ εἰς Ἰεριχὼ καὶ λῃσταῖς περιέπεσεν, οἳ καὶ
ἐκδύσαντες αὐτὸν καὶ πληγὰς ἐπιθέντες ( inflicting) ἀπῆλθον ἀϕέντες (leaving)

ἡμιθανῆ. κατὰ συγκυρίαν δὲ ἱερεύς τις κατέβαινεν ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ ἐκείνῃ, καὶ ἰδὼν αὐτὸν
ἀντιπαρῆλθεν· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ Λευίτης κατὰ τὸν τόπον ἐλθὼν καὶ ἰδὼν ἀντιπαρῆλθεν.
Σαμαρίτης δέ τις ὁδεύων ἦλθεν κα τ̓ αὐτὸν καὶ ἰδὼν ἐσπλαγχνίσθη, καὶ προσελθὼν
κατέδησεν τὰ τραύματα αὐτοῦ ἐπιχέων ἔλαιον καὶ οἶνον, ἐπιβιβάσας δὲ αὐτὸν ἐπὶ τὸ
ἴδιον κτῆνος ἤγαγεν αὐτὸν εἰς πανδοχεῖον καὶ ἐπεμελήθη αὐτοῦ. καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν αὔριον
he gave) δύο δηνάρια τῷ πανδοχεῖ καὶ εἶπεν, Ἐπιμελήθητι (look

ἐκβαλὼν ἔδωκεν (
after as an order) αὐτοῦ, καὶ ὅ τι ἂν προσδαπανήσῃς ἐγὼ ἐν τῷ ἐπανέρχεσθαί με

ἀποδώσω (I shall give) σοι. (Lk 10.30–5)
Notes
3 Supply ἐστί with both halves of the sentence (legend has it that in the
1960s a computer translated this famous verse into Russian as the
whisky’s OK but the meat’s a bit off).

4 ποία ὑμῖν χάρις ἐστίν; lit. what thanks are there to you? i.e what thanks do
you have?
6 ἐπόρθει conative impf. tried to destroy (4.1/1 note 3).
7 The understood subject of the first two clauses is Paul; εἰς Ἰερουσαλήμ lit.
into Jerusalem only applies to εἰσπορευόμενος (and not to ἐκπορευόμενος) but

Paul was going in and coming out of Jerusalem, and in English we would
say in and out of Jerusalem; πρός lit. to is normal after both λαλέω and
συζητέω but in English we would say talk and argue with; ἀνελεῖν aor. inf.
act. of ἀναιρέω; ἀδελϕοί not Paul’s brothers but his fellow Christians, trans.
brethren (ἀδελϕός was the term used by Christians in addressing each
other); μὲν οὖν (15.1/2(b)) resumes the narrative of what is happening to
the Church – trans. here meanwhile.
8 ποιοῦν nom. s. n. of the present act. pple. of ποιέω.
10 ἔχωμεν jussive subj. (13.1/3(a)(i)) let us possess; χάριν here grace – the
idea is that we should obtain and keep divine grace so that we may
worship God acceptably; λατρεύωμεν the subj. can be used in an adjectival
clause to express purpose, lit. through which we may worship; after καί
γάρ supply ἐστί; καταναλίσκον nom. s. n. of pres. pple. act. of καταναλίσκω,
agreeing with πῦρ.

11 εἰς τοῦτο for this [purpose] anticipates the ἵνα clause.
12 εἰ here although; ἀλλά γε lit. but at any rate (15.1/2(a)), here trans. at
least.
13 αὐτῆς lit. of her, although the word used here for girl (κοράσιον) is neuter
she is referred to by her proper gender (agreement according to the

sense).
14 l.2 περιέπεσεν < περιπίπτω. l.3 ἡμιθανῆ i.e. αὐτόν. l.5 ἀντιπαρῆλθεν <
ἀντιπαρέρχομαι. l.7 ἦλθεν κατ̓ αὐτόν came upon him. l.10 αὐτοῦ gen. after
ἐπεμελήθη (<ἐπίμελέομαι; the same construction in the next line but one); ἐπὶ
τὴν αὔριον lit. on the tomorrow i.e. on the next day. l.12 ὅ τι ἂν + subj. to
express an indefinite clause whatever … (14.1/1(c)). l.13 ἐν τῷ

ἐπανέρχεσθαί με take these words together (5.1/3), lit. on me returning, i.e.
when I return.
Main points
Intransitive verbs followed by the genitive or dative can generally be
classified by their meaning
ἀμήν, γε, μέντοι, ποτέ are particles conveying a particular nuance
ἄρα, καὶ γάρ, μὲν … δέ, μὲν οὖν are connecting particles
Unit 16
16.1 Grammar
16.1/1 Uses of ὥστε
ὥστε is a conjunction which is used in two ways:

a) To express result. In English we normally use a subordinate clause
introduced by that, so that or with the result that: I was so tired yesterday
that I could not do any work. In Greek this is expressed by ὥστε and the
accusative and infinitive (8.1/4(b)):
λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταί, πόθεν ἡμῖν ἐν ἐρημίᾳ ἄρτοι τοσοῦτοι ὥστε χορτάσαι ὄχλον
τοσοῦτον; ( Mt 15.33) The disciples say to him, ‘From where do we

have (lit. [are there] to us) so many loaves in the desert that we can
feed (lit. so as to feed) so large a multitude?’
καὶ ἰδοὺ σεισμὸς μέγας ἐγένετο ἐν τῇ θαλάσσῃ, ὥστε τὸ πλοῖον καλύπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν
κυμάτων. (Mt 8.24) And behold! a great storm arose on the sea so that
the boat was covered by the waves (the literal translation so as the
boat to be covered is not idiomatic English).
Mk 15.5) And
ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς οὐκέτι οὐδὲν ἀπεκρίθη, ὥστε θαυμάζειν τὸν Πιλᾶτον. (
Jesus said nothing further, with the result that Pilate was amazed (on
the double negative οὐκέτι οὐδέν see 8.1/3(e)).
If required, the infinitive is negated by μή:

ὑπήντησαν αὐτῷ δύο δαιμονιζόμενοι ἐκ τῶν μνημείων ἐξερχόμενοι, χαλεποὶ λίαν, ὥστε
Mt 8.28) Two [men] possessed

μὴ ἰσχύειν τινὰ παρελθεῖν διὰ τῆς ὁδοῦ ἐκείνης. (
of evil spirits, who came (lit. coming) out from the tombs, met him; [they
were] exceedingly violent with the result that no-one was able to pass
through that road.
b) To introduce a sentence which gives the result or consequence of what
has gone before. Here we translate ὥστε by therefore, accordingly, and
so:
ἶ
… ὥστε οὐκέτι εἶ
ἐξαπέστειλεν ὁ θεὸς τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ εἰς τὰς καρδίας ἡμῶν
δοῦλος ἀλλὰ υἱός. (Gal 4.6f.) God sent the spirit of his Son into our
hearts. Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son.
The negative here is οὐ:

Mt
ὥστε οὐκέτι εἰσὶν δύο ἀλλὰ σὰρξ μία. ( 19.6) And so they are no longer two
but one flesh.
Note
The normal construction for purpose (ἵνα and the subjunctive) can also be
used for result (13.1/3(b)(ii)). In a similar reversal ὥστε and the infinitive
sometimes express purpose: συμβούλιον ἔλαβον πάντες οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς καὶ οἱ
πρεσβύτεροι τοῦ λαοῦ κατὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ὥστε θανατῶσαι αὐτόν (Mt 27.1) all the high
priests and the elders of the people took counsel against Jesus to kill
him. The infinitive by itself or preceded by τοῦ is used in the same
meaning (13.1/3(b)(i)).
16.1/2 Pluperfect indicative active
Like the imperfect, the pluperfect tense is a historic tense (4.1/1 note 1)
and exists only in the indicative mood. It is normally to be translated by
the same tense in English (I had washed before you came) but its use is
much more restricted than that of its English equivalent (see below).
The stem of the pluperfect active is the same as that of the perfect,
except that where the latter contains reduplication (14.1/2) the augment
is sometimes added; this is optional and does not follow any regular
pattern:
PERFECT ACTIVE STEM PLUPERFECT ACTIVE STEM
λελυκ- (λύω) (ἐ)λελυκ-
γεγραϕ- (γράϕω) (ἐ)γεγραϕ-

πεπομϕ- (πέμπω) (ἐ)πεπομϕ-
Where, however, the perfect active stem is already augmented it is also

used for the pluperfect without change, e.g. ἠχ- (ἄγω).
The pluperfect active endings are: -ειν, -εις, -ει, -ειμεν, -ειτε, -εισαν. The
pluperfect active of λύω is conjugated:
The pluperfect is the past version of the perfect and thus expresses a
state that existed in the past (cf. 14.1/2): ἦν δὲ ὁ λεγόμενος Βαραββᾶς μετὰ τῶν
στασιαστῶν δεδεμένος οἵτινες ἐν τῇ στάσει ϕόνον πεποιήκεισαν (Mk 15.7) and there
was the man called Barabbas, in custody (lit. bound, on the form see next
subsection) with the rebels who had committed murder during the
uprising.
The pluperfect is relatively uncommon in Greek. In English we often use

the pluperfect in subordinate clauses to denote an action which
happened before the action described by the main verb but Greek
normally regards both actions as single past events and uses two aorists.
In the verse ὅτε ἦλθον ἐπὶ τὸν τόπον τὸν καλούμενον Κρανίον, ἐκεῖ ἐσταύρωσαν αὐτὸν
(Lk 23.33) when they came to the place called the Skull, there they
crucified him the arrival of the group obviously preceded the crucifixion
and we could translate when they had come … In Greek it would be
possible for the author to regard the group as being in a state of having
come and so use the pluperfect tense, but in subordinate clauses of time
and reason this is rarely done.
16.1/3 Perfect and pluperfect indicative middle/passive
In both the perfect and pluperfect the middle and passive voices
coincide. As the middle use of both tenses is rare, only the passive
meaning is given below.
Perfect
The stem of the strong perfect active is retained in the middle/passive,

but that of the weak perfect active loses its κ. Consequently the
distinction between strong and weak perfects is not maintained. As,
however, the stem of the perfect middle/passive is not always
predictable, the first person perfect indicative middle/passive is included
in the principal parts of irregular verbs (7.1/1 note 5 and Principal parts
of verbs).
When a perfect middle/passive stem ends in a vowel or diphthong (e.g.

λελυ-, νενικη-) the endings -μαι, -σαι, -ται, -μεθα, -σθε, -νται are added:
When a perfect middle/passive stem ends in a consonant, a sound

change is necessary in certain cases to assimilate the final consonant of
the stem to the initial consonant of the ending. With consonant stems a
succession of three consonants in the second and third plural is avoided,
except in (d); in the second plural the σ of the ending (-σθε) is dropped,
but in the third plural Greek sidesteps the difficulty by using a two-word
periphrasis consisting of the perfect middle/passive participle (see
16.1/4) and the third plural present of εἰμί.
Consonant stems are classified in the same way as for the present tense
(6.1/4 and 11.1/3):
a) Palatal stems
The final palatal of the stem appears as γ before -μαι and -μεθα (and
-μένος of the participle), and as κ before -σαι (giving -ξαι) and -ται. In the
second pl. κ + σθε > κθε > χθε (the κ is aspirated to assimilate it to θ). From
τάσσω appoint, order (perf. mid./pass. stem τεταγ-) we have:
The participle used in the third plural varies in gender according to the
subject. This applies to all forms of this type.
b) Labial stems
The final labial of the stem appears as μ before -μαι and -μεθα (and -μένος
of the participle), and as π before -σαι (giving -ψαι) and -ται. In the second
pl. π + σθε > πθε > ϕθε. From κρύπτω hide (perf. mid./pass. stem κεκρυπ-) we
have:
c) Dental stems
The final dental of the stem becomes σ before all endings. In the second
person s. and pl. σσ > σ. From πείθω persuade (perf. mid./pass. stem
πεπειθ-) we have:
d) Stems in λ, ρ and ν
The final consonant of λ and ρ stems remains unchanged, but the final
consonant of κρίνω (the only ν stem occurring more than once in the
perfect middle/passive) is dropped. From ἐγείρω raise and κρίνω judge we
have:
Pluperfect
The pluperfect indicative middle/passive uses the perfect middle/passive

stem; just as in the pluperfect active (16.1/2), the syllabic augment may
added when the latter is reduplicated, e.g. (ἐ)λελυ- (λύω), (ἐ)τεταγ- (τάσσω).
Because the pluperfect is a historic tense, we have the historic
middle/passive endings: -μην, -σο, -το, -μεθα, -σθε, -ντο (cf. 8.1/1(c)). With
stems ending in a consonant the same sound changes are involved as
with the perfect indicative middle/passive, and the perfect middle/passive
participle with ἦσαν is used for the third plural.
Note
Composite forms consisting of the perfect middle/passive participle and

the verb εἰμί also occur as alternatives for the normal third person
singular of the perfect middle/passive: ἔστιν γεγραμμένον (Jn 6.31) it has
been written; here we could simply have γέγραπται. Similarly the perfect
subjunctive of both the active and middle/passive is formed with the
perfect participle and the subjunctive of εἰμί; see note on 16.1/4.
16.1/4 Other parts of the perfect tense
The perfect infinitives and participles are formed from the same stem as
the corresponding indicatives (the reduplication or the temporal/syllabic
augment of the perfect indicative stem is not dropped). The infinitive
endings are -έναι (act.) and -σθαι (mid./pass.; with consonantal stems this
ending undergoes the same changes as -σθε). The active participle is a
first and third declension adjective (10.1/3) in -ώς, -υῖα, -ός (see below),
and the middle/passive participle is a first and second declension
adjective (3.1/3) in -μένος, -μένη, -μένον. In the following table for λύω,
1
τάσσω, κρύπτω, πείθω, κρίνω only the masculine forms of the participles are
given.
Note that the perfect active and the perfect middle/passive of πείθω have
different stems.
The corresponding forms of the aorist are sometimes to be translated in
the same way as those of the perfect, but the meanings and uses of the
two tenses are quite distinct. The perfect always expresses a state (on
the meaning of the aorist see 4.1/1, 12.1/2).
λελυκώς is declined:
Note
The perfect active subjunctive consists of the perfect active participle and
the appropriate part of εἰμί: λελυκὼς ὦ, etc. The perfect middle/passive
subjunctive follows the same pattern: λελυμένος ὦ etc.
Insight
For a convert from Greek and Roman paganism Christianity
would have presented many unfamiliar concepts but none
would have been stranger than that of the Christian Devil (ὁ
διάβολος p. 196). Traditional pagan beliefs included no figure
whose sole purpose was to create trouble and who could be

regarded as the origin of all misfortune and evil. According to
pagan ideas human malefactors were prompted by their own
bad natures. Human misery could be caused by divine powers,
either for no perceptible reason or because they took offence at
some behaviour. The gods and goddesses were often at
variance with each other but none was solely concerned with
upsetting unfortunate mortals. The Devil, whose origins lay in
Jewish beliefs, provided a simpler and more satisfactory
explanation for the suffering and injustice that the early
Christians saw around them.
16.2 Greek reading

1 Καὶ ἐγένετο ὅτε ἐτέλεσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τὰς παραβολὰς ταύτας, μετῆρεν ἐκεῖθεν. καὶ ἐλθὼν
εἰς τὴν πατρίδα αὐτοῦ ἐδίδασκεν αὐτοὺς ἐν τῇ συναγωγῇ αὐτῶν, ὥστε ἐκπλήσσεσθαι
αὐτοὺς καὶ λέγειν, Πόθεν τούτῳ ἡ σο ϕία αὕτη καὶ αἱ δυνάμεις; (Mt 13.53f.)
2 ὁ θεὸς ἐν ἡμῖν μένει καὶ ἡ ἀγάπη αὐτοῦ ἐν ἡμῖν τετελειωμένη ἐστιν. (1 J 4.12)
3 οὐδὲν δὲ συγκεκαλυμμένον ἐστὶν ὃ οὐκ ἀποκαλυϕθήσεται, καὶ κρυπτὸν ὃ οὐ
γνωσθήσεται. (Lk 12.2)
4 τὸ σάββατον διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἐγένετο καὶ οὐχ ὁ ἄνθρωπος διὰ τὸ σάββατον· ὥστε
κύριός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου καὶ τοῦ σαββάτου. (Mk 2.27f.)
5 ἀναχωρήσαντες ἐλάλουν πρὸς ἀλλήλους λέγοντες ὅτι Οὐδὲν θανάτου ἢ δεσμῶν ἄξιον
πράσσει ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὗτος. Άγρίππας δὲ τῷ Φήστῳ ἔ ϕη, Άπολελύσθαι ἐδύνατο ὁ

ἄνθρωπος οὗτος εἰ μὴ ἐπεκέκλητο Καίσαρα. (Ac 26.31f.)
6 κατέβη ἡ βροχὴ καὶ ἦλθον οἱ ποταμοὶ καὶ ἔπνευσαν οἱ ἄνεμοι καὶ προσέπεσαν τῇ οἰκίᾳ
ἐκείνῃ, καὶ οὐκ ἔπεσεν, τεθεμελίωτο γὰρ ἐπὶ τὴν πέτραν. (Mt 7.25)
7 Christ walks on water
ὡς δὲ ὀψία ἐγένετο κατέβησαν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ τὴν θάλασσαν, καὶ ἐμβάντες εἰς
πλοῖον ἤρχοντο πέραν τῆς θαλάσσης εἰς Κα ϕαρναούμ. καὶ σκοτία ἤδη ἐγεγόνει καὶ
οὔπω ἐληλύθει πρὸς αὐτοὺς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, ἥ τε θάλασσα ἀνέμου μεγάλου πνέοντος
διεγείρετο. ἐληλακότες οὖν ὡς σταδίους εἴκοσι πέντε ἢ τριάκοντα θεωροῦσιν τὸν Ἰησοῦν
περιπατοῦντα ἐπὶ τῆς θαλάσσης καὶ ἐγγὺς τοῦ πλοίου γινόμενον, καὶ ἐ ϕοβήθησαν. (Jn
6.16–19)
8 μακάριοι οἱ δεδιωγμένοι ἕνεκεν δικαιοσύνης, ὅτι αὐτῶν ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν.
Mt 5.10)
(
9 Paul’s experience in the gaol of Philippi
Κατὰ δὲ τὸ μεσονύκτιον Παῦλος καὶ Σίλας προσευχόμενοι ὕμνουν τὸν θεόν, ἐπηκροῶντο
ϕνω δὲ σεισμὸς ἐγένετο μέγας ὥστε σαλευθῆναι τὰ θεμέλια τοῦ

δὲ αὐτῶν οἱ δέσμιοι· ἄ
δεσμωτηρίου, ἠνεῴχθησαν δὲ παραχρῆμα αἱ θύραι πᾶσαι, καὶ πάντων τὰ δεσμὰ ἀνέθη
(were unfastened). ἔξυπνος δὲ γενόμενος ὁ δεσμοϕύλαξ καὶ ἰδὼν ἀνεῳγμένας τὰς

θύρας τῆς ϕυλακῆς, σπασάμενος μάχαιραν ἤμελλεν ἑαυτὸν ἀναιρεῖν, νομίζων
ἐκπεϕευγέναι τοὺς δεσμίους. ἐϕώνησεν δὲ μεγάλῃ ϕωνῇ Παῦλος λέγων, Μηδὲν πράξῃς
(do not do anything) σεαυτῷ κακόν, ἅπαντες γάρ ἐσμεν ἐνθάδε. αἰτήσας δὲ ϕῶτα
εἰσεπήδησεν, καὶ ἔντρομος γενόμενος προσέπεσεν τῷ Παύλῳ καὶ Σίλᾳ, καὶ προαγαγὼν
αὐτοὺς ἔξω ἔϕη, Κύριοι, τί με δεῖ ποιεῖν ἵνα σωθῶ; οἱ δὲ εἶπαν, Πίστευσον (trust as an
order) ἐπὶ τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν, καὶ σωθήσῃ σὺ καὶ ὁ οἶκός σου. καὶ ἐλάλησαν αὐτῷ τὸν
λόγον τοῦ κυρίου σὺν πᾶσιν τοῖς ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ αὐτοῦ. καὶ παραλαβὼν αὐτοὺς ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ
ὥρᾳ τῆς νυκτὸς ἔλουσεν ἀπὸ τῶν πληγῶν, καὶ ἐβαπτίσθη αὐτὸς καὶ οἱ αὐτοῦ πάντες
παραχρῆμα, ἀναγαγών τε αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸν οἶκον παρέθηκεν ( set) τράπεζαν, καὶ
ἠγαλλιάσατο πανοικεὶ πεπιστευκὼς τῷ θεῷ. ( Ac 16.25–34)
Notes
1 μετῆρεν aor. of μεταίρω; τὴν πατρίδα αὐτοῦ the town where Jesus had lived,
Nazareth; ἐδίδασκεν inceptive impf. (4.1/1 note 3); αὐτούς i.e. the people of
Nazareth.
2 Both τετελειωμένη … ἐστί and συγκεκαλυμμένον ἐστί (in 3 below) are
composite forms (16.1/3 note) for τετελείωται and συγκεκάλυπται.

4 καὶ τοῦ σαββάτου of the sabbath too.
5 ἀπολελύσθαι < ἀπολύω.
6 κατέβη aor. of καταβαίνω; προσέπεσαν aor. of προσπίπτω; because θεμελιόω

means lay the foundation of, a change of construction is necessary to
translate the passive τεθεμελίωτο.
7 ἤρχοντο inceptive impf. (4.1/1 note 3) of ἔρχομαι they began to go; ἐληλύθει
plpf. of ἔρχομαι – this verb and ἐγεγόνει (<γίνομαι) are plpf. because they
describe the state existing when the disciples were rowing; ἐληλακότες <
ἐλαύνω; θεωροῦσιν vivid present.
8 οἱ δεδιωγμένοι (<διώκω) lit. those being in a state of being persecuted,
trans. those persecuted.

9 l.2 ἐπηκροῶντο < ἐπακροάομαι. l.8. τοὺς δεσμίους is the subject of ἐκπεϕευγέναι.
ll.11f. προσέπεσεν < προσπίπτω; προαγαγών < προάγω. l.13 σωθῶ < σῴζω. l.17
ἔλουσεν ἀπὸ τῶν πληγῶν trans. washed their wounds (ἀπό is used
idiomatically with λούω and can be ignored in translation). l.18 ἀναγαγών <
ἀνάγω. l.19 ἠγαλλιάσατο < ἀγαλλιάω; πεπιστευκώς is best translated by a
phrase such as having put his faith.
Main points
Phrases and clauses of result are introduced by ὥστε
The pluperfect tense is a historic tense and expresses a state in the past
The pluperfect active stem is the same as that of the perfect active except
that the augment is sometimes prefixed to reduplicated stems
The pluperfect active endings are: -ειν, -εις, -ει, -ειμεν, -ειτε, -εισαν
The perfect passive and pluperfect passive use the same stem but it is
not always predictable
The perfect passive endings are -μαι, -σαι, -ται, -μεθα, -σθε, -νται
The pluperfect passive endings are -μην, -σο, -το, -μεθα, -σθε, -ντο
Where the perfect/pluperfect passive stem ends in a consonant this
changes according to the ending but the third plural of these verbs
consists of the perfect participle and an auxiliary verb (εἰσί, ἦσαν)
The perfect infinitives and participles do not drop reduplication or the
syllabic/temporal augment
1
The accent of all forms of the perfect middle/passive participle is on the second
syllable from the end (paroxytone, see Appendix 7, (b)(v)).
Unit 17
17.1 Grammar
17.1/1 Imperative mood – commands and prohibitions
The imperative mood is used for commands. In Greek it exists in the

present and aorist tenses. The stem used is the same as that of the
corresponding indicative. As well as second person imperatives (which
we have in English), Greek also has imperatives in the third person with
the meanings given below.
The imperative of λύω is:
The aorist is usually to be translated in the same way as the present but
the two are not interchangeable. The difference, as elsewhere, is one of
aspect. The present is used for an action which is seen as going on, in
the process of happening or being repeated, the aorist for an action
which is seen simply as an event: ἀσθενοῦντας θεραπεύετε (pres.), νεκροὺς
ἐγείρετε (pres.) (Mt 10.8) heal the sick, raise the dead (the reference is to
repeated action); λύσατε (aor.) τὸν ναὸν τοῦτον (Jn 2.19) destroy this temple
(a single act would be involved; note this other sense of λύω).
The middle imperative is found with middle deponents: δέξαι τὸ πνεῦμά μου
(Ac 7.59) receive my spirit (δέξαι 2nd s. aor. imp. mid. of δέχομαι); it is
sometimes required with normal verbs: ὑπόδησαι τὰ σανδάλιά σου (Ac 12.8)
lit. put on your sandals for yourself, i.e. put on your sandals (ὑπόδησαι 2nd
s. aor. imp. mid. of ὑποδέω).
Prohibitions (negative commands) are expressed with μή, e.g. μὴ

θησαυρίζετε (pres.) ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς (Mt 6.19) do not store up for
yourselves treasures upon the earth; μὴ κρίνετε (Mt 7.1) do not judge, but
if the aorist aspect is appropriate the mood employed is always the
subjunctive, not the imperative: Ἰωσήϕ, υἱὸς Δαυίδ, μὴ ϕοβηθῇς παραλαβεῖν
Μαρίαν τὴν γυναῖκά σου (Mt 1.20) Joseph, son of David, do not be afraid to
take Mary [as] your wife. For the other use of this type of subjunctive
(jussive) see 13.1/3(a)(i).
Only occasionally can the Greek present/aorist distinction be made in

English: πείθεσθε τοῖς ἡγουμένοις (Hb 13.17) be obedient to (lit. keep
obeying; the present indicates continual action) the leaders; here the
aorist imperative πείσασθε would have reference to a single act and be
simply translated by obey.
Notes
1 The imperative of the strong aorist has the same endings as the present.
From μανθάνω (aor. ἔμαθον) the aor. imp. act. is μάθε, μαθέτω, μάθετε,
μαθέτωσαν.
2 The imperative of the root aorist (11.1/1) follows that of the aorist passive
except that the ending for the 2nd s. is -θι, not -τι: from ἔγνων (γινώσκω) we
have γνῶθι, γνώτω, γνῶτε, γνώτωσαν. ἀνάβηθι (<ἀναβαίνω) and μετάβηθι
(<μεταβαίνω) have alternatives ἀνάβα and μετάβα.
3 The present imperative of contracted verbs is regular but, because of
contraction, the 2nd s. forms are easily confused:

The position of the accent can be important for distinguishing between
different forms, e.g. ποίει (imp.), ποιεῖ (ind.).
4 The imperative of εἰμί is ἴσθι be!, ἔστω or ἤτω, [ἔστε], ἔστωσαν.
5 An order can also be expressed by:
i the future tense οὐ ϕονεύσεις (Mt 5.21) you shall not kill! (another
( )
example at 5.2.20).
(ii) ἵνα and the subjunctive: ἡ δὲ γυνὴ ἵνα ϕοβῆται τὸν ἄνδρα (Eph 5.33) and let
a wife fear her husband. This use of ἵνα and the subjunctive is easily
distinguished from others because it stands as main clause, as shown
in the example by δέ.
6 A perfect imperative middle exists as a standard formula in two verbs,
πεϕίμωσο (Mk 4.39) keep silent! (< ϕιμόω make silent) and ἔρρωσο (s.)
ἔρρωσθε (pl.) farewell! (< ῥώννυμι be strong).
17.1/2 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs
Adjectives (and adverbs) have three degrees: positive bad, sick,

wonderful; comparative worse, sicker, more wonderful; superlative
worst, sickest, most wonderful. To give the three degrees of an adjective
is to compare it. Some adjectives in English are compared regularly
(sick, wonderful), some irregularly (bad). The same applied in earlier
Greek, where adjectives were compared by the addition of suffixes, of

which there were two sets -ων (compar.), -ιστος (supl.) and -τερος
(compar.), -τατος (supl.). However, in NT Greek, while we find
comparative forms in -ων and -τερος, the old superlative ending -τατος has
almost disappeared, and -ιστος is generally used to give emphasis (e.g.
τὰ μέγιστα ἐπαγγέλματα (2 Pt 1.4) the very great promises). On how the
superlative is normally expressed see 17.1/3.

a) Comparative in -τερος
Comparatives in -τερος (f. -τερα, n. -τερον) are first and second declension
adjectives (3.1/3). All regularly compared adjectives belong here. The
way in which -τερος is attached to the stem of an adjective depends on the
category of its positive form:
i First and second declension adjectives (3.1/3) add -οτερος if the last
( )
syllable of their stem is long, but -ωτερος if this is short (the stem is
obtained by subtracting -ος from the nom. m. s., e.g. σοϕός, stem σοϕ-).
A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel, or a diphthong, or a short
vowel followed by two consonants; a syllable is short if it contains a
short vowel followed by a single consonant. Examples are: σοϕός wise,
σοϕώτερος wiser; ἀνεκτός bearable, ἀνεκτότερος more endurable.
Some first and second declension adjectives are irregular and belong
to type (b) below.
(ii) Third declension adjectives (10.1/4) with a stem in ον add -εστερος,
e.g. δεισιδαίμων (stem δεισιδαιμον-) religious, δεισιδαιμονέστερος more

religious. Those with a stem in ες add -τερος, e.g. εὐγενής (stem εὐγενες)
high-minded, εὐγενέστερος more high-minded.
(iii) First and third declension adjectives (10.1/3) in -υς follow βαρύς
heavy, βαρύτερος heavier. πολύς much, which is a first and second

declension adjective, is irregular; see below.
The old superlative ending for this class (-τατος) has only survived in four
places: ἀκριβέστατος strictest (Ac 26.5), ἁγιώτατος most sacred (Jd 20), and
τιμιώτατος most/very precious (Rev 18.12; 21.11).
We may summarize these formations as follows:
b) Comparative in -ων, superlative in -ιστος

Irregular adjectives from all categories belong here. The stem of the
positive form is sometimes changed for the other degrees of comparison.
The following are the most common examples:
Comparatives in -ων are declined as third declension adjectives in ον
(10.1/4(b)), but with some important alternative contracted forms where
the uncontracted forms end in -ονα (m. and f. s. acc.; n. pl. nom. and
acc.), -ονες (m. and f. pl. nom.) and -ονας (m. and f. pl. acc.): here -ονα >
-ω, -ονες > -ους, and -ονας > -ους. The second is confusing as it resembles
an accusative and the third involves an irregular contraction (α + ο

normally give ω as in the first). The uncontracted and contracted forms
from μείζων are:
In earlier Greek, adverbs formed from adjectives (e.g. σοϕῶς wisely; ἡδέως
pleasantly) had as their comparative the neuter singular nom./acc. of
the comparative of the adjective (σοϕώτερον more wisely; ἥδιον more
pleasantly). The -τερον ending survives in a few cases, e.g. πρότερον
earlier, ὕστερον later, afterwards, but the most common comparative
adverbs are of the ἥδιον type:
Notes
1 In earlier Greek, superlative adverbs had the same form as the neuter
plural nom./acc. of the superlative adjective. Of the few remaining NT
examples we may note μάλιστα most of all, ἥδιστα most gladly.
2 The adverb of περισσότερος greater, more can be either περισσότερον or
περισσοτέρως (both even more, to a greater degree).
3 Comparatives with σσ sometimes have a form in ττ and vice-versa, e.g.
ἐλάσσων or ἐλάττων, κρείττων or κρείσσων.
17.1/3 Meaning of the comparative and superlative
Comparatives in Greek are not always to be understood in the sense

more X. A comparative adjective is sometimes used where no
comparison is expressed, and indicates a higher degree than the
positive. English here uses very, rather, too: ὃ ποιεῖς ποίησον τάχιον what
you are doing do very quickly (Jn 13.27; most translations have simply do
quickly); ἄνδρες Άθηναῖοι, κατὰ πάντα ὡς δεισιδαιμονεστέρους ὑμᾶς θεωρῶ (Ac
17.22) men of Athens (lit. Athenian men) I see you as very religious in
every way.
The comparative can also be used as a superlative with the meaning

most X: ὁ μείζων ἐν ὑμῖν γινέσθω ὡς ὁ νεώτερος (Lk 22.26) let the greatest
among you become as the youngest.
What is left of the old superlative can mean most X: οὗτοι οἱ ἄνθρωποι δοῦλοι
τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ ὑψίστου εἰσίν (Ac 16.17) these people are slaves of God the
Most High. More often, however, it is used to express a very high degree:
ὁ πιστὸς ἐν ἐλαχίστῳ καὶ ἐν πολλῷ πιστός ἐστιν (Lk 16.10) the [person who is]
trustworthy in a very little [matter] is trustworthy also in an important

[matter].
17.1/4 Constructions involving the comparative

a) In comparisons in English a comparative adjective or adverb is followed
by than. In Greek ἤ than (which also means or) is used in the same way:
Ἰησοῦς πλείονας μαθητὰς ποιεῖ καὶ βαπτίζει ἢ Ἰωάννης (Jn 4.1) Jesus is making
and baptizing more disciples than John. ἤ is here a conjunction and what
follows must be in the same case as what precedes. The first member of
the comparison, Ἰησοῦς, is nominative and therefore the second member
must also be nominative, hence Ἰωάννης.
There is, however, another construction, the genitive of comparison, in

which the second member of the comparison is put into the genitive and ἤ
is omitted: μείζω (=μείζονα) τούτων ὄψῃ (Jn 1.50) you will see greater things
than these.
b) A comparative may be strengthened by πολύ or πολλῷ, e.g. πολλῷ πλείους
(=πλείονες) ἐπίστευσαν (Jn 4.41) very many more believed (lit. many more
by much); this use is very common with μᾶλλον: ὁ δὲ πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἔκραζεν,
ϒἱὲ Δαυίδ, ἐλέησόν με (Mk 10.48) and he began crying out all the more (lit.
more by much) ‘Son of David, have mercy on me!’ πολλῷ here is a dative
of measure of difference (21.1/1(j)).
Insight
Legend tells us that when Constantine (AD 272–337; cf. p. 81)
was fighting a rival for supreme power at Rome, a fiery cross
appeared in the sky with the instruction τούτῳ νίκα (imp. 2. s. of
νικάω) with this [sign] (i.e. the symbol of Christianity) conquer!
He went on to win and become emperor. Under his rule

Christianity was officially recognised and became the favoured
religion of the empire. Some versions of the story say that a
Latin version also appeared, but as Constantine was fluent in
both languages this was hardly necessary.
17.2 Greek reading

1 Ἰατρέ, θεράπευσον σεαυτόν. ( Lk 4.23)
2 ὁ δὲ ὀπίσω μου ἐρχόμενος ἰσχυρότερός μού ἐστιν. ( Mt 3.11)
3 Καὶ σὺ Βηθλέεμ οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν τοῖς ἡγεμόσιν Ἰούδα. (* Mt 2.6)
Lk 7.28)
4 ὁ μικρότερος ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ μείζων αὐτοῦ ἐστιν. (
5 τὸ ϕῶς ἐλήλυθεν εἰς τὸν κόσμον καὶ ἠγάπησαν οἱ ἄνθρωποι μᾶλλον τὸ σκότος ἢ τὸ ϕῶς,
ἦν γὰρ αὐτῶν πονηρὰ τὰ ἔργα. (Jn 3.19)
6 μὴ σὺ μείζων εἶ τοῦ πατρὸς ἡμῶν Ἰακώβ; (Jn 4.12)
7 μηκέτι ὑδροπότει, ἀλλὰ οἴνῳ ὀλίγῳ χρῶ διὰ τὸν στόμαχον καὶ τὰς πυκνάς σου
ἀσθενείας. (1 Tim 5.23)

8 μετὰ ταῦτα εὑρίσκει αὐτὸν ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ἴδε ὑγιὴς γέγονας·
Jn 5.14)
μηκέτι ἁμάρτανε, ἵνα μὴ χεῖρόν σοί τι γένηται. (
9 ἐγὼ δὲ ἔχω τὴν μαρτυρίαν μείζω τοῦ Ἰωάννου. (Jn 5.36)
10 ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν, ἀνεκτότερον ἔσται γῇ Σοδόμων καὶ Γομόρρων ἐν ἡμέρᾳ κρίσεως ἢ τῇ
πόλει ἐκείνῃ. ( Mt 10.15)

11 Ὁμοία ἐστὶν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν κόκκῳ σινάπεως, ὃν λαβὼν ἄνθρωπος ἔσπειρεν
ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ αὐτοῦ· ὃ μικρότερον μέν ἐστιν πάντων τῶν σπερμάτων, ὅταν δὲ αὐξηθῇ
μεῖζον τῶν λαχάνων ἐστὶν καὶ γίνεται δένδρον, ὥστε ἐλθεῖν τὰ πετεινὰ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ
κατασκηνοῦν ἐν τοῖς κλάδοις αὐτοῦ. ( Mt 13.31f.)

12 πάλιν δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν, εὐκοπώτερόν ἐστιν κάμηλον διὰ τρυπήματος ῥα ϕίδος διελθεῖν ἢ
Mt 19.24)
πλούσιον εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ. (
13 λέγω ὑμῖν, μείζων ἐν γεννητοῖς γυναικῶν Ἰωάννου οὐδείς ἐστιν. ( Lk 7.28)

14 ὅταν κληθῇς ὑπό τινος εἰς γάμους, μὴ κατακλιθῇς εἰς τὴν πρωτοκλισίαν, μήποτε
π̓ αὐτοῦ. (Lk 14.8)

ἐντιμότερός σου ᾖ κεκλημένος ὑ
15 εἴ τις ἔχει οὖς, ἀκουσάτω. (Rev 13.9)
16 οὗτοι ἦσαν εὐγενέστεροι τῶν ἐν Θεσσαλονίκῃ. (Ac 17.11)
17 ἠλπίκαμεν ἐπὶ θεῷ ζῶντι ὅς ἐστιν σωτὴρ πάντων ἀνθρώπων, μάλιστα πιστῶν. (1 Ti
4.10)
18 The Lord’s prayer

Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς, ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου· ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου·
γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς· τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς
give) ἡμῖν σήμερον· καὶ ἄϕες (forgive) ἡμῖν τὰ ὀϕειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς
(
ἀϕήκαμεν (we forgave) τοῖς ὀϕειλέταις ἡμῶν· καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν,
ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. (Mt 6.9ff.)
19 The destruction of Jerusalem foretold
ὅταν δὲ ἴδητε κυκλουμένην ὑπὸ στρατοπέδων Ἰερουσαλήμ, τότε γνῶτε ὅτι ἤγγικεν ἡ
ϕευγέτωσαν εἰς τὰ ὄρη καὶ οἱ ἐν μέσῳ αὐτῆς

ἐρήμωσις αὐτῆς. τότε οἱ ἐν τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ
ἐκχωρείτωσαν καὶ οἱ ἐν ταῖς χώραις μὴ εἰσερχέσθωσαν εἰς αὐτήν. (Lk 21.20f.)
20 The return of an unclean spirit
ςΟταν δὲ τὸ ἀκάθαρτον πνεῦμα ἐξέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου, διέρχεται δἰ ἀνύδρων τόπων
ζητοῦν ἀνάπαυσιν, καὶ οὐχ εὑρίσκει. τότε λέγει, Εἰς τὸν οἶκόν μου ἐπιστρέψω ὅθεν
ἐξῆλθον· καὶ ἐλθὸν εὑρίσκει σχολάζοντα σεσαρωμένον καὶ κεκοσμημένον. τότε πορεύεται
καὶ παραλαμβάνει με θ̓ ἑαυτοῦ ἑπτὰ ἕτερα πνεύματα πονηρότερα ἑαυτοῦ, καὶ εἰσελθόντα
κατοικεῖ ἐκεῖ· καὶ γίνεται τὰ ἔσχατα τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐκείνου χείρονα τῶν πρώτων. (Mt
12.43–5)
Notes
2 The second μου is a gen. of comparison.
3 ἐλαχίστη is used as a true superlative least, least important. Ἰούδα (gen. of
Ἰούδας) here the country belonging to the tribe of Judah.
4 ὁ μικρότερος the least,17.1/3; αὐτοῦ gen. of comparison.
5 ἐλήλυθεν perf. of ἔρχομαι. ἦν is sing. because of the neut. pl. subject (2.1/2
note 3); take αὐτῶν with τὰ ἔργα.

6 μή introduces a question expecting a negative answer (10.1/2(a)); Ἰακώβ
indecl., in apposition to πατρός.
7 χρῶ 2nd s. pres. imp. of χράομαι, which takes the dative.
8 εὑρίσκει vivid present (2.1/5 note 2), trans. found; take τι with χεῖρον,
something worse.
9 μείζω i.e. μείζονα 17.1/2(b); what we have here is a condensed form of the
testimony I have is greater than that of John – trans. I have a testimony…

with the indefinite article.
10 γῇ … τῇ πόλει ἐκείνῃ are dative after ἀνεκτότερον.
11 ὁμοία takes the dative similar to; the antecedent of ὅν is κόκκῳ which is
masculine, but the antecedent of ὅ is the neuter noun σινάπεως (with the
latter, start a new sentence [Mustard seed] is …); μέν … δέ 15.1/2(b);
κατασκηνοῦν pres. inf. act. of κατασκηνόω.
12 διελθεῖν < διέρχομαι.
14 γάμους trans. wedding (the pl. of γάμος is used of a single event);

κατακλιθῇς aor. subj of κατακλίνομαι; μήποτε introduces a negative purpose
clause (13.1/3(b)(i)); ᾖ κεκλημένος perf. pass. subj. of καλέω (16.1/4 note).

16 The context of this sentence shows that τῶν … is a gen. of comparison.
17 ἠλπίκαμεν perf. of ἐλπίζω, used to express a state we have set our hopes.
18 The Lord’s prayer also occurs at Lk 11.2ff. but in a slightly different form;
the aorist imperative, which is used here, is usual in prayers (we would
have expected the present imperative as the imperatives here obviously
do not refer to single acts or events).
ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς is in apposition to the voc. Πάτερ, lit. the [one] in the
heavens i.e. as opposed to one’s earthly and biological father; ἐλθέτω <
ἔρχομαι; γενηθήτω < γίνομαι; καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς on earth as well; ἡμῖν is dat. after ἄϕες
forgive us; ὀϕείλημα here sins; τοῖς ὀϕειλέταις (dat. after ἀϕήκαμεν) ἡμῶν
those who sinned against us (lit. those guilty of sin against us); εἰσενέγκῃς
2nd s. aor. subj. act of ϕέρω; the subj. is used here in an aorist prohibition
(17.1/1); ῥῦσαι 2nd s. aor. imp. mid. of ῥύομαι; τοῦ πονηροῦ is ambiguous as it
could be masculine (the evil one, i.e. the Devil) or neuter (evil).
19 ἴδητε 2nd pl. aor. subj. act. of ὁράω; κυκλουμένην agrees with Ἰερουσαλήμ
(the indecl. form is feminine); γνῶτε aor. imp. act of γινώσκω (17.1/1 note
2); ἤγγικεν (perf. of ἐγγίζω) the perf. expresses a state; ταῖς χώραις trans.
the country.
20 τὸ ἀκάθαρτον πνεῦμα the article is used to denote a general class (2.1/2
note 1(ii)), trans. an unclean spirit; ἐξέλθῃ < ἐξέρχομαι; ζητοῦν neut. s. nom.
of the pres. act. pple. of ζητέω, agreeing with πνεῦμα; ἐλθόν neut. s. nom. of
the aor. pple. of ἔρχομαι; the three pples. σχολάζοντα, σεσαρωμένον,
κεκοσμημένον agree with οἶκον, which is understood from the previous
sentence; the subject of κατοικεῖ is [πνεύματα] εἰσελθόντα (<εἰσέρχομαι) and

because this is neut. pl. the verb is singular (2.1/2 note 3); τὰ ἔσχατα … τῶν
πρώτων (gen. neut. pl.) lit. the last things … the first things, i.e. the final
condition … the original condition.
Main points
Positive commands are expressed by the imperative
Negative commands are expressed by μή + present imperative or μή +
aorist subjunctive as appropriate
The comparative of regular adjectives ends in -τερος
The comparative of irregular adjectives ends in -ων
ἥδ́ιον more pleasantly, χεῖρον worse, κάλλιον better are typical comparative
adverbs
Comparatives can also mean rather, too
The superlative (ending -ιστος) usually expresses a very high degree
A comparison is expressed by ἤ than or by a genitive of comparison
17.3 Excursus
Translations of the Bible
It is pointless to consider translations of the New Testament in isolation.

The Christian tradition has always considered the Old and the New
Testament together as forming its core beliefs, and most translations are
of both.
During the first four centuries of our era Christianity spread to

communities which did not speak Greek, and so the need for translations
arose. Versions of at least part of the Scriptures were made into a
number of the languages then spoken in the Middle East and adjoining
countries. From these we may instance translations made into:
Syriac, one of the dialects of Aramaic which were spoken in Syria,
Palestine and other regions immediately to the east. The Aramaic dialect
of Palestine would have been the language used by Christ himself (this
dialect has no special name).
Armenian, the language of the people of what is now eastern Turkey.
Coptic, the descendant of the language represented in Egyptian
hieroglyphics. It was spoken by the native population of Egypt.
These versions have an historical value as they testify to the spread of

the new religion. They are also important in another way. Because they
were made from Greek originals before the earliest surviving Greek texts
(as e.g. the Codex Sinaiticus) there is always the possibility that they
preserve a more authentic version of a particular passage.
But the most important of these early translations appeared in the

western half of the Roman empire, where the dominant language was
Latin, not Greek. Christianity seems to have been established in Rome
and the west soon after Christ’s death, and many converts would have
needed a Latin version of the Scriptures. The evidence we have indicates
that such a version existed in Gaul and Carthage in the second century of
our era, but over the next two centuries translations into Latin multiplied,
and of them enough survives for us to form a judgement on their
character. For the Old Testament translators used the Septuagint (see
12.3), not the Hebrew original. Their versions are very literal, even to the
point of word-for-word renderings of Greek idioms into Latin. The

language they use is termed Vulgar Latin, the speech of the common
people (Latin vulgus mob), and in this they reflect the type of Greek
employed by the original authors (see 1.3). In east and west alike,
Christianity was addressed to common people, not to the educated
classes.
Towards the end of the fourth century the number of Latin translations in
circulation was leading to such confusion that in AD 382 Pope Damascus
commissioned a leading Christian scholar of the day, Jerome, to
establish an authoritative Latin text. Jerome started by revising existing
Latin versions of the Gospels; his method here, and elsewhere in the NT,
was to correct particular passages which did not agree with the Greek,
not to make a completely fresh translation. Jerome’s work eventually
extended to most of the Bible, but when he came to the Old Testament
his method changed. Rather than revise existing versions, he made a
new translation from the Hebrew original. The results of his work made
up the greater part of what eventually came to be the official Latin
version, the Vulgate (from the Latin vulgata in common use). The
language of the Vulgate follows the norm established by the previous
Latin versions. Jerome, although completely familiar with classical Latin,
as is shown by his letters, did not depart from what had become the
established tradition.
The Vulgate was undoubtedly the most influential translation ever made
of the Bible. While the Greek-speaking East could use the NT in its
original form and the Old Testament as presented by the Septuagint
(12.3), the Western church, which was centred on Rome, had the
Vulgate. This continued through the Middle Ages. The Greek Orthodox
Church still uses the Greek Bible as it existed in antiquity (i.e. NT +
Septuagint), not a translation in modern Greek, but the supremacy of the
Vulgate in the West was upset during the Reformation when Luther
translated the Bible into German (1534), thereby setting a precedent for
versions in other European languages. However, the Vulgate continued
as the official version of the Catholic church until recent times.
The history of the Bible in English up to the Authorized Version (1611)

has been told often. The Authorized Version itself combined such
accuracy and elegance of language that it soon gained a place in the
annals of English literature and remained the standard translation of
English Protestants for over two centuries. In the 1880s a revision of this
appeared which retained the tone and language of the original but took
into account developments in biblical scholarship and new textual
evidence for the Greek and Hebrew originals.
Since then a large number of fresh translations have appeared and the
Bible has been rendered into various styles of English aimed at satisfying
the ideas or culture of a particular audience. As a result we have versions
into varieties of contemporary English, slangy English, gender-neutral
English, and so on.
However, it would be a mistake to imagine that accuracy goes hand in

hand with modernity. Many recent translations show a tendency to
paraphrase, which at times distorts the meaning of the original. As an
example we may take Mt 19.12:
εἰσὶν γὰρ εὐνοῦχοι οἵτινες ἐκ κοιλίας μητρὸς ἐγεννήθησαν οὕτως, καὶ εἰσὶν
εὐνοῦχοι οἵτινες εὐνουχίσθησαν ὑπὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, καὶ εἰσὶν εὐνοῦχοι οἵτινες
εὐνούχισαν ἑαυτοὺς διὰ τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν.
Compare the following versions:

For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their
mother’s womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made
eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made
themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven’s sake.
(Authorized Version, 1611)
For while some are incapable of marriage because they were

born so, or were made so by men, there are others who have
themselves renounced marriage for the sake of the kingdom of
Heaven. (The New English Bible, OUP and CUP, second
edition 1970)
Some people are unable to marry because of birth defects or
because of what someone has done to their bodies. Others stay
single in order to serve God better. (Today’s New Testament
and Psalms, Bible Society, 1991)
The first is a literal and accurate rendering of the Greek. With a few slight
changes to eliminate its archaisms it would pass as an example of clear,
modern English.
As for the second and third translations, the reader should now be in a
position to pass a judgement on both their accuracy and their closeness
to the original Greek.
Unit 18
18.1 Grammar
18.1/1 -μι verbs
-μι verbs were very common in earlier Greek but in modern Greek they
have disappeared completely. In NT Greek the type still exists but some
are in the process of being converted to the -ω class, while a few have
already vanished. What remains can be divided into two classes:
a) The -νυμι class, where the stem of the present and imperfect has a νυ
suffix, e.g. δείκνυμι show (19.1/1).
b) The suffixless class, where the endings of the present and imperfect
are added directly to the stem without any suffix or link vowel, e.g. εἰ-μί
(3.1/6) and ϕη-μί (7.1/3). There are five other verbs in this type:
δίδωμι give and τίθημι put, place (18.1/2)

ἵστημι make to stand (19.1/2)
-ἵημι let go, send forth (20.1/1)
-εἶμι (to be distinguished from εἰμί I am), which originally meant I shall go
and of which a few remnants remain (20.1/4(a)).
Both classes differ from -ω verbs in the present and imperfect; of class
(b) δίδωμι, τίθημι, ἵστημι, ἵημι also differ from -ω verbs in the aorist active
and middle (ἵστημι in the perfect and pluperfect as well). Elsewhere, -μι
verbs take the same suffixes and endings as -ω verbs. πίμπλημι fill, which
originally belonged to class (b), occurs in the NT only in the aor. act.
ἔπλησα, aor. pass. ἐπλήσθην, fut. pass. πλησθήσομαι, which are all regular.
Verbs in -αμαι, which from a historical point of view belong to the -μι type,
are treated at 19.1/3.
In the tables of -μι verbs the many forms which do not occur in the NT
(and which, as elsewhere, are enclosed in square brackets) are included
to give a fuller picture and to show the overall similarity between certain
verbs. If you do not intend to read beyond the NT, there is obviously no
point in learning them. However, a full knowledge of these verbs is
necessary for a broader study of early Christian literature written in
Greek.
18.1/2 δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place (see Appendix 5)
These two -μι verbs are closely parallel. In nearly all their forms an ο/ου/ω
in δίδωμι corresponds to an ε/ει/η in τίθημι; the only exceptions are the 1st
s. impf. act. (ἐδίδουν/ἐτίθην), the present and aorist subjunctive and the
perfect mid./pass. (δέδομαι, etc. but τέθειμαι, etc.). Both verbs form their
present stem by reduplication with iota; as in the perfect tense (14.1/2),
an aspirated consonant is reduplicated with the corresponding non-
aspirate, hence τιθη- (not θιθη-). In both, the aorist active indicative is
formed with κ (not σ) added to the long-vowel form of the root (δω-/θη-).
Their principal parts are:
The future, perfect (act. and mid./pass.), and aorist passive are regular.
The present, imperfect, and aorist active forms, which require the
greatest attention and should be mastered first, are set out here. The
middle and passive forms are easily recognized from their endings (for
full tables see Appendix 5). Forms which do not occur in the NT are
enclosed in square brackets, but those which appear only in compounds
are not indicated.
The irregular endings for the present and aorist subjunctive active of
δίδωμι (-ῶ, -ῷς, -ῷ, -ῶμεν, -ῶτε, -ῶσι(ν)) also occur in the aorist subjunctive
active of γίνωσκω (13.1/2 note 2 and Appendix 4).
Notes
1 Luke (1.2) has the older form παρέδοσαν (=παρέδωκαν, 3 pl aor. ind. act. of
παραδίδωμι); this is in keeping with Luke’s more literary style.
2 κεῖμαι lie, be laid down can be used in place of the perfect passive of
τίθημι; see 19.1/3.
18.1/3 Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences contain at least one main clause and one

adverbial clause of condition; the latter is introduced by εἰ if. They fall into
two clearly defined categories in both English and Greek, and are clearly
distinguished by the form of the main clause:
Category 1
In the main clause English has the auxiliary verb would or should (or
occasionally could), and Greek has the particle ἄν (see below). An
English example is: I would go to Rome if I had sufficient money.
Category 2
In the main clause English does not have the auxiliary would or should,
and Greek does not have the particle ἄν. An English example is: I shall go
to Rome if I have sufficient money.
There is a clear distinction between the two categories. The first is used
in cases where something could have happened in the past, could be
happening now, or could happen in the future. The cases covered by the
second are also hypothetical (as all conditional sentences must be), but
here, by not using would or should in English (or ἄν in Greek), we express
ourselves in a more positive and confident way.
The particle ἄν, when used with the subjunctive in subordinate clauses
(14.1/1(b)), can be represented in English by ever. Here, however, it has
no semantic equivalent in English. When in English we wish to express

potentiality we use an auxiliary verb (generally would or should), e.g. I
would have gone to Rome with you. ἄν, however, which expresses
potentiality in Greek, is an adverbial particle and modifies the verb to
which it is attached: οὐκ ἐγένετο means it did not happen; οὐκ ἂν ἐγένετο
means it would not have happened.
Conditional clauses of both categories can refer to the future, present, or

past, and consequently there are six possibilities, three within the first
category and three within the second. However, category 1 conditions
with a future reference (if you were to do this you would be wrong), which
in earlier Greek were expressed by putting both verbs into the optative
mood (13.1/4) and adding ἄν to the main verb, are not represented in the
NT in any complete example, and so this type is enclosed in square
brackets in the table given below. The three time-frames of each
category are as follows:
ἄν never stands as the first word in the main clause of conditional clauses
of the first category.
The negative in a category 1 conditional clause (i.e the clause beginning

with εἰ) is μή; in a category 2 conditional clause (i.e the clause beginning
with ἐάν or εἰ) it is usually μή when the reference is to the future, but
elsewhere usually οὐ.
Notes
1 The meaning of εἰ … ἔπρασσες/ἔπραξας depends on what follows, i.e. on
whether it is in a category 1 or category 2 sentence.
2 The conjunction ἐάν of the future time-frame of category 2 is a contraction
of εἰ + ἄν (cf. ὅταν < ὅτε + ἄν, 14.1/1(b)(i)); this use of ἐάν can be easily
distinguished from ἐάν when used as a particle in indefinite subordinate
clauses (14.1/1 note 1) because, as a conjunction, it is almost always
placed at the beginning of a clause.
3 The conjunction ἐάν is sometimes contracted to ἄν: ἄν τι αἰτήσητε τὸν πατέρα
ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί μου, δώσει ὑμῖν (Jn 16.23) if you ask the Father for something in
my name, he will give [it] to you. Just as with the two uses of ἐάν, this ἄν
can be distinguished from the particle ἄν of indefinite subordinate clauses
(which occurs far more often) and the particle ἄν of category 1 conditions
by its position at the beginning of a clause.

4 It is possible to combine certain time references within one sentence:
εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξας, ἐκινδύνευες ἄν. If you had done that you would [now] be in
danger.
εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξας, κινδυνεύεις. If you did that you are [now] in danger.
5 Occasionally ἄν is omitted with the verb in a category 1 main clause; this
is always obvious from the sense: καλὸν ἦν αὐτῷ εἰ οὐκ ἐγεννήθη ὁ ἄνθρωπος
ἐκεῖνος (Mt 26.24) it would be better if that man had not been born. (cf. (b)
1
of next subsection).
18.1/4 Other potential constructions
The main clauses of category 1 conditional sentences express

something that could be happening now, could happen in the future or
could have happened in the past. The term potential, which is applied to
these clauses, is also used for clauses of the same type which are not
qualified by any condition, i.e. are not accompanied by another clause
introduced by εἰ in Greek or if in English; e.g. I would have been glad to
see her. We distinguish two types:
a) Where ἄν is added to the verb to express potentiality (i.e. the same
contruction as in main clauses of category 1 conditionals). Examples are
rare in the NT, and it is here that we very occasionally meet the optative,
ἂ ὗ
which is used for a future potential: τί ἂν θέλοι ὁ σπερμολόγος οὗτος λέγειν; (Ac
17.18) what would this chatterer want to say? (the reference is to the
future). We also find a past potential in [αἱ θυσίαι] οὐκ ἂν ἐπαύσαντο

προσϕερόμεναι; (Hb 10.2) would not [the sacrifices] have stopped being
offered?
b) Where the imperfect indicative of a verb is used without ἄν but the
sense shows that the verb must be understood potentially, i.e must be
translated with the addition of would/should/ could. This construction
occurs mainly with ἔδει (imperfect of δεῖ it is necessary) which can mean
either it was necessary (actual) or it would/should have been necessary
(potential); only the context can show which we must choose.
When Christ is going from Judea to Galilee John tells us: ἔδει αὐτὸν
διέρχεσθαι διὰ τῆς Σαμαρείας (*Jn 4.4); this can mean either he had to go
through Samaria (lit. it was necessary for him to go …) or he should have

gone through Samaria (lit. it should have been necessary for him to go
…). As the next verse tells us that Christ came to a city in Samaria the
first interpretation is the correct one.
When Paul is sailing to Rome, the ship on which he is travelling puts in at

Fair Harbours in Crete (12.2.7). Those in command then decide, against
Paul’s advice, to continue despite approaching bad weather. When the
ship is hit by a storm, Paul says: ἔδει, ὦ ἄνδρες, πειθαρχήσαντάς μοι μὴ
ἀνάγεσθαι ἀπὸ τῆς Κρήτης and the context shows that we must interpret ἔδει
in its other sense and translate it should have been necessary, O men,
listening to me not to put out from Crete, i.e. you should have listened to
me and not put out from Crete.
Insight
In Mt 19.24 we have εὐκοπώτερόν ἐστιν κάμηλον διὰ τρυπήματος
ῥαϕίδος διελθεῖν ἢ πλούσιον εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ (see
above 17.2.12; cf. Mark 10.25 and Luke 18.25), and the idea of
a camel passing through the eye of a needle has perplexed
readers from antiquity: under what circumstances could a camel
be imagined to perform such an act? A possible solution is
given in certain biblical manuscripts that have the reading
κάμιλον for κάμηλον. The word κάμιλος is in an ancient lexicon with
the meaning rope, which would remove the troublesome camel

– we would then have it is easier for a rope to pass through, etc.
However, as the two words κάμηλος and κάμιλος would have been
pronounced in exactly the same way in New Testament times it
is generally supposed that the latter was simply a misspelling of
the former and a reader on seeing κάμιλον imagined it to be a
genuine Greek word and to have the meaning rope. On the
other hand, it is curious that there is an Arabic word gamal
ship’s cable and this may have been taken into Greek as κάμιλος,
in which case this could be the correct reading.
18.2 Greek reading

Place each conditional sentence within the appropriate category and
time-frame as given above (e.g. category 1 future).
1 Οὐαί σοι, Χοραζίν· οὐαί σοι, Βηθσαϊδά· ὅτι εἰ ἐν Τύρῳ καὶ Σιδῶνι ἐγένοντο αἱ δυνάμεις
αἱ γενόμεναι ἐν ὑμῖν, πάλαι ἂν ἐν σάκκῳ καὶ σποδῷ μετενόησαν. ( Mt 11.21)

2 ἔρχεται Ἰησοῦς καὶ λαμβάνει τὸν ἄρτον καὶ δίδωσιν αὐτοῖς, καὶ τὸ ὀψάριον ὁμοίως. (Jn
21.13)
3 ἐάν τις ϕάγῃ ἐκ τούτου τοῦ ἄρτου ζήσει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. (Jn 6.51)
4 καὶ ἔλεγεν, Πῶς ὁμοιώσωμεν τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ, ἢ ἐν τίνι αὐτὴν παραβολῇ θῶμεν;
( Mk 4.30)
5 Εἰ ἤμεθα ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις τῶν πατέρων ἡμῶν, οὐκ ἂν ἤμεθα αὐτῶν κοινωνοὶ ἐν τῷ
αἵματι τῶν προ ϕητῶν. (Mt 23.30)

6 ἡ οὖν Μαριάμ, ὡς ἦλθεν ὅπου ἦν Ἰησοῦς, ἰδοῦσα αὐτὸν ἔπεσεν αὐτοῦ πρὸς τοὺς πόδας,
λέγουσα αὐτῷ, Κύριε, εἰ ἦς ὧδε οὐκ ἄν μου ἀπέθανεν ὁ ἀδελ ϕός. (Jn 11.32)
7 προσετίθεντο πιστεύοντες τῷ κυρίῳ πλήθη ἀνδρῶν τε καὶ γυναικῶν, ὥστε καὶ εἰς τὰς
πλατείας ἐκϕέρειν τοὺς ἀσθενεῖς καὶ τιθέναι ἐπὶ κλιναρίων καὶ κραβάττων, ἵνα
ἐρχομένου Πέτρου κἂν ἡ σκιὰ ἐπισκιάσῃ τινὶ αὐτῶν. (Ac 5.14f.)
8 εἰ οὖν τὴν ἴσην δωρεὰν ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ὁ θεὸς ὡς καὶ ἡμῖν πιστεύσασιν ἐπὶ τὸν κύριον
Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν, ἐγὼ τίς ἤμην δυνατὸς κωλῦσαι τὸν θεόν; ( Ac 11.17)
9 Πονηρὲ δοῦλε καὶ ὀκνηρέ, ᾔδεις ( you knew) ὅτι θερίζω ὅπου οὐκ ἔσπειρα καὶ συνάγω
ὅθεν οὐ διεσκόρπισα; ἔδει σε οὖν βαλεῖν τὰ ἀργύριά μου τοῖς τραπεζίταις, καὶ ἐλθὼν ἐγὼ
ἐκομισάμην ἂν τὸ ἐμὸν σὺν τόκῳ. ( Mt 25.26f.)

10 ἄρτι γὰρ ἀνθρώπους πείθω ἢ τὸν θεόν; ἢ ζητῶ ἀνθρώποις ἀρέσκειν; εἰ ἔτι ἀνθρώποις
ἤρεσκον, Χριστοῦ δοῦλος οὐκ ἂν ἤμην. ( Gal 1.10)

11 Ἰδοὺ ὁ παῖς μου ὃν ᾑρέτισα, ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὃν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου· θήσω τὸ
πνεῦμά μου ἐ π̓ αὐτόν, καὶ κρίσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν ἀπαγγελεῖ. (Mt 12.18)
Lk 8.16)
12 οὐδεὶς δὲ λύχνον ἅψας καλύπτει αὐτὸν σκεύει ἢ ὑποκάτω κλίνης τίθησιν. (
13 Εἰ οὕτως ἐστὶν ἡ αἰτία τοῦ ἀνθρώπου μετὰ τῆς γυναικός, οὐ συμϕέρει γαμῆσαι. (Mt
19.10)
14 ὁ δὲ λέγει αὐταῖς, Μὴ ἐκθαμβεῖσθε· Ἰησοῦν ζητεῖτε τὸν Ναζαρηνὸν τὸν ἐσταυρωμένον·
ἠγέρθη, οὐκ ἔστιν ὧδε· ἴδε ὁ τόπος ὅπου ἔθηκαν αὐτόν. (Mk 16.6)
15 The death of John the Baptist
Ὁ γὰρ Ἡρῴδης κρατήσας τὸν Ἰωάννην ἔδησεν καὶ ἐν ϕυλακῇ ἀπέθετο διὰ Ἡρῳδιάδα
τὴν γυναῖκα Φιλίππου τοῦ ἀδελ ϕοῦ αὐτοῦ· ἔλεγεν γὰρ ὁ Ἰωάννης αὐτῷ, Οὐκ ἔξεστίν
σοι ἔχειν αὐτήν. καὶ θέλων αὐτὸν ἀποκτεῖναι ἐϕοβήθη τὸν ὄχλον, ὅτι ὡς προϕήτην αὐτὸν
εἶχον. γενεσίοις δὲ γενομένοις τοῦ Ἡρῴδου ὠρχήσατο ἡ θυγάτηρ τῆς Ἡρῳδιάδος ἐν τῷ
μέσῳ καὶ ἤρεσεν τῷ Ἡρῴδῃ, ὅθεν με θ̓ ὅρκου ὡμολόγησεν αὐτῇ δοῦναι ὃ ἐὰν αἰτήσηται.
ἡ δὲ προβιβασθεῖσα ὑπὸ τῆς μητρὸς αὐτῆς, Δός μοι, ϕησίν, ὧδε ἐπὶ πίνακι τὴν κεϕαλὴν
Ἰωάννου τοῦ βαπτιστοῦ. καὶ λυπηθεὶς ὁ βασιλεὺς διὰ τοὺς ὅρκους καὶ τοὺς
συνανακειμένους (fellow diners) ἐκέλευσεν δοθῆναι, καὶ πέμψας ἀπεκεϕάλισεν τὸν

Ἰωάννην ἐν τῇ ϕυλακῇ· καὶ ἠνέχθη ἡ κεϕαλὴ αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ πίνακι καὶ ἐδόθη τῷ κορασίῳ,
καὶ ἤνεγκεν τῇ μητρὶ αὐτῆς. (Mt 14.3–11)
Notes
2 Trans. the vivid presents by the English past tense.
4 ὁμοιώσωμεν and θῶμεν are deliberative subjunctives (13.1/3(a)(ii)); θῶμεν <
τίθημι (here with the meaning present).
5 Because there is only one past tense of εἰμί (4.1/1 note 5) it must be used
in both cat. 1 pres. and cat. 1 past conditions (here the sense indicates
the latter is meant).
7 πλῆθος is a neuter noun but, because the large numbers (πλήθη) consist of
men and women, the pple. (πιστεύοντες) which goes with it is masculine
(the gender used where both men and women are involved); such
agreement according to the sense rather than to the rules of strict

grammar is common (cf. note on 11.2.8 and 12.1.15).
8 ἐγὼ τίς ἤμην δυνατός a condensed expression who was I to be able (i.e. who
was I that I was able).

9 ᾔδεις … διεσκόρπισα; we must tell from the punctuation that this is a
question (10.1/2(a)); ἔδει σε οὖν βαλεῖν lit. then it should have been
necessary for you to put i.e. you should have put (8.1/4(b); the sense tells
us that the potential use of ἔδει is involved because the slave had not
done anything with his master’s money); τὸ ἐμόν i.e. what was mine.
13 αἰτία here relationship: ἄνθρωπος here means man in the sense of male
(in 10 the word has its normal meaning of human being, person).
14 αὐταῖς shows that those addressed are women but as English does not
distinguish gender in the 3rd pers. pl. pronoun we must translate simply
them; ἐκθαμβεῖσθε imp.
15 ll.1f. ἔδησεν < δέω; ἀπέθετο < ἀποτίθημι. ll.4f. τὸν ὄχλον (s.) and εἶχον (pl.) are
another example of agreement according to the sense (see note on 8);

we can use the same idiom here in English. l.5 γενεσίοις δέ … trans. δέ by
but as this sentence begins the story of how the situation changed; the
dat. gives the time of Salome’s dance (7.1/6(b)) – trans. when H’s
birthday…. l.6 ἐν τῷ μέσῳ lit. in the middle [of the guests], trans. in their
midst. ll.7f. ὃ ἐὰν (=ἄν) αἰτήσηται 14.1/1(c). l.10 τοὺς ὅρκους trans. by a
singular noun. l.11 δοθῆναι lit. [it i.e. the head] to be given; πέμψας
ἀπεκεϕάλισεν lit. sending he beheaded a condensed expression; obviously
Herod sent an order to the prison for John to be beheaded and this was
done there (Herod did not do it himself); the use of a verb meaning to do
something in the sense of to have something done is common in English
(e.g. last year I built a house in the suburbs). l.13 ἡ κεϕαλή is the subject of
ἠνέχθη and ἐδόθη. l.14 Supply the subject [she] for ἤνεγκεν; note that we
have αὐτῆς although κοράσιον is a neuter noun (agreement according to the
sense, cf. note on 8 above).
Main points
Of the -μι verbs that do not have a suffix, δίδωμι give and τίθημι put, place
are closely parallel
The main clause of category 1 conditionals have would/should in English
and ἄν in Greek
The main clause of category 2 conditionals do not have would/should in
English and do not have ἄν in Greek
Conditional sentences of both categories refer to the future, present or
past; a different construction is used for each category
Some potential sentences are expressed in the same way as the main
clause of a category 1 conditional
Some potential sentences expressed by the imperfect without ἄν: these
generally have the verb ἔδει in the meaning it would/should have been
necessary
1
We would have expected μή, not οὐ, in the conditional clause.
Unit 19
19.1 Grammar
19.1/1 Verbs in -νυμι
Verbs in -νυμι (and -ννυμι), where the present stem is formed with the
suffix νυ, are not common in NT Greek as the transformation of this class
into -ω verbs is far advanced.
The present indicative, infinitive and participle (and formerly the

imperfect) have endings without the o/e characteristic of -ω verbs (cf.
2.1/5 note 5). The other tenses, which do not keep the νυ suffix, are
formed in the same way as those of -ω verbs. An example is δείκνυμι

show, which has the principal parts: pres. δείκνυμι, fut. δείξω, aor. act.
ἔδειξα, perf. act. [δέδειχα], perf. mid./pass. δέδειγμαι, aor. pass. ἐδείχθην.
The present tense of δείκνυμι is:
Forms in brackets do not occur in δείκνυμι or any other -νυμι verb in the NT
(the present subjunctive and the imperfect do not occur at all). Forms not
in brackets occur in δείκνυμι or some other -νυμι verb.
Notes
like other remaining -νυμι verbs, also has present forms of an -ω
1 δείκνυμι,
verb, e.g. δεικνύειν (Mt 16.21 = δεικνύναι), δεικνύεις (Jn 2.18 = δείκνυς). In
some cases a -νυμι verb has been almost wholly changed, e.g. ὀμνύω
swear, vow from an earlier ὄμνυμι (the only old form occurring in the NT is
the present infinitive active ὀμνύναι at Mk 14.71 but in the corresponding
passage at Mt 26.74 we have the newer ὀμνύειν).
2 ἀπόλλυμι (originally ἀπο + ὄλ-νυμι) and its compound συναπόλλυμι are the
only verbs in -λυμι. ἀπόλλυμι has complications beyond those of form. It

means destroy, ruin, lose in its active forms (except the perfect), but its
middle forms (and the perfect active) are intransitive and mean perish, be
lost. Consequently we have:
19.1/2 ἵστημι and its compounds (see Appendix 5)
ἵστημι make to stand, set up, place was originally parallel to δίδωμι and
τίθημι (i.e. reduplication with iota and no suffix) but this has been partly
obscured by sound changes which occurred at an earlier stage of Greek.

Consequently, where the alternation δῳδο occurs in δίδωμι and θη/θε in
τίθημι we have στη/στα in ἵστημι.
The present and imperfect of ἵστημι are almost completely parallel to

δίδωμι and τίθημι. Note that the imperative active, the imperfect active, the
subjunctive middle/passive are totally absent from the NT and therefore

not given.
The only imperative form of the middle/passive is περιΐστασο (2 s.) in 2 Ti
2.16 and Tit 3.9.
ἵστημι is also parallel to δίδωμι and τίθημι in the following:

future active στήσω I shall set up, shall place
future middle στήσομαι I shall set up for myself, shall place for myself
future passive σταθήσομαι I shall be set up, shall be placed
aorist passive ἐστάθην I was set up, was placed
We meet a divergence from δίδωμι and τίθημι in the aorist active. ἵστημι
has two sets of forms:
a) A weak aorist ἔστησα, which is transitive and means I set up, placed.
This is conjugated as ἔλυσα. The middle (ἐστησάμην) does not occur in the
NT.
b) A root aorist ἔστην (conjugated as ἔβην, 11.1/1), which is intransitive and
means I stood.
Examples of these two aorists are:
Transitive
Mt 18.2) He called a child
προσκαλεσάμενος παιδίον ἔστησεν αὐτὸ ἐν μέσῳ αὐτῶν (
and placed him in their midst (lit. having called a child … in the middle
of them).
Intransitive
αὐτῶν λαλούντων αὐτὸς ἔστη ἐν μέσῳ αὐτῶν ( Lk 24.36) And as they were talking
he stood in their midst.
The two aorists are identical in the 3rd pl. indicative active, viz. ἔστησαν
(ἔστησ-αν from ἔστησα; ἔστη-σαν from ἔστην). The context will show whether
the transitive or intransitive form is involved.
ἵστημι is also irregular in its perfect and pluperfect. Both tenses have a κ
suffix in the indicative but a shorter form stem without κ is used in the
perfect infinitive and sometimes in the perfect participle. Because these
tenses are intransitive (see below) they occur only in the active voice.
The subjunctive and imperative do not occur.
Both perfect and pluperfect are intransitive and they are used as a
present and imperfect tense respectively: ἕστηκα I am standing and
εἱστήκειν I was standing.
We may summarize the different meanings of ἵστημι as follows:
A comprehensive table of ἵστημι is given in Appendix 5. The present,

future and imperfect of the middle/passive (ἵσταται, στήσομαι, ἵστατο) occur
very occasionally in compounds, always with an intransitive sense, but
the middle voice of the transitive aorist (which would be ἐστησάμην) is
totally absent.
has many compounds and these retain the same distinctions
ἵστημι
between transitive and intransitive tenses. Among the most common are:
Examples of the above compounds are:

τοῦτον τὸν Ἰησοῦν ἀνέστησεν ὁ θεός. (Ac 2.32) This Jesus God raised up (sc.
from the dead).
εὐθὺς ἀνέστη τὸ κοράσιον καὶ περιεπάτει. ( Mk 5.42) The girl immediately stood
up and started to walk.
ἐν ὑστέροις καιροῖς ἀποστήσονταί τινες τῆς πίστεως. (1 Ti 4.1) In later times some
will depart from the faith.
Ac 5.37) He made the people revolt under his
ἀπέστησεν λαὸν ὀπίσω αὐτοῦ. (
leadership (lit. behind him).

γυναῖκές τινες ἐξ ἡμῶν ἐξέστησαν ἡμᾶς. (Lk 24.22) Some women from [among]
us amazed us.
Mk 3.21) For they were saying that he was out of his
ἔλεγον γὰρ ὅτι ἐξέστη. (
mind.
Notes
1 To distinguish the different forms of ἵστημι it is essential to remember that:
i
( ) ἱστ- occurs in all forms of the present and imperfect but nowhere else.
(ii) ἐστ- (with smooth breathing) occurs only in the aorist indicative both
transitive and intransitive. It does not occur in aorist infinitives,

participles or subjunctive, which all begin with στ-.
(iii) ἑστ- (with rough breathing) occurs in all forms of the perfect but
nowhere else.
(iv) εἱστ- occurs only in the pluperfect.
2 Tenses formed from the present stem of some compounds of ἵστημι are in
the process of passing over to -ω verbs. Consequently we find συνιστάνω
as well as συνίστημι; and παριστάνω is always used instead of παρίστημι.
However, the tenses of these verbs not formed from the present stem are
not affected.
3 ἀνάστα is an alternative form for the intrans. aor. imp. ἀνάστηθι rise!
19.1/3 Eccentric -μαι verbs
Two deponents end in -αμαι, not -ομαι, because they belong to the -μι
class of verbs (18.1/1; cf. ἵσταμαι pres. mid./pass. of ἵστημι, 19.1/2). These
are δύναμαι be able and ἐπίσταμαι know how to, understand. These differ
from -ω verbs only in the present and imperfect (we have already met
δύναμαι at 11.1/1 note 2). δύναμαι is conjugated as follows:
From δύναμαι we also find the 2 pl aor. subj. δυνηθῆτε; on the two forms of
the optative that occur (δυναίμην, δύναιντο) see 13.1/4. Note that the
augment in the imperfect is either ἐ- or ἠ- (only the latter appears in the
aorist).
ἐπίσταμαιcan be conveniently shown with two similar verbs, κεῖμαι lie, be

laid down and κάθημαι be seated, sit. These are restricted to the following
tenses:
κάθημαι has two other forms: κάθου sit! (2 pl. fut. imp.) and καθήσεσθε you will
sit (2 pl. fut.).
Although δύναμαι, κεῖμαι and κάθημαι are defective verbs, the forms
indicated above occur frequently in the NT; we meet ἐπίσταμαι slightly
less often.
Notes
1 κεῖμαι has several compounds, e.g. ἀντίκειμαι be opposed (to), ἐπίκειμαι
press upon, threaten.
2 κεῖμαι can be used in place of the perfect passive of τίθημι with a basic
meaning of to have been placed/set up (the context of a passage will give

the exact nuance):
Lk 12.19) You have many good
ἔχεις πολλὰ ἀγαθὰ κείμενα εἰς ἔτη πολλά. (
things stored up for many years (we might have expected τεθειμένα lit.
having been placed [aside]).
εἰς ἀπολογίαν τοῦ Phil 1.16) I am appointed for the
εὐαγγελίου κεῖμαι. (
defence of the gospel (we might have expected τέθειμαι lit. I have
been set up).
hang (intr.), the passive of a defunct form κρεμάννυμι hang (tr.), is
3 κρέμαμαι
conjugated as ἐπίσταμαι. πίμπρημι burn occurs in the pres. inf. mid.pass.

(πίμπρασθαι) and the aor. ind. act. (ἔπρησα).
Insight
The Devil’s name in Hebrew is Satan Adversary, i.e. of God.
Although the translators of the Septuagint (see p. 127) took the
word into Greek in two forms (Σατανᾶς, which can be declined
(cf. 4.1/3), or the indeclinable Σατάν), they regularly use διάβολος
instead of either. Διάβολος comes from the verb διαβάλλω slander

and so means slanderer, which is hardly a comprehensive term
to describe the Devil’s activities. The word ἐπίβουλος plotter,
treacherous person, which is used only once of the Devil in the
Septuagint, seems more appropriate. In the New Testament
both διάβολος and Σατανᾶς are used but the first is more common.
By convention Σατανᾶς is often written with a capital.
19.2 Greek reading

1 περὶ δὲ τὴν ἑνδεκάτην (sc. ὥραν) ἐξελθὼν εὗρεν ἄλλους ἑστῶτας, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Τί
ὧδε ἑστήκατε ὅλην τὴν ἡμέραν ἀργοί; λέγουσιν αὐτῷ, ςΟτι οὐδεὶς ἡμᾶς ἐμισθώσατο.
(Mt 20.6f.)
ϕρόνιμος ὃν κατέστησεν ὁ κύριος ἐπὶ τῆς οἰκετείας
2 τίς ἄρα ἐστὶν ὁ πιστὸς δοῦλος καὶ
αὐτοῦ τοῦ δοῦναι αὐτοῖς τὴν τροϕὴν ἐν καιρῷ; (Mt 24.45)
3 παραλαμβάνει αὐτὸν ὁ διάβολος εἰς ὄρος ὑψηλὸν λίαν, καὶ δείκνυσιν αὐτῷ πάσας τὰς
βασιλείας τοῦ κόσμου καὶ τὴν δόξαν αὐτῶν. ( Mt 4.8)

4 ὁ δὲ βασιλεὺς ὠργίσθη, καὶ πέμψας τὰ στρατεύματα αὐτοῦ ἀπώλεσεν τοὺς ϕονεῖς
ἐκείνους καὶ τὴν πόλιν αὐτῶν ἐνέπρησεν. ( Mt 22.7)
5 ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ ἐξελθὼν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τῆς οἰκίας ἐκάθητο παρὰ τὴν θάλασσαν· καὶ
συνήχθησαν πρὸς αὐτὸν ὄχλοι πολλοί, ὥστε αὐτὸν εἰς πλοῖον ἐμβάντα καθῆσθαι, καὶ
πᾶς ὁ ὄχλος ἐπὶ τὸν αἰγιαλὸν εἱστήκει. ( Mt 13.1)

6 ἤδη δὲ ἡ ἀξίνη πρὸς τὴν ῥίζαν τῶν δένδρων κεῖται. (Mt 3.10)
7 τίς ἄνθρωπος ἐξ ὑμῶν ἔχων ἑκατὸν πρόβατα καὶ ἀπολέσας ἐξ αὐτῶν ἓν οὐ καταλείπει τὰ
ἐνενήκοντα ἐννέα ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ καὶ πορεύεται ἐπὶ τὸ ἀπολωλὸς ἕως εὕρῃ αὐτό; ( Lk 15.4)
8 Εἶπεν δέ τις ἐκ τοῦ ὄχλου αὐτῷ, Διδάσκαλε, εἰπὲ τῷ ἀδελϕῷ μου μερίσασθαι μετ̓ ἐμοῦ
τὴν κληρονομίαν. ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ἄνθρωπε, τίς με κατέστησεν κριτὴν ἐϕ̓ ὑμᾶς; (*Lk
12.13 .) f
9 μετὰ τοῦτον ἀνέστη Ἰούδας ὁ Γαλιλαῖος ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις τῆς ἀπογρα ϕῆς καὶ ἀπέστησεν
λαὸν ὀπίσω αὐτοῦ· κἀκεῖνος ἀπώλετο, καὶ πάντες ὅσοι ἐπείθοντο αὐτῷ
διεσκορπίσθησαν. ( Ac 5.37)
10 συνίστημι δὲ ὑμῖν Φοίβην τὴν ἀδελ ϕὴν ἡμῶν, οὖσαν διάκονον τῆς ἐκκλησίας τῆς ἐν
Κεγχρεαῖς, ἵνα αὐτὴν προσδέξησθε ἐν κυρίῳ ἀξίως τῶν ἁγίων καὶ παραστῆτε αὐτῇ ἐν ᾧ
ἂν ὑμῶν χρῄζῃ πράγματι. ( Ro 16.1f.)

11 While shepherds watch’d their flocks by night …
καὶ ποιμένες ἦσαν ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ τῇ αὐτῇ ἀγραυλοῦντες καὶ ϕυλάσσοντες ϕυλακὰς τῆς
νυκτὸς ἐπὶ τὴν ποίμνην αὐτῶν. καὶ ἄγγελος κυρίου ἐπέστη αὐτοῖς καὶ δόξα κυρίου
περιέλαμψεν αὐτούς, καὶ ἐ ϕοβήθησαν ϕόβον μέγαν. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς ὁ ἄγγελος, Μὴ
ϕοβεῖσθε, ἰδοὺ γὰρ εὐαγγελίζομαι ὑμῖν χαρὰν μεγάλην ἥτις ἔσται παντὶ τῷ λαῷ, ὅτι
ἐτέχθη ὑμῖν σήμερον σωτὴρ ὅς ἐστιν Χριστὸς κύριος ἐν πόλει Δαυίδ· καὶ τοῦτο ὑμῖν τὸ
σημεῖον, εὑρήσετε βρέ ϕος ἐσπαργανωμένον καὶ κείμενον ἐν ϕάτνῃ. καὶ ἐξαίϕνης ἐγένετο
σὺν τῷ ἀγγέλῳ πλῆθος στρατιᾶς οὐρανίου αἰνούντων τὸν θεὸν καὶ λεγόντων, Δόξα ἐν
ὑψίστοις θεῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκίας. ( Lk 2.8–14)

12 Dorcas brought back to life
ἐν Ἰόππῃ δέ τις ἦν μαθήτρια ὀνόματι Ταβιθά, ἣ διερμηνευομένη λέγεται Δορκάς· αὕτη
ἦν πλήρης ἔργων ἀγαθῶν καὶ ἐλεημοσυνῶν ὧν ἐποίει. ἐγένετο δὲ ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις
ἐκείναις ἀσθενήσασαν αὐτὴν ἀποθανεῖν· λούσαντες δὲ ἔθηκαν αὐτὴν ἐν ὑπερῴῳ. ἐγγὺς δὲ
οὔσης Λύδδας τῇ Ἰόππῃ οἱ μαθηταὶ ἀκούσαντες ὅτι Πέτρος ἐστὶν ἐν αὐτῇ ἀπέστειλαν
δύο ἄνδρας πρὸς αὐτὸν παρακαλοῦντες, Μὴ ὀκνήσῃς διελθεῖν ἕως ἡμῶν. ἀναστὰς δὲ
Πέτρος συνῆλθεν αὐτοῖς· ὃν παραγενόμενον ἀνήγαγον εἰς τὸ ὑπερῷον, καὶ παρέστησαν
αὐτῷ πᾶσαι αἱ χῆραι κλαίουσαι καὶ ἐπιδεικνύμεναι χιτῶνας καὶ ἱμάτια ὅσα ἐποίει με τ̓
αὐτῶν οὖσα ἡ Δορκάς. ἐκβαλὼν δὲ ἔξω πάντας ὁ Πέτρος καὶ θεὶς τὰ γόνατα
προσηύξατο, καὶ ἐπιστρέψας πρὸς τὸ σῶμα εἶπεν, Ταβιθά, ἀνάστηθι. ἡ δὲ ἤνοιξεν τοὺς
ὀ ϕθαλμοὺς αὐτῆς, καὶ ἰδοῦσα τὸν Πέτρον ἀνεκάθισεν. (Ac 9.36–40)
Notes
1 ἑστῶτας and ἑστήκατε 19.1/2; λέγει vivid present, trans. said (further
examples will not be noted).
2 κατέστησεν < καθίστημι; τοῦ δοῦναι expresses purpose (13.1/3(b)(i)).
4 ἀπώλεσεν < ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2); ἐνέπρησεν < ἐμπίμπρημι.
5 τῆς οἰκίας is governed by the ἐξ- of ἐξελθών (we could also have ἐκ τῆς οἰκίας);
συνήχθησαν < συνάγω; ἐμβάντα < ἐμβαίνω; εἱστήκει 19.1/2.

6 κεῖται is used here for the perf. pass. of τίθημι (19.1/3 note 2).
7 ἔχων here possessing; ἀπολέσας (and ἀπολωλός) < ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2);
ἐπί lit. to, towards but trans. here after; ἕως + subj. until (14.1/1(b)(ii)).
8 εἰπέ 2nd s. aor. imp. act. of λέγω; κατέστησεν < καθίστημι.
9 ἀνέστη < ἀνίστημι; ἀπέστησεν < ἀϕίστημι; κἀκεῖνος i.e. καὶ ἐκεῖνος (11.1/5);
ἀπώλετο < ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2); πάντες ὅσοι all who (21.1/3(c)).
10 παραστῆτε 2nd pl. subj. of the intr. aor. of παρίστημι; ἄν + subj. makes the
clause indefinite in whatever matter (14.1/1(c)).

11 ll.1f. ἀγραυλοῦντες lit. being in the open air but being can be omitted;
ϕυλακὰς τῆς νυκτός the watches of the night were the divisions of time into
which the night was divided (cf. 7.2.5). l.4 ἐϕοβήθησαν ϕόβον μέγαν lit. they
feared a great fear, i.e. they were extremely afraid. ll.7f. τοῦτο ὑμῖν τὸ
σημεῖον supply ἐστί; ἐσπαργανωμένον perf. pple. pass. of σπαργανόω wrap in
swaddling clothes (narrow lengths of cloth wrapped around a baby so

that only its head was visible); ἐγένετο here appeared. l.10 αἰνούντων goes
with στρατιᾶς (agreement according to the sense rather than strict
grammar, cf. note on 18.2.8). l.11 ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκίας the traditional
interpretation men of good will has now been abandoned for people who
enjoy God’s good will or favour (for the use of the genitive involved see
20.1/3(e)).
12 l.3 ὧν ἐποίει we would expect ἃ ἐποίει but the relative is attracted in the
case of its antecedents ἔργων and ἐλεημοσυνῶν (9.1/2 note 3). l.4 ἀσθενήσασαν
trans. having fallen sick. l.6 ἐστίν on the tense see 8.1/4(a); ἀπέστειλαν <
ἀποστέλλω. ll.8f. ἕως is here a preposition; ἀναστάς < ἀνίστημι; ὃν παραγενόμενον
ἀνήγαγον (<ἀνάγω) lit. whom having arrived they took up; παρέστησαν
(<παρίστημι) could be either tr. or intr. (19.1/2) – here it is the latter. l.11
ὅσα lit. as many as (21.1/3(c)), trans. all the … which. l.12 θεὶς (< τίθημι) τὰ
γόνατα idiomatic for falling to his knees; προσηύξατο < προσεύχομαι. l.13
ἀνάστηθι < ἀνίστημι; ἤνοιξεν < ἀνοίγω. l.14 ἰδοῦσα < ὁράω.
Main points
-νυμι verbs only differ from -ω verbs in the present and imperfect
Some forms of ἵστημι make to stand, set up are parallel to those of δίδωμι
and τίθημι
ἵστημι has a weak aorist (ἔστησα I set up) which is transitive and a strong
aorist (ἔστην I stood) which is intransitive

The perfect and pluperfect of ἵστημι are intransitive (ἕστηκα I am standing,
εἱστήκειν I was standing)
The compounds of ἵστημι have the same transitive/intransitive distinctions

Δύναμαι be able, ἐπίσταμαι know, κεῖμαι lie down and κάθημι be seated differ
from -ω verbs in the present and imperfect

Unit 20
20.1 Grammar
20.1/1 Compounds of -ἵημι
The last -μι verb that requires our attention is -ἵημι; most of its forms are
exactly parallel to τίθημι. Unlike the latter, -ἵημι had become so moribund
that in the NT it survives only in compounds. These are:
Of these ἀϕίημι is the most common but even it does not occur in all
tenses.
The present and aorist of -ἵημι are given below (all -μι conjugation forms
of -ἵημι in the imperfect middle/passive and in the aorist middle are
missing from the NT):
Compounds of -ἵημι also appear in the following tenses, where they
follow λύω:
future active -ἡσω, e.g. ἀϕήσω (Mt 18.21)
future passive -ἑθήσομαι, e.g. ἀϕεθήσεται (Mt 12.31)
perfect middle indicative -ἕωμαι, e.g. ἀϕέωνται (Lk 5.20)
perfect middle participle -εἱμένος, e.g. παρειμένας (Hb 12.12)
aorist passive -ἕθην, e.g. ἀνέθη (Ac 16.26), ἀϕεθῇ (subj., Mt 24.2)
Note
As we have already seen with ἵστημι (19.1/2 note 2), tenses formed from
the present stem of ἵημι compounds sometimes have the regular endings
of -ω verbs, e.g. ἀϕίομεν (Lk 11.4 = ἀϕίεμεν). The 3rd s. impf. form ἤϕιεν (Mk
1.34 = ἀϕίει) shows a double augment (as noted above, no forms of the
-μι conjugation occur for the imperfect).
20.1/2 Uses of cases (1) – nominative and accusative
All the Greek cases, except the vocative, can be used in more than one
way, and many of these we have already met. In this unit and the next all
the main uses are listed, together with a description of those not
previously treated. This list is undoubtedly formidable, and an attempt to
absorb it in its entirety on first reading could lead to severe indigestion. A
better plan is to get a general idea of the range of uses of each case
(particularly those where English idiom is different), and then to refer
back when confronted with particular instances. The name given to each
use is traditional and in most instances is an adequate short description.
Here, as elsewhere, it is necessary to fit linguistic phenomena into

pigeonholes. This can give the impression that distinctions are more
clear-cut than is sometimes the case. There is, in fact, an overlap
between certain uses, and we frequently meet examples that can be
classified in more than one way.
The nominative is the case used for the subject of a finite verb (and for a
noun in apposition to the subject). It can also used for the vocative, in
which case it is usually preceded by the article: Ἡ παῖς, ἔγειρε (Lk 8.54)
[my] child, get up.
Apart from its use as the case of the direct object of transitive verbs
(2.1/3(c)) and after certain prepositions (2.1/3(f); 3.1/5(a)), the
accusative can function in a number of ways, some of which require

rephrasing to be turned into normal English.
a) Accusative and infinitive (see 8.1/4(b))
b) Accusative to express time how long (see 7.1/6(a))
c) Accusative to express spatial extent (see 7.1/6(d))
d) Accusative of respect (or specification) and adverbial accusative
The accusative of respect is used with an adjective to denote a thing

with respect to which that adjective is relevant. A literal translation may
be obtained by employing the words with respect to before the noun or
pronoun involved, but, to produce an idiomatic translation, it will often be
necessary to recast the expression somewhat in English:
Jn 6.10) So the men,
ἀνέπεσαν οὖν οἱ ἄνδρες τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὡς πεντακισχίλιοι. (
about five thousand in (lit. with respect to) number, sat down.
An adverbial accusative performs the same function with verbs:

καὶ τὰ νῦν παραινῶ ὑμᾶς εὐθυμεῖν. ( Ac 27.22) In the present situation (lit.
with respect to the [things] now) I advise you to keep your courage
up.
Ἰουδαίους οὐδὲν ἠδίκησα. ( Ac 25.10) I have wronged the Jews in no way
(lit. with respect to nothing).
e) Verbs taking two accusatives – retained accusative
Some verbs in English can take two accusatives (we chose him leader;
they asked us our opinion). Such verbs in Greek can be divided into two
categories:
i Verbs of considering, naming, choosing etc. (factitive verbs),
( )
which take a direct object and an object complement (also called a

predicate):
Ἰουδαῖόν σε ἐπονομάζω. I call you a Jew.
When such expressions are put into the passive, both accusatives
become nominative:
σὺ Ἰουδαῖος ἐπονομάζῃ. ( Ro 2.17) You are called a Jew.
(iii) Verbs meaning ask for (αἰτέω), teach (διδάσκω), remind
(ἀναμιμνῄσκω), make someone/something into something (ποιέω),
put on and remove clothing (ἐνδύω, ἐκδύω), cause to drink (ποτίζω),

and a few others, which may take two accusatives (one accusative of
the person and the other of the thing involved, but NT usage is not
always consistent). The construction of the corresponding verbs in
English is sometimes the same:
ἐρωτήσω ὑμᾶς κἀγὼ λόγον ἕνα. Mt
( 21.24) I too shall ask you one
question.
When such expressions are put into the passive, the thing involved
remains in the accusative (retained accusative) while the person
involved is put into the nominative:
πάντες ἓν πνεῦμα ἐποτίσθημεν. (1 Cor 12.13) We were made to drink one
spirit.
The term retained accusative is also used to describe accusatives

used after passive verbs which, when used in the active voice, do not
take two accusatives. This use is very close to the adverbial accusative
(see above):
Jn 11.44)
ἐξῆλθεν ὁ τεθνηκὼς δεδεμένος τοὺς πόδας καὶ τὰς χεῖρας κειρίαις. (
The dead man came out with his feet and hands wrapped in
bandages (lit. bound with respect to feet and hands with
bandages; δεδεμένος perf. pple pass. of δέω, which does not take two
accusatives when used actively).
f) Cognate accusative
This describes an expression in which a noun and the verb (usually
otherwise intransitive) by which it is governed are both derived from the
same root (as in English sing a song). Often some change is needed in
translation:
ἰδόντες δὲ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐχάρησαν ϕόδρα. (Mt 2.10) And on
χαρὰν μεγάλην σ
seeing the star they rejoiced with very great joy (lit. they rejoiced a
very great joy).
20.1/3 Uses of cases (2) – genitive
Apart from its use as the case of possession (2.1/3(d)) and after certain
prepositions (2.1/3(g), 3.1/5(b)), the genitive can function in a number of
ways with another noun, or a verb, adjective or even adverb. Although
the genitive is often to be translated by of, in some of its uses, a different
rendering in English is required.
a) Possessive genitive (see 2.1/3(d))
In this use the genitive denotes possession or some looser association:
τὰ Καίσαρος (Mt 22.21) the things of Caesar; ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως
(Mt 2.1) in the days of King Herod; τὰ τῆς σαρκός (Ro 8.5) the things of the
flesh. In certain very restricted contexts a possessive genitive qualifies a

missing noun which can easily be supplied; the most common are wife,
son/daughter (cf. 5.1/3 note 2), and place of abode: Ἰάκωβον τὸν τοῦ
Ζεβεδαίου (Mt 4.21) James, the [son] of Zebedee; Μαρία ἡ τοῦ Κλωπᾶ (Jn
19.25) Mary, the [wife] of Clopas.
b) Objective and subjective genitive

An objective genitive stands in the same relation to a noun or adjective
as an object does to a transitive verb, but a subjective genitive stands in
the same relation to a noun as a subject does to a verb; in some cases
only the context tells us which use is involved. The phrase ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ
can mean God’s love (i.e. ὁ θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ God loves) or love for God (i.e. X
τὸν θεὸν ἀγαπᾷ X loves God). In τὴν ἀγάπην τοῦ θεοῦ οὐκ ἔχετε ἐν ἑαυτοῖς (Jn
5.42) the genitive τοῦ θεοῦ is objective because the context tells us that the
meaning is you do not have love for God in yourselves (i.e. you do not
love God); but in ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ ἐκκέχυται ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἡμῶν (Ro 5.5) we
have a subjective genitive as the meaning is God’s love (i.e. the love God
has for us) has been poured out in our hearts. In some contexts this
phrase and others involving similar uses are ambiguous.
c) Partitive genitive
In this construction the genitive denotes the whole, and the noun or
pronoun on which it depends denotes a part of that whole; it is sometimes
to be translated by of: οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων (Rv 9.20) the remainder of
mankind, sometimes by another preposition: τοὺς πτωχοὺς τῶν ἁγίων τῶν ἐν
Ἰερουσαλήμ (Ro 15.26) the poor among the Christians in Jerusalem. NT
Greek also uses prepositions to express this relationship: τίνα θέλετε ἀπὸ
τῶν δύο ἀπολύσω; (Mt 27.21) whom of the two shall I free?
Under this heading also belongs the genitive of geographic definition:

Ταρσὸς τῆς Κιλικίας (*Ac 22.3) Tarsus in Cilicia.
d) Genitive of explanation – genitive of content

The genitive may be used as the equivalent of a noun in apposition which
gives an explanation or definition of the preceding noun. The
construction in English is generally the same: σημεῖον περιτομῆς (*Ro 4.11)
a sign of circumcision, i.e a sign that consists in circumcision.
The genitive of content gives the content of the noun on which it
depends. It too is usually rendered into English by of: ἀγέλη χοίρων (Mk
5.11) a herd of pigs.
e) Genitive of quality
A quality of a person or thing can be expressed by the genitive, which is
often the equivalent of an adjective: ὀνόματα βλασϕημίας (Rv 17.3) names
of blasphemy, i.e. blasphemous names. Sometimes there is a possible
ambiguity: ὁ κριτὴς τῆς ἀδικίας (Lk 18.6) the judge of injustice, i.e. the unjust
judge (ὁ ἄδικος κριτὴς). However, the words τῆς ἀδικίας could be an
objective genitive (above (b)), with the phrase meaning the person who
judges injustice (which would be the natural meaning of the English judge
of injustice); the context in Luke tells us that the former interpretation is
correct and for the sake of clarity we must translate the unjust judge.
f) Genitive of price or value
The genitive is used to express price or value with verbs denoting
buying, selling, valuing, and the like: οὐχὶ δύο στρουθία ἀσσαρίου πωλεῖται;
(Mt 10.29) Are not two sparrows sold for an as? This genitive is also used
after ἄξιος worthy: ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τῆς τροϕῆς αὐτοῦ. (*Mt 10.10) a workman is
worthy of his sustenance.
g) Genitive of separation
Verbs denoting separation, cessation, prevention, hindrance,
difference, etc. can be followed by the genitive:
ἐκώλυσεν αὐτοὺς τοῦ βουλήματος. Ac
( 27.43) he prevented them from
[carrying out] their intention.
ἀποστήσονταί τινες τῆς πίστεως (1 Ti 4.1) Some will depart from the faith.
ϕέρετε. (Lk
πολλῶν στρουθίων δια 12.7) You are different from (i.e. worth
more than) many sparrows.
However, NT usage is inconsistent and we often find the simple

genitive replaced by ἐκ or ἀπό and the genitive: παρήγγειλεν αὐτοῖς ἀπὸ
Ἱεροσολύμων μὴ χωρίζεσθαι (Ac 1.4) he ordered them not to go away from
Jerusalem.
h) Genitive with adjectives
Some adjectives are followed by the genitive (sometimes the English
idiom is the same): πλήρης πνεύματος ἁγίου (Lk 4.1) full of the Holy Ghost;
ἔνοχος θανάτου (Mt 26.66) deserving of death (cf. ἄξιος above (f)).
i) Genitive with verbs (see 15.1/1)

j) Genitive of time within which (see 7.1/6(c))
k) Genitive absolute (see 12.1/2(f))
l) Genitive of comparison (see 17.1/4(a))
20.1/4 Oddities in verbs

a) -εἶμι come/go
-εἶμι, like -ἵημι, is a verb that survives only in compounds. When it existed
as a verb independent of prefixes, the present 1st s. form, εἶμι, was

differentiated from that of εἰμί I am only by its accent. In earlier Greek its
present tense had a future reference (I shall go), but in the NT its basic
meaning is come/go.
It occurs in the following compounds:

ἄπειμι go ἔπειμι be next
εἴσειμι enter σύνειμι come together
ἔξειμι depart, leave
We find the following forms:

-ἴασιν 3rd pl. pres. ind. -ἰέναι pres. inf.
-ᾔει 3rd s. impf. (but used as aor.) -ἰών (gen. ἰόντος), -ἰοῦσα, -ἰόν pres.
pple.
-ᾔεσαν 3rd pl. impf. (but used as
aor.)
Most examples are in Luke and Acts. We may cite: τῇ τε ἐπιούσῃ ἡμέρᾳ (Ac
7.26) and on the next day; εἰς τὴν συναγωγὴν τῶν Ἰουδαίων ἀπῄεσαν (Ac 17.10)
they went to the synagogue of the Jews.

b) Perfects with a present meaning
As we have seen (14.1.2), the perfect expresses a state in the present
resulting from an action in the past. The perfect of some Greek verbs is
best expressed in English by the present tense of verbs which in
themselves indicate a state. The most common examples are:
• μέμνημαι I remember (lit. I have reminded myself) from μιμνῄσκομαι
remind oneself. The aorist passive ἐμνήσθην means I remembered.
• τέθνηκα I am dead (lit. I have died) from ἀποθνῄσκω die (the perfect is
exceptional in never having the prefix ἀπο-). The perfect participle is
τεθνηκώς (gen. τεθνηκότος; only the masculine occurs) and the infinitive
τεθνηκέναι.
• πέποιθα (+ dat.) I trust is the perfect of πείθω persuade.

• οἶδα I know, which we have already met at 6.1/2, requires special
treatment. It exists only in the active of the perfect, pluperfect (which
has the meaning of an aorist), and one form of the future. It is
conjugated as follows:
Insight
Although the Greek spoken in the Middle Ages differed
considerably from that of Athens in the fifth century BC, the
classical language was intensively studied and used for literary
and formal purposes. An example is an inscription said to have
adorned a fountain near the most famous church in
Constantinople, Santa Sophia (Ἁγία Σοϕία): νίψον ἀνομήματα μὴ
μόναν ὄψιν wash [your] sins, not only [your] face i.e. wash away
your sins, not [just the dirt on] your face. Attic Greek, which was
the favoured form of the ancient language, would have required
μόνην as the feminine accusative singular of μόνος, but the writer
of the inscription used the ancient dialect form μόναν for a very
good reason: it makes the sentence a palindrome (παλίνδρομος
lit. running back, i.e. it can be read from either left or right).
20.2 Greek reading

1 In addition to translating the following, define the use of the genitive
involved:
(i) κεράμιον ὕδατος. (Mk 14.13) (ii) ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεόν. (1 Thes 1.8)
(iii) ἀκούσατε τὴν παραβολὴν τοῦ σπείραντος. (Mt 13.18) (iv) καὶ ἰδού τινες τῶν
γραμματέων εἶπαν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς, Οὗτος βλασϕημεῖ. (Mt 9.3) (v) ἐπῄνεσεν ὁ κύριος τὸν
οἰκονόμον τῆς ἀδικίας. (Lk 16.8) (vi) εἰς ὅλην τὴν περίχωρον τῆς Γαλιλαίας. (Mk
1.28) (vii) πάντες γὰρ ἥμαρτον καὶ ὑστεροῦνται τῆς δόξης τοῦ θεοῦ. (Ro 3.23) (viii)
ἢ οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι τὸ σῶμα ὑμῶν ναὸς τοῦ ἐν ὑμῖν ἁγίου πνεύματός ἐστιν, οὗ ἔχετε ἀπὸ
θεοῦ, καὶ οὐκ ἐστὲ ἑαυτῶν; ἠγοράσθητε γὰρ τιμῆς. (1 Cor 6.19f.)
2 ἐκαυματίσθησαν οἱ ἄνθρωποι καῦμα μέγα. ( Rev 16.9)
ϕ̓ ἧς ἡμέρας ἠκούσαμεν, οὐ παυόμεθα ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν προσευχόμενοι
3 διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἡμεῖς, ἀ
καὶ αἰτούμενοι ἵνα πληρωθῆτε τὴν ἐπίγνωσιν τοῦ θελήματος αὐτοῦ. (Col 1.9)
4 δεῦτε ὀπίσω μου, καὶ ποιήσω ὑμᾶς ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων. (Mt 4.19)
5 Ἐπαινῶ δὲ ὑμᾶς ὅτι πάντα μου μέμνησθε καὶ καθὼς παρέδωκα ὑμῖν τὰς παραδόσεις
κατέχετε. (1 Cor 11.2)

6 ἐγὼ πέποιθα εἰς ὑμᾶς ὅτι οὐδὲν ἄλλο ϕρονήσετε· ὁ δὲ ταράσσων ὑμᾶς βαστάσει τὸ
κρίμα, ὅστις ἐὰν ᾖ. (* Gal 5.10)
7 ἐπῆλθαν δὲ ἀπὸ Άντιοχείας καὶ Ἰκονίου Ἰουδαῖοι, καὶ πείσαντες τοὺς ὄχλους καὶ
λιθάσαντες τὸν Παῦλον ἔσυρον ἔξω τῆς πόλεως, νομίζοντες αὐτὸν τεθνηκέναι. ( Ac
14.19)
8 ἔχω οὖν καύχησιν τὰ πρὸς τὸν θεόν. (* Ro 15.17)

9 καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν πολλοὺς κακῶς ἔχοντας ποικίλαις νόσοις, καὶ δαιμόνια πολλὰ
ἐξέβαλεν, καὶ οὐκ ἤϕιεν λαλεῖν τὰ δαιμόνια, ὅτι ᾔδεισαν αὐτόν. (Mk 1.34)
10 The healing of a paralytic
καὶ ἰδοὺ προσέϕερον αὐτῷ παραλυτικὸν ἐπὶ κλίνης βεβλημένον. καὶ ἰδὼν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τὴν
πίστιν αὐτῶν εἶπεν τῷ παραλυτικῷ, Θάρσει, τέκνον· ἀϕίενταί σου αἱ ἁμαρτίαι. καὶ ἰδού
τινες τῶν γραμματέων εἶπαν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς, Οὗτος βλασϕημεῖ. καὶ εἰδὼς ὁ Ἰησοῦς τὰς
ἐνθυμήσεις αὐτῶν εἶπεν, Ἱνατί ἐνθυμεῖσθε πονηρὰ ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ὑμῶν; τί γάρ ἐστιν
εὐκοπώτερον, εἰπεῖν, Ά ϕίενταί σου αἱ ἁμαρτίαι, ἢ εἰπεῖν, Ἔγειρε καὶ περιπάτει; ἵνα δὲ
εἰδῆτε ὅτι ἐξουσίαν ἔχει ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἀϕιέναι ἁμαρτίας – τότε λέγει
τῷ παραλυτικῷ, Ἐγερθεὶς ἆρόν σου τὴν κλίνην καὶ ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν οἶκόν σου. καὶ
ἐγερθεὶς ἀπῆλθεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ. ( Mt 9.2–7)

11 Moses in Egypt
ὡς δὲ ἐπληροῦτο αὐτῷ τεσσαρακονταετὴς χρόνος, ἀνέβη ἐπὶ τὴν καρδίαν αὐτοῦ
ἐπισκέψασθαι τοὺς ἀδελ ϕοὺς αὐτοῦ τοὺς υἱοὺς Ἰσραήλ. καὶ ἰδών τινα ἀδικούμενον
ἠμύνατο καὶ ἐποίησεν ἐκδίκησιν τῷ καταπονουμένῳ πατάξας τὸν Αἰγύπτιον. ἐνόμιζεν
δὲ συνιέναι τοὺς ἀδελ ϕοὺς αὐτοῦ ὅτι ὁ θεὸς διὰ χειρὸς αὐτοῦ δίδωσιν σωτηρίαν αὐτοῖς, οἱ
δὲ οὐ συνῆκαν. τῇ τε ἐπιούσῃ ἡμέρᾳ ὤϕθη αὐτοῖς μαχομένοις καὶ συνήλλασσεν αὐτοὺς
εἰς εἰρήνην εἰπών, Ἄνδρες, ἀδελϕοί ἐστε· ἱνατί ἀδικεῖτε ἀλλήλους; ὁ δὲ ἀδικῶν τὸν
πλησίον ἀπώσατο αὐτὸν εἰπών, Τίς σε κατέστησεν ἄρχοντα καὶ δικαστὴν ἐϕ̓ ἡμῶν; μὴ
ἀνελεῖν με σὺ θέλεις ὃν τρόπον ἀνεῖλες ἐχθὲς τὸν Αἰγύπτιον; ἔϕυγεν δὲ Μωϋσῆς ἐν τῷ
λόγῳ τούτῳ, καὶ ἐγένετο πάροικος ἐν γῇ Μαδιάμ, οὗ ἐγέννησεν υἱοὺς δύο. (Ac 7. 23–
29)
Notes
1 ( v) ἐπῄνεσεν < ἐπαινέω. (viii) οὗ = ὅ the relative pronoun is attracted into the
case of its antecedent πνεύματος.
3 οὐ παυόμεθα trans. have not ceased – instead of I have waited for you for
five hours Greek idiom (like French) requires I wait for you since five
hours; τὴν ἐπίγνωσιν retained accusative (20.1/2(e)(ii)).
5 ὅτι because; πάντα μου everything of me, i.e. everything about me (μου is a
broad use of the possessive genitive).
6 ἐάν = ἄν (14.1/1 note 1).
8 τὰ πρὸς τὸν θεόν adverbial accusative (20.1/2(d)) because ἔχω καύχησιν is
the equivalent of a verb (I am proud).

9 κακῶς ἔχοντας suffering (ἔχω is used with adverbs to express a state).
10 l.2 βεβλημένον (< βάλλω) lit. [in a state of] having been put, i.e lying. l.3
θάρσει 2nd s. pres. imp. act. of θαρσέω; ἀϕίενται (and ἀϕιέναι in l.9) < ἀϕίημι.
l.5 εἰδώς (and εἰδῆτε in l.8) < οἶδα. l.10 ἐγερθείς aor. pass. pple. of ἐγείρω, lit.
having risen (the passive has the intransitive sense of rise).
11 l.1 ἀνέβη impers. it came. l.3 ἠμύνατο < ἀμύνομαι. l.5 ἐνόμιζεν the impf.
indicates that this was Moses’s thought during and after his action but in
English we would use a simple past he thought; συνιέναι (and συνῆκαν) <
συνίημι – the subject of συνιέναι is ἀδελϕούς. l.7. ἐπιούσῃ 20.1/4(a); ὤϕθη
(<ὁράω) lit. he appeared but as this could imply that he appeared out of
thin air, trans. he came upon. l.8 συνήλλασσεν (<συναλλάσσω) conative impf.
(4.1/1 note 3) tried to reconcile; εἰς εἰρήνην lit. into peace but English idiom
requires a fuller expression such as and put them at peace. l.10 ἀπώσατο <
ἀπωθέομαι; κατέστησεν < καθίστημι. l.11 μή here introduces a hesitant
question (10.1/2(a)); ἀνελεῖν (and ἀνεῖλες) < ἀναιρέω; ὃν τρόπον lit. in respect of
what way (adverbial accusative qualifying ἀνελεῖν; 20.1/2(d)), i.e. in the
way in which. l.12 ἐν τῷ λόγῳ τούτῳ because of this remark ἐν + dat. is used
to express cause as well as instrument (11.1/2); οὗ here where.
Main points
-ἵημι release, let go occurs only in compounds (as ἀϕίημι forgive); its
conjugation is very similar to that of τίθημι
Uses of accusative – acc. of respect, verbs taking two accusatives;
cognate accusative, etc.
Uses of genitive – possessive, subjective, objective, partitive,
explanatory, etc.
-εἶμι come/go only occurs in compounds (as ἔξειμι depart, leave)
The perfect of some verbs (as μέμνημαι I remember) has a present
meaning
Unit 21
21.1 Grammar
21.1/1 Uses of cases (3) – dative
The Greek dative is an amalgam of three cases (dative proper,

instrumental, locative), which existed in Indo-European, the language
from which Greek is derived. From an early stage Greek started to
employ prepositions to reduce the multiplicity of uses to which this case
could be put, and the process continues in NT Greek. Consequently, in
constructions where earlier Greek had used the dative exclusively, we
find that it is sometimes retained (e.g. λέγω + dat. to say to [someone]),
sometimes replaced by a preposition (e.g. λέγω πρός + acc. with the same
meaning).
a) Verbs governing the dative
i Verbs of giving, saying, promising are followed by a direct object
( )
(accusative) and an indirect object (dative 2.1/3(e)): τίς σοι ἔδωκεν τὴν
ἐξουσίαν ταύτην; (Mt 21.23) who gave you this power?; ἐλάλησεν αὐτοῖς
πολλά (Mt 13.3) he said many things to them; ἡ ἐπαγγελία ἣν αὐτὸς
ἐπηγγείλατο ἡμῖν (1 Jn 2.25) the promise which he promised to us.
However, with verbs of saying we also find the indirect object

expressed by a preposition: εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτὸν ὁ ἄγγελος (Lk 1.13) and
the angel said to him; εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη πρῶτον δεῖ κηρυχθῆναι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον
(Mk 13.10) the gospel must first be proclaimed to all nations. (other
examples at 8.2.12).
Conversely, we sometimes find the dative used where we would

expect a preposition: ἀποστέλλουσιν αὐτῷ τοὺς μαθητὰς αὐτῶν (Mt 22.16)
they sent his disciples to him (with a verb of motion πρός + acc. would
be more in accord with Greek usage).
(ii) Intransitive verbs followed by the dative (see 15.1/1(b)).
(iii) Impersonal verbs followed by the dative:

The impersonal verb δεῖ it is necessary, as we have seen, is followed
by an accusative and infinitive (5.1/2 note 5).
The impersonal ἔξεστι it is permitted/allowed takes the dative and

infinitive:
Jn 5.10) It is the
σάββατόν ἐστιν, καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστίν σοι ἆραι τὸν κράβαττόν σου. (
sabbath and you are not allowed (lit. it is not permitted to you) to lift
up your bed. (another example at 18.2.16).
it seems good takes the dative and generally some change is

δοκεῖ
necessary for translation into idiomatic English:

Mt 22.17) So
εἰπὲ οὖν ἡμῖν τί σοι δοκεῖ· ἔξεστιν δοῦναι κῆνσον Καίσαρι ἢ οὔ; (
tell us what you think (lit. what seems good to you). Is it lawful (lit.
is it allowed) to give tribute to Caesar or not?
δοκέωis also used as a normal verb with two basic meanings of

consider and seem.
Another impersonal μέλει it is of concern is followed by the person

concerned in the dative; the object of concern is usually expressed by
περί + gen.: μισθωτός ἐστιν καὶ οὐ μέλει αὐτῷ περὶ τῶν προβάτων (Jn 10.13) he
is a hired labourer and is not concerned about the sheep. (lit. it is of no

concern to him about the sheep).
b) Dative with adjectives
The dative is used with a few adjectives whose English equivalent is
usually followed by to or for. These include ἐναντίος opposed to; ὅμοιος like
to, resembling; πιστός faithful to: ἦν γὰρ ὁ ἄνεμος ἐναντίος αὐτοῖς (Mk 6.48) for
the wind was against (lit. opposed to) them. Often, however, these
adjectives are used in contexts where a dependent dative is not required:
δοῦλε ἀγαθὲ καὶ πιστέ (Mt 25.21) O good and faithful slave!
c) Dative of possession
The dative is used with εἶναι and γίνεσθαι to denote the owner or
possessor: ἃ δὲ ἡτοίμασας, τίνι ἔσται; (Lk 12.20) and who will have the
things you have made ready?; ἐὰν γένηταί τινι ἀνθρώπῳ ἑκατὸν πρόβατα … (Mt
18.12) if a man has a hundred sheep …
d) Dative of advantage and disadvantage
The dative can indicate the person or thing for whose advantage or
disadvantage something is done:
ἠγόρασαν τὸν Άγρὸν τοῦ Κεραμέως ϕὴν τοῖς ξένοις. (*Mt 27.7) They
εἰς τα
bought the Potter’s Field for a burial place for strangers. (τοῖς ξένοις
dat. of advantage for the benefit of strangers).
ϕονευσάντων τοὺς προϕήτας. (Mt 23.31) You
μαρτυρεῖτε ἑαυτοῖς ὅτι υἱοί ἐστε τῶν
bear witness against yourselves that you are the sons of those who
murdered the prophets. (ἑαυτοῖς dat. of disadvantage to your own
disadvantage).
e) Dative of reference
Similarly, the dative may be used to denote a person or thing to whose
case a statement is limited:
Ro 6.11) Consider
λογίζεσθε ἑαυτοὺς νεκροὺς μὲν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ ζῶντας δὲ τῷ θεῷ. (
yourselves dead as far as sin goes but living in the eyes of God. (i.e.
dead if the reference point is sin but living if the reference point is
God).
The distinction between this use and the dative of respect can be
tenuous.
f) Dative of respect
We have already met the accusative of respect (20.1/2(d)); more
frequently, the dative is used with the same meaning: οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ
(Mt 5.8) the pure in heart (lit. in respect of their heart); εὗρον ἄνθρωπον
Κυρηναῖον ὀνόματι Σίμωνα (Mt 27.32) they found a man of Cyrene (lit.
Cyrenean man), Simon by name. (lit. in respect of his name; other

examples of this use of ὀνόματι at 10.2.16, 12.2.7, 19.2.12).
g) Dative of instrument (see 11.1/2)
h) Dative of cause
The dative may denote cause:
οὗτοι ἀναγκάζουσιν ὑμᾶς περιτέμνεσθαι, μόνον ἵνα τῷ σταυρῷ τοῦ Χριστοῦ μὴ
Gal 6.12) These men are forcing you to be circumcised

διώκωνται. (
only so that they may not be persecuted by reason of Christ’s cross.

Often the noun in the dative denotes an emotional or mental condition:
οὐ διεκρίθη τῇ ἀπιστίᾳ ἀλλ̓ ἐνεδυναμώθη τῇ πίστει (Ro 4.20) he did not waver
through disbelief but he was strengthened through faith.
This use is sometimes replaced by a preposition: ἐθαύμαζον ἐπὶ τοῖς λόγοις

τῆς χάριτος τοῖς ἐκπορευομένοις ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ (Lk 4.22) they were
amazed by the words of grace coming from his mouth.

i) Dative of manner and attendant circumstances
The noun or noun phrase describing the manner in which something is
done is put into the dative:
ϕητεύουσσα ἀκατακαλύπτῳ τῇ κεϕαλῇ … (*1 Cor
πᾶσα γυνὴ προσευχομένη ἢ προ
11.5) Every woman praying or prophesying with head uncovered …
But here too we find prepositions being used in place of the plain dative:
εἰσελθοῦσα εὐθὺς μετὰ σπουδῆς πρὸς τὸν βασιλέα … (Mk 6.25) she, immediately
going in haste to the king … (earlier Greek would have preferred σπουδῇ);
οὐ μετὰ βίας (Ac 5.26) not forcibly (= βίᾳ in earlier Greek).
In earlier Greek the dative of attendant circumstances, which is close in

meaning to the dative of manner, gave the circumstances accompanying
an action but this has been superseded in NT Greek by ἐν + dat.: ἦν ἐν τῇ
συναγωγῇ αὐτῶν ἄνθρωπος ἐν πνεύματι ἀκαθάρτῳ (Mk 1.23) in their synagogue
there was a man with an unclean spirit. (ἐν πνεύματι ἀκαθάρτῳ tells us the
condition or circumstances the man was in; this use of ἐν is never to be
translated by in).
j) Dative of measure of difference
This dative is used with comparatives (17.1/4(b)) and in expressions
involving some sort of comparison: πόσῳ διαϕέρει ἄνθρωπος προβάτου. (*Mt
12.12) how much better is a man than a sheep! (lit. by how much is a man
different from a sheep; on ποσῳ in exclamations see below 21.1/3(d)).

k) Dative of time when (see 7.1/6(b))
21.1/2 First and second declension contracted adjectives
A very few first and second declension adjectives ending in -εος or -οος
contract the final epsilon or omicron of their stem with the initial vowel of
endings. χρυσοῦς (<χρύσεος) golden is declined as follows:
Notes
1 Contractions in the declension of χρύσεος follow the rules given for
contracted verbs (5.1/2) with the addition that in the feminine singular ε +
α > η, except where ε is preceded by ρ (see below), but in the neuter plural
nom. and acc. ε + α > α (the combination ε + α does not occur in any form
of contracted verbs). Adjectives in -οος (as ἁπλόος sound, healthy, διπλόος
double, twofold, τετραπλόος fourfold) follow χρυσοῦς completely, even in the
feminine.
2 Adjectives ending in -ρεος contract ε + α > α in the feminine singular. From
ἀργυροῦς (-εος), -ᾶ (-έα), -οῦν, (-εον) [made of] silver the feminine singular
forms are: nom. ἀργυρᾶ, acc. ἀργυρᾶν, gen. ἀργυρᾶς, dat. ἀργυρᾷ.
3 νέος new and στερεός hard do not contract.
21.1/3 Further demonstrative and relative adjectives/pronouns
Greek possesses two series of adjectives, each containing a

demonstrative, relative and interrogative form. One series, with the
element -οσ-, refers to quantity, the other, with the element -οι-, refers to
quality (all forms can also function as pronouns):
The relative and interrogative forms are first and second declension
adjectives (3.1/3). τοσοῦτος and τοιοῦτος follow οὗτος (9.1/1) but with the
omission of the latter’s initial tau in the oblique forms and with alternative
forms for the neuter singular nominative and accusative:
The uses to which these can be put are:

a) τοσοῦτος and τοιοῦτος can be used as simple attributive adjectives:
παῤ οὐδενὶ τοσαύτην πίστιν ἐν τῷ Ἰσραὴλ εὗρον. ( Mt 8.10) I found such great
(lit. so much) faith in no-one in Israel.
ἐδόξασαν τὸν θεὸν τὸν δόντα ἐξουσίαν τοιαύτην τοῖς ἀνθρώποις. ( Mt 9.8) They
praised God for giving such power to men.
In this use τοιοῦτος sometimes has the definite article: ἓν τῶν τοιούτων
παιδίων (Mk 9.37) one of such children.
b) τοσοῦτος/ὅσος and τοιοῦτος/οἷος are used in sentences where ὅσος and οἷος
introduce a comparison. As English does not have relatives of this sort
some change is needed in translation:
Cor
οἷοί ἐσμεν τῷ λόγῳ δἰ ἐπιστολῶν ἀπόντες, τοιοῦτοι καὶ παρόντες τῷ ἔργῳ. (2
10.11) lit. of what sort we are in word through letters [when we are]
absent, of this sort [are we] also in deed [when we are] present i.e.
when I am present my actions show me just the same as my words
do through letters when I am absent (Paul is using the writer’s plural).
The relatives alone, without the corresponding demonstratives, may be

used in this way:
ϕεὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς οὐ δύναται
τὰ ἱμάτια αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο στίλβοντα λευκὰ λίαν οἷα γνα
οὕτως λευκᾶναι. (Mk 9.3) lit. his clothes became shining [and]
exceedingly white, of what sort a fuller on earth cannot so whiten i.e.
of a sort that a fuller on earth cannot match.
c) πάντες ὅσοι is used in the sense all who (lit. all as many as) instead of the
expected πάντες οἵ:
πάντες ὅσοι ἦλθον πρὸ ἐμοῦ κλέπται εἰσὶν καὶ λῃσταί. (Jn 10.8) All who came
before me are thieves and robbers.
Very often ὅσος is used by itself in this sense:

ὅσοι ἥψαντο διεσώθησαν. (Mt 14.36) All who touched were cured.
d) The interrogatives (πόσος, ποῖος) are used in direct or indirect questions:
Mt 15.34) How many loaves of bread do you have?
πόσους ἄρτους ἔχετε; (
ϕέ, πόσαι μυριάδες εἰσὶν ἐν τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις τῶν πεπιστευκότων. (Ac

θεωρεῖς, ἀδελ
21.20) You see, my brother, how many myriads of those who have
faith there are among the Jews.

Jn 12.33) And he
τοῦτο δὲ ἔλεγεν σημαίνων ποίῳ θανάτῳ ἤμελλεν ἀποθνῄσκειν. (
said this, indicating by what sort of death he was going to die.
However, ποῖος is often used as a simple interrogative with the same

sense as τίς:
Mt 24.42) You do not know on
οὐκ οἴδατε ποίᾳ ἡμέρᾳ ὁ κύριος ὑμῶν ἔρχεται. (
what day your lord is coming.

Jn 10.32) For which of these works (lit.
διὰ ποῖον αὐτῶν ἔργον ἐμὲ λιθάζετε; (
for which work of these) are you stoning me?
πόσοςand ποῖος are also used to introduce exclamations (note that these
are not indicated by an exclamation mark in Greek):
ϕῶς τὸ ἐν σοὶ σκότος ἐστίν, τὸ σκότος πόσον. (Mt 6.23) So if the light in
εἰ οὖν τὸ
you is darkness, how great is the darkness!

Insight
One of the most famous monasteries is that of St Catherine,
which is situated on the spot where Moses saw the burning
bush at the foot of Mount Sinai (Exodus 3.2). An earlier
Christian settlement was redeveloped by the emperor Justinian
in the middle of the sixth century and four hundred years later
the monastery he had established was named after St
Catherine after its monks acquired her relics. The remoteness
of the site has meant that many of Justinian’s buildings have
survived, together with a large library of manuscripts. Among
the latter was the Codex Sinaiticus of the Bible (see p. 85). This
was in a fragmentary state when it was discovered by a
nineteenth century German scholar, Constantin Tischendorff,
who persuaded the monks to present a large portion of what
survived to the Czar of Russia. From this 347 leaves were
purchased in 1933 by the British Museum from the Communist
government of the time. Another 60 leaves and a few fragments
are held by other institutions, the total making up about half the
Greek bible. For further information and photographs of pages
visit the website www.codexsinaiticus.org
21.2 Greek reading

1 In addition to translating the following, define the use of the dative
involved:
(i) ἐὰν οὖν μὴ εἰδῶ τὴν δύναμιν τῆς ϕωνῆς, ἔσομαι τῷ λαλοῦντι βάρβαρος. (1 Cor
14.11) (ii) ὁ παθὼν σαρκί. (1 Pt 4.1) (iii) ἀναπληροῦται αὐτοῖς ἡ προϕητεία
Ἠσαΐου. (Mt 13.14) (iv) εἰδότες τὰ αὐτὰ τῶν παθημάτων τῇ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ὑμῶν
ἀδελϕότητι ἐπιτελεῖσθαι. (1 Pt 5.9) (v) ὑμῖν γάρ ἐστιν ἡ ἐπαγγελία καὶ τοῖς τέκνοις
ὑμῶν. (Ac 2.39) (vi) τῇ ἀπιστίᾳ ἐξεκλάσθησαν, σὺ δὲ τῇ πίστει ἕστηκας. (Ro 11.20)
(vii) ὁ ἀρχιερεὺς εἰσέρχεται εἰς τὰ ἅγια κατ̓ ἐνιαυτὸν ἐν αἵματι ἀλλοτρίῳ. (Hb 9.25)
(viii) παντὶ τρόπῳ, εἴτε προϕάσει εἴτε ἀληθείᾳ, Χριστὸς καταγγέλλεται. (Phil 1.18)
ix) τὸν δὲ ἀσθενοῦντα τῇ πίστει προσλαμβάνεσθε. (Ro 14.1) (x) ϕανερὸν ἐγένετο τῷ
(
Φαραὼ τὸ γένος τοῦ Ἰωσήϕ. (Ac 7.13)
2 καὶ προσῆλθον αὐτῷ Φαρισαῖοι πειράζοντες αὐτὸν καὶ λέγοντες, Εἰ ἔξεστιν ἀνθρώπῳ
ἀπολῦσαι τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ κατὰ πᾶσαν αἰτίαν; ( Mt 19.3)

3 καὶ αὐτὸς ἦν ἐν τῇ πρύμνῃ ἐπὶ τὸ προσκεϕάλαιον καθεύδων· καὶ ἐγείρουσιν αὐτὸν καὶ
λέγουσιν αὐτῷ, Διδάσκαλε, οὐ μέλει σοι ὅτι ἀπολλύμεθα; (Mk 4.38)
4 διελθόντες δὲ πρώτην ϕυλακὴν καὶ δευτέραν ἦλθαν ἐπὶ τὴν πύλην τὴν σιδηρᾶν τὴν
ϕέρουσαν εἰς τὴν πόλιν. (Ac 12.10)

5 Συνηγμένων δὲ τῶν Φαρισαίων ἐπηρώτησεν αὐτοὺς ὁ Ἰησοῦς λέγων, Τί ὑμῖν δοκεῖ περὶ
Mt 22.41f.)
τοῦ Χριστοῦ; τίνος υἱός ἐστιν; λέγουσιν αὐτῷ, Τοῦ Δαυίδ. (
6 ἐὰν οὖν ᾖ ὁ ὀϕθαλμός σου ἁπλοῦς, ὅλον τὸ σῶμά σου ϕωτεινὸν ἔσται. (Mt 6.22)
7 οἱ γὰρ τοιοῦτοι τῷ κυρίῳ ἡμῶν Χριστῷ οὐ δουλεύουσιν ἀλλὰ τῇ ἑαυτῶν κοιλίᾳ, καὶ διὰ
τῆς χρηστολογίας καὶ εὐλογίας ἐξαπατῶσιν τὰς καρδίας τῶν ἀκάκων. ( Ro 16.18)
8 ὁ πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος ἐκ γῆς χοϊκός, ὁ δεύτερος ἄνθρωπος ἐξ οὐρανοῦ. οἷος ὁ χοϊκός,
τοιοῦτοι καὶ οἱ χοϊκοί, καὶ οἷος ὁ ἐπουράνιος, τοιοῦτοι καὶ οἱ ἐπουράνιοι. (1 Cor
f
15.47 .)
9 Ὁμοία ἐστὶν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν θησαυρῷ κεκρυμμένῳ ἐν ἀγρῷ, ὃν εὑρὼν
ἄνθρωπος ἔκρυψεν, καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς χαρᾶς αὐτοῦ ὑπάγει καὶ πωλεῖ πάντα ὅσα ἔχει καὶ
ἀγοράζει τὸν ἀγρὸν ἐκεῖνον. (* Mt 13.44)

10 εἰ οὖν ὑμεῖς πονηροὶ ὄντες οἴδατε δόματα ἀγαθὰ διδόναι τοῖς τέκνοις ὑμῶν, πόσῳ
μᾶλλον ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς δώσει ἀγαθὰ τοῖς αἰτοῦσιν αὐτόν. ( Mt 7.11)
11 ὅσοι γὰρ πνεύματι θεοῦ ἄγονται, οὗτοι υἱοὶ θεοῦ εἰσιν. ( Ro 8.14)
12 The prodigal son
ἄνθρωπός τις εἶχεν δύο υἱούς. καὶ εἶπεν ὁ νεώτερος αὐτῶν τῷ πατρί, Πάτερ, δός μοι τὸ
ἐπιβάλλον μέρος τῆς οὐσίας. ὁ δὲ διεῖλεν αὐτοῖς τὸν βίον. καὶ με τ̓ οὐ πολλὰς ἡμέρας
συναγαγὼν πάντα ὁ νεώτερος υἱὸς ἀπεδήμησεν εἰς χώραν μακράν, καὶ ἐκεῖ διεσκόρπισεν
τὴν οὐσίαν αὐτοῦ ζῶν ἀσώτως. δαπανήσαντος δὲ αὐτοῦ πάντα ἐγένετο λιμὸς ἰσχυρὰ
κατὰ τὴν χώραν ἐκείνην, καὶ αὐτὸς ἤρξατο ὑστερεῖσθαι. καὶ πορευθεὶς ἐκολλήθη ἑνὶ τῶν
πολιτῶν τῆς χώρας ἐκείνης, καὶ ἔπεμψεν αὐτὸν εἰς τοὺς ἀγροὺς αὐτοῦ βόσκειν χοίρους·
καὶ ἐπεθύμει χορτασθῆναι ἐκ τῶν κερατίων ὧν ἤσθιον οἱ χοῖροι, καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐδίδου αὐτῷ.
εἰς ἑαυτὸν δὲ ἐλθὼν ἔϕη, Πόσοι μίσθιοι τοῦ πατρός μου περισσεύονται ἄρτων, ἐγὼ δὲ
λιμῷ ὧδε ἀπόλλυμαι. ἀναστὰς πορεύσομαι πρὸς τὸν πατέρα μου καὶ ἐρῶ αὐτῷ, Πάτερ,
ἥμαρτον εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ ἐνώπιόν σου, οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι υἱός σου. ποίησόν
με ὡς ἕνα τῶν μισθίων σου. καὶ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα ἑαυτοῦ. ἔτι δὲ αὐτοῦ
μακρὰν ἀπέχοντος εἶδεν αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐσπλαγχνίσθη καὶ δραμὼν ἐπέπεσεν
ἶ
ἐπὶ τὸν τράχηλον αὐτοῦ καὶ κατε ϕίλησεν αὐτόν. εἶπεν δὲ ὁ υἱὸς αὐτῷ, Πάτερ, ἥμαρτον
εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ ἐνώπιόν σου, οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι υἱός σου. εἶπεν δὲ ὁ πατὴρ
πρὸς τοὺς δούλους αὐτοῦ, Ταχὺ ἐξενέγκατε στολὴν τὴν πρώτην καὶ ἐνδύσατε αὐτόν, καὶ
δότε δακτύλιον εἰς τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ καὶ ὑποδήματα εἰς τοὺς πόδας, καὶ ϕέρετε τὸν
μόσχον τὸν σιτευτόν, θύσατε καὶϕαγόντες εὐϕρανθῶμεν, ὅτι οὗτος ὁ υἱός μου νεκρὸς ἦν
καὶ ἀνέζησεν, ἦν ἀπολωλὼς καὶ εὑρέθη. καὶ ἤρξαντο εὐϕραίνεσθαι. (Lk 15. 11–24)
Notes
1 (iv) τὰ αὐτὰ τῶν παθημάτων lit. the same [types] of sufferings, trans. the
same sufferings. (vi) ἐξεκλάσθησαν < ἐκκλάω; The sentence is from a
passage where disbelievers are compared to branches broken off trees.
(vii) The blood is that of a sacrificed animal. (ix) προσλαμβάνεσθε imp.
2 εἰ here introduces a direct question (10.1/2(b) note).
3 τὸ προσκεϕάλαιον trans. a pillow (the article implies that it was normal to
have a pillow in the stern).

5 συνηγμένων perf. mid. pple. of συνάγω; ἐπηρώτησεν < ἐπερωτάω.
9 The man who discovers the treasure hides it in the same field, which he
then proceeds to buy in order to legitimize his find.

10 It is better to take this sentence as an exclamation than as a question;
translate the pples. ὄντες and αἰτοῦσιν by adjectival clauses; οἴδατε … διδόναι
know [how] to give.
11 ὅσοι is used here in the sense all who (21.1/3(c)) but our translation must
also take account of οὗτοι.

12 l.2 δός < δίδωμι. l.3 διεῖλεν < διαιρέω; αὐτοῖς dat. of advantage for them,
trans. between them (the two brothers); τὸν βίον here his possessions;
συναγαγών < συνάγω. l.6 δαπανήσαντος … αὐτοῦ gen. absol. (12.1/2(f)). l.10
τῶν κερατίων ὧν the relative (ὧν) has been attracted into the case of the
antecedent (9.1/2 note 3); carob pods resemble large French beans and
their interior lining is by no means inedible. l.13 ἀναστάς < ἀνίστημι. l.15
κληθῆναι aor. pass. inf. of καλέω. ll.16f. ἑαυτοῦ refers to the subject as have
[τὴν οὐσίαν] αὐτοῦ where strict grammar requires ἑαυτοῦ; αὐτοῦ μακρὰν
ἀπέχοντος (gen. absol.) lit. him being distant far off (μακράν is here an
adverb); this gen. absol. is not independent of the clause in which it

stands because its subject and αὐτόν are the same person (the prodigal
son) – such violations of the rule given at 12.1/2(f) sometimes occur. l.18
δραμών < τρέχω; ἐπέπεσεν < ἐπιπίπτω. l.22 ἐξενέγκατε < ἐκϕέρω; τὴν πρώτην (lit.
the first) here obviously means the best; δότε < δίδωμι. ll.24f. ϕαγόντες <
ἐσθίω; εὐϕρανθῶμεν aor. subj. of εὐϕραίνομαι; ἦν ἀπολωλώς is a composite
tense (12.1/2(g)) and the equivalent of a pluperfect.
Main points
Uses of the dative – with verbs and adjectives, dative of possession, of
advantage/disadvantage, reference, etc.
A few first and second declension adjectives are contracted (as χρυσοῦς
golden)
Of the two parallel series τοσοῦτος/τοιοῦτος (demonstrative adjectives), ὅσος/
οἷος (relative adjectives), πόσος/ποῖος (interrogative adjectives) those with
-οσ- with refer to quantity and those with -οι- to quality
21.3 Excursus
The text of the New Testament
During the Renaissance the study of ancient texts developed rapidly.

Scholars searched everywhere for manuscripts of works in Greek and
Latin. (The term manuscript here means a book written out by hand and
at this time it was used only of codices which had survived from late
antiquity and the Middle Ages. Later, its meaning was extended to
include the ancient papyrus rolls discovered in Egypt since they too were
handwritten.)
As we have seen, it was impossible for two manuscripts to be identical.

When scholars began to compare one with another they realized that any
attempt to recover the author’s original words must involve collecting
variants in places where the surviving manuscripts differed. Only then
could a judgement be reached on which variant, if any at all, represented
what the author wrote.
As printing grew more sophisticated it became possible for scholarly
editions of works in Greek and Latin to be equipped with a set of notes at
the bottom of each page which gave the different readings (i.e
manuscript variants) for the section of the text presented above. This is
called the textual (or critical) apparatus, and it has long been a standard
feature of editions of ancient works.
The recommended edition of the NT (see Suggestions for further

study) goes further still in the information given for each page of text; its
arrangement is as follows:
Immediately under the text and separated from it by a broad horizontal
line is the textual apparatus.
Below this, and separated from the textual apparatus by a short
horizontal line, is the punctuation apparatus, which shows the differences
in punctuation between the Greek text given above and various other
editions of the NT as well as translations.
Below this again is the list of references for quotations from elsewhere in
the Bible and from other sources; references for allusions and parallel
passages are also given.
When you begin to read the NT for yourself it is not necessary to bother
about this information, although it can often be interesting to chase up
quotations and parallel passages. If you take your studies further you will
probably become interested in the textual apparatus as the meaning of a
particular passage can vary significantly according to the reading
adopted.
Suggestions for further study
On completing the present book you will want to read further in the
NT. If you do not feel confident enough to make an immediate start on
a full text, the following contains selected passages with vocabularies
on facing pages:
JACT, New Testament Greek – A Reader, Cambridge University
Press 2001 (a volume in the Joint Association of Classical Teachers’
Greek course)
When you do start on the NT itself, the recommended edition is:

The Greek New Testament, edited by K. Aland and others, United
Bible Societies, Stuttgart, 1966.
Parallel to this edition is:

Newman, Barclay M. Jr., A Concise Greek–English Dictionary of the
New Testament, United Bible Societies, Stuttgart, 1971.
This excellent small dictionary can be obtained separately or bound

together with the Greek text. For practical purposes the separate
version of each is to be preferred. You should start with the gospels; it
is easy to pick out favourite passages in the recommended edition as
English headings are provided for each section. If you have made
yourself familiar with the contents of the present book you will have no
trouble with points of grammar.
The standard dictionary for NT Greek is:

Danker, F. W. (editor), A Greek–English Lexicon of the New
Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, University of
Chicago Press, 3rd edition 2000 (originally published in German by
W. Bauer and translated into English by W. F. Arndt and F. W.
Ginrich).
This very large work is obviously not for beginners working their way
through the NT, but you may find it profitable to consult a library copy
in order to get the full range of meanings of particular words.
Max Zerwick and Mary Grosvenor A Grammatical Analysis of the

Greek New Testament gives an analysis of each verse of the New
Testament as well as a running vocabulary.
An interesting book on the text of the whole of the Greek Bible is:
Kenyon, F. G., The Text of the Greek Bible, third edition revised and
augmented by A. W. Adams, Duckworth, 1975.
A wealth of information on NT Greek is available on the Internet. The

following are three of the many worth investigating:
B-Greek list at http://www.ibiblio.org.bgreek (a forum to which
questions can be put)
New Testament Gateway at http://www.ntgateway.com (a directory of
Internet resources)
ESword at http:www.e-sword.net (Greek texts, translations and other
aids)
Appendices
Appendix 1
Conjugation of λύω loosen

Note
In all forms of the perfect which are made up of a perfect participle and
εἰμί the participle must agree with the subject of the verb in number
and gender.
Appendix 2
Conjugation of contracted verbs

τιμάω honour
Rules for contracting -αω verbs:

α + an e-sound (ε, η) > α: ἐτίμα (ἐτίμα–ε)
α + an o-sound (ο, ου, ω) > ω: τιμῶσι (τιμά–ουσι); τιμῶμεν (τιμά–ομεν)
α + an ι-diphthong (ει, ῃ, οι) obeys the above rules but retains the iota
as a subscript in the contracted form: τιμᾷ (τιμά–ει)
ποιέω make, do
Rules for contracting -εω verbs:
ε + ε > ει: ποιεῖτε (ποιέ-ετε)
ε + ο > ου: ἐποίουν (ἐποίε-ον)
ε disappears before a long vowel or diphthong: ποιῶ (ποιέ-ω); ποιοῦσι

(ποιέ-ουσι).
δηλέω make clear, show
Rules for contracting -οω verbs:

ο + ε/ο/ου > ου: ἐδήλου (ἐδήλο-ε); δηλοῦμεν (δηλό-ομεν); δηλοῦσι (δηλό-ουσι)
ο + ῃω > ω: δηλῶ (δηλό-ω)
ο + an ι-diphthong (ει, οι, ῃ) > οι: δηλοῖ (δηλό-ει)

Appendix 3
Conjugation of εἰμί be
Appendix 4
Root aorist (11.1/1)

-ἔβην (-βαίνω go) and ἔγνων (γινώσκω ascertain, know) are conjugated:
Note: Alternative forms for the 2nd s. aor. imp. of -βαίνω are ἀνάβα
(<ανάβαινω) and μετάβα (<μετάβαίνω).
Appendix 5
Conjugation of δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place, ἵστημι make

stand
Forms which occur only in compounds are not indicated. For full
details of which tenses of ἵστημι are transitive and which are
intransitive see 19.1/2.
Perfect and pluperfect
The perfect and pluperfect active of δίδωμι, τίθημι are formed regularly
from the stems δεδωκ-, τεθεικ-.
The perfect and pluperfect active of ἵστημι (which are intransitive – see
19.1/2) are conjugated as follows:
MIDDLE
The following middle forms occur in the NT:

Present indicative: δίδοται, διδόμεθα; τίθεμαι, τίθεσθε; ἵσταται, ἵστανται
Present subjunctive: none
Present imperative: τιθέσθων; ἵστασο
Present infinitive: δίδοσθαι; τίθεσθαι; ἵστασθαι
Present participle: διδόμεν-ος, -η, -ον; τιθέμεν-ος, -η, -ον, ἱστάμεν-ος, -η,
-ον
Imperfect indicative: ἐτίθετο, ἐτίθεντο; ἵστατο

Future indicative: formed regularly with the stems δωσ-, θησ-, στησ-.
Aorist indicative: ἔδοτο, ἔδοσθε, ἔδοντο; ἐθέμην, ἔθου, ἔθετο, ἔθεσθε, ἔθεντο
Aorist subjunctive: θώμεθα
Aorist imperative: θέσθε
Aorist infinitive: θέσθαι
Aorist participle: θέμεν-ος, -η, -ον
The perfect and pluperfect middle of δίδωμι and τίθημι are formed
regularly from the stems δεδο- and τεθει- (e.g. δέδοται, τέθειται, etc.) but
on the perfect passive of the latter see 18.1/2 note 4. The perfect
middle/passive forms of ἵστημι do not occur.
PASSIVE
The present, imperfect and perfect passive of these verbs have the
same forms as the middle. The future and aorist passive, which occur
a number of times in the NT, follow λύω (see Appendix 1):
Future Indicative: δοθήσομαι; τεθήσομαι; σταθήσομαι

Aorist indicative: ἐδόθην; ἐτέθην; ἐστάθην
Appendix 6
Numerals (7.1/5)
Numerals within the range given below which do not occur in the NT
are either included in square brackets or omitted. The elements of
compound numerals such as twenty-five are written separately, e.g.
εἴκοσι πέντε.
Cardinals
For the declension of εἷς, δύο, τρεῖς, τέσσαρες see 7.1/5(a). διακόσιοι,
τριακόσιοι etc. follow the plural of καλός (3.1/3).
The cardinals two thousand, three thousand, etc., are compounds of

the appropriate numeral adverbs and χίλιοι, e.g. δισχίλιοι, τρισχίλιοι, etc.
(for alternative forms and for μυριάς (group of) ten thousand see
7.1/5(a)).
Ordinals Adverbs
πρῶτος first ἅπαξ once
δεύτερος second δίς twice

τρίτος third τρίς three times
τέταρτος τετράκις
πέμπτος πεντάκις
ἕκτος
ἕβδομος ἑπτάκις
ὄγδοος
ἔνατος
δέκατος
The ordinals are normal first and second declension adjectives

(3.1/3), except that the feminine of ὄγδοος is ὀγδόη (not -α).
Appendix 7
Accentuation
As noted in 1.1/2 the pitch accent of the classical language had
changed to one of stress by the time that the NT was written.
However, in written Greek the old system of accentuation was
retained, and this can only be understood with reference to the earlier
manner of pronunciation.
Accent in classical Greek was one of pitch, not of stress as in English.

An English-speaker, when told that ἄνθρωπος human being is accented
on its first syllable, would naturally pronounce that syllable with a
heavier emphasis. A Greek of the classical period, however, instead
of emphasizing the α, would have pronounced it at a higher pitch and
so given the word what we should consider a somewhat sing-song
effect. We do, of course, use pitch in spoken English, but in a totally
different way. In the question you’re going to Egypt? the last word has
a rising pitch, but in the statement you’re going to Egypt it has a falling
pitch.
Classical Greek has three accents:

´ acute, indicating rising pitch
` grave, indicating falling pitch
^ circumflex, indicating a combined rising and falling pitch
(the sign, originally ^, is a combination of an acute and a
grave). Because the time taken by this operation was

necessarily longer than that indicated by an acute or a grave,
it can occur only with long vowels and diphthongs, and only
on these do we find a circumflex.
These accents continued to be used in written Greek in the first

century AD although by then they all indicated the same thing as far
as the spoken language was concerned, viz. where a word was
stressed. This stress accent (as distinct from the earlier pitch accent)
appears to have been much the same as the stress accent we have in
English.
The basic features of Greek accentuation are:

nearly every word has an accent, which can be on the final syllable
(ποταμός river), or the second syllable from the end (ἵππος horse), or on
the third syllable from the end (ἄνεμος wind). In forms of verbs the
position of the accent is nearly always determined by the length of the
final syllable; with other words whose form can change the accent is
generally fixed.
an acute or grave accent can stand on a diphthong or long or short
vowel, but a circumflex only on a long vowel or diphthong.
an acute can stand on the end syllable of a word (μαθητής disciple), on
the second from the end (εὐλογία flattery), or on the third from the end
(ἐπίγνωσις knowledge).
a grave can stand only on a final syllable, where it automatically

replaces an acute when another word follows (ὁ ὑποκριτὴς ἐκεῖνος that
hypocrite). A final acute is retained, however, before a mark of
punctuation (ὑποκριτά, ἔκβαλε πρῶτον τὴν δοκὸν ἐκ τοῦ ὀϕθαλμοῦ σου (Lk
6.42) hypocrite, first cast out the beam from your eye) or when a word
so accented is quoted.
a circumflex can stand on a final syllable (τῶν ποταμῶν of the rivers)
and, within certain limitations, on the second from the end (δῶρον gift).
a group of monosyllabic and disyllabic words called enclitics can affect
the accentuation of the previous word and, under certain
circumstances, give it a second accent, e.g. ἄνθρωπός τις a certain man.
They may, as in this example, have no accent themselves.
The following terms are used to describe words according to their

accent:
Oxytone – a word with an acute on its final syllable, e.g.
ποταμός.
Paroxytone – a word with an acute on its penultimate (i.e.
last syllable but one), e.g. λόγος.
Proparoxytone – a word with an acute on its last syllable but
two, e.g. ἄνθρωπος.
Perispomenon – a word with a circumflex on its final
syllable, e.g. ποταμοῦ.
Properispomenon – a word with a circumflex on its
penultimate, e.g. δῶρον.
Barytone – a word with a grave on its final syllable, e.g.
ποταμὸν εἶδον I saw a river.
These are the only places in which each accent can occur (we cannot,
for example, have an acute on the last syllable but three, or a
circumflex on the last syllable but two).
For purposes of accentuation a syllable is long if it contains a long

vowel or diphthong, and short if it contains a short vowel, except that
all endings in -αι and -οι (apart from those of the optative, which is
rare in the NT) are counted as short.
The length of the final syllable of a word and, to a lesser extent, of its
penultimate is important for accentuation because:
a word can only be proparoxytone if its final syllable is short, e.g.
ἄνθρωπος.
a word can only be properispomenon if its final syllable is short; as a

circumflex must in any case stand on a long vowel or diphthong, a
word so accented must end in – ˘, or be a disyllable consisting of – ˘ (–
denotes a long syllable and ˘ a short syllable), e.g. πολῖται, γλῶσσα.
Conversely, if such a word is accented on its penultimate, the accent
must be a circumflex, and this is why we get the change of accent
from πολίτης to πολῖται (the reverse in γλῶσσα/γλώσσης).
For purposes of accentuation words are divided into five categories:

a) Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
There are no overall rules about the position of the accent in the
nominative singular of nouns or in the nominative masculine singular
of adjectives and pronouns, and we must simply learn that ποταμός is
oxytone but λόγος is paroxytone. There are some rules for certain
small groups which can be learnt by observation, e.g. nouns in -ευς are
always oxytone (as βασιλεύς); the accent of comparative adjectives is
always as far from the end of the word as possible (σοϕός but
σοϕώτερος).
Once, however, we know where a noun, adjective or pronoun is

accented in the nominative (masculine) singular it is easy to deduce
how its other forms will be accented because the accent stays on the
same syllable as far as this is allowed by the rules given above for
proparoxytones and perispomenons. In λόγος, for example, the accent
remains unchanged (λόγε, λόγον, λόγου, λόγῳ, λόγοι, λόγους, λόγων,
λόγοις), but in ἄνθρωπος the accent must become paroxytone when the
ending is long: ἄνθρωπε, ἄνθρωπον, ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ, ἄνθρωποι, ἀνθρώπους,

ἀνθρώπων, ἀνθρώποις (ἄνθρωποι because -οι does not count as long – see
above).
In many third declension nouns the genitive singular is a syllable
longer than the nominative singular, e.g. σῶμα (properispomenon, not
paroxytone, because it is a disyllable of the form - ˘ ; see above):
σώματος, σώματι, σώματα (the accent must change to an acute because
the added short syllable makes all three forms proparoxytone),

σωμάτων (the added syllable is long and therefore the accent must
become paroxytone), σώμασι.

We must, however, note:
i Where a first or second declension word has an acute on its final
( )
syllable in the nominative singular, this becomes a circumflex in the

genitive and dative (in both singular and plural, cf. 2.1/2 note 6), e.g.
from ποταμός we have ποταμέ, ποταμόν, ποταμοῦ, ποταμῷ, ποταμοί,
ποταμούς, ποταμῶν, ποταμοῖς. For an example of an adjective so
accented see καλός (3.1/3).

(ii) All first declension nouns are perispomenon in the genitive plural
(3.1/1 note 4), e.g. χωρῶν (< χώρα), νεανιῶν (< νεανίας). This does not
apply to the gen. f. pl. of adjectives when this form would not
otherwise differ from the masculine, e.g. μεγάλων is both gen. m. pl.
and gen. f. pl. of μέγας. Where, however, the masculine and
feminine forms differ, the rule holds, e.g. ταχύς, gen. m. pl. ταχέων,
gen. f. pl. ταχειῶν (10.1/3(a)).
(iii) In the third declension, monosyllabic nouns are accented on the
final syllable of the genitive and dative, in both singular and plural,
e.g. σάρξ, σάρκα, σαρκός, σαρκί, σάρκες, σάρκας, σαρκῶν, σαρξί. An
exception is the gen. pl. of παίς (παίδων). Of polysyllabic nouns γυνή
also follows this pattern (γυνή, γύναι (5.1/1 note 1), γυναῖκα, γυναικός,
γυναικί, γυναῖκες, γυναῖκας, γυναικῶν, γυναιξί), and ἀνήρ, μήτηρ and πατήρ
follow it in the gen. s. and dat. s. (6.1/1(b)). For the accentuation of

πᾶς see 10.1/3(b).
(iv) The accent in the genitive (s. and pl.) of third declension nouns
with stems in ι (8.1/5) is quite irregular: πόλεως, πόλεων (< πόλις).

(v) Contracted adjectives (21.1/2) follow the same rules as for
contracted verbs (below (b)(i)).

b) Verbs
With verbs the accent falls as far from the end of a word as possible
(here too final -αι and -οι count as short ). In forms such as ἀκουετε,
1
ἀκουουσι, κελευεσθαι, ἐκελευσαν the final short syllable shows that they
must be proparoxytone: ἀκούετε, ἀκούουσι, κελεύεσθαι, ἐκέλευσαν; in

disyllabic forms such as ἑλε and λυε the accent goes back to the
penultimate but becomes properispomenon in λυε because of its long
υ: ἕλε but λῦε (the fact that the υ of λύω is long can only be learnt by
consulting dictionaries of the classical language). In κελευω, ἐλυθην,

where the final syllable is long, the accent is paroxytone: κελεύω, ἐλύθην.
We must, however, note:

i In the forms of contracted verbs where contraction occurs, the
( )
accent follows that of the original uncontracted form according to

the following rules:
• If the accent is on neither of the syllables to be contracted it
remains unchanged, e.g. ἐποίει (< ἐποίε-ε).
• If the accent is on the first of the two syllables to be contracted it
becomes a circumflex on the contracted syllable, e.g. ποιεῖ (<
ποιέ-ει); τιμῶμεν (< τιμά-ομεν).
• If the accent is on the second of the two syllables to be contracted

it stays as an acute on the contracted syllable, e.g. ἐτιμώμεθα (<
ἐτιμα-όμεθα).
(ii) Certain forms of uncontracted -ω verbs and of -μι verbs are in

origin contracted and for this reason the first syllable of their
endings is always accented. These are:
• the aorist subjunctive passive of all verbs, e.g. λυθῶ, λυθῇς, λυθῇ,
λυθῶμεν, λυθῆτε, λυθῶσι.
• the subjunctive of both present (act., mid./pass.) and aorist (act.,

mid.) of δίδωμι, τίθημι and their compounds, and also -ἵημι, e.g.
διδῶσι, τιθῶσι, -ἱῶσι, δῶ, θῶ.
(iii) In all strong aorists the first syllable of the ending always carries
the accent in the active participle (e.g. λαβών, λαβοῦσα, λαβόν), the
active and middle infinitives (λαβεῖν, λαβέσθαι), and the 2nd s.
imperative middle (λαβοῦ).
(iv) The first syllable of the ending also carries the accent in
participles in -εις, -ους and -ως, e.g. λυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθέν; τιθείς, τιθεῖσα,
τιθέν; διδούς, διδοῦσα, διδόν; λελυκώς, λελυκυῖα, λελυκός.
(v) In certain participles and infinitives the accent is always either

paroxytone or properispomenon, depending on whether it stands
on a short or long syllable. These are:
• infinitives in -σαι (weak aorist active), e.g. λῦσαι, νικῆσαι, αἰνέσαι.
• infinitives in -ναι (perf. act., aor. pass., root aor. act., and certain
active infinitives of -μι verbs), e.g. λελυκέναι, λυθῆναι, γνῶναι, διδόναι.
• the infinitive and participle of the perf. mid./pass., e.g. νενικῆσθαι,
λελυμένος.
(vi) In compound verbs the accent cannot fall further back than the
augment, e.g. ἀπῆγον (< ἀπάγω), παρέσχον (< παρέχω), or the last
vowel of a prepositional prefix, e.g. παράδος (< παραδίδωμι).
c) Adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, particles, prepositions
These have only one form and therefore their accent does not vary,
e.g. σοϕῶς wisely, ὅταν whenever, εὖ well, except for oxytones
becoming barytones (as ἤ). A few words which would otherwise be
included here are enclitic or atonic and so come under categories (d)
or (e).
d) Enclitics
An enclitic combines with the preceding word for pronunciation, and
can affect its accentuation. When quoted by themselves (in
paradigms, dictionaries, etc.) monosyllabic enclitics are written with
no accent (e.g. γε), disyllabics as oxytone (e.g. ποτέ), except for τινῶν.
The total number of enclitics is small and consists of:

i The present indicative of εἰμί I am (with the exception of the 2nd s.
( )
εἶ), and the present indicative forms of ϕημί that occur in the NT
(ϕημί, ϕησί, ϕασί, see 7.1/3).
(ii) The unemphatic forms of the personal pronouns, viz με, μου, μοι;
σε, σου, σοι.
(iii) All forms of the indefinite τις (10.1/1).

(iv) The indefinite adverbs ποτέ, που, πως.
(v) The particles γε, τε.
The rules for enclitics are:

(vi) An enclitic has no accent when it follows a word accented on its
final syllable, e.g. ποταμῶν τινων. If this word has a final acute (i.e. is
oxytone), this accent is kept, e.g. ποταμός τις.
(vii) If the preceding word is paroxytone a monosyllabic enclitic has
no accent but a disyllabic enclitic keeps the accent on its final

syllable, e.g. ἵππος τις, ἵπποι τινές.
(viii) If the preceding word is proparoxytone or properispomenon, an
enclitic, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, has the effect of adding

an acute to the final syllable, e.g. ἄνθρωπός τις, ἄνθρωποί τινες, δῶρόν τι,
δῶρά τινα.
(ix) In groups of two or more enclitics all are accented except the last,
e.g. σύνδουλός σού εἰμι (Rv 19.10) I am your fellow slave.
(x) ἐστί is accented on its first syllable (ἔστι) when:
• it denotes existence, e.g. τὸ μνῆμα αὐτοῦ ἔστιν ἐν ἡμῖν (Ac 2.29) his
tomb exists among us.
• it follows ἀλλά (ἀλλ̓ ἔστι Jn 7.28) εἰ (1 Cor 15.44), καί (Mt 21.42), οὐκ
(Mt 10.24), τοῦτο (τοῦτ̓ ἔστι Mt 27.46).
• it begins a clause (Jn 5.2).

e) Atonics
Atonics are monosyllables which have no accent unless followed by
an enclitic. These are:
• the nom. m. and f. (s. and pl.) of the article (ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ), εἰ, οὐ, ὡς.
• the prepositions εἰς, ἐκ, ἐν.
Of these, however, οὐ is accented if it occurs as last word of a clause

(Jn 1.21).
Notes
1 A few words which we would expect to be properispomenon are in
fact paroxytone: οὔτε, μήτε, ὥστε and relatives whose second element is
-τις (as ἥτις).
2 τίς and τί never become barytone (10.1/1).
1
Except in the optative endings, as noted above.
Key to Greek reading exercises
Explanations and more literal interpretations are given in round
brackets. Some (but not all) words which have no specific equivalent
in the Greek original but which must be supplied in English are
enclosed in square brackets. Translations are generally as literal as
possible and should not be taken as reflecting the style of the original.
Discrepancies with modern translations may be due to slight changes
made in sentences whose reference is marked with an asterisk.
1.2
(1)Asia, Bethlehem, Beelzebub, Jerusalem, John, Job, Jonah,

Joseph, Caesar, Luke, Matthew, Mary, Mark, Paul, Peter, Pilate,
Rome, Simon. (The reason for discrepancies between the Greek and
English version of proper names will be found at 4.1/3.)
(2)The meaning of the Greek words, which will be found in the

vocabulary, is sometimes not the same as that of the English
derivatives.
Angel, anathema, analysis, antithesis, aroma, asbestos, automaton,

bathos, genesis, diagnosis, dogma, drama, zone, ethos, echo,
theatre, thermos, idea, camel, kinesis, climax, cosmos, crisis,
criterion, colon, mania, metre, metropolis, miasma, orphan, pathos,
paralytic, scene, stigma, trauma, hubris, fantasy, character, chasm,
psyche. (In most cases the English word is a simple transliteration of
the Greek although the pronunciation may be different, e.g. the Greek
zōnē has two syllables whereas the English zone has only one)
2.2
(1) The time of fruits is approaching. (2) He is not casting out evil
spirits. (3) He dispatches a slave to the tenant farmers. (4) Why do
you eat and drink with sinners? (5) You see the crowd. (6) Master, you
speak and teach rightly and you do not show partiality. (7) I see
people. (8) We find nothing wrong in the man. (9) They will send gifts.
(10) Then they will fast. (11) The servant takes [his] pay and gathers
up [the] harvest. (12) How does God judge the world? (13) You raise
the dead, you cleanse lepers, you cast out evil spirits. (14) You know
[how] to judge correctly the face of the heavens. (15) You hear and
see. (16) You have an evil spirit. (17) The dead shall hear. (18) Jesus
began to preach and speak. (19) Then just [men] (or the just) shall
shine forth like the sun. (20) We are announcing Jesus Christ [as] the
Lord.
Analysis of sentences 4 and 11 (according to the steps given in 2.2).
4. διὰ τί μετὰ τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν ἐσθίετε καὶ πίνετε;
(a) διὰ τί the vocabulary tells us that this is a phrase meaning why?
(the question mark indicates that it introduces a question). μετά
preposition governing the genitive with the meaning in the company

of, with. τῶν genitive plural (all genders) of the definite article.
ἁμαρτωλῶν genitive plural of ἁμαρτωλός sinner. ἐσθίετε 2nd plural present
indicative active of ἐσθίω eat. καί conjunction meaning and. πίνετε 2nd
plural present indicative active of πίνω drink.
(b) There are two finite verbs, ἐσθίετε and πίνετε; therefore we have two
clauses.
(c) The question mark (;) at the end of the sentence shows that we
have a question as we had surmised from the introductory phrase διὰ

τί why? There is no internal punctuation but there is a conjunction καί;
as we have two finite verbs this conjunction must be used to join the
clauses in which they stand. The clauses are διὰ τί μετὰ τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν
ἐσθίετε and πίνετε.
(d) As ἁμαρτωλῶν is genitive plural the preceding article (τῶν) which is
in the same case must go with it; in another context these words could
mean of the sinners but as they come after a preposition which
governs the genitive (μετά) the three words must be taken together
and have the meaning with (or in the company of) the sinners. Neither
clause has a noun in the nominative and so we deduce that the
subject of the verbs (you) is indicated by their endings.
(e) The conjunction καί and joins clauses of equal value; both verbs
are 2nd plural and can be translated you eat and you drink; as there is
no indication that the speaker is addressing a separate audience with
each verb ἐσθίετε καὶ πίνετε must mean you eat and drink. The
sentence, therefore, can be expressed in English why do you eat and
drink with the sinners? (in the company of would be equally
acceptable). Taken in this way the expression the sinners would
indicate particular individuals and the Greek can be so interpreted.
However, the overall context in Luke shows that we must understand
τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν as a general class (2.1/2 note 1(ii)) and our final
translation should be why do you eat and drink with sinners?
11. ὁ δοῦλος μισθὸν λαμβάνει καὶ συνάγει καρπόν.
(a) ὁ nominative singular of the definite article. δοῦλος nominative

singular of δοῦλος slave/servant. μισθόν accusative singular of μισθός
pay, salary. λαμβάνει 3rd singular present indicative active of λαμβάνω
take. καί conjunction meaning and. συνάγει 3rd singular present
indicative active of συνάγω gather up. καρπόν accusative singular of
καρπός harvest.
(b) There are two finite verbs, λαμβάνει and συνάγει; therefore we have
two clauses.
(c) As in 4 above the conjunction καί is used to join the clauses. The
first is ὁ δοῦλος μισθὸν λαμβάνει and the second συνάγει καρπόν.

(d) In the first clause ὁ δοῦλος is nominative and therefore must be the
subject of λαμβάνει (we note that the verb agrees with ὁ δοῦλος in the
way prescribed at the beginning of 2.1/4). μισθόν is accusative and as it
is not preceded by a preposition it must be the object of λαμβάνει.
Similarly καρπόν is the object of συνάγει (an accusative must be
governed by either a verb or a preposition).
(e) Here too the conjuction καί and joins clauses of equal value. As the
second verb is, like the first, 3rd singular but does not have a subject
expressed, it must also be governed by ὁ δοῦλος, and we can translate
the servant takes pay and gathers up harvest (as the worker is being
paid the translation servant is the appropriate one; slaves did not
normally receive any emolument). English idiom requires his pay
(where ownership is obvious Greek does not use words such as his,
her, their) and the harvest (when used without an adjective the word
harvest is normally preceded by the definite article the; this does not
happen with the Greek καρπός). Our final translation will be the servant
takes [his] pay and gathers up the harvest (in the translation given in
the key, words such as his are bracketed to indicate they have no
equivalent in the Greek original; this is not done with the definite
article).
3.2
(1) After much time. Concerning the kingdom of God. About [the] third
hour. An eye for an eye. Through the gate. For the sake of many. In
the island. Into the synagogues. (2) They do not put new wine into old
wine-skins. (3) Moses writes of the righteousness from [observing]
the law. (4) You are already pure on account of the word. (5) The
friend of the bridegroom rejoices greatly on account of the
bridegroom’s voice. (6) Why does the master eat with tax-collectors
and sinners? (7) We are not under [the] law. (8) He will convict the
world with regard to sin and righteousness. (9) A pupil is not above the
master. (10) You are the Anointed One, the Son of God. (11) Why are
you timid, [you] of little faith? (12) Master, what [is] the great
commandment in the law? (13) He praises God with a loud (lit. great)
voice. (14) He is truly the prophet. (15) If you judge the law, you are
not one who observes it but one who judges it (lit. not an observer of
the law but a judge [of the law]). (16) The sabbath was made on
account of man and not man on account of the sabbath. (17) The man
believing in the Son has eternal life. (18) The reward [is] large in
heaven. (19) Many will come from east and west. (20) The sea no
longer exists (lit. is no longer).
Analysis of sentence 15 (according to the steps given in 2.2).
εἰ νόμον κρίνεις, οὐκ εἶ ποιητὴς νόμου ἀλλὰ κριτής.

(a) εἰ if conjunction. νόμον accusative singular of νόμος law. κρίνεις 2nd
singular present indicative active of κρίνω judge. οὐκ not adverb (οὐ
takes this form when used before a word beginning with a vowel which
has a smooth breathing – 2.1/6(a)(i)). εἶ 2nd singular present
indicative of εἰμί be. ποιητής nominative singular of ποιητής doer, one
who complies with; νόμου genitive singular of νόμος law. ἀλλά but
conjunction. κριτής nominative singular of κριτής judge.
(b) There are two finite verbs κρίνεις and εἶ; therefore, we have two
clauses.
(c) The comma after κρίνεις suggests that the first three words form a
clause; ἀλλά can introduce a clause but this cannot be the case here
as it is not followed by a finite verb.
(d) In the first clause the fact that νόμον is not preceded by a
preposition indicates that it is the object of κρίνεις. In the second clause

the negative stands in front of the finite verb and therefore negates it
(2.1/6(a)(i)). The verb εἰμί is followed by the nominative (3.1/6), and so
the two nouns in the nominative (ποιητής, κριτής) must combine with οὐκ
εἶ to mean you are not a ποιητής/κριτής. As a genitive goes with a noun it
stands next to, νόμου should be taken with ποιητής. As ἀλλά is not
followed by a finite verb it must link two elements in the second clause
and these can only be ποιητὴς νόμου and κριτής.
(e) From our analysis the first clause means if you judge the law, and
the second you are not a doer of the law but a judge. When we put
these together if you judge the law, you are not a doer of the law but a
judge we have an intelligible sentence but the alternative meaning of
ποιητής (one who complies with) gives a more idiomatic English
translation, if you judge the law, you are not one who complies with
the law but a judge (obviously, with judge we must mentally supply of
the law). More idiomatic still would be: if you judge the law you are not
one who observes it but one who judges it.
4.2
(1)In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the
Word was God. (2) Death, where is your sting? (3) They said to him,
‘So why do you baptize if you are not the Anointed One nor Elijah nor
the prophet?’ (4) Similarly, just as happened in the days of Lot, they
used to eat [and] drink. (5) They immediately speak to him about her.
(6) And an angel of the Lord opened the doors of the prison. (7) Lord,
it is good [for] us to be here. (8) You Pharisees now clean the outside
of your cup but your inside [lit. the inside of you] is full of greed and
wickedness. (9) You are no longer a slave but a son; and if [you are] a
son, [you are] also an heir through [the agency of] God. (10)
Therefore, brothers, we are not children of a slave girl but of the free
woman. (11) Was I able to hinder God? (12) In this way we too, when
we were children, were enslaved to (lit. under) the elemental spirits of
the world. (13) For he began to teach his disciples (lit. the disciples of
him) and speak to them. (14) And there were at Antioch prophets and
teachers, both Barnabas and Symeon. (15) I have the power to
release you. (16) I am the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and
the God of Jacob. (17) John kept saying to him, ‘You are not allowed
(lit. it is not permitted to you) to have her.’ (18) There! Now you heard
the blasphemy. (19) Behold! I send you out as sheep in the midst of
wolves. (20) Both the winds and the sea obey him.
Analysis of sentence 9 (according to the steps given in 2.2).
οὐκέτι εἶ δοῦλος ἀλλὰ υἱός· εἰ δὲ υἱός, καὶ κληρονόμος διὰ θεοῦ.
(a) οὐκέτι no longer adverb. εἶ 2nd singular present indicative of εἰμί be.
δοῦλος nominative singular of δοῦλος slave/servant. ἀλλά but conjunction.
υἱός nominative singular of υἱός son. εἰ if conjunction. δέ and/but
connecting particle which comes as second word in the second of the

two elements it joins (4.1/4). καί is normally a conjunction meaning
and but at 4.1/4 we learn that it can also be an adverb with the
meaning also, even, actually. κληρονόμος nominative singular of
κληρονόμος heir. διά preposition governing either the accusative or
genitive (3.1/5) – as the noun following is in the genitive its meaning

here is through, by means of; θεοῦ genitive of θεός God.
(b) and (c) We notice that there is only one finite verb (εἶ). However,
the colon after υἱός suggests that we could have a second clause
beginning with εἰ (and this seems confirmed both by the conjunction εἰ
itself and the connecting particle δέ) – could some verb be
understood? At 3.1/6 we learn that εἰμί is often omitted in clauses of
the type X is Y. Further analysis is required but we also note that εἰ if
cannot introduce a main clause (we cannot say as an independent
statement if you are a son; see also the entry under clause in the
Glossary of grammatical and other terms) and that the comma
after υἰός could be dividing two clauses (if this is correct we shall be
obliged to supply the relevant part of εἰμί twice).
(d) The words of the first clause fall easily into place you are no longer
a slave/servant but a son. The following three words can be literally
translated and/but if a son; if a part of εἰμί is omitted, it seems likely to
be εἶ, which we have already seen in the first clause, and we would
then have and/but if [you are] a son. καὶ κληρονόμος διὰ θεοῦ as a main
clause would certainly make sense if we take καί as an adverb and
supply another εἶ – the meaning would be [you are] also/even/actually
an heir through/by means of God.
(e) When we combine our tentative interpretations we have you are

no longer a slave/servant but a son; and/but if [you are] a son; [you
are] also/even/actually an heir through/by means of God. Taking
account of the overall meaning we can refine this to you are no longer
a slave but a son; and if [you are] a son; [you are] also an heir through
God. If this sentence were completely by itself, δοῦλος could mean
either slave or servant; but in its context in Galatians the former is
more appropriate. δέ could be rendered and or but, the latter being
slightly more emphatic. We must, however, interpret καί as also
because the person addressed is an heir as well as a son. For διά
through seems preferable to by means of as the latter would normally
be used of an instrument (through here means through the agency
of).
5.2
i To the other side. (ii) And on Jesus returning or and when Jesus
(1) ( )
returned (a completely literal translation gives rather odd English and

in the [event of] Jesus to return). (iii) And when he spoke (the context
shows that Jesus was the speaker, hence he). (iv) Loving your (lit.
the) neighbour. (v) Before your asking him or before you ask him. (vi)
The [things] of Caesar. (vii) The [things] from you. (viii) The [people]
from the church. (ix) The foolish [things] (or the folly) of the world. (x)
The hidden [things] (or the secrets) of the heart. (2) Jesus declared
that a prophet does not have honour in his own country. (3) And
because he was (lit. on account of [him] being) of the same trade he
stayed in their house (lit. at the house of them). (4) They asked him,
‘So what are you? Are you Elijah?’ and he said, ‘I am not.’ (5) They
were amazed at his lingering in the temple or that he lingered in the

temple. (6) Pilate said to them, ‘So what shall I do with Jesus?’ (7) The
lamp of the body is the eye. (8) For if you live according to [the] flesh,
you are destined to die. (9) He spoke a parable on account of his
being (or because he was) close to Jerusalem. (10) When I was a
young child, I used to speak as a young child, I used to think as a
young child. (11) And the high priests and all the council were seeking
testimony against Jesus for killing him (or in order to kill him) and they
were not finding [it]. (12) You are of those below, I am of those above.
(13) And Jesus says to her, ‘Lady, why are you weeping?’ (14) So
furthermore, brothers, we ask and entreat you in [the name] of the

Lord Jesus. (15) Slaves must obey their earthly lords with fear and
trembling in the sincerity of their hearts (i.e. with sincere hearts) [in the
same way] as [they obey] Christ. (16) Jesus wept. So the Jews said,
‘Behold! How he used to love him!’ (17) Guards in front of the door
were keeping watch over the prison. (18) You take pains to preserve
the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. (19) And the Pharisees
said, ‘He is casting out the evil spirits in [the name of] the leader of the
evil spirits.’ (20) And he said to him, ‘You shall love the Lord your God
with all your heart and all your soul.’
6.2
(1) ( )i We know the saviour of the people. (ii) The shepherds guarded
[their] sheep. (iii) The speakers were cursing the leaders. (iv) I shall
proclaim the word of God. (v) The mothers changed the names of
[their] daughters. (vi) Do you know both the man and [his] daughter?
(vii) He will rule the house of Jacob forever. (viii) I shall send my
beloved son. (ix) The words of the witnesses revealed the deception.
(x) You have words of eternal life. (2) They see my Father’s face in
heaven. (3) They were proclaiming the word of God in the

synagogues of the Jews. (4) They were casting out many evil spirits
and anointing many sick with oil and curing [them]. (5) You did not
anoint my head with oil, but this woman anointed my head with
perfume. (6) A husband is leader of his wife just as Christ too is leader
of the (or his) church. (7) He had a daughter about twelve years old
(lit. there was for him a daughter of about twelve years). (8) The
anxiety of the [present] time and the deception of wealth choke the
word. (9) And why do you see the speck in your brother’s eye but you
do not notice the beam in your eye? (10) Then he began to curse and
swear, ‘I do not know the man.’ And immediately the cock crowed.
(11) The Jews did not believe that he was blind and gained his sight.
(12) You are fortunate, Simon, son of Jonah, because flesh and blood
did not reveal [this] to you but my Father who is in heaven. (13) The
wind abated. And those in the boat did obeisance to him, saying,
‘Truly you are the Son of God.’ (14) You shall not murder, you shall not
commit adultery, you shall not steal, you shall not bear false witness!
(15) Hypocrites, you know [how] to examine the face of the earth and
the heaven. (16) I always taught in [a] synagogue and in the temple.
(17) They threw themselves at (lit. to) his feet and he healed them.
(18) And behold! Two men were talking with him. (19) Nations will
hope in his name. (20) I baptized you with water, but he will baptize
you with the Holy Ghost.
7.2
(1) The centurion ordered the army to seize Paul from their midst and
bring him to the barracks. (2) So Jesus said to them, ‘For a little time
the light is still among you.’ (3) And he took the child and his mother
during the night and went away to Egypt. (4) And Herod said, ‘I
beheaded John.’ (5) And in the fourth watch of the night he came
toward them walking on the sea. (6) And they put their hands on him
and apprehended him. (7) So Pilate came outside to them and said,
‘What charge do you bring against the man?’ (8) After three days they
found him in the temple. (9) And after eight days his disciples were
again inside and Thomas with them. (10) They said, ‘Master, you
spoke well.’ For they no longer dared to ask him anything. (11)
Abraham had two sons, one from a slave girl, one from a free woman.
(12) From then Jesus began to indicate to the disciples that it was
necessary for him to go away to Jerusalem and to suffer much (lit.

many [things]) from the elders. (13) I fast twice during the week. (14) If
you wish, I shall make three tabernacles here, one for you and one for
Moses and one for Elijah. (15) Jonah was in the belly of the sea-
monster for three days and three nights. (16) And Mary said, ‘My soul
magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoiced in God my Saviour, because
he looked down on the lowly station of his bondmaid. For, behold,
from now all generations will call me blessed, because the mighty one
did to me great things. And holy [is] his name, and from generation to
generation his mercy [is] on those fearing him. He produced strength
in his arm, he scattered the proud in the imagination of their hearts; he
brought down rulers from their thrones and raised the humble.’
8.2
(1) Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour (the symbol is the fish, ἰχθύς
being an acronym of the phrase). (2) And Paul said, ‘I am not mad,
most excellent Festus, but I speak true and rational words.’ (lit. words
of truth and rationality). (3) Why do your disciples transgress the
tradition of the elders? For they do not wash their hands. (4) How do
you not understand that I did not speak to you about loaves of bread?
(5) Jesus said to them, ‘Truly I say to you that tax-collectors and
prostitutes go before you into the kingdom of God.’ (6) The crowd saw
that Jesus was not there. (7) He did not deny, and admitted, ‘I am not
the Anointed One.’ (8) And darkness descended (lit. became) on all
the earth from the sixth hour to the ninth hour. (9) And it happened
[that] when he came to the Mount of Olives near Bethphage and
Bethany, he dispatched two of the disciples. (10) But I tell you not to
swear at all, neither by the heaven because this is God’s throne, nor
by the earth because this is the footstool for (lit. of) his feet. (11) A
great fear came over (lit. happened on) all the church. (12) And he
said to them, ‘How do they say the Anointed One is a son of David?’
(13) The farmer waits for the precious harvest of the earth. (14) While
he was praying the appearance of his face became different. (15) And
he went out again to the sea; and all the crowd came to him and he
taught them. (16) And it happened [that] when Jesus finished these
words the crowds were amazed at his teaching. (17) Simon Peter said
to them, ‘I am going out to fish.’ They said to him, ‘We too are coming
with you.’ (18) And his disciples were hungry, and they began to pick
the ears of corn and eat. (19) And it happened [that] afterwards he
was journeying through city and village. (20) Then Jerusalem and all
Judea and all the neighbourhood of the Jordan came out to him and
they were baptized by him in the river Jordan.
9.2
(1) And he said to them, ‘An enemy (lit. hostile man) did this.’ (2) And
there are also many other things which Jesus did. (3) For your Father
knows the things of which (lit. of what things) you have need before
you ask him. (4) You shall love your neighbour as yourself. (5) Your
word is truth. (6) The Spirit itself testifies with our spirit that we are
children of God. (7) And on the day on which (lit. on what day) Lot
came out of Sodom, fire and sulphur rained from heaven. (8) There
are eunuchs who emasculated themselves for the sake of the
kingdom of heaven. (9) You are from this world, I am not from this
world. (10) And I also say to you that you are Peter, and on this rock I
shall build my church, and [the] gates of Hades will not gain victory
over it. (11) And those tenant farmers said to themselves, ‘This is the
heir.’ (12) But you are the same and your years will not come to an
end. (13) Then you will know that it is I and [that] I do nothing from
myself but just as my Father taught me these things. (14) So the Jews
were seeking him at the feast and saying, ‘Where is that man?’ (15)
So if I, your Lord and Master, washed your feet, you too (καί) should
wash the feet of one another. (16) So Jesus said to them, ‘My time is
not yet here, but your time is always at hand.’ (17) So six days before
the Passover Jesus went to Bethany where Lazarus was whom he
raised from the dead. (18) As intercessor before (lit. towards) God we
have Jesus Christ [the] just, and he himself is [the] expiation
concerning (i.e. atones for) our sins, not only our own, but [those] of
all the world. (19) For the kingdom of heaven is like to a man, [the]
master of the house, who went out early in the morning to hire
labourers for his vineyard. (20) I am the good shepherd, and I know
my sheep and my [sheep] know me. (21) For the poor you have with
you always, but me you do not have always.
10.2
(1) Even the tax-collectors do the same, don’t they? (2) And Jesus
said to them, ‘How many loaves of bread do you have?’ (3) Who is my
mother and who are my brothers? (4) If anyone wishes to be first he
shall be last of all and servant of all. (5) Simon and those with him
searched for him and they found him and said to him, ‘All are seeking
you’. (6) By what power and by what name did you do this? (7) Surely
a fountain does not pour forth sweet and bitter [water] from the same
opening? (8) Each one started to say to him, ‘Surely, Lord, it is not I?’
(9) So a bishop must be irreproachable, husband of one wife, sober,
prudent. (10) For how, O wife, do you know whether you will save your
husband? Or, O husband, whether you will save your wife? (11)
Master, we know that you are truthful and [that] you truthfully (lit. in
truth) teach the way of God. (12) He had an only daughter of about
twelve years, and she was dying. (13) Whom do they say the Son of
Man to be? or Who do they say the Son of Man is? (14) Then Pilate
said to him, ‘Do you not hear how many things they testify against
you?’ (15) I know that cruel wolves will come to you after I depart (lit.
after my departure).’ (16) And while they were travelling he came to a
village; and a woman, Martha by name, received him. (17) I was a
stranger and you did not receive me, naked and you did not clothe
me, sick and in prison and you did not visit me. (18) At that time Herod
the king set about harming some of those from the church. (19) All this
Jesus spoke in parables to the crowds, and he used to say nothing to
them without parables. (20) Jesus said to them, ‘Neither do I tell you
on what authority I do these things.’
11.2
(1) Did you not read in the law that if the priests profane the sabbath in
the temple they are [considered] innocent? (lit. the priests profane the
sabbath in the temple and are innocent). (2) Lord, they killed your
prophets, they tore down your altars, and I alone was left and they are
seeking my soul (i.e. life). (3) For I say to you that God can raise
children for Abraham from these stones. (4) The Lord replied to him
and said, ‘Hypocrites, does not each of you on the sabbath untie his
ox or ass from the stall?’ (5) Now the Anointed One will be magnified
in my body, whether through [my] life or through [my] death. (6) For
who ascertained [the] mind of the Lord? Or who became his
counsellor? (7) Then Jesus was led away into the wilderness by the
Spirit to be tempted by the devil. (8) And the rain poured down and the
rivers came and the winds blew and beat against that house and it fell,
and its fall was great. (9) So I say this and implore [you] in [the name
of the] Lord to walk no longer just as the Gentiles too walk in the
emptiness of their minds. (10) And it happened on one day [that] he
got into a boat and the disciples with him. (11) Many will say to me on
that day, ‘Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy in your name and cast out
evil spirits in your name and perform (lit. do) many miracles in your
name?’ (12) Mary stayed with her about three months and [then]
returned to her house. (13) And when the harvest time approached he
sent out his slaves to the tenant farmers to take his harvests. (14) A
voice was heard in Rama, weeping and much lamentation. (15) For
there will be a great calamity on the land and [there will be] a
judgement on this people, and they will fall by the edge of the sword
and will be taken as captives into all nations. (16) And the eleven
disciples went into Galilee to the mountain where Jesus ordered. (17)
And his disciples replied to him, ‘From where will anyone be able to
feed these [people] with bread in the wilderness?’ (18) And Joseph
too went up from Galilee from the city of Nazareth to the city of David
which is called Bethlehem because he was from [the] house and
family of David. (19) I have need to be baptized by you, and you are
coming to me? (20) The doctors of law and the Pharisees sat on the
chair of Moses.
12.2
(1) Because I was crafty (lit. being crafty), I trapped you with a deceit.
(2) I went up to Jerusalem to worship. (3) And the young man, having
heard the message, went away grieving, for he had many

possessions. (4) When I was travelling and approaching Damascus
(lit. for me travelling and approaching D.), about midday a great light
from the sky suddenly happened to flash around me, and I fell to the
ground and I heard a voice saying, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you
persecuting me?’ And I replied, ‘Who are you, Lord?’ and it said to me,
‘I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you are persecuting.’ (5) He spoke
many things to them in parables, saying, ‘Behold! A sower went out to

sow. And while he was sowing, some [seeds] fell by the road, and
birds came (lit. having come) and devoured them. Other [seeds] fell
on to stony [places] where they did not have much soil and sprang up
immediately because they had no deep soil (lit. depth of soil). And
when the sun rose they were scorched and they withered because
they had no root. And other [seeds] fell on thorn-bushes, and the
thorn-bushes came up and choked them. And other [seeds] fell on to
good soil and produced a harvest.’ (6) And looking up he saw the rich
putting their gifts into the box for offerings; and he saw a poor widow
putting [in] there two small coins, and he said, ‘Truly, I tell you that this
poor widow put [in] more than all; for all these [men] contributed (lit.
put [in]) to the gifts from their ample wealth, but she in her poverty
contributed all the possessions she had.’ (7) And when it was decided
that we sail to Italy, they handed over Paul and some other prisoners
to a centurion by name Julius of the Imperial cohort; and embarking
on a ship of Adramyttium [that was] going to sail to the ports on the
Asian coast (lit. to the places in the region of Asia), we put out to sea;
with us was Aristarchus, a Macedonian from Thessalonica (lit.
Aristarchus … being with us). And on the next day we put in at Sidon,
and Julius, treating Paul kindly, allowed him to journey to his friends
and be looked after (lit. receive attention). After putting out to sea from
there we sailed under the shelter of Cyprus because the winds were
contrary, and having sailed across the sea by Cilicia and Pamphylia
we arrived at Myra in Lycia. And there the centurion, after finding a
ship of Alexandria [which was] sailing to Italy, put us on board it.
Sailing slowly for many days and with difficulty getting to Cnidus, as
the wind did not allow us to go further, we sailed by Salmone under
the shelter of Crete, and sailing past it (Salmone) with difficulty we
came to a place called Fair Harbours, which was near the city Lasaea
(lit. to which the city Lasaea was near).
13.2
(1) What then? Are we to sin because we are not under the law but
under grace? By no means (lit. may it not happen). (2) Heaven and
earth will pass away but my words will not pass away. (3) Then the
Pharisees went (lit. having gone) [and] held counsel so that they
might trap him in talk. (4) Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter
under my roof. (5) For this is the will of my Father, (viz) that every
[person] seeing the Son and believing in him should have eternal life.
(6) Working by night and day in order not to be a burden to any one of
you, we preached to you God’s gospel. (7) And he said to them on that
day when evening fell, ‘Let us cross to the other side.’ (8) For God did
not send his Son into the world so that he might judge the world, but
so that the world might be saved through him. (9) He told his disciples
that a little boat should be ready for him on account of the crowd, so
that it (the crowd) would not crush him. (10) And you, brothers, are not
in darkness for the day to overtake you like a thief, for you are all sons
of light and sons of day. We are not of night nor of darkness. (11) And
the woman was a gentile, a Phoenician of Syria by race; and she was
asking him that he cast out the evil spirit from her daughter. (12)
Snakes, offspring of vipers, how are you to escape from being
condemned to hell? (lit. the condemnation of hell). (13) Pilate said to
them, ‘What then shall I do (or what then am I to do) with Jesus, who is
called the Anointed?’ They all said, ‘Let him be crucified!’ And he said,
‘Well, what wrong did he do?’ And they started to shout all the more,
‘Let him be crucified!’ And Pilate, seeing that he was getting nowhere
(lit. accomplishing nothing), but [that] instead a riot was starting, took
water and washed [his] hands in front of the crowd, saying, ‘I am

innocent of (lit. from) this blood. It is your business!’ And all the people
said in reply, ‘His blood [is] on us and on our children.’ Then he freed
Barabbas, and after flogging Jesus he handed him over to be crucified
(lit. so that he would be crucified). (14) There was a certain man,
Lazarus from Bethany, from the village of Mary and Martha, her sister.
And Mary was the one who anointed the Lord with perfume and dried
his feet with her hair; her brother (lit. whose brother) Lazarus was sick.
So the sisters sent to him, saying, ‘Lord, behold! [the man] whom you
love is sick.’ And Jesus, when he heard, said, ‘This sickness will not
end in death (is not [extending] up to death), but [is] for the glory of
God, so that the Son of God may be praised though it.’ And Jesus
loved Martha and her sister and Lazarus. However, when he heard
that [Lazarus] was sick, he then stayed two days in the place where
he was (lit. in what place he was). Then, after that, he said to his
disciples, ‘Let us go again into Judea.’ The disciples said to him,
‘Master, the Jews were just now seeking to stone you, and you are
going back there?’
14.2
(1) This man first finds his own brother Simon and says to him, ‘We
have found the Messiah.’ (2) So whoever breaks the least of these
commandments and teaches people [to act] thus, [will be] least in the
kingdom of heaven; but whoever carries out (lit. does) and teaches
them, this man will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. (3) And I
am afraid lest perhaps, just as the serpent deceived Eve with his
cunning, your minds have been corrupted. (4) But I have said these
things to you so that you remember them when their time comes. (5)
When I became a man I set aside the things of a child. (6) Whoever
blasphemes against the Holy Ghost has no forgiveness for eternity.
(7) For truly I say to you: until the heaven and the earth pass away,
one iota or one stroke will not pass away from the law before
everything happens. (8) And I say to you: from now I shall not drink of
this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of
my Father. (9) When it became evening they started to go out of the
city. (10) And whoever denies me before men, I too shall deny him
before my Father. (11) And having arrested him they took him and
brought him to the house of the high priest. And Peter was following at
a distance. And when they lit a fire in the middle of the courtyard Peter
sat in the middle of them. And a slave girl, when she saw him sitting
beside the fire and looked carefully at him, said to him, ‘This man too
was with him.’ But he denied [this], saying. ‘Woman, I do not know
him!’ And after a short while another on seeing him said, ‘You too are
from them.’ But Peter said, ‘Fellow, I am not!’ And when about an hour
had passed some other insisted with the words (lit. saying), ‘In truth,
this man too was with him, for indeed he is a Galilean.’ But Peter said,
‘Fellow, I do not know what you mean.’ And immediately, while he was
still speaking, a cock crowed. And the Lord turned and (lit. having
turned) looked at Peter, and he remembered the word of the Lord,
how he had said to him, ‘Before a cock crows today you will deny me
three times.’ And after going outside he wept bitterly. (12) So they took
Jesus; and carrying his own cross (lit. the cross for himself) he went
forth to the so-called Place of a Skull, which in Hebrew is called
Golgotha, where they crucified him, and with him two others one on
each side (lit. from this side and from this side), and Jesus in the
middle. Pilate also wrote a title (or inscription) and put [it] on the cross;
[on it] was written, JESUS OF NAZARETH THE KING OF THE
JEWS. Many of the Jews read this title, because the place where
Jesus was crucified was near the city, and it was written in Hebrew,
Latin [and] Greek. Accordingly, the high priests of the Jews said to
Pilate, ‘Do not write “The King of the Jews”, but “He claimed to be the
King of the Jews”’ (lit. but that, ‘he said, “I am the King …”’). Pilate
replied, ‘What I have written, I have written’.
15.2
(1) For such men do not serve Christ our Lord but their own bellies. (2)
Cruel wolves will come among (lit. into) you after I leave (lit. after my
departure), not sparing the flock. (3) The spirit is willing but the flesh is
weak. (4) If you love those who love you (lit. those loving you), what
thanks do you have? For indeed sinners love those who love them. (5)
After ordering the crowd to sit on the ground he took the seven loaves
of bread and the fishes. (6) The one who once persecuted us now
preaches the faith which he once tried to destroy. (7) And he was with
them, going in and out of Jerusalem, speaking freely in the name of
the Lord; and he used to talk and argue with the Jews who spoke
Greek. But they were trying to do away with him. And his brethren,
after discovering [this], took him down to Caesarea and sent him
away to Tarsus. Meanwhile the Church enjoyed peace over the whole
of Judea and Galilee and Samaria. (8) Every tree not producing a
good harvest is cut down and thrown into the fire; so you will know
them from their fruit. (9) His disciples came and they were surprised
that he was talking with a woman. No-one, however, said, ‘What are
you seeking?’ or ‘Why are you talking with a woman?’ (10) Let us
possess grace, through which we may worship God in an acceptable
way with reverence and awe; for indeed our God is a consuming fire.
(11) For Christ died and lived for this [purpose, viz.] that he should
rule over the dead and the living. (12) Although I am not an apostle for
others, for you at least I am. (13) And when the crowd was sent out,
on entering he grasped her hand, and the girl woke. And the news
went out to all that land. (14) A man was going down from Jerusalem
to Jericho and fell into the hands of robbers, who, after stripping him
and inflicting blows, went away, leaving [him] half-dead. And by
chance a priest was going down on that road, and on seeing him went
by on the opposite side. And similarly a Levite too, on coming to the
place and seeing [him], went by on the opposite side. And a
Samaritan, [who was] travelling, came upon him and on seeing [him]
took pity; on approaching he bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and
wine; and setting him on his own beast brought him to an inn and
looked after him. And on the next day taking out two silver coins he
gave [them] to the inn-keeper and said, ‘Look after him, and whatever
you spend in addition I shall give back to you when I return.’
16.2
(1) And it happened [that] when Jesus finished these parables he

went away from there. And coming to his home town he began to
teach them in their synagogue, so that they were amazed and said,
‘From where does he get this wisdom and [these] powers?’ (lit. from
where [is there] for him …) (2) God dwells in us and his love is in a
state of perfection (lit. has been perfected) in us. (3) Nothing has been
concealed which will not be revealed and [there is nothing] hidden
which will not be ascertained. (4) The sabbath was created for man,
and not man for the sabbath; and so the Son of Man is lord of the
sabbath too. (5) After going away they began to talk to each other,
saying, ‘This man is doing nothing deserving death or prison (lit.
fetters).’ And Agrippa said to Festus, ‘This man could have been freed
(lit. was able to have been freed) if he had not appealed to Caesar.’
(6) The rain poured down and the rivers came and the wind blew and
fell upon that house, and it did not fall, for its foundations had been put
on stone. (7) And when it became evening his disciples went down to
the sea, and embarking on a boat they started to go across the sea to
Capernaum. And it had already become dark (lit. darkness) and Jesus
had not yet come to them, and the sea was being stirred up as a
strong wind was blowing. So having rowed about twenty-five or thirty
stades they saw Jesus walking on the sea and getting close to the
boat, and they were afraid. (8) Blessed [are] those persecuted for the
sake of righteousness because the kingdom of heaven is theirs (lit. of
them). (9) And about midnight Paul and Silas, while praying, were
singing the praise of God and the prisoners were listening to them.
And suddenly a terrible earthquake occurred, with the result that the
foundations of the prison were shaken and immediately all the doors
were opened and everyone’s fetters were unfastened. And the gaoler,
on wakening (lit. becoming awake) and seeing the opened doors of
the prison, drew a sword and (lit. having drawn a sword) was on the
point of killing himself, thinking that the prisoners had escaped. But
Paul shouted in a loud voice, saying, ‘Do not do anything bad to
yourself, for we are all here.’ And he (i.e. the gaoler), after asking for a
torch, in a state of trembling (lit. becoming trembling) rushed in and
fell in front of Paul and Silas; and taking them outside he said, ‘Lords,
what is it necessary for me to do in order to be saved?’ And they said,
‘Trust in Jesus the Lord, and you will be saved together with (lit. and)
your family.’ And they spoke the word of the Lord to him and everyone
in his family. And taking them at that hour of the night he washed their
wounds and straightway he himself was baptized and all his [family];
and leading them away to his house he set a table before [them], and
with his whole household he rejoiced, having put his faith in God.
17.2
(1) Doctor, heal yourself. (2) He [that is] coming after me is mightier
than I. (3) And you, Bethlehem, are by no means least among the
leaders of Judah. (4) The least in the kingdom of God is greater than
he. (5) The light has come into the world and people loved the
darkness more than the light, for their actions were evil. (6) Surely you
are not greater than our father Jacob? (7) No longer drink [only]
water, but use a little wine on account of your stomach and your
frequent illnesses. (8) After these things Jesus found him in the
temple and said to him, ‘Behold! You are sound; sin no longer so that
something worse does not happen to you.’ (9) And I have a testimony
greater than John. (10) Truly I say to you, it will be easier for the land
of Sodom and Gomorrah on the day of judgement than for that city.
(11) The kingdom of heaven is like to a seed of mustard which a man
took and sowed in his field. Mustard [seed] is smaller than all seeds
(or is the smallest of all seeds), but when it grows it is bigger than
garden plants and it becomes a tree, so that birds of the heaven come
and settle on its branches. (12) And again I say to you, it is easier for a
camel to go through an eye of a needle than for a wealthy man to
enter (lit. enter into) the kingdom of God. (13) I say to you, there is no-
one greater than John among those born of women. (14) When you
are invited by someone to a marriage, do not recline in the place of
honour lest [a person] more distinguished than you has been invited
by him. (15) If someone has an ear, let him hear. (16) These were
more noble-minded than those in Thessalonica. (17) We have set our
hopes in the living God who is the saviour of all people, above all, of
believers. (18) Our Father in heaven, let your name be held in
reverence; let your kingdom come; let your will be done on earth as
well, as [it is done] in heaven; give us today our daily bread; and
forgive us our sins, as we too forgave those who sinned against us;
and do not bring us into temptation but rescue us from evil (or the
Devil). (19) And when you see Jerusalem encircled by armies, know
then that its destruction has approached. Then let those in Judea flee
to the hills, and those inside it (lit. in the middle of her [Jerusalem])
depart, and those in the country not enter it. (20) And when an
unclean spirit comes out of a man, it goes through waterless places
seeking a resting place; then it says, ‘I shall return to my home from
where I came.’ And it comes and finds it (the house) unoccupied,
swept clean and decorated. Then it goes and takes along with it seven
other spirits more wicked than itself, and they enter and dwell there.
And the final condition of the man becomes worse than the original
one.
18.2
(1) Alas for you, Chorazin; alas for you, Bethsaida; because if the
miracles that occurred among you had occurred in Tyre and Sidon,
they would have long ago repented in sackcloth and ashes. (cat. 1
past) (2) Jesus went and took the bread and gave it to them, and the
fish likewise. (3) If anyone eats of this bread he will live forever (lit. into
eternity). (cat. 2 future) (4) And he said, ‘How are we to compare the
kingdom of God or in what parable are we to present it?’ (5) If we had
been in the days of our fathers, we would not have been partners with
(lit. of) them in the blood of the prophets. (cat. 1 past) (6) So Mary,
when she went where Jesus was, on seeing him fell to his feet,
saying, ‘Lord, if you had been here my brother would not have died.’
(cat. 1 past) (7) Large numbers of both men and women believing in
the Lord were being added with the result that they were bringing out
into the streets the sick and placing them on beds and stretchers so
that, when Peter was coming, just his shadow might fall on one of
them. (8) If God gave the same gift to them as [he did] to us who
believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, who was I [to be] able to hinder God?
(cat. 2 past) (9) Wicked and lazy slave, you knew that I reap where I
did not sow and [that] I gather up where I did not scatter [seed]? Then
you should have put my money with (lit. to) the bankers, and on
coming I would have got what was mine with interest. (10) Am I now
persuading people or God? Or am I seeking to please people? If I
were still pleasing people I would not be a servant of Christ. (cat. 1
present) (11) Behold! My servant whom I chose, my beloved in whom
my soul rejoices. I shall put my spirit on him and he will proclaim
judgement to the nations. (12) And no-one having lit a lamp covers it
with a jar or places it under a bed. (13) If the relationship of a man with
a woman is thus, it is not expedient to marry. (cat. 2 present) (14) And
he said to them, ‘Do not be alarmed. You are looking for Jesus the
Nazarene who has been crucified. He was raised up, he is not here.
Behold! The place where they put him.’ (15) For Herod, after arresting
John, bound him and put him in prison on account of Herodias, the
wife of his brother Philip. For John said to him, ‘You are not allowed to
have her.’ (lit. it is not permitted to you to have her). And he wanted to
kill him but (lit. wanting to kill him) he was afraid of the mob because
they looked upon him as a prophet. But when Herod’s birthday was
celebrated, Herodias’s daughter danced in their midst and pleased
Herod; and so Herod promised with an oath to give her whatever she
asked. And she, prompted by her mother, said, ‘Give me here the
head of John the Baptist on a plate.’ And the king [though] grieved on
account of his oath and his fellow diners, ordered that it (i.e. the head)
be given [to her]; and sending [an order] he had John beheaded in
prison. And his head was brought on a plate and given to the girl, and
she took it to her mother.
19.2
(1) And on going out at around the eleventh hour he found others
standing, and he said to them, ‘Why are you standing here idle for the
whole day?’ They said to him, ‘Because no-one hired us.’ (2) So who
is the faithful and wise slave whom the lord appointed over his
household to give them food at the proper time? (3) The Devil took
him to a very high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the
world and their glory. (4) The king was angry and sending his armies
he destroyed those murderers and burnt their city. (5) On that day
Jesus went out of the house and sat by the sea; and many crowds
came together to him with the result that he got into a boat and sat
[there], and all the crowd stood on the shore. (6) And already the axe
has been put to the root of the trees. (7) What man possessing a
hundred sheep and having lost one of (lit. from) them does not leave
the ninety-nine in the wilderness and go after the lost one until he
finds it? (8) And someone from the crowd said to him, ‘Master, tell my
brother to share [our] inheritance with me.’ And he said to him,
‘Fellow, who appointed me as a judge over you?’ (9) After him Judas
the Galilean stood up in the days of the census and made the people
revolt under (lit. behind) him. And that man perished and all who were
his followers were scattered. (10) And I commend Phoebe, our sister,
to you, who is (lit. being) deaconess of the church at Cenchreae, so
that you may welcome her in [the name of] the Lord in a manner
worthy of Christians and help her in whatever matter she has need of
you. (11) And in the same district there were shepherds in the open
air, guarding the watches of the night over their flock. And an angel of
the Lord appeared to them and the Lord’s glory shone around them,
and they were extremely afraid. And the angel said to them, ‘Do not be
afraid, for behold! I announce to you a great joy which will be for all the
people, [namely] that today a saviour was born for you in the city of
David who is Christ the Lord. And this [is] the sign for you: you will find
a baby wrapped in swaddling clothes and lying in a manger.’ And
suddenly there appeared with the angel a crowd of the heavenly army
[who were] praising God and saying, ‘Glory to God on high and on
earth peace to those who enjoy his favour.’ (12) And there was in
Joppa a disciple Tabitha by name, (which being translated means
Dorcas [gazelle]). She herself was full of good deeds and charitable
works which she used to do. And it happened [that] in those days she
fell sick and died. And they washed [her body] and placed it in an
upper room. And as Lydda was near to Joppa the disciples, having
heard that Peter was there (lit. in it [i.e. Joppa]), dispatched two men
to him entreating [him], ‘Do not delay to come across to us.’ And Peter
rose and went off with them. When he arrived, they took him up to the
upper room, and all the widows stood by him weeping and showing all
the tunics and cloaks which Dorcas used to make when she was with
them (lit. being with them). And Peter, having sent everybody out, and
having fallen to his knees, prayed, and turning to the body said,
‘Tabitha, rise up!’ And she opened her eyes and on seeing Peter sat
up.
20.2
i A jar of water (gen. of content). (ii) Your faith in (lit. toward) God
(1) ( )
(subjective gen.). (iii) Hear the parable of the sower (broad use of
possessive gen.). (iv) And behold! some of the doctors of law said in
themselves, ‘This man is blaspheming.’ (partitive gen.). (v) The lord
praised the unjust steward (lit. the steward of injustice; gen. of
description). (vi) Into all the district of Galilee (gen. of explanation).
(vii) For they all sinned and are without God’s glory (gen. of
separation). (viii) Or do you not know that your body is the temple of
the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God, and [that] you do
not belong to yourselves (lit. are not of yourselves); for you were
bought at a price (ὑμῶν possessive gen.; πνεύματος possessive gen.; οὗ
see note; θεοῦ gen. after the prep. ἀπό; ἑαυτῶν possessive gen. used as
a predicate; τιμῆς gen. of price). (2) The people were burnt terribly (lit.
burnt a great burn). (3) On account of this we too, from the day we
heard, have not ceased praying on your behalf and asking that you be
filled with knowledge of his will. (4) Follow me (lit. come behind me)
and I will make you fishers of men (lit. fishermen of people). (5) And I
praise you because you remember everything about me and retain
the traditions just as I handed [them] over to you. (6) I have trust in
you that you think nothing else; and the person troubling you will bear
judgement (i.e. will be judged), whoever he is. (7) And Jews came
from Antioch and Iconium, and after persuading the crowds and
stoning Paul, they dragged [him] outside the city thinking him to be
dead. (8) So I have [a cause for] pride in respect of the things
concerning God. (9) And he cured many suffering from various
diseases, and he cast out many evil spirits, and he did not allow the
evil spirits to speak because they knew him. (10) And behold they
were bringing to him a cripple lying on a bed. And Jesus on seeing
their faith said to the cripple, ‘Take courage, [my] son; your sins are
forgiven.’ And behold! some of the doctors of law said within
themselves, ‘This man is blaspheming.’ And Jesus, knowing their
thoughts said to them, ‘Why are you thinking evil things in your
hearts? For what is the easier, to say, “Your sins are forgiven” or to
say, “Arise and walk”? But so that you may know that the Son of Man
has authority on earth to forgive sins — .’ Then he said to the cripple,
‘Rise and (lit. having risen) take up your bed and go to your house.’
And he rose and went away to his house. (11) And when he was
approaching the age of forty (lit. his fortieth year was being
completed), it came to his heart to visit his brothers, the sons of Israel.
And on seeing one being treated unjustly he went to help and he
exacted (lit. did) retribution [by] striking the Egyptian. And he thought
that his brothers understood that God was granting (lit. giving) them
salvation through his hand, but they did not understand. And on the
following day he came upon them fighting and tried to reconcile them
and put them at peace, saying, ‘Men, you are brothers; why do you
wrong each other?’ And the one who was wronging his neighbour
pushed him aside, saying, ‘Who appointed you ruler and judge over
us? Do you want to kill me in the way in which you killed the Egyptian
yesterday?’ And because of this remark Moses fled and became an
exile in the land of Midian, where he fathered two sons.
21.2
i So if I do not know the meaning of the [speaker’s] voice, I shall

(1) ( )
be a foreigner to the person speaking (i.e. I shall not understand what

he is saying. τῷ λαλοῦντι dat. of reference). (ii) The person suffering in
the flesh (σαρκί dat. of respect) (iii) The prophecy of Isaiah is being
fulfilled for them (αὐτοῖς dat. of reference). (iv) Knowing that the same
sufferings are being laid up for your brotherhood in the world (τῇ …
ἀδελϕότητι dat. of disadvantage; τῷ κόσμῳ dat. after the prep. ἐν). (v) For
the promise is for you and your children (ὑμῖν, τοῖς τέκνοις dat. of
advantage). (vi) They were broken off because of their disbelief, you
stand (i.e. hold your place) because of your faith (τῇ ἀπιστίᾳ, τῇ πίστει
dat. of cause). (vii) The high priest entered the sanctuary yearly with
the blood of another creature (lit. another’s blood; ἐν αἵματι ἀλλοτρίῳ
attendant circumstances). (viii) Christ is proclaimed in every way,
whether in pretence or in truth (παντὶ τρόπῳ, προϕάσει, ἀληθείᾳ dat. of
manner). (ix) And welcome the person weak in faith (τῇ πίστει dat. of
respect). (x) The race of Joseph became clear to the Pharaoh (τῷ
Φαραώ dat. after the adj. ϕανερόν). (2) And Pharisees approached him,
making trial of him and saying, ‘Is it allowed to a man to divorce his
wife for any reason?’ (3) And he himself was in the stern sleeping on a
pillow; and they woke him and said to him, ‘Master, are you not
concerned that we are perishing?’ (4) And going through the first
guard post and the second they came to the iron gate leading to the
city. (5) And when the Pharisees had come together, Jesus asked
them, saying, ‘What do you think about the Anointed One? Whose son
is he?’ They said to him, ‘[The son] of David.’ (6) If your eye is sound,
all your body will be full of light (lit. bright). (7) For such people do not
serve Christ, our Lord, but their own belly, and through their plausible
talk and flattery they deceive the hearts of the innocent. (8) The first
man is earthly, [and] from the earth, the second from heaven. Earthly
people are like the earthly man, heavenly people are like the heavenly
man (lit. of what sort [is] the earthly man, of that sort also [are] earthly
people, etc.). (9) The kingdom of heaven is similar to a treasure
hidden in a field, which a man found and hid, and in his joy went and
sold everything he had and bought that field. (10) So if you, who are
evil, know [how] to give excellent gifts to your children, how much
more will your father in heaven give good things to those who ask him.
(11) All those who are led by the spirit of God are sons of God. (12) A
man had two sons. And the younger of them said to him, ‘Father, give
me the share of the property due [to me].’ And he (the father) divided
his possessions between them. And after not many days the younger
son, having gathered up all [his possessions], went away to a distant
country, and there he squandered his wealth by living dissolutely. And
when he had spent everything a terrible (lit. strong) famine occurred in
that country, and he himself began to be in need. And he went and
attached himself to one of the citizens of that country, and he (the
citizen) sent him to his fields to feed pigs. And he (the prodigal son)
wanted to eat his fill of (lit. from) the carob pods which the pigs were
eating, and no-one gave (lit. was giving) [anything] to him. And
coming to his senses (lit. coming to himself), he said, ‘How many
labourers of my father have bread in abundance, but I perish here
from hunger. I shall rise and go to my father and I shall say to him,
“Father, I sinned against heaven and against you; I am no longer
worthy to be called your son. Make me as one of your labourers.”’ And

he rose and went to his father. And when he was still far off, his father
saw him and felt pity, and running up he fell on his neck and kissed
him. And the son said to him, ‘Father, I sinned against heaven and
against you; I am no longer worthy to be called your son.’ And the
father said to his slaves, ‘Quickly bring out the best robe and clothe
him, and give [him] a ring for his hand and sandals for his feet, and
bring the fattened calf; slaughter [it] and let us eat and make merry
because this son of mine was dead and he came back to life; he had
perished and he was found.’ And they began to make merry.
Principal parts of verbs
Vocabulary
In using the vocabulary the following should be noted:
a) In addition to the abbreviations in the list of abbreviations the
following signs are used:
† is put after a verb whose principal parts are given in the principal
parts of verbs section.
†† is put after a compound verb whose simple form is included in the
same list.
b) The feminine and neuter forms of adjectives and the genitive of
nouns are nearly always abbreviated and will not necessarily have
the same accent as the form given in full, e.g. the genitive of ἄγγελος is
ἀγγέλου, but these are listed below as ἄγγελος, -ου; in these cases the
accent of the abbreviated form must be deduced from the rules for
accentuation given in Appendix 7.
c) The form of the article which accompanies each noun indicates its
gender.
Άβραάμ, ὁ ( indecl.) Abraham

γαθοποιέω do good
γαθός, -ή, -όν good; (neut. pl.) good things
γαλλιάω (act. or mid.) be glad, rejoice, exult
γαμός, -ου, ὁ/ἡ unmarried person
γαπάω love
γάπη, -ης, ἡ love
γαπητός, -ή, -όν beloved
γγελός, -ου, ὁ messenger, angel
γέλη, -ης, ἡ herd
γιάζω treat as holy, reverence, sanctify
γιος, -α, -ον sacred, holy; (pl. m.) God’s people, Christians; (pl. n.)
sanctuary
γιότης, -ητος, ἡ holiness
γοράζω buy
γρα, -ας, ἡ catch (of fish)
γραυλέω be in the open air
Άγρίππας, -α, ὁ Agrippa
γρός, -οῦ, ὁ field
γω † lead, bring; go
γών, -ῶνος, ὁ contest
δελϕή, -ῆς, ἡ sister
δελϕός, -οῦ, ὁ brother
δελϕότης, -ητος, ἡ brotherhood
δης, -ου, ὁ Hades, the world of the dead; hell
δικέω wrong, treat unjustly
δικία, -ας, ἡ injustice, wickedness
Άδραμυττηνός, -ή, -όν of Adramyttium (sea port in Mysia)
θῷος, -ον innocent
ἰγιαλός, -οῦ, ὁ shore
ἰγύπτιος, -ου, ὁ Egyptian
ἴγυπτος, -ου, ἡ Egypt
ἰθίοψ, -οπος, ὁ Ethiopian
ἷμα, -ατος, τό blood
ἰνέω † praise
ἱρετίζω choose
ἱρέω † take
ἴρω † lift; take, take up
ἰσχρός, -ά, -όν ugly, shameful
ἰτέω ask (for) (+ double acc.)
ἰτία, -ας, ἡ cause, reason; relationship
ἴτιον, -ου, τό guilt
ἰχμαλωτίζω take as captive
ἰών, -ῶνος, ὁ age; eternity
ἰώνιος, -ον eternal
κάθαρτος, -ον unclean
κακος, -ον innocent
κανθα, -ης, ἡ thorn-bush
κατακάλυπτος, -ον uncovered
κολουθέω (+ dat.) follow
κούω † hear (15.1/1(a)(iii))

κριβής, -ές strict
λείϕω anoint
λέκτωρ, -ορος, ὁ cock
Άλεξανδρῖνος, -η, -ον of Alexandria (city in Egypt)
λευρον, -ου, τό flour
λήθεια, -ας, ἡ truth
ληθής, -ές true
ληθῶς (adv.) truly
λιεύς, -έως, ὁ fisherman
λιεύω fish
λλά but
λλάσσω change
λλαχοῦ (adv.) elsewhere
λλήλους, -ας, -α (reciprocal pron.) each other, one another (9.1/4(b))
λλος, -η, -ο other
λλότριος, -α, -ον belonging to another
λως, ἅλω, ἡ threshing floor
μα (prep. + dat.) at the same time as
μα πρωΐ early in the morning
μαρτάνω † do wrong, sin
μαρτία, -ας, ἡ sin
μαρτωλός, όν sinful
μελέω (+ gen.) neglect
μήν (adv.) truly, verily (15.1/2a)
μπελος, -ου, ἡ vine
μπελών, -ῶνος, ὁ vineyard
μύνομαι † come/go to help
μϕιέννυμι clothe
ν untranslatable particle: in a main clause (+ ind. or opt.) with a
potential/conditional sense (18.1/3); in a subordinate clause (+ subj.)

with an indef. sense (14.1/1(b)(i), (c))
ν = ἐάν (18.1/3 note 3)
ναβαίνω †† come/go up
ναβλέπω gain one’s sight; look up
ναγινώσκω †† read
ναγκάζω force
νάγκη, -ης, ἡ necessity; calamity
νάγω †† bring/take up; lead away; (pass.) put out to sea
ναζάω come back to life
νάθεμα, -ατος, τό object of a curse
ναιρέω †† (aor. ἀνεῖλον) kill, destroy
ναίτιος, -ον innocent
νακαθίζω sit up
ναλαμβάνω †† take up
νάλυσις, -εως, ἡ departure
ναμιμνῄσκω remind
νάξιος, -ον unworthy
νάπαυσις, -εως, ἡ rest; resting place
ναπεσεῖν aor. inf. of ἀναπίπτω
ναπίπτω †† sit
ναπληρόω fill; (pass.) come true, be fulfilled
νάστασις, -εως, ἡ resurrection
νατέλλω rise
νατολή, -ῆς, ἡ (usually pl.) east
ναχωρέω go away
Άνδρέας, -ου, ὁ Andrew
νέθην aor. ind. pass. of ἀνίημι
νεῖλον aor. ind. act. of ἀναιρέω
νεκτός, -όν endurable, tolerable
νελεῖν aor. inf. act. of ἀναιρέω
νεμος, -ου, ὁ wind
νεπίλημπτος, -ον irreproachable
νεῳγμένος perf. mid./pass. pple. of ἀνοίγω
νήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ man, husband (6.1/1(b))
νήχθην aor. pass. of ἀνάγω
νθρωποκτόνος, -ου, ὁ murderer
νθρωπος, -ου, ὁ human being, person; man
νίημι †† loosen, unfasten; stop; desert
νίστημι †† (tr. tenses) raise up; (intr. tenses) rise/stand up (19.1/2)
Ἅννα, -ας, ἡ (note rough breathing!) Anna
νοίγω † open
νόμημα, -ατος, τό sin

ντέχομαι (+ gen.) hold fast to
ντί (prep. + gen.) instead of, in place of
ντίθεσις, -εως, ἡ contradiction
ντίκειμι be opposed to
Άντιόχεια, -ας, ἡ Antioch
ντιπαρέρχομαι †† go by on the opposite side (of the road)
ντιπαρῆλθον aor. ind. act. of ἀντιπαρέρχομαι
νυδρος, -ον waterless
νω (adv.) above
ξίνη, -ης, ἡ axe
ξιος, -α, -ον (+ gen.) worthy (of), deserving
ξιόω consider worthy
ξίως (adv.; + gen.) in a manner worthy of
παγγέλλω proclaim
πάγχω throttle
πάγω †† lead away
παξ (adv.) once
παρνέομαι deny, renounce
πας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν all, every
πάτη, -ης, ἡ deception
πειμι be absent
πειμι go (20.1/4(a))
πεκρίθην aor. of ἀποκρίνομαι
πελθεῖν aor. inf. of ἀπέρχομαι
πέναντι (prep. + gen.) before, in front of
πέρχομαι †† go away, go out
πέχω †† be distant
πῆλθον aor. indic. of ἀπέρχομαι
πιστία, -ας, ἡ disbelief
πιστος, -ον unbelieving
πλότης, -ητος, ἡ sincerity
πλοῦς (-όος), -ῆ, -οῦν (21.1/2) sound, healthy
πό (prep. + gen.) from, away from
πογραϕή, -ῆς, ἡ census
πογράϕω †† register
ποδημέω go away
ποδίδωμι †† repay, give back
ποδώσω fut. ind. of ἀποδίδωμι
ποθνῄσκω † die
ποκαλύπτω reveal
ποκάλυψις, -εως, ἡ revelation, disclosure
ποκεϕαλίζω behead
ποκρίνομαι † reply, answer
ποκτείνω † kill
πολαμβάνω †† receive
πόλημαι aor. subj. mid. of ἀπόλλυμι
πόλλυμι † ruin, destroy; lose; (mid.) perish; be lost (19.1/1 note 2)
πολογία, -ας, ἡ (verbal) defence
πολύω free; divorce
πολωλώς perf. pple. of ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2)
πονίπτω wash
ποπλέω †† set sail
ποστέλλω †† send, send out, dispatch
πόστολος, -ου, ὁ apostle
ποτίθημι †† put away, put
ποϕθέγγομαι speak
πτω light, kindle; (mid. + gen.) touch
πωθέομαι (aor. ἀπωσάμην) push aside
πώλεσα tr. aor. of ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2)
πωλόμην intr. aor. of ἀπόλλυμι (19.1/1 note 2)
ρα so, then, consequently (15.1/2(b))
ργός,-ή, -όν idle, unemployed
ργύριον, -ου, τό (silver) money
ργυροῦς (-εος), -ᾶ, -οῦν (21.1/2) [made of] silver
ρέσκω (+ dat.) please
ριθμός, -οῦ, ὁ number
Άρίσταρχος, -ου, ὁ Aristarchus
ρνέομαι deny
ρνίον, -ου, τό lamb
ρον aor. imp. act. of αἴρω
ρπαγή, -ῆς, ἡ greed
ρπάζω seize
ρρωστος, -ον sick
ρσην, -εν male
Άρτέμις, -ιδος, ἡ Artemis
ρτι (adv.) now
ρτος, -ου, ὁ (loaf of) bread
Άρχέλαος, -ου, ὁ Archelaus
ρχή, -ῆς, ἡ beginning
ρχιερεύς, -έως, ὁ high priest
ρχω rule; (mid.) † begin
ρχων, -οντος, ὁ ruler
ρωμα, -ατος, τό aromatic spice
σβεστος, -ον inextinguishable
σθένεια, -ας, ἡ sickness
σθενέω be sick; be weak
σθενής, -ές sick; weak
Άσία, -ας, ἡ Asia
σκός, -οῦ, ὁ wine-skin
σπασμός, -οῦ, ὁ greeting
σσάριον, -ου, τό as (smallest unit of Roman currency)
στήρ, -έρος, ὁ star
στραπή, -ῆς, ἡ lightning
σώτως (adv.) dissolutely
τενίζω look intently at
τιμος, -ον without honour
τοπος, -ον wrong
ὐλή, -ῆς, ἡ courtyard
ὐξάνω, αὔξω cause to grow; (act. & pass.) grow (intr.)
ὔριον (adv.) tomorrow, the next day
ὐτόματος, -η, -ον by itself
ὐτός, -ή, -ό (pron.) he, she, it (4.1/2); self (9.1/3(a)); ὁ αὐτός the same
(9.1/3(b))
ϕαιρέω †† take away

ϕείς aor. pple. act. of ἀϕίημι
ϕες aor. imp. act. of ἀϕίημι
ϕεσις, -εως, ἡ pardon, forgiveness
ϕῆκα aor. ind. act. of ἀϕίημι
ϕίημι †† cancel; leave, send away; (+ acc. of thing & dat. of person)
forgive
ϕιξις, -εως, ἡ departure
ϕίστημι †† (tr. tenses) mislead, make to revolt; (intr. tenses) go away
(19.1/2)
ϕνω (adv.) suddenly

ϕρων, -ον foolish
χρι (prep. + gen) up to; (conj.) until (14.1/1(b)(ii))
άθος, -ους, τό depth

άλλω † throw, cast; put
απτίζω baptize
απτιστής, -οῦ, ὁ Baptist (of John)
άπτω dip
αραββᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Barabbas
άρβαρος, -ον non-Greek; (as m. noun) foreigner
αριωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ son of Jonah
αρναβᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Barnabas
αρύς, -εῖα, -ύ heavy; cruel
ασανίζω torture
ασιλεία, -ας, ἡ kingdom
ασιλεύς, -έως, ὁ king (11.1/4)
ασιλεύω (+ gen. or ἐπί + acc.) rule, be king (of)
ασιλικός, -ή, -όν royal
αστάζω carry, bear
εβηλόω desecrate, profane
εβλημένος perf. pple. pass. of βάλλω
εελζεβούλ, ὁ (indecl.) Beelzebub
έλτιον (adv.) compar. of εὖ
ηθανιά, ἡ (indecl.) and Βηθανία, -ας, ἡ Bethany (village on Mt of Olives)
ηθλέεμ, ἡ (indecl.) Bethlehem
ηθσαϊδά, ἡ (indecl.) Bethsaida (town on the north of the Sea of Galilee)
ηθϕαγή, ἡ (indecl.) Bethphage (place on Mt. of Olives)
ία, -ας, ἡ force, violence
ιβλίον, -ου, τό book
ίος, -ου, ὁ life; livelihood; possessions

λασ ϕημέω blaspheme
λασϕημία, -ας, ἡ blasphemy
λέπω see; take precautions
όες, ὁ (indecl.) Boaz
οηθέω (+ dat.) help, assist
όσκω feed
ουλεύω deliberate
ούλημα, -ατος, τό intention
ούλομαι † wish
οῦς, βοός, ὁ/ἡ ox, cow
ραδυπλοέω sail slowly
ραχίων, -ονος, ὁ arm
ραχύς, -εῖα, -ύ short, little
ρέϕος, -ους, τό baby
ρέχω rain
ροντή, -ῆς, ἡ thunder
ροχή, -ῆς, ἡ rain
ρύω pour forth
υζάντιον -ου, τό Byzantium
αβριήλ, ὁ ( indecl.) Gabriel

αζοϕυλάκιον, -ου, τό box for offerings
αλατικός, -ή, -όν Galatian
αλιλαία, -ας, ἡ Galilee
αλιλαῖος, -α, -ον Galilean
αμέω † marry
αμίζω give in marriage
άμος, -ου, ὁ marriage
άρ# (connecting particle) for, as
αστήρ, -τρός, ἡ stomach
ε# at least, at any rate; certainly, indeed (15.1/2(a))
έγονα perf. ind. of γίνομαι
έεννα, -ης, ἡ Gehenna; hell
εθσημανί (indecl.) Gethsemane
ελάω † laugh
έμω (+ gen.) be full (of)

ενεά, -ᾶς, ἡ generation
ενέσια, -ων, τά birthday celebration
ένεσις, -εως, ἡ birth
ένημα, -ατος, τό product, fruit
εννάω beget, father; (pass.) be born
έννημα, -ατος, τό offspring
εννητός, -ή, -όν begotten, born
ένοιτο 3 s. aor. opt. of γίνομαι (13.1/4)
ένος, -ους, τό race, clan
εωργός, -οῦ, ὁ (tenant) farmer
ῆ, γῆς, ἡ earth; soil; ground; land, country
ίνομαι † be born, be created, be done; become; happen (8.1/2); (with
κατά) get to
ινώσκω † ascertain, know
λυκύς, -εῖα, -ύ sweet
λῶσσα, -ης, ἡ tongue
ναϕεύς, -έως, ὁ fuller
ολγοθᾶ, ἡ Golgotha
όμορρα, -ων, τά Gomorrah
ονεύς, -έως, ὁ parent
όνυ, γόνατος, τό knee
ραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ doctor of law
ραϕή, -ῆς, ἡ scripture, sacred writing
ράϕω † write, write of
υμνός, -ή, -όν naked
υνή, γυναικός, ἡ woman, wife
αιμονίζομαι be possessed of evil spirits

αιμόνιον, -ου, τό evil spirit
άκρυ (or δάκρυον), -ύου, τό tear
ακρύω weep
ακτύλιος, -ου, ὁ ring
αμασκός, -οῦ, ἡ Damascus
απανάω spend
αυίδ, ὁ (indecl.) David
έ# (connecting particle) and, but

εῖ (impers.) it is necessary
ειγματίζω expose
είκνυμι/δεικνύω † show; indicate to (19.1/1)
ειλός, -ή, -όν timid
εισιδαίμων, -ον religious; superstitious
ένδρον, -ου, τό tree
εξιός, -ά, -όν right (as opposed to left)
έος, -ους, τό fear, awe
έσμιος, -ου, ὁ prisoner
εσμός, -οῦ, ὁ (pl. δεσμοί or δεσμά) bond, fetter
εσμοϕύλαξ, -ακος, ὁ gaoler
εσμωτήριον, -ου, τό prison
εσμώτης, -ου, ὁ prisoner
εῦτε (adverbial formation serving as a pl. imp.) come!
εύτερος, -α, -ον second
έχομαι † receive
έω † bind
ηλόω make clear, show
ηνάριον, -ου, τό denarius (Roman silver coin)
ά (prep. + acc.) because of, on account of; (+ gen.) through, across;
during; by means of
ὰ τί; on account of what? why?
άβολος, -ου, ὁ the Devil
άγνωσις, -εως, ἡ decision
αιρέω †† (aor. διεῖλον) divide, apportion
ακονέω serve
άκονος, -ου, ὁ servant; deacon, (f.) deaconess
ακόσιοι, -αι, -α, two hundred
ακρίνω †† judge correctly; (mid.) hesitate, waver
αλογίζομαι wonder
άνοια, -ας, ἡ thought, imagination
απλέω †† sail across
απορεύομαι go through
ασκορπίζω scatter; squander, waste
ασπάω tear apart
αστᾶσα f. pple. of intr. aor. of διΐστημι

ασῴζω †† cure
αταράσσομαι be perplexed, troubled
αϕέρω †† (+ gen.) be different from
δάσκαλος, -ου, ὁ teacher, master
δάσκω † teach
δαχή, -ῆς, ἡ teaching
δωμι † (18.1/1) give
εγείρω †† arouse, stir up
εῖλον aor. act. of διαιρέω
ερμηνεύω interpret, translate
έρχομαι †† cross over; go through; come across
ῆλθον aor. indic. of διέρχομαι
ΐστημι pass
ϊσχυρίζομαι insist
καιος, -α, -ον just, upright
καιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ justice, righteousness
καίως (adv.) justly
καστής, -οῦ, ὁ judge
κτυον, -ου, τό net
ό (connecting particle) therefore
οδεύω journey, travel
ορύσσω dig through
πλοῦς (-όος), -ῆ, -οῦν (21.1/2) double, twofold
ς (adv.) twice
σχίλιοι, -αι, -α two thousand
ώκω pursue, persecute
όγμα, -ατος, τό rule
οκέω † consider; seem
οκεῖ (impers. 21.1/1(a)(iii)) it seems good
οκιμάζω examine
οκός, -οῦ, ἡ beam
όλος, -ου, ὁ deceit
όμα, -ατος, τό gift
όξα, -ης, ἡ glory
οξάζω praise
ορκάς, -άδος, ἡ Dorcas (as common noun gazelle)

ουλεύω (+ dat.) serve (as a slave)
ούλη, -ης, ἡ female slave, female servant
οῦλος, -ου, ὁ slave, servant
ουλόω enslave
οῦναι aor. inf. act. of δίδωμι (18.1/2)
ρᾶμα, -ατος, τό deed, act
ραμών aor. pple. of τρέχω
ύναμαι † be able, can (19.1/3)
ύναμις, -εως, ἥ power, might; meaning; miracle
υνάστης, -ου, ὁ ruler
υνατός, -ή, -όν able; mighty
ύο two (7.1/5)
υσκόλως (adv.) with difficulty
υσμή, -ῆς, ἡ (usually pl.) west
ώδεκα (indecl.) twelve
ωρεά, -ᾶς, ἡ gift, bounty of God
ῶρον, -ου, τό gift
άν if (18.1/3 note 2)
άν = ἄν in indefinite clauses (14.1/1 note 1)
αυτόν, -ήν, -ό (refl. pron.) himself, herself, itself; in pl. ourselves,
yourselves, themselves (9.1/4(a))

άω † allow
βδομηκοντάκις (adv.) seventy times
Ἑβραϊστί (adv.) in Hebrew
γγίζω (+ dat.) approach, come near
γγράϕω †† write in, enrol
γγύς (adv.) near, (prep. + dat.) near, close to
γείρω † raise, raise up; wake (tr.); (imp.) ἔγειρε (intr.) get up!; (pass.) rise
γένετο aor. of γίνομαι (8.1/2)
γνων aor. ind. act. of γινώσκω
γώ I (4.1/2)
δαϕος, -ους, τό ground
δει impf. of δεῖ (18.1/4(b))
δραμον aor. of τρέχω
θηκαν aor. ind. act. of τίθημι

θνικός, -ή, -όν pagan, gentile
θνος, -ους, τό nation, people; (pl.) heathen, Gentiles
θρεψαν aor. ind. act. of τρέϕω
if
δον aor. ind. act. of ὁράω
δος, -ους, τό appearance
δώς pple. of οἶδα (20.1/4(b))
κοσι (indecl.) twenty
μί be (3.1/6)
ναι inf. of εἰμί
πον, εἶπα aor. ind. act. of λέγω
ρήνη, -ης, ἡ peace
ρηνοποιός, -οῦ, ὁ peacemaker
ς, μία, ἕν one (7.1/5(a))
ς (prep. + acc.) to, into, on to; with regard to, in relation to
σάγω †† bring to
σειμι enter (20.1/4(a))
σελεύσομαι fut. of εἰσέρχομαι
σέρχομαι †† enter
σήγαγον aor. act. of εἰσάγω
σῆλθον aor. of εἰσέρχομαι
σήνεγκα aor. ind. act. of εἰσϕέρω
σπηδάω rush in
σπορεύομαι come/go in, enter
σϕέρω †† bring into, lead into
τε … εἴτε whether … or
χον impf. of ἔχω
κ (ἐξ before vowels and diphthongs; prep. + gen.) out of, from
κ μέσου from the midst (of)
καστος, -η, -ον each, every
κατόν (indecl.) hundred
κατοντάρχης (and ἑκατόνταρχος), -ου, ὁ centurion (officer in Roman army)
κβάλλω †† expel, cast out; send out; take out
κδέχομαι †† wait for
κδίκησις, -εως, ἡ retribution
κδύω strip; take off (clothes)

κεῖ (adv.) there, in that place
κεῖθεν (adv.) from there
κεῖνος, -η, -ο (pron. and adj. 9.1/1) that
κεῖσε (adv.) there
κθαμβέομαι be alarmed
κκλάω (aor. pass. ἐξεκλάσθην) break off
κκλησία, -ας, ἡ church
κκόπτω cut down
κλάμπω shine forth
κλαυσα aor. ind. act. of κλαίω
κλέγομαι choose
κλείπω †† fail, come to an end
κλήθην aor. ind. pass. of καλέω
κμάσσω wipe, dry
κπλήσσω amaze, astound
κπορεύομαι come/go out
κστασις, -εως, ἡ amazement
κτος, -η, -ον sixth
κϕέρω †† bring out
κϕεύγω †† escape
κχέω (perf. pass. ἐκκέχυμαι) pour out
κχωρέω go away, depart
λαβον aor. ind. act. of λαμβάνω
λαία, -ας, ἡ olive tree
λαιον, -ου, τό (olive) oil
λάσσων, -ον (compar. of μικρός 17.1/2(b)) younger, inferior
λαύνω † drive; advance; row
λάχιστος, -η, -ον smallest, least
λεγχος, -ου, -ὁ proof
λέγχω † convict; expose
λεέω show mercy to
λεημοσύνη, -ης, ἡ alms, charitable works
λεος, -ους, τό mercy
λεύθερος, -α, -ον free
ληλακώς perf. act. pple. of ἐλαύνω
λήλυθα perf. ind. of ἔρχομαι

λθω aor. subj. of ἔρχομαι
Ἑλληνίς, -ίδος, ἡ gentile woman
Ἑλληνιστής, -οῦ, ὁ Greek-speaking Jew
Ἑλληνιστί (adv.) in Greek
λπίζω † hope, hope for
λπίς, -ίδος, ἡ hope
μαυτόν myself (refl. 9.1/4(a))
μβαίνω †† embark
μβιβάζω put on board
μβλέπω (+ dat.) look at
μός, -ή, -όν (poss. adj.) my
μπίμπρημι (aor. ἐνέπρησα) set fire to, burn
μπροσθεν (prep. + gen.) in front of, before
ν (prep. + dat.) in, on; among; with (of an instrument; 11.1/2)
ν τῷ καθεξῆς in the next in order i.e. afterwards
ν see εἷς
ναντίος, -α, -ον (+ dat.) opposed to, opposite; contrary (of winds)
νατος, -η, -ον ninth
νδεκα (indecl.) eleven
νδέκατος, -η, -ον eleventh
νδοξος, -ον famous
νδυμα, -ατος, τό clothing
νδυναμόω strengthen
νδύω clothe, dress; (mid. + acc.) clothe oneself with, put on
νέβην aor. ind. of ἐμβαίνω
νεβίβασα aor. ind. act. of ἐμβιβάζω
νεκεν (prep. + gen.) for the sake of, on account of
νενήκοντα (indecl.) ninety
νέπρησα aor. ind. act. of ἐμπίμπρημι
νθάδε (adv.) here
νθυμέομαι think
νθύμησις, -εως, ἡ thought
νιαυτός, -οῦ, ὁ year
ατ̓ ἐνιαυτόν, yearly
ννέα (indecl.) nine
νοικέω live in
νότης, -ητος, ἡ unity
νοχος, -ον (+ gen.) guilty (of), deserving
ντεῦθεν (adv.) from here/there
ντιμος, -ον honoured, distinguished
ντολή, -ῆς, ἡ commandment
ντρομος, -ον trembling
ντυγχάνω (+ dat.) fall in with
νώπιον (prep. + gen.) before, in the presence of
ξ (indecl.) six
ξ see ἐκ
ξάγω †† lead out
ξαιρέω †† take out
ξαίϕνης (adv.) suddenly
ξανατέλλω spring up
ξαπατάω deceive
ξαποστέλλω †† send, send away
ξεβλήθην aor. indic. pass. of ἐκβάλλω
ξειμι depart, leave (20.1/4)
ξελέξατο aor. ind. of ἐκλέγομαι
ξέρχομαι †† come/go out
ξεστί(ν) (impers. + dat. and inf.; 21.1/1(a)(iii)) it is permitted/allowed
ξήκοντα sixty
ξῆλθον aor. ind. of ἐξέρχομαι
ξίστημι †† (tr. tenses) confuse, amaze; (intr. tenses) lose one’s senses;
be amazed (19.1/2)
ξουσία, -ας, ἡ authority, power; right
ξυπνος, -ον awake
ξω (adv.; prep. + gen.) outside
ξωθεν (adv.) outside
ορτή, -ῆς, ἡ feast
παγγελία, -ας, ἡ promise
παγγέλλομαι promise
πάγγελμα, -ατος, τό promise
παθον aor. ind. of πάσχω
παινέω † praise
πακροάομαι listen to
πανέρχομαι †† return
πειμι be next (20.1/4)
πειτα (adv.) then, next
πέρχομαι †† come
περωτάω ask (someone a question)
πεσον aor. of πίπτω
πέστην intr. aor. of ἐϕίστημι
πί (prep.) (+ acc.) on, in; to, towards; over; for; (+ gen.) on, upon; (+
dat.) in, on; because of; by

πιβαίνω †† (+ dat.) embark on
πιβάλλω †† put (acc.) … on (dat.); be due to (by inheritance)
πιβαρέω be a burden to
πιβιβάζω set/place on
πιβλέπω look upon
πίβουλος, -ου, ὁ plotter, treacherous person
πιγινώσκω †† know; discover
πιγνούς aor. pple. of ἐπιγινώσκω
πίγνωσις, -εως, ἡ knowledge
πιδείκνυμι †† show
πιθείς aor. pple. act. of ἐπιτίθημι
πιθυμέω desire
πικαλέω †† name; (mid.) appeal to
πίκειμαι press on, threaten
πιλανθάνομαι † forget
πιμέλεια, -ας, ἡ care, attention
πιμελέομαι (+ gen.) look after, take care of
πιούσιος, -ον for today
πιπίπτω †† fall on
πισκέπτομαι visit
πισκιάζω (+ dat.) overshadow, cast a shadow on
πίσκοπος, -ου, ὁ bishop
πίσταμαι know (19.1/3)
πιστηρίζω strengthen
πιστολή, -ῆς, ἡ letter
πιστρέϕω return
πιτάσσω (+ dat.) command

πιτελέω †† (+ dat.) lay upon
πιτίθημι †† inflict, lay on
πιτιμάω (+ dat.) rebuke, censure
πιτρέπω (+ dat.) allow, permit
πιχειρέω attempt, try
πιχέω pour on
πλήσθην aor. ind. pass. of πίμπλημι
πονομάζω call, name
πουράνιος, -ον heavenly
πτά (indecl.) seven
πτάκις (adv.) seven times
ργάζομαι † work
ργάτης, -ου, ὁ labourer
ργον, -ου, τό deed, action; work
ρέω fut. of λέγω
ρημία, -ας, ἡ wilderness, desert
ρημος, -ον empty, desolate
ἔρημος desert, wilderness
ρήμωσις, -εως, ἡ destruction
ρις, ἔριδος, ἡ strife
ρχομαι † come (8.1/2 note)
ρως, -ωτος, ὁ sexual love
ρωτάω ask (someone a question)
σθής, -ῆτος, ἡ garment
σθίω † eat
σμέν 1 pl. pres. of εἰμί
σοπτρον, -ου τό mirror
σται 3 s. fut. of εἰμί
στηκα perf. ind. of ἵστημι (19.1/2)
στώς perf. pple. of ἵστημι (19.1/2)
σχατος, -η, -ον last, final
σω (adv.) inside, within
σωθεν (adv.) inside
τεκον aor. ind. act. of τίκτω
τερος, -α, -ον different; other; another
ῇ ἑτέρᾳ on the next day

τέχθην aor. ind. pass. of τίκτω
τι (adv.) still
τοιμάζω prepare, make ready
τοιμος, -η, -ον ready
τος, -ους, τό year
ὖ (adv.) well
ὕα, -ας, ἡ (note rough breathing!) Eve
ὐαγγελίζω announce good news; (mid.) preach, announce
ὐαγγέλιον, -ου, τό gospel
ὐαρέστως (adv.) in an acceptable way
ὐγενής, -ές high-minded, noble
ὐδοκέω (+ acc.) take delight in, rejoice in
ὐδοκία, -ας, ἡ good will, favour
ὐθέως (adv.) immediately
ὐθυμέω take courage
ὐθύς (adv.) immediately, straightway
ὐκαιρέω spend time
ὐκοπώτερον (adv.) easier
ὐλάβεια, -ας, ἡ reverence
ὐλογία, -ας, ἡ flattery
ὐνουχίζω emasculate
ὐνοῦχος, -ου, ὁ eunuch
ὐοδόομαι prosper
ὑρίσκω find
ὐϕραίνομαι rejoice, make merry
ὔχομαι pray
ϕ̓ = ἐπί
ϕαγον aor. of ἐσθίω
Ἐϕέσιος, -α, -ον Ephesian
χθές (adv.) yesterday
χθρός, -ά, -όν hostile; (as m. noun) enemy
χιδνα, -ης, ἡ viper
χόμενος (pres. pple. mid. of ἔχω) neighbouring
χω † have, possess; look upon, regard
ως (prep. + gen.) up to, to; until; (conj.) until (14.1/1(b)(ii))

άω live, be alive
εβεδαῖος, -ου, ὁ Zebedee
ητέω seek, look for
ωγρέω capture alive
ωή, -ῆς, ἡ life
ώνη, -ης, ἡ belt
or; than
γαγον aor. act. of ἄγω
γγικα perf. ind. act. of ἐγγίζω
γεμών, -όνος, ὁ governor, leader
γέομαι lead
γέρθην aor. indic. pass. of ἐγείρω
γοράσθην aor. ind. pass. of ἀγοράζω
δειν plpf. (= aor.) of οἶδα (20.1/4(b))
δέως (adv.) pleasantly
δη (adv.) already
διστα (adv.) most gladly
θος, -ους, τό habit
κω (may have either a present or a perfect sense) come, have come
λθον aor. of ἔρχομαι
Ἠλίας, -ου, ὁ Elijah
λιος, -ου, ὁ sun
λπικα perf. ind. act. of ἐλπίζω
μαρτον aor. ind. act. of ἁμαρτάνω
μεῖς we (4.1/2)
μελλον impf. of μέλλω
μέρα, -ας, ἡ day
μέτερος, -α, -ον (poss. adj.) our
μην impf. of εἰμί
μιθανής, -ές half-dead
ν impf. of εἰμί
νεγκα aor. ind. act. of ϕέρω
νέχθην aor. ind. pass. of ϕέρω
νεῴχθην aor. ind. pass. of ἀνοίγω
ρεσα aor. ind. act. of ἀρέσκω

ρχόμην impf. of ἄρχομαι or ἔρχομαι
Ἡρῴδης, -ου, ὁ Herod
Ἡρῳδιάς, -άδος, ἡ Heriodas
Ἡσαΐας, -ου, ὁ Isaiah
σσων, -ον (compar. of κακός 17.1/2(b)) lesser, inferior
τις see ὅστις
ϕιεν 3rd s. impf. act. of ἀϕίημι (20.1/1 note)

χώ, -οῦς, ἡ sound, echo
άλασσα, -ης, ἡ sea

άμβος, -ους, τό amazement
άνατος, -ου, ὁ death
ανατόω kill
άπτω † bury
αρσέω take courage
αυμάζω marvel, be surprised, be amazed
εάομαι see
έατρον, -ου, τό theatre
εῖον, -ου, τό sulphur
έλημα, -ατος, τό will; wish
έλω † wish, want, desire to
εμέλιον, -ου, τό foundation
εμελιόω lay the foundation of, found
εός, -οῦ, ὁ God
εραπεύω heal
ερίζω reap, harvest
ερισμός, -οῦ, ὁ harvest
εριστής, -οῦ, ὁ reaper
ερμός, -ή, -όν hot
Θεσσαλονικεύς, -έως, ὁ inhabitant of Thessalonica
Θεσσαλονίκη, -ης, ἡ Thessalonica (city in northern Greece)
Θευδᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Theudas
εωρέω see, watch
ησαυρίζω store up
ησαυρός, -οῦ, ὁ treasure
ήσω fut. act. of τίθημι

λίβω crush
λῖψις, -εως, ἡ affliction, distress
όρυβος, -ου, ὁ riot
ρίξ, τριχός, ἡ (dat. pl. θριξί) hair
ρόνος, -ου, ὁ throne
υγάτηρ, θυγατρός, ἡ daughter (6.1/1(b))
ύρα, -ας, ἡ door
υσία, -ας, ἡ sacrifice
υσιαστήριον, -ου, τό altar
ύω sacrifice; slaughter
Θωμᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Thomas
ακώβ, ὁ ( indecl.) Jacob

άκωβος, -ου, ὁ James
άομαι heal
ατρός, -οῦ, ὁ doctor
ε (exclamation) there (you are!); behold!
έα, -ας, ἡ appearance
ιος, -α, -ον one’s own
ού (exclamation) behold!
ών aor. act. pple. of ὁράω
ρεύς, -έως, ὁ priest
εριχώ, ἡ (indecl.) Jericho
ρόν, -οῦ, τό temple
εροσόλυμα, -ων, τά and Ἰερουσαλήμ, ἡ (indecl.) Jerusalem (4.1/3)
ησοῦς, -οῦ, ὁ Jesus
κανός, -ή, -όν worthy; large, great; pl. many
κόνιον, -ου, τό Iconium (city in Asia Minor)
λασμός, -οῦ, ὁ expiation, remedy
μάς, -άντος, ὁ strap
μάτιον, -ου, τό garment, cloak
α (conj.) in order that (expressing purpose, 13.1/3(b)(i)); so that
(expressing result, 13.1/3(b)(ii)); that (with verbs of wishing,
requesting, etc., 13.1/3(b(ii))

ατί (interrog.) why?
όππη, -ης, ἡ Joppa (sea port on coast of Judea)

ορδάνης, -ου, ὁ Jordan (largest river in Palestine)
ουδαία, -ας, ἡ Judea
ουδαῖος, -ου, ὁ Jew
ούδας, -α, ὁ Judas; Judah (country of the tribe of Judah)
ούλιος, -ου, ὁ Julius
ππος, -ου, ὁ horse
σαάκ, ὁ (indecl.) Isaac
σος, -η, -ον equal, same
σραήλ, ὁ (indecl.) Israel
στημι † (tr. tenses) make to stand, set up place; (intr. tenses) be
standing, stand (19.1/2)

σχυρός, -ά, -όν strong, mighty
σχύς, -ύος, ἡ strength
σχύω be able
ταλία, -ας, ἡ Italy
χθύς, -ύος, ὁ fish (8.1/5)
ωάννης, -ου, ὁ John
ώβ, ὁ (indecl.) Job
ωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Jonah
ωσήϕ, ὁ (indecl.) Joseph
ῶτα, τό (indecl.) iota (smallest letter in Greek alphabet)

αθαιρέω †† take down, destroy
αθαρίζω cleanse
αθαρός, -ά, -όν pure
αθέδρα, -ας, ἡ chair
αθεξῆς (adv.) next in order; successively
αθεύδω sleep
άθημαι be seated, sit (intr. 19.1/3)
αθίζω sit
αθίημι †† lower
αθίστημι †† ordain, appoint
αθώς (adv.) just as
αί (conj.) and; (adv.) also; even; actually, in fact
αὶ … καί both … and
ε# … καί both … and
αὶ γὰρ for even, for indeed (15.1/2(b))
αινός, -ή, -όν new
αίπερ (adv.) although
αιρός, -οῦ, ὁ time; right time
αῖσαρ, -αρος, ὁ Caesar
αισάρεια, -ας, ἡ Caesarea (coastal city in Palestine, seat of the Roman
governor)
ακοποιέω do evil
ακός, -ή, -όν bad, evil
ακόω harm
ακῶς (adv.) badly
αλέω † call; name; summon, invite
άλλιον (adv.) compar. of καλῶς
αλός, -ή, -όν (3.1/3)
αλύπτω cover
αλῶς (adv.) well, rightly
άμηλος, -ου, ὁ camel
ἂν (adv.) even, at least; (conj.) and if, even if
αππαδοκία, -ας, ἡ Cappadocia
αρδία, -ας, ἡ heart
αρπός, -οῦ, ὁ harvest, fruit

άρπος, -ου, ὁ Carpus
άρϕος, -ους, τό speck
ατά (prep.) (+ acc.) according to; concerning; by reason of, for; (of
space) through, to; in the region of, by, in; (of time) about; κατά πάντα in
every way; (+ gen.) against
αταβαίνω †† come/go down
αταγγέλλω proclaim
αταγελάω †† ridicule
αταγινώσκω †† condemn
ατάγω †† bring/take down; (pass., of a ship) put in at
αταδέω †† bandage
αταδιώκω search for
αταθεματίζω curse
ατακλίνομαι (pass.) recline at table
αταλαμβάνω †† come upon, overtake
αταλείπω †† leave
αταμαρτυρέω testify against
αταναλίσκω consume, devour
ατανοέω notice
αταπονέω mistreat
αταργέω set aside
αταρτίζω mend, restore
ατασκάπτω tear down
ατασκηνόω settle
αταϕιλέω kiss
ατέρχομαι †† arrive at, land
ατεσθίω †† eat up, devour
ατευθύνω direct
ατέϕαγον aor. act. ind. of κατεσθίω
ατέχω †† hold fast, retain
ατηγορέω accuse
ατηγορία, -ας, ἡ charge
ατῆλθον aor. of κατέρχομαι
ατήργηκα perf. ind. act. of καταργέω
ατήχθην aor. pass. ind. of κατάγω
ατισχύω (+ gen.) win a victory over, prevail over

ατοικέω settle, dwell
άτω (adv.) below
αῦμα, -ατος, τό heat; burn
αυματίζω scorch, burn
αύχησις, -εως, ἡ pride
αϕαρναούμ, ἡ (indecl.) Capernaum (city by the Sea of Galilee)
εγχρεαί, -ῶν, αἱ Cenchreae (sea port of Corinth in Greece)
εῖμαι lie, be laid down; (used as the equivalent of the perf. pass. of τίθημι
19.1/3 note 2) to have been placed/set up
ειρία, -ας, ἡ bandage
ελεύω order
έντρον, -ου, τό sting
εραία, -ας, ἡ decorative stroke of a letter of the alphabet
εραμεύς, -έως, ὁ potter
εράμιον, -ου, τό jar
εράτιον, -ου, τό pod (of the carob tree)
ερδαίνω win, gain
εϕαλή, -ῆς, ἡ head
ῆνσος, -ου, ὁ tax, tribute
ηρύσσω make known, announce, proclaim, preach
ῆτος, -ους, τό sea monster
ιλικία, -ας, ἡ Cilicia (area in the south-east of modern Turkey)
ινδυνεύω be in danger
ίνησις, -εως, ἡ movement
λάδος, -ου, ὁ branch
λαίω † weep
λαυθμός, -οῦ, ὁ weeping
λείω † shut
λέπτης, -ου, ὁ thief
λέπτω steal
ληθήσομαι fut. pass. of καλέω
ληθῶ aor. subj. pass. of καλέω
ληρονομία, -ας, ἡ inheritance
ληρονόμος, -ου, ὁ heir
λῖμαξ, -ακος, ἡ ladder
λινάριον, -ου, τό bed

λίνη, -ης, ἡ bed
λοπή, -ῆς, ἡ damage
λωπᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Clopas
νίδος, -ου, ἡ Cnidus (island off SW coast of modern Turkey)
οιλία, -ας, ἡ belly; womb
οιμάομαι sleep
οινωνία, -ας, ἡ fellowship
οινωνός, -οῦ, ὁ/ἡ partner, sharer
όκκος, -ου, ὁ seed, grain
ολλάομαι attach oneself to
ομίζω † bring; (mid.) get, receive, recover
οπάζω abate
οπιάω work hard
όπτω strike; (mid.) mourn for
οράσιον, -ου, τό girl
όρινθος, -ου, ἡ Corinth
οσμέω adorn, decorate
όσμος, -ου, ὁ world
ράβαττος, -ου, ὁ stretcher
ράζω shout, cry out
ρανίον, -ου, τό skull
ρατέω apprehend, arrest; take, grasp
ράτιστος, -η, -ον (supl. of ἀγαθός 17.1/2(b)) most excellent
ράτος, -ους, τό power, strength
ρείττων, -ον (compar. of ἀγαθός 17.1/2(b)) better
ρέμαμαι hang (intr.)
ρήτη, -ης, ἡ Crete
ρίμα, -ατος, τό judgement; lawsuit; condemnation, sentence
ρίνω † judge; decide
ρίσις, -εως, ἡ judgement, condemnation
ριτήριον, -ου, τό court of law
ριτής, -οῦ, ὁ judge
ρυπτός, -ή, -όν hidden, secret
ρύπτω hide
τάομαι procure for oneself, acquire
τῆμα, -ατος, τό possession

τῆνος, -ους, τό beast of burden
υκλόω encircle
ῦμα, -ατος, τό wave
ύπρος, -ου, ἡ Cyprus
υρηναῖος, -ου, ὁ man from Cyrene, Cyrenian
υριεύω (+ gen.) rule over
ύριος, -ου, ὁ the Lord; lord, master
ύων, κυνός, ὁ/ἡ dog
ῶλον, -ου, τό dead body
ωλύω hinder, prevent
ώμη, -ης, ἡ village
ωμόπολις, -εως, ἡ town
ωνσταντινουπόλις, -εως, ἡ Constantinople
αβών aor. pple. of λαμβάνω

άζαρος, -ου, ὁ Lazarus
αλέω say, speak, talk
αμβάνω † receive, take; trap, take advantage of
αός, -οῦ, ὁ people
ασαία, -ας, ἡ Lasaea (city on south coast of Crete)
ατρεύω (+ dat.) serve, worship
άχανον, -ου, τό garden plant
έγω † say, speak
είπω † leave
ειτουργία, -ας, ἡ service
επρός, -οῦ, ὁ leper
επτόν, -οῦ, τό small coin
ευίτης, -ου, ὁ Levite
ευκαίνω whiten
ευκός, -ή, -όν white
ήμψομαι fut. of λαμβάνω
ῃστής, -οῦ, ὁ robber
ίαν (adv.) exceedingly, very
θάζω stone
ίθος, -ου, ὁ stone
μήν, -ένος, ὁ harbour

αλοὶ Λιμένες Fair Havens (bay on south coast of Crete)
μός, -οῦ, ἡ famine; hunger
ογίζομαι consider
όγος, -ου, ὁ something said (word, message, talk, etc.)
οιπόν (adv.) furthermore
οιπός, -ή, -όν rest, remaining
ουκᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Luke
ούω wash
ύδδα, -ας, ἡ Lydda (town inland from Joppa)
υκία, -ας, ἡ Lycia (area in the SW of modern Turkey)
ύκος, -ου, ὁ wolf
υπέω distress, injure; (pass.) be sad, grieve
ύχνος, -ου, ὁ lamp
ύω loosen, set free; break (the law); destroy
ώτ, ὁ (indecl.) Lot
Μαδιάμ, ὁ ( indecl.) Midian (country in Arabia)

αθητής, -οῦ, ὁ pupil, disciple
αθήτρια, -ας, ἡ female disciple
Μαθθαῖος (Ματθαῖος), -ου, ὁ Matthew
αίνομαι be mad
ακαρίζω call blessed
ακάριος, -α, -ον fortunate; blessed
Μακεδών, -όνος, ὁ a Macedonian
ακρόθεν (adv.) at a distance
ακρός, -ά, όν distant; μακράν (adv.) far off
άλιστα (adv.) most of all, above all
ᾶλλον (adv.) to a greater degree, more; rather; instead
ανθάνω † learn
ανία, -ας, ἡ madness
Μάρθα, -ας, ἡ Martha
Μαριάμ, ἡ (indecl.) or Μαρία, -ας, ἡ Mary
Μᾶρκος, -ου, ὁ Mark
αρτυρέω declare; witness; approve
αρτυρία, -ας, ἡ testimony
αρτύρομαι implore
άρτυς, -υρος, ὁ witness
αστός, -οῦ, ὁ breast; chest
αταιότης, -ητος, ἡ emptiness, futility
Ματθαῖος (Μαθθαῖος), -ου, ὁ Matthew
άχαιρα, -ης, ἡ sword
άχομαι fight
εγαλύνω magnify
έγας, μεγάλη, μέγα (stem μεγαλ- 3.1/3) great, big
έγιστος, -η, -ον (supl. of μέγας 17.1/2(b)) very great, greatest
εθ̓ = μετά
είζων, -ον (compar. of μέγας 17.1/2(b)) greater
έλας, -αινα, -αν black
έλει (impers. 21.1/1(a)(iii)) it is of concern
έλλω (+ inf.) be going to, be on the point of; be destined to
έμνημαι (perf. [=pres.] of μιμνῄσκομαι, 20.1/4(b)) remember
ὲν#… δέ# on the one hand… and/but on the other hand (15.1/2(b))
ὲν# οὖν so, and so (15.1/2(b))
ενοῦν, μενοῦνγε rather, on the contrary
έντοι# however (15.1/2(a))
ένω † wait, stay; dwell
ερίζομαι share
έριμνα, -ης, ἡ anxiety, care
εριμνάω care about
έρος, -ους, τό share, portion
εσημβρία, -ας, ἡ midday, noon
εσονύκτιον, -ου, τό midnight
Μεσοποταμία, -ας, ἡ Mesopotamia
έσος, -η, -ον middle; (as neut. noun) midst
Μεσσίας, -ου, ὁ the Messiah
ετ̓ = μετά
ετά (prep.) (+ acc.) after; (+ gen.) with, in the company of
εταβαίνω †† go
εταίρω †† (aor. μετῆρα) go away
εταλαμβάνω †† (+ gen.) share
ετανοέω repent
εταστρέϕω (fut. pass. μεταστραϕήσομαι) change (tr.)

ετέχω †† (+ gen.) share
έτρον, -ου, τό measure
έχρι (prep. + gen) up to; (conj.) until (14.1/1(b)(ii))
ή (+ subj.) lest, that not (13.1/3(b)(i), 14.1/1a); not (with opt. 13.1/4; with
participles, infinitives 8.1/3; in questions expecting a negative reply

10.1/2(a))
ὐ μή not (in strong negation 13.1/3(a)(iii))
ηδέ (conj.) and not, nor; (adv.) not even
ηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν no, no-one, nothing
ηκέτι (adv.) no longer
ήν, μηνός, ὅ month
ήποτε (+ subj.) lest (= μή 13.1/3(b)(i))
ήτε … μήτε neither… nor
ήτηρ, -τρός, ἡ mother (6.1/1(b))
ήτι interrogative particle in hesitant questions or questions that expect a
negative answer (10.1/2(a))

ητρόπολις, -εως, ἡ capital city
ία see εἷς
ιαίνω stain
ίασμα, -ατος, τό corruption
ικρόν (adv.) for a short while
ικρός, -ά, -όν small, little; young
ιμνῄσκομαι † remember
ισέω hate
ίσθιος, -ου, ὁ hired man, labourer
ισθόομαι hire
ισθός, -οῦ, ὁ pay, salary
ισθωτός, -οῦ, ὁ hired labourer
νημεῖον, -ου, τό tomb
νημονεύω (+ gen.) remember
νηστεύω betroth
οιχάομαι commit adultery
οιχεύω commit adultery
οιχός, -οῦ, ὁ adulterer
όλις (adv.) scarcely, with difficulty
ονή, -ῆς, ἡ dwelling place

ονογενής, -ές only, sole (of children)
όνος, -η, -ον only, alone
όσχος, -ου, ὁ calf
Μύρα, -ων, τά Myra (town in Lycia)
υριάς, -άδος ἡ ten thousand, myriad (7.1/5(a))
ύριοι, -αι, -α ten thousand
ύρον, -ου, τό perfume
Μυσία,-ας, ἡ Mysia (area in north-west of modern Turkey)
ωρός, -ά, -όν foolish
Μωϋσῆς, -έως, ὁ Moses (11.1/4)
αζαρέθ, ἡ ( indecl.) Nazareth2

αζαρηνός, -οῦ, ὁ inhabitant of Nazareth, Nazarene
αζωραῖος, -ου, ὁ inhabitant of Nazareth, Nazarene
αός, -οῦ, ὁ temple
αύτής, -ου, ὁ sailor
ανίας, -ου, ὁ young man
ανίσκος, -ου, ὁ young man
κρός, -ά, -όν dead; (as masc. noun) dead (person), corpse
ος, -α, -ον new; young
ότης, -ητος, ἡ youth
ωκόρος, -ου, ὁ guardian
ήπιος, -α, -ον very young, (as noun) young child
ῆσος, -ου, ἡ island
ηστεύω fast
ηϕάλιος, -α, -ον sober
ικαία Nicaea (now Iznik, city in north-west Turkey)
κάω conquer
ικόδημος, -ου, ὁ Nicodemus
πτω wash
οέω understand
όημα, -ατος, τό thought, mind
ομίζω think, consider
όμος, -ου, ὁ law
όσος, -ου, ἡ sickness
οῦς, νοός, ὁ mind

υμ ϕίος, -ου, ὁ bridegroom
ῦν (adv.) now; just now
ύξ, νυκτός, ἡ night
υστάζω grow sleepy
strange, foreign; (as noun) stranger

ένος, -η, -ον
ηραίνω dry up; pass. wither
γδοος, -η, -ον eighth

δεύω travel
δός, -οῦ, ἡ road; journey
δούς, ὀδόντος, ὁ tooth
δυρμός, -οῦ, ὁ lamentation
θεν (rel. adv.) from where, whence; for which reason, and so
θόνιον, -ου, τό linen cloth
δα † I know (6.1/2 & 20.1/4(b))
κετεία, -ας, ἡ household
κία, -ας, ἡ house; family, household
κοδεσπότης, -ου, ὁ master of the house
κοδομέω build
κονόμος, -ου, ὁ steward
κος, -ου, ὁ house; family, household
νος, -ου, ὁ wine
ος -α, -ον of what sort
κνέω delay
κνηρός, -ά, -όν idle, lazy
κτώ (indecl.) eight
λιγόπιστος, -ον possessing little faith
λίγος, -η, -ον little, small; (pl.) few
λος, -η, -ον whole, entire, all
λως (adv.) at all
μνύω (aor. inf. ὀμόσαι) swear, vow
μοιος, -α, -ον (+ dat.) like, similar, resembling
μοιόω make like; compare; (pass. + dat.) be like
μοίως similarly
μολογέω admit; promise

μότεχνος, -ον practising the same trade (τέχνη)
νειδίζω abuse
νίναμαι benefit, have joy
νομα, -ατος, τό name
νομάζω name, call
νος, -ου, ὁ/ἡ ass, donkey
πή, -ῆς, ἡ opening
πίσω (prep. + gen.) behind, after
που (relative adv.) where
πως that, in order that (13.1/3(b)(i))
ράω † see; (pass. + dat) appear to
ργή, -ῆς, ἡ anger; judgement
ργίζομαι be angry
ρθῶς (adv.) rightly
ρκος, -ου, ὁ oath
ρος, -ους, τό mountain
ρϕανός, -ή, -όν orphaned
ρχέομαι dance
ς, ἥ, ὅ (rel. pron., 9.1/2) who, which
σος, -η, -ον as much/many as, how much/many (21.1/3)
στις, ἥτις, ὅ τι (relative pron.) who, which, that (9.1/2 note 1); whoever,
whichever (14.1/1(c))
σϕῦς, -ύος, ἡ loins
ταν (conj.+ subj./ind.) whenever (14.1/1(b)), when
τε (conj.) when
τι (A) because
τι (B) that (introducing an indirect statement 8.1/4(a))
ὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ no(t)
ὐ … ἔτι no longer
ὗ (adverbial conj. of place) where
ὐαί (interjection) woe!, alas!
ὐδαμῶς (adv.) by no means
ὐδέ (conj.) and not, nor; (adv.) not even
ὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν no, no-one, nothing
ὐδέν (adverbial acc.) in no respect, in no way, not at all
ὐδέπω (adv.) not yet

ὐθέν = οὐδέν
ὐκ = οὐ
ὐκέτι (adv.) no longer

ὖν# (particle) therefore, so, then; however
ὔπω (adv.) not yet
ὐράνιος, -ον heavenly
ὐρανός, -οῦ, ὁ sky, heavens; (s. or pl.) the Christian heaven
ὖς, ὠτός, τό ear
ὐσία, -ας, ἡ property, wealth
ὖσα fem. pple. of εἰμί
ὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο (pron. and adj., 9.1/1) this
ὕτως (adv.) thus, in this way
ὐχ = οὐ
ὐχί strengthened form of οὐ; interrogative particle in questions expecting

an affirmative answer 10.1/2(a)
ϕειλέτης, -ου, ὁ one who is culpable, (+ gen.) guilty of sin against
ϕείλημα, -ατος, τό debt; sin
ϕείλω owe; be obligated, must, ought
ϕθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ eye
ϕις, -εως, ὁ snake, serpent
χλος, -ου, ὁ crowd, mob
ψάριον, -ου, τό fish
ψέ (adv.) late, in the evening
ψία, -ας, ἡ evening
ψις, -εως, ἡ face
ψομαι fut. of ὁράω
αγιδεύω trap
άθημα, -ατος, τό suffering
άθος, -ους, τό passion
αιδίον, -ου, τό child
αιδίσκη, -ης, ἡ slave girl
αῖς, παιδός, ὁ/ἡ child; slave, servant
άλαι (adv.) formerly, long ago
αλαιός, -ά, -όν old
άλιν (adv.) again

Παμϕυλία, -ας, ἡ Pamphylia (area in the middle south of modern Turkey)
ανδοχεῖον, -ου, τό inn
ανδοχεύς, -έως, ὁ inn-keeper
ανοικεί (adv.) with one’s whole household
ανουργία, -ας, ἡ cunning
ανοῦργος, -ον crafty, sly
άντοτε (adv.) always
αῤ = παρά
αρά (prep.) (+ acc.) to, towards; along, beside; (+ gen.) from; (+ dat.) at,
beside; at the house of, in the presence of
αραβαίνω †† transgress
αραβολή, -ῆς, ἡ parable
αραγγέλλω (+ dat.) command, order
αραγίνομαι †† arrive
αραδίδωμι †† hand over, entrust
αράδοσις, -εως, ἡ tradition
αραινέω advise
αρακαλέω †† entreat
αράκλητος, -ου, ὁ mediator, intercessor
αρακύπτω stoop
αραλαμβάνω †† take; take along with
αραλέγομαι sail past
αραλυτικός, -οῦ, ὁ cripple
αρατίθημι †† set before
αραχρῆμα (adv.) immediately
αρέθηκα aor. ind. act. of παρατίθημι
άρειμι be present
αρελεύσομαι fut. of παρέρχομαι
αρέλθω aor. subj. of παρέρχομαι
αρεμβολή, -ῆς, ἡ barracks
αρέρχομαι †† pass by/through; pass away, disappear
αρέχω †† provide
αρθένος, -ου, ἡ girl
αρίημι †† neglect
αρίστημι †† (tr. tenses) present; (intr. tenses) stand by, help (19.1/2)
άροικος, -ου, ὁ stranger, alien

αρρησιάζομαι speak freely
ᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν (10.1/3(b)) all, every; any
άσχα, τό (indecl.) Passover
άσχω † suffer
ατάσσω hit
ατήρ, πατρός, ὁ father (6.1/1(b))
ατριά, -ᾶς, ἡ family, clan
ατριαρχεῖον, -ου, τό patriarchate
ατριάρχης, -ου, ὁ patriarch
ατρίς, -ίδος, ἡ homeland, [one’s own] country
Παῦλος, -ου, ὁ Paul
αύομαι cease from, stop (intr.)
ειθαρχέω (+ dat.) obey, listen to
είθω † persuade; (intr. perf. [πέποιθα] + dat.) trust; (pass. + dat.) obey, be
a follower of
εινάω be hungry
ειράζω make trial of, tempt
ειρασμός, -οῦ, ὁ temptation
έλαγος, -ους, τό sea
έμπω † send
ενιχρός, -ά, -όν poor
εντάκις (adv.) five times
εντακισχίλιοι, -αι, -α five thousand
έντε (indecl.) five
έποιθα intr. perf. of πείθω
έραν (adv.) on the other side; (prep. + gen.) to the other side of
ερί (prep.) (+ acc.) about, around; (+ gen.) about, concerning
εριάγω †† lead round
εριάπτω kindle
εριαστράπτω flash around
εριβάλλω †† clothe
εριέπεσον aor. ind. of περιπίπτω
εριέχω †† contain; seize
εριΐστημι stand around; (mid.) avoid
εριλάμπω shine around
εριπατέω walk; (used metaphorically) live

εριπίπτω †† (+ dat.) fall into the hands of
ερισσεύω be in abundance; (mid.+ gen.) have in abundance
ὸ περισσεῦον ample wealth
ερισσότερος, -α, -ον greater, more
ερισσῶς (adv.) all the more
εριτέμνω circumcise
εριτομή, -ῆς, ἡ circumcision
ερίχωρος, -ον neighbouring; (as f. noun, sc. γῆ) neighbourhood
ετεινόν, -οῦ, τό bird
έτρα, -ας, ἡ rock
Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ Peter
ετρώδης, -ες stoney
ηγή, -ῆς, ἡ fountain
ῆχυς, [-έως], ὁ cubit (8.1/5 note 2)
ικρός, -ά, όν bitter
ικρῶς (adv.) bitterly
Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ Pilate
ίμπλημι fill, complete
ίμπρημι burn (tr.)
ίναξ, -ακος, ἡ plate, dish
ίνω † drink
ίπτω † fall
ιστεύω (+ dat. or ἐπί/εἰς) believe, trust; believe in
ίστις, -εως, ἡ faith
ιστός, -ή, όν faithful, trustworthy, believing; (as m. noun) believer
λανάω lead astray
λατεῖα, -ας, ἡ street
λεῖστος, -η, -ον (supl. of πολύς 17.1/2(b)) greatest (of quantity)
λείων, πλεῖον (πλέον) more (compar. of πολύς 17.1/2(b))
λέκω plait
λεονάζω increase, grow
λέω † sail
ληγή, -ῆς, ἡ blow
λῆθος, -ους, τό large number, multitude, crowd
ληθύνω increase, multiply
λήρης, -ες full

ληρόω make full, fill; fulfil, complete
λήρωμα, -ατος, τό contents
λησίον (adv.) near
πλησίον (indecl. noun) neighbour
λοιάριον, -ου, τό small boat
λοῖον, -ου, τό boat
λοῦς, πλοός, ὁ voyage (11.1/4)
λούσιος, -α, -ον wealthy
λοῦτος, -ου, ὁ wealth
νεῦμα, -ατος, τό spirit
ὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα the Holy Ghost
νέω breathe, blow
νίγω choke
όθεν; (interrog. adv.) from where?, whence?
οιέω make; do; do with
οιητής, -οῦ, ὁ doer, one who complies with
οικίλος, -η, -ον various
οιμήν, -ένος, ὁ shepherd
οίμνη, -ης, ἡ flock
οίμνιον, -ου, τό flock
οῖος, -α, -ον of what sort?; who?, what? (21.1/3)
όλις, -εως, ἡ city (8.1/5)
ολίτης, -ου, ὁ citizen
ολλάκις (adv.) often
ολύ (adv.) much, greatly
ολύς, πολλή, πολύ (stem πολλ- 3.1/3) much (pl. many); long
ονηρία, -ας, ἡ wickedness
ονηρός, -ά, -όν wicked, evil; (as m. noun) the Devil
ορεύομαι go, travel
ορθέω destroy
όρνη, -ης, ἡ prostitute
όρνος, -ου, ὁ fornicator
όσος, -η, -ον how much? how many? (21.1/3)
οταμός, -οῦ, ὁ river
οταπός, -ή, -όν of what kind? (10.1/2a)
ότε (interrog. adv.) when?

οτέ # once, formerly, ever (15.1/2(a))
οτήριον, -ου, τό cup
οτίζω give to drink
οῦ (interrog. adv.) where?
ούς, ποδός, ὁ foot
ρᾶγμα, -ατος, τό matter, affair
ράσσω † do
ρεσβύτερος, -ου, ὁ an elder
ρεσβύτης, -ου, ὁ old man
ρίν (conj. 14.1/1(b)(iii)) before
ρό (prep. + gen.) before
ροάγω †† go before, precede; lead foward
ρόβατον, -ου, τό sheep
ροβιβάζω prompt, urge on
ρόθυμος, -ον willing
ροκόπτω progress
ρονοέω have regard for
ρός (prep. + acc.) to, towards; beside, by; pertaining to, with reference
to, concerning; (with infinitive) in order to, with a view to

ροσδαπανάω spend in addition
ροσδέχομαι †† receive, welcome
ροσεάω †† allow to go further
ροσέρχομαι †† (+ dat.) come/go to, approach
ροσεύχομαι pray
ροσεῶντος gen. m. s. of pres. act. pple. of προσεάω
ροσῆλθον aor. indic. of προσέρχομαι
ρόσκαιρος, -ον short-lasting
ροσκαλέομαι call, summon
ροσκαρτερέω be ready
ροσκεϕάλαιον, -ου, τό pillow
ροσκόπτω (+ dat.) beat against
ροσκυνέω do obeisance, worship
ροσλαμβάνομαι welcome, accept
ροσπίπτω †† (+ dat.) fall down in front of; fall upon
ροστίθημι †† add
ροσϕέρω †† bring
ροσ ϕωνέω summon
ρόσωπον, -ου, τό face
ρότερον (adv.) earlier
ρόϕασις, -εως, ἡ pretense
ροϕητεία, -ας, ἡ prophecy
ροϕητεύω prophesy
ροϕήτης, -ου, ὁ prophet
ρύμνα, -ης, ἡ stern (of a ship)
ρωΐ (adv.) early
ρωτοκαθεδρία, -ας, ἡ seat of honour
ρωτοκλισία, -ας, ἡ place of honour
ρῶτος, -η, -ον first
τῶσις, -εως, ἡ fall
τωχός, -ή, -όν poor
υκνός, -ή, -όν frequent
ύλη, -ης, ἡ door, gate
υνθάνομαι † inquire, ask
ῦρ, πυρός, τό fire
ωλέω sell
ῶς how?, how …!
ως# somehow, perhaps
Ῥαββί ( indecl.) master (form of address)

άβδος, -ου, ἡ staff
Ῥαμά, (indecl.) ἡ Rama (town to the north of Jerusalem)
αϕίς, -ίδος, ἡ needle
Ῥαχάβ, ἡ (indecl.) Rahab
έω flow
ῆμα, -ατος, τό word
ήτωρ, -ορος, ὁ speaker
ζα, -ης, ἡ root
πτω † throw
ύομαι rescue, save
Ῥωμαϊστί (adv.) in Latin
Ῥώμη, -ης, ἡ Rome
ώννυμι be strong (17.1/1 note 6)

άββατον, -ου, τό sabbath; week
αδδουκαῖος, -ου, ὁ Sadducee
άκκος, -ου, ὁ sackcloth
αλεύω shake (tr.)
αλμών, ὁ (indecl.) Salmon
αλμώνη, -ης, ἡ Salmone (promontory in east Crete)
άλπιγξ, -ιγγος, ἡ trumpet
αμάρεια, -ας, ἡ Samaria (region to the north of Jerusalem)
αμαρίτης, -ου, ὁ Samaritan
ανδάλιον, -ου, τό sandal
αούλ, ὁ (indecl.) Saul
άρξ, σαρκός, ἡ flesh
αρόω sweep clean
ατάν, ὁ (indecl.) Satan
ατανᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ Satan
άτον, -ου, τό dry measure
εαυτόν yourself (refl. pron. 9.1/4(a))
εβαστός, -ή, -όν imperial
πεῖρα Σεβαστή see note on 12.2.7
εισμός, -οῦ, ὁ earthquake; storm at sea
ελήνη, -ης, ἡ moon
εμνότης, -ητος, ἡ dignity
ημαίνω indicate
ημεῖον, -ου, τό sign; miracle
ήμερον (adv.) today
δηροῦς (-εος), -ᾶ, -οῦν made of iron
ιδών, -ῶνος, ἡ Sidon
ίλας, -α, ὁ Silas (friend of Paul)
ίμων, -ωνος, ὁ Simon
ίναπι, -εως, τό mustard
τευτός, -ή, όν fattened
κανδαλίζω offend
κεῦος, -ους, τό jar
κηνή, -ῆς, ἡ tabernacle
κιά, -ᾶς, ἡ shadow
κόλοψ, -οπος, ὁ thorn

κοτία, -ας, ἡ darkness
κότος, -ους, τό darkness
μύρνα Smyrna (now Izmir, city on west coast of Turkey)
όδομα, -ων, τά Sodom
ολομών, -ῶνος, ὁ Solomon
ός, σή, σόν (poss. adj.) your (s.)
οϕία, -ας, ἡ wisdom
οϕός, -ή, -όν wise
οϕῶς (adv.) wisely
παργανόω wrap in swaddling clothes
πάομαι draw (a sword)
πεῖρα, -ης, ἡ cohort (unit of about 600 men in Roman army)
πείρω † sow
πέρμα, -ατος, τό seed
περμολόγος, -ου, ὁ chatterer
πλαγχνίζομαι (pass.) feel pity
πόγγος, -ου, ὁ sponge
ποδός, -οῦ, ἡ ashes
πόριμα, -ων, τά grain fields, standing grain
πουδάζω be eager, take pains
πουδή, -ῆς, ἡ haste
τάδιον, -ου, τό (pl. στάδια or στάδιοι) stade (c. 200 metres)
τασιαστής, -οῦ, ὁ rebel
τάσις, -εως, ἡ uprising
ταυρός, -οῦ, ὁ cross
ταυρόω crucify
ταϕυλή, -ῆς, ἡ bunch of grapes
τάχυς, -υος, ὁ ear of corn/wheat
τέγη, -ης, ἡ roof
τεῖρα, -ας, ἡ woman unable to have children
τερεός, -ά, -όν hard
τηρίζω strengthen
τίγμα, -ατος, τό mark, scar
τίλβω shine
τοιχεῖον, -ου, τό element
τολή, -ῆς, ἡ robe

τόμα, -ατος, τό mouth; edge (of a sword)
τόμαχος, -ου, ὁ stomach
τράτευμα, -ατος, τό army; [detachment of] soldiers
τρατιά, -ᾶς, ἡ army
τρατιώτης, -ου, ὁ soldier
τρατόπεδον, -ου, τό army
τραϕείς aor. pass. pple. of στρέϕω
τρέϕω turn (tr.); (pass.) turn (intr.)
τρουθίον, -ου, τό sparrow
τυλίτης, -ου, ὁ stylite
τῦλος, -ου, ὁ pillar
ύ you (s. 4.1/2)
υγγενής, -οῦς, ὁ relative (10.1/4(a))
υγκαθίζω sit together
υγκαλύπτω conceal
υγκυρία, -ας, ἡ chance, coincidence
ατὰ συγκυρίαν by chance
υζητέω argue; discuss
υλλαβών aor. act. pple. of συλλαμβάνω
υλλαλέω (+ dat.) talk (with)
υλλαμβάνω †† catch, seize; arrest
υλλέγω gather, pick
υμβαίνω †† happen
υμβουλεύω advise
υμβούλιον, -ου, τό plot, plan; council
υμβούλιον λαμβάνω hold/take counsel
ύμβουλος, -ου, ὁ adviser, counsellor
υμεών, ὁ (indecl.) Symeon
υμμαρτυρέω (+ dat.) testify with
υμπνίγω choke
υμπολίτης, -ου, ὁ fellow-citizen
υμϕέρει (impers.) it is expedient
ύν (prep. + dat.) with, in the company of
υνάγω †† gather up; receive as a guest; (pass.) come together
υναγωγή, -ῆς, ἡ synagogue
υναλλάσσω reconcile
υνανάκειμαι recline at table with, eat with
ύνδεσμος, -ου, ὁ bond
ύνδουλος, -ου, ὁ fellow slave/servant
υνέδριον, -ου, τό council
υνεζήτει 3 s. impf. act. of συζητέω
ύνειμι come together (20.1/4)
υνέρχομαι †† assemble; (+ dat.) go off with
υνίημι †† understand
υνίστημι †† (tr. tenses) commend, prove; (intr. tenses) stand with
(19.1/2)
υρο ϕοινίκισσα, -ης, ἡ Syro-phoenician woman

ύρω drag
ύστασις, -εως, ἡ gathering
υστρέϕω gather together
ϕαγή, -ῆς, ἡ [act of] slaughtering

ϕάζω slaughter
ϕόδρα (adv.) very, very much
ϕραγίς, -ῖδος, ἡ seal
χολάζω be unoccupied
ῴζω † save, preserve
ῶμα, -ατος, τό body
ωτήρ, -ῆρος, ὁ saviour
ωτηρία, -ας, ἡ salvation
ωϕροσύνη, -ης, ἡ rationality
ώϕρων, -ον sensible, modest
αβιθά, ἡ (indecl.) Tabitha
απεινός, -ή, -όν lowly, humble
απεινοϕροσύνη, -ης, ἡ humility
απεινόω make humble
απείνωσις, -εως, ἡ lowly station
αράσσω disturb, trouble
αρσός, -οῦ, ἡ Tarsus (city in SE of what is now Turkey)
άσσω (act. or mid.) order, fix; appoint
αῦτα n. pl. nom./acc. of οὗτος (9.1/1)
αϕή, -ῆς, ἡ burial place
άχιον (adv.) compar. of ταχύ

αχύ ( adv.) quickly
αχύς, -εῖα, -ύ swift
ε# … καί both… and
έθνηκα perf. ind. of ἀποθνῄσκω (20.1/4(b))
έκνον, -ου, τό child
ελείοω bring to perfection, perfect
ελευτή, -ῆς, ἡ death
ελέω † complete, finish
ελώνης, -ου, ὁ tax-collector
εσσαράκοντα (indecl.) forty
εσσαρακονταετής, -ές of forty years
έσσαρες, τέσσερα four (7.1/5(a))
έταρτος, -η, -ον fourth
ετράκις (adv.) four times
ετραπλοῦς (-όος), -ῆ, -οῦν (21.1/2) fourfold
ηρέω keep watch over, guard; preserve; observe
; why?
οὖν; why then? what then?
θημι † (18.1/2) put, place; present
κτω † bear, give birth to
λλω pick
μάω honour
μή, -ῆς, ἡ honour, reverence; price
μιος, -α, -ον honourable; precious
ς; τί; (interrog. pron.) who? which? what? (10.1/1)
ς, τι# (indef. pron.) a certain, someone, something (10.1/1)
τλος, -ου, ὁ title, inscription
οιοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτο(ν) such, of such a sort, similar (21.1/3)
όκος, -ου, ὁ interest
ολμάω dare
όπος, -ου, ὁ place
οσοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτο(ν) so much/many (21.1/3)
ότε (adv.) then
οῦτο see οὗτος
ράπεζα, -ης, ἡ table
ραπεζίτης, -ου, ὁ banker

ραῦμα, -ατος, τό wound
ράχηλος, -ου, ὁ neck
ρεῖς, τρία three (7.1/5(a))
ρέϕω † feed, nourish
ρέχω † run
ριάκοντα (indecl.) thirty
ρίς (adv.) three times
ρισχίλιοι, -αι, -α three thousand
ρίτον (adv.) the third time
ρίτος, -η, -ον third
ρόμος, -ου, ὁ trembling
ρόπος, -ου, ὁ way, manner
ροϕή, -ῆς, ἡ food, nourishment, sustenance
ρύπημα, -ατος, τό hole, eye (of a needle)
υγχάνω † happen; (+ gen.) receive, obtain
ύρος, -ου, ἡ Tyre
υϕλός, -ή, όν blind
υχεῖν aor. inf. of τυγχάνω
βρις, -εως, ἡ insult

γιαίνω be in good health
γιής, -ές healthy, sound
δροποτέω drink water
δωρ, ὕδατος, τό water
ός, -οῦ, ὁ son
μεῖς (pron.) you (pl. 4.1/2)
μέτερος, -α, -ον (poss. adj.) your (pl.)
μνέω sing the praise of
πάγω †† go, go out
πακούω †† (+ dat.) obey
παντάω meet
πάρχω exist, be
πεμνήσθην aor. indic. pass. of ὑπομιμνῄσκω
πέρ (prep. + gen.) on behalf of
περήϕανος, -ον proud, haughty
περῷον, -ου, τό upstairs room

πό (prep.) (+ acc.) under; (+ gen.) by (of an agent, 11.1/2)
ποδέομαι put on (sandals)
ποδέχομαι †† receive
πόδημα, -ατος, τό sandal
ποκάτω (prep. + gen.) under
ποκριτής, -οῦ, ὁ hypocrite
πολείπω †† leave remaining (tr.)
πομιμνῄσκω remind; (pass.+ gen.) remember
ποπλέω †† sail under the shelter of
ποπόδιον, -ου, τό footstool
ποστρέϕω return
στερέω (act. or mid.) lack, be in need
στέρημα, -ατος, τό need, poverty
στερον (adv.) later, afterward
στερος, -α, -ον later
ψηλός, -ή, -όν high
ψιστος, -η, -ον highest; ἐν ὑψίστοις on high
ψος, -ους, τό height
ψόω raise, exalt
ανερός, -ά, -όνclear, evident

ανερόω reveal, make known
αντασία, -ας, ἡ outward display
Φαραώ, ὁ (indecl.) Pharaoh
Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ Pharisee
άσκω allege, claim
άτνη, -ης, ἡ manger, stall
αῦλος, -η, -ον evil, base
είδομαι (+ gen.) spare
έρω † carry; bring; take; (of a road) lead
εύγω † flee, escape
ήμη, -ης, ἡ report, news
ημι †́ say (7.1/3)
Φῆστος, -ου, ὁ Festus (Roman procurator of Palestine)
θαρῶ aor. subj. pass. of ϕθείρω
θείρω † destroy; corrupt

ιλανθρώπως ( adv.) kindly
ιλέω love
ιλία, -ας, ἡ friendship, love
Φίλιππος, -ου, ὁ Philip
ίλος, -ου, ὁ friend
ιμόω make silent
λόξ, ϕλογός, ἡ flame
οβέομαι fear
όβος, -ου, ὁ fear
Φοίβη, -ης, ἡ Phoebe
ονεύς, -έως, ὁ murderer
ονεύω murder, kill
όνος, -ου, ὁ murder
ραγελλόω flog
ράζω tell
ρονέω think, have an opinion
ρόνιμος, -ον wise, sensible
Φρυγία, -ας, ἡ Phrygia
υλακή, -ῆς, ἡ act of guarding; watch (of the night); guard post; prison
ύλαξ, -ακος, ὁ guard
υλάσσω guard
ύσις, -εως, ἡ nature
υτεύω plant
ωνέω make a sound; shout; crow
ωνή, -ῆς, ἡ voice
ῶς, ϕωτός, τό light; torch
ωτεινός, -ή, -όν bright
αίρω rejoice
αλεπός, -ή, -όν difficult, violent
αρά, -ᾶς, ἡ joy
αρακτήρ, -ῆρος, ὁ exact likeness
άρις, -ιτος, ἡ (acc. χάριν) favour, grace, mercy; thanks, gratitude
άσμα, -ατος, τό chasm
είρ, χειρός, ἡ hand
είρων, -ον (compar. of κακός) worse

ήρα, -ας, ἡ widow
ιλίαρχος, -ου, ὁ captain
ιλιάς, -άδος ἡ a thousand (7.1/5(a))
ίλιοι, -αι, -α thousand
ιτών, -ῶνος, ὁ tunic
οϊκός, -ή, -όν made of earth, earthly
οῖρος, -ου, ὁ pig
οραζίν, ἡ (indecl.) Chorazin (town in Galilee)
ορτάζω feed (tr., in 11.2.17 with acc. of person and gen. of food); (pass.)
eat one’s fill [in 11.2.17 has acc. and gen.]

οῦς, χοός, ὁ dust (11.1/4)
ράομαι † (+ dat.) use (of things); treat, behave towards
ρεία, -ας, ἡ need
ρῄζω (+ gen.) have need of
ρηστολογία, -ας, ἡ plausible talk
ρηστός, -ή, -όν kind, loving
ριστός, -οῦ, ὁ Christ, Anointed One
ρονίζω linger; delay, fail to come
ρόνος, -ου, ὁ time; year
ρυσοῦς (-εος), -ῆ, -οῦν (21.1/2) golden
ώρα, -ας, ἡ country; district
ωρίζω separate; (pass.) leave, depart from
ωρίον, -ου, τό place
ωρίς (prep. + gen.) without, apart, separately (from)
ευδομαρτυρέω bear false witness

ηλαϕάω touch
υχή, -ῆς, ἡ soul
υχικός, -ή, -όν worldly
( preceding a vocative) O
δε (adv.) here
δίν, ὠδῖνος, ἡ pain of childbirth
ν masc. pple. of εἰμί
ρα, -ας, ἡ hour

ς (adv.) like, just as; (with numerals) about; (conj.) when (14.1/1(b)(i));
how, that (14.2.11)
σεί (adv.) about
στε (conj. 16.1/1) so that, in order that; with the result that;
consequently
ϕελέω help, benefit; accomplish
ϕθην aor. ind. pass. of ὁράω
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Contents

Meet the author

Testament Greek and its history

and the masculine and neuter definite article /3 Basic

the feminine definite article /2 First declension

adjectives /4 Adverbs /5 Prepositions /6 Present

indicative and infinitive of -ω verbs (active) /2 Personal

article 5.2 Greek reading /1 Vocabulary

nouns (2) /2 οἶδα know /3 Compound verbs formed with

active of -ω verbs /2 Direct and indirect speech /3 ϕημί

08 8.1 Grammar /1 Middle and passive voices /2 Deponent

verbs /3 Negatives /4 Indirect statement /5 Third

pronoun ὅς and adjectival clauses /3 Other uses of αὐτός

adjectives and pronouns 9.2 Greek reading /1

Questions, direct and indirect /3 First and third

passive /2 Agent and instrument /3 -ω verbs with stems

Greek reading 12.3 Excursus: The Septuagint

indicative active 14.2 Greek reading

Further particles 15.2 Greek reading

active /3 Perfect and pluperfect indicative middle/passive

17 17.1 Grammar /1 Imperative mood – commands and

prohibitions /2 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs /3

/3 Conditional sentences /4 Other potential constructions

18.2 Greek reading

19 19.1 Grammar /1 Verbs in νυμι /2 ἵστημι and its compounds

/3 Eccentric μαι verbs 19.2 Greek reading

20 20.1 Grammar /1 Compounds of ἵημι /2 Uses of cases (1)

– nominative and accusative /3 Uses of cases (2) –

genitive /4 Oddities in verbs 20.2 Greek reading

second declension contracted adjectives /3 Further

5 Conjugation of δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place, ἵστημι make

Key to Greek reading exercises

My interest in Greek began at an early age. In 1938 my father gave me

Are you ever confused by the enormous variety of translations of the

As an example of the inadequacy of modern translations, take

The old Authorized Version of the bible, which was a masterpiece of

Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because ye build

I rebuke you, scholars and Pharisees, hypocrites, because you

Christians often place the outline of a fish on the back window of

New Testament Greek was not a sophisticated language like that

New Testament Greek is an inflected language, that is to say nouns,

Iēsous] went [ēlthen] to [para] the sea [tēn thalassan] of Galilee

In this book you will be reading genuine phrases, sentences and

The discrepancies between the many translations of the New

In learning Greek the first difference that strikes a beginner is, of

καὶ πᾶς ὁ ὄχλος ἤρχετο πρὸς αὐτόν, καὶ ἐδίδασκεν αὐτούς.

Transliterated in our alphabet this reads:

kai pas ho ochlos ērcheto pros auton, kai edidasken autous

Some Greek letters resemble their Roman counterparts; some, such

Pronunciation is important with a modern language, but as New

Greek is an inflected language, which means that words undergo

In Greek changes of this sort are more numerous. The ending of a

The only word added in our translation is he. This is because

Many books intended for students beginning a language contain a

How to use this book

A knowledge of the basics of traditional English grammar is essential,

Appendices 1–6 give grammatical tables and other information to

The book is oriented completely towards the form of Greek found in

It is not necessary to acquire a text of the Greek New Testament until