UNIT III: VIJAYNAGAR ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS:

ADMINISTRATION:

A. Vijanagar empire:

The Empire was divided for administrative purposes into several provinces such as rajya, mandala
and chavadi, which again was sub-divided into venthe- A territorial division higher than a nadu,
nadu- A territorial division higher than a village, sima- A portion of land comprising several fields
village and sthala- A territorial division higher than a parru, which was again higher than a nadu.
According to H. Krishna Shastri, the empire was divided into six provinces. Each province was under
a viceroy, nayaka or naik, who might be a member of the royal house or an influential noble of the
State, or some descendents of the old ruling families. Each viceroy exercised civil, military and
judicial powers within his jurisdiction, but he was required to submit regular accounts of the income
and expenditures of his charge to the central government and render it military aid in times of need.
Further he was liable to severe punishment by the king if he proved to be a traitor or oppressed the
people, and his estate could be confiscated to the state if he made default in sending one-third of his
income to the king. Though the naik were severe in raising revenue from the people, they were not
unmindful of the beneficial work like the encouragement of agriculture, the plantation of new
villages, protection of religion and erection of temples and other buildings.

The amara-nayaka system: the ‘amara’ is believed to have been derived from a Sanskrit word
samara, meaning battle or war. It also resembles the Persian term ami r, meaning high noble. it was a
major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely that many features of this system
were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate (type of land distribution and
administrative system evolved during the sultanate of Iltutmish. The nayankara system was an
important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organisation. The military chiefs or warriors held
the title of nayaka or amaranayaka. It is difficult to classify these warriors on the basis of definite
office, ethnic identity, set of duties or rights and privileges. The institution of nayaka was studied in
detail by two Portuguese-Fernao Nuniz and Domingo Paes, who visited India during the reigns of
Krishnadeva Raya and Achyut Raya of Tuluva dynasty during the sixteenth century They regard the
nayakas simply as agents of Rayas (central government). The evidence of Nuniz for the payments
made by the nayankas to the Rayas brings up the question of feudal obligations. The Vijaydagar
inscriptions and the later Mackenzie manuscripts refer to the nayakas as territoriol magnates with
political aspirations which at times conflicted with the aim of the rulers. N.K. saastri In a more recent
work views the Vijaynagar Empire as a military confederacy of many chieftains cooperating under the
leadership of the biggest among them. He emphasized that the growing threat from Islam led the

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Vijaynagar rulers to adopt a military and religious stance. Krishnaswami considers the nayanka
system as feudal.' But Venkataramanayya feels that important features of European feudalism such as
fealty, homage and sub- infeudation were absent in the nayaka system. D.C. Sircar similarly Refutes
the feudal theory; instead he explains it as a kind of landlordism, a variant of feudalism in which land
was allotted to the amaranayakas for military services rendered by them to the king. Thus, D.C.
Sircar, and T.V. Mahalingam consider the nayakas of Vijaynagar as warriors holding an office (kara)
bestowed on them by the central government on condition of rendering military service.
Amarenayankan was a designation conferred on a military officer or chief (nayakal who had under
his control a specified number of troops. These nayan possessed revenue rights over land or territory
called amaram (amaramakara or amaramahali). In the Tamil country and also in the Vijaynagar
empire, the area of land thus alienated under this tenure was about 314th . The obligations and
activities of the nayakas were among others, giving gifts to temples, repair and building of tanks,
reclamation of wasteland and collection of dues from temples The Tamil inscription, however, do not
refer to dues given to the king or his officials by the nayakas. . Krishnaswami, on the basis of
Mackenzie manuscripts, opines that the comanders of Vijaynagar army (formerly under Krishnadeva
Raya) later established independent nayaka kingdoms. To guard against such dangers, the Vijaynagar
kings tried to establish greater control over coastal markets dealing in horse trade. They attempted to
monopolise the purchase of horses of good quality by paying a high price for them. They also built
strong garrisons fortified with trustworthy soldiers. Thus, on the one hand, the Telugu nayaks were a
source of strength for the Vijaynagar empire and, on the other, they became its rivals. To sum up the
amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They
collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftsperson’s and traders in the area. They retained part
of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they
brought the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some of the revenue was also used for the
maintenance of temples and irrigation works. The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and
personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted
their control over them by transferring them from one place to another. However, during the course of
the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the
collapse of the central imperial structure.
The Ayagar System: The ayagars were village servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of
families. These were headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam senabhova) and
watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in a village. Sometimes they had to pay a
fixed rent, but generally these plots were manya or tax-free as no regular customary tax was imposed
on their agricultural income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made for services
performed by village functionaries. Other village servants who performed essential services and skills
for the village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like washerman and priest). The

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village servants who provided ordinary goods and services were leather workers whose products
included leather bag used in lift-irrigation devices (kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter,
waterman (niranikkar: who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised
bankers and money-lenders). The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is that special allocation
of income from land and specific cash payments were for the first time provided to village servants
holding a particular office.
Fortifications and roads:
The city of Vijaynagar encompassed – the great fortress walls. Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by
the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed
by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city but also its
agricultural hinterland and forests.
• The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
• The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered.
• No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction.
• The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place, and the inner portion of the
walls was of earth packed with rubble.
• Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards.
Abdur Razzaq noted that“between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields,
gardens and houses”. And Paes observed: “From this first circuit until you enter the city there is a
great distance, in which are fields in which they sow rice and have many gardens and much water, in
which water comes from two lakes.” These statements have been corroborated by present-day
archaeologists, who have also found evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and
the urban core. This tract was serviced by an elaborate canal system drawing water from the
Tungabhadra.
The Vijaynagar rulers inherited and continued to maintain a healthy and vigorous system of local
administration with the village as the lowest unit. Each village was a self sufficient unit. The village
assembly like the Panchayat of Northern India, conducted the administration of the area under its
charge- executive, judicial and police, through its hereditary officers like the senateova or the village
accountant, the talara or the village watchman or the commandant, the begara or the superintendent
of forced labour and others. These village officers were paid by grants of land or a portion of
agricultural produce. The king maintained a link with the village administration through his officer
called Mahanayakacharya who exercised a general supervision over it.

i. King: The vijaynagar Empire gradually developed a centralised administration with all its
branches carfully organised. The king was the head of all power in the Vijaynagar State.
He was the authority in civil, military as well as judicial affairs and also often intervened
to settle social disputes. But he was not an irresponsible despot. Negelecting the interests

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 of the kingdom and ignoring the rights and wishes of the state. The King was assisted in
the task of administration by a council of ministers, appointed by him. A magnificent
court was maintained by the kings of vijaynagar in the capital city at a huge cost of
money. It was attended by nobles, princes, literatures, astrologers and musicians and
festivals were celebrated with great pomp and grandeur.
ii. Council of Ministers: Though the Brahmanas held high offices in the administration and
had considerable influence, the ministers were recruited not only from the rank but also
from those of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. The office of a minister was sometimes
hereditary and sometimes rested on selection. Abdur RAzaq and Nuniz refer to the
existence of a sort of secretariat. Besides the ministers, the other officers of the State were
other chief treasurer; the custodians of the jewels; an officer who was to look after the
commercial interests of the Statel the prefect of police, who was responsible for the
prevention of crime and maintenance of order in the city; the chief master of the horse;
the subordinate officials like the ‘bhats’, who sang the praise of the kings, the betel –
bearers or personal attendants of the king, the calendar makers, the engravers and the
composer of inscriptions
iii. REVENUE: Land revenue known as sist, was the principal source of income of the
Vijaynagar State. It had an efficient system of land revenue administration, under three
heads for the purpose of assessments’ to be paid by the tenants. To meet the heavy burden
of the State and solve the problem of obtaining men and money to withstand its enemies,
the Vijaynagar emperors gave up the traditional rate of assessments at one-sixth of the
produce and increased it to some extent. The Vijaynagar rulers adopted the “ principle of
differential taxation”, that is, levied taxes according to the relative fertility of the lands.
Besides the land taxe, the ryots had to pay other kinds of taxes like grazing tax, marriage
tax etc. other source of income of the State were the revenue from customs duties; tolls on
roads, revenue from gardening and plantations; and taxation; and taxes levied on dealers
in goods of common consumption, Manufacturers and craftsmen, potters, washermen,
shoemakers, barbers, mendicants, temples and prostitutes. Taxes were paid both in cash
and kind.
iv. Judiciary: The king as the supreme judge, but there were regular courts and special
judicial officers for the administration of justice. Sometimes, disputes were settled by the
State officials with the co-operation of the local bodies. The only law of the land was not
the law of the Brahmanas, but was based on traditional regulations and customs
strengthened by the constitutional usage of the country, and its observance was strictly
enforced. Severe punishment was inflicted on guilty persons. These penalties were chiefly
of four kinds- fines, confiscation of property, ordeals and death. Death or mutilation was
the punishment of crimes like thefts, adultery and treason. Sometimes criminals were cast

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 down before the feet of an elephant, that they may be killed by its knees, trunk and tusks.
Official oppression in the sphere of justice was not absent, but the State occasional;y
granted remedies against it, and it was also sometimes successfully checked by the unite
opposition of corporate bodies.
v. Military: The rulers of Vijaynagar had a carefully organised military departments called
‘Kandachara’, under the control of the Dandanayaka or Dannayaka( commander –in-
chief) who was assisted by a staff of minor officials. The State maintained a large and
efficient army, the numerical strength of which was not , however, uniform all through.
The regular troops of the king were, in times of need, reinforced by auxiliary forces of the
feudatories and nobles. The several component parts of the army were the infantry,
recruited from people of different classes and creeds, occasionally even including
Muslims; the cavalry, strenghtned by the recruitment of god horses from Ormuz through
the Portuguese, owing to a dearth of these animals in the Empire; elephants; camels; and
artillery, the use of which by the Hindus as early as A.D. 1308 is proved by the evidence
of foreign accounts as well as of inscriptions.
B. Administration under Bahamani kingdom:
i. The King and His council of Ministers: The Bahamani administration was modelled in
the Islamic pattern The king was the supreme power in the state, he was the ruler, judge,
administrator, military leader, sometimes even his own authority. His duties were all
embracing, he was regarded as the shadow of god on earth. The external symbol of the
kins sovereignty were the throne, the chutr or the royal umbrella, the royal standard of
issuing gold coins, the stiking of the royal naubat( drum) five times a day and the reading
of khutba in the name of sovereign. The early hours of morning were spent in the
company of learned men and poets and also received reports from various messengers of
the kingdom. The king maintained an army of reporters under the supervision of the
prime minister. Their duties were to repot to the king all the happenings in different parts
of the country and to carry letters fromthe officers to these parts to the capital. On every
day of the week except Friday the king held a Darbar .The king was the supreme power.
In theory, his authority was unlimited, but in practice he depended on the advice of his
ministers in deciding state policy. The chief minister was called ‘ vakil-us-Saltanate’. All
orders issued by the king passed through him and bore his seal. The minister for finance
was called ‘Amir-i-Jumla’. The external affairs were called ‘ Nasir –i-Ashraf. Allauddin
Hasan Baman Shah divided his kingdom into four divisions called ‘ Tarafs’ and each
division was under a Tarafdar. When Mahmud Gawan became the prime minister he
redivided the kingdom into eight sarlaskarships in order to control the power of the
tarafdars. Provinces or Atrafs were divided into Sarkars and Sarkars were divided into Paraganas

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 for the convenience of administration. The lowest unit of the administration was the village and a
pargana consisted of a number of villages
ii. Military: The military department at the capital mainatained its own army. At the time
of Bahman Shah its strength was 50,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry. During the time of
Muhammad I it was increased to one lakh. The amir-ul umara was the commander of
the army. The army mainly consisted of soldiers and cavalry. Elephants were also
employed. The rulers maintained a large number of bodyguards known as khassakhel.
Muhammad I is stated to have had four thousand bodyguards. Besides, there were
silahdars who were in charge of the 'personal armoury of the king. In times of need,
barbardan were asked to mobilize troops. The army was organised in the decimal basis.
There were three grades of categories of commander, the amir-ul umara was the chief
commander-in-chiefs whose rank was 1500 and under him were scores of commanders
under the rank of 100 and 500. The chief commander was paid through assignments or
grants of jagirs. The commander-in-chief and commanders were paid two lakh huns
respectively. The soldiers were not paid directly from the royal treasury instead the
commanders paid them as their discretion and terms settled at the time of recruitment. and
Another characteristic feature of the Bahmani army was the use of gunpowder that gave
them military advantage. Niccolo Conti, an ltalian traveller, who visited lndia in the 15th
century, writes that their army used javelins, swords, arm-pieces, round-shields, bows and
arrows. He adds that they used 'ballistae and bombarding machines as well as siege-
pieces'. Duarte Barbosa who visited lndia during 1500-17 also made similar remarks that
they used maces, battle-axes, bows and arrows. He adds: "they [Moorish] ride on high-
pommelled saddle.. .. fight tied to their saddles ..... The gentios .... the larger part of them
fight on foot, but some on horseback ..." Mahmud Gawan streamlined the military
administration and increased the emoluments of the army. Earlier, the tarafdars had
absolute authority to appoint the qiladars of the forts. Gawan placed one fort under one
tarafdar's jurisdiction, the rest of the forts within a province were placed under the central,
command. To check Corruption, he made a rule that every officer should be paid at a
fixed rate for every 41500 troopers maintained by him. When he was given revenue
assignments in lieu of cash, the amount incurred by the officer in the collection of
revenue was to be paid to him separately. If he failed to maintain the stipulated soldiers,
he had to refund the proportionate amount to the exchequer.
iii. Economy: Mahmud Gawan ordered for systematic measurement of land fixing the
boundaries of the villages and towns. First, the income of the empire was ensured and
became known in advance; secondly, it also curbed the corruption of the nobles to the
minimum, thereby increasing the state income. In the Bahmani kingdom, trade and
commerce was in a flourishing state. Althanasius Nikitin, a Russian traveller, who

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 travelled in this kingdom during the years 1469-74, in the reign of Muhammad Shah III
provides ample information regarding the commercial activities of Bidar. He says that
horses, cloth, silk, and pepper were the chief merchandise. He adds that at Shikhbaludin
Peratyr and at kladinand bazar people assembled in large numbers where trade continued
for ten days and also mentions the Bahmani seaport Mustafabad-Dabul as a centre of
commercial activity. Dabul was well connected not only with the Indian but also with the
African ports. Horses were imported from Arabia, Khurasan and Turkestan. Trade and
commerce was mostly in the hands of the Hindu merchants. Musk and fur were imported
from China.
iv. Revenue: Provinces of the kingdom were made over to the grandees for the upkeep of
their quota of the army. They collected land revenues and other taxes in their respective
divisions, and were expected to pay a certain fixed amount to the royal treasury, so long
as this amount was paid the officials of the treasury were not concerned how the taxes
were collected. Most of the kingdom was dividd among the nobles. The chief function of
the administration was the collection of revenues. And in this the officer of the Parganas
were helped by two officers, the Deshmukh and the Desai. Deshmkh was entrusted with
the task of supervision of collection of the revenue, while desai was concern with keeping
the accounts, sometimes the Deshmukh and subedars were refereed in the state
documents as Huddedars, Adhikaris, Amaldars, and Amils . The village was the last
unit of administration in the kingdom, it has three officers namely Patil or headman of the
village, Kulkarni or the accountant and the village watchman. These offices were
hereditary. The duty of the headman was the collection of revenues which were handed
over to the provincial authority, he was also in charge of the police arrangement of the
village, but the actual duty was entrusted to a watchman, usually a person of the lower
caste. In case of war it was the duty of the state to protect the village. The kulkarni was
responsible for maintaining of the accounts of all the details of revenue in the village
agricultural holdings and other property in the village. The most important person was the
Patil, besides revenue and official duties, he was also responsible for the settlement of
village disputes with the help of village panchayat and he was the leader of the village in
all matters and the most influential person in the village. The village headman and
accountant were remunerated by means of iman lands granted to them . the imam or rent
free land and the office were known as watan in the case of the headman and adn miras
for an accountant , besides the headman there was an establishment which consisted of
twelve artisans known as Balutedars in Maharashtra and the institution is known as
Barabalute . The twelve professions were known represented by mahar who was the
village watchman, the potter, the barber, the astrologer, an priest,t he accountant, , the

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 gurav or the person in charge of the village temple deity. The Balutes dues were to be
paid by every farmer to each balutedars.

VIJAYNAGAR SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS:

Literature: The Vijaynagar Empire has to its credit brilliant cultural and artistic achievements. Under
the emperor’s patron some of the finest pieces of literatures were produced in Sanskrit, Telegu, Tamil
and Kannada. Sayana, the famous commentator of the Vedas and his brother, Madhava flourished
during the early days of Vikaynagar rule and were deeply attached to the state. The reign of Krishna
Deva Raya marked the dawn of new era in the literary history of South India. Himself a scholar, a
musician and poet, he gathers poets, philosophers and religious teachers whom he honoured with
magnificent gifts of land and money. He wrote the magnum opus, Amuktamalyada, in Telegu, in
the introduction to which he refers to five Sanskrit works written by him. This book is not merely of
religious interest but also great historical importance for the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. In his court
flourished the ‘ Astadiggajas’, the eight elephants of the quartets ( famous poets) who supported the
world of Telegu literatures. His poet laureate, Peddana given the title ‘Andharakavitapitamaha
(grandfather of Telugu poetry) enjoyed a wide reputation and held a high position among Telegu
writers. Even the rulers of Aravidu dynasty patronised poets and religious teachers and Telegu
literature flourished under them with reinforced vigour. There were also authors among the petty
chiefs and relatives of the emperors. Works on music, dancing, drama, grammar logic philosophy etc.
received encouragement from the emperors and their ministers. In short the Vijaynagar Empire was’
synthesis of South Indian culture”.

Art and Architecture: Along with the growth of culture was a remarkable development of art and
architecture . The architecture of Vijayanagara architecture dates back to today’s Hampi . This is
because the town is the capital of the kings. These are the main temples built in Hampi or
VijayanagaraVijanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Pandy and
Chola styles which evolves from prior empires in earlier centuries. The temple building activity of
the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style, called the Vijayanagar style. Though often characterized
as Dravida Style, it had its own distinct features. The court and palace architecture of Vijayanagar is
generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-
influenced arches, domes, and vaults. This style became popular during the reign of Krishna Deva
Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries. Vijayanagara
architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture. Vijaynagar temples
are also known for their carved pillars which depict charging horses, figures from the Hindu
mythology and yali( hippogriphs). Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male deity, with a
separate shrine for the worship of his female counterpart. Another element of the Vijayanagar style is

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the carving and consecration of large monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and
Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi; the Gommateshvara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur; and
the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Examples of this style can also be seen in the Vijayanagara temples of
Kolar, Kanakagiri, Shringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi,
Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara, and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore,
Kumbakonam, Kanchi, and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu.

Features / characteristics of Vijaynagar temple structures : Vijayanagara temples are usually

surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a
porch. Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala)
connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large
temples have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is
added to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara
resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and
Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of
king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years.
Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and
Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory
(Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa
(ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual celebrations.

i. The distinct features of Vijaynagar Temple architecture were the pillars and the
complicated manner in which they were sculptured. The shaft becomes just a core around
which grouped a vast amount of statuary of great size and sculptured in the round’ having
as its most conspicuous element a furiously rising horse, rampant hippogryph (Yali)
(hippogryphs: A legendary creature that has the front half of an eagle and the hind half
of a horse) — horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their
backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the
pillar are usually carvings from Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such
hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythology themed decoration on all sides -
the whole of it , pillar and sculpture is carved out of a single block of stone. Another type
shows a cluster of miniature pillars encircling the central column, and so carved
sometimes as to give out, when struck, the seven separate notes of Indian music. There
were also other modes of treatment, but all pillars had ornamental brackets as part of their
capitals and below the brackets a pendant which was eleaborated in this period into an
invested lotus bud.

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 ii. The temples had a Mandapam or open pavilion with a raised platform, generally meant
for seating the deity on special occasions. It also had a Kalyana Mandapam with
elaborately carved pillars. The Mantapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with
carved friezes that are four to five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four
sides with miniature elephants or with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mandapas are
supported by ornate pillarsThe 1,000-pillared style with large halls supported by
numerous pillars was popular. The most magnificent of the temples in this style are in
Hampi (Vijayanagar). Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples are the best
examples.

iii. The tall entrance towers or gopurams, evolved under the pandyas continued in this period
also. Raya Gopurams, towers in commemoration of the visit of emperors in different
corners of the empire, are also important examples of architecture of the period. Another
feature was the so called ‘ thousand pillred mandapa’ a huge hall with many rows of
pillars

iv. In the Vijayanagar temples the central part was occupied by the Garbhagriha—the
sanctum cell where the presiding deity was installed.

v. Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the God. The goddess came to have separate
shrines of their own, a development which goes back to the chola period

Some of the more famous temples of Vijaynagara are: .

i. Virupaksha temple: The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. While inscriptions
suggest that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries, it was substantially
enlarged with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire. The hall in front of the main
shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession. This was decorated with
delicately carved pillars. He is also credited with the construction of the eastern gopuram.
These additions meant that the central shrine came to occupy a relatively small part of the
complex.The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in
which the images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance,
drama, etc. Others were used to celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were
meant for the deities to swing in. Special images, distinct from those kept in the small
central shrine, were used on these occasions.
ii. ii. The Vitthala temple: The Vitthala temple is by far the most ornate temple. Begun in
the time of Devaray II, its construction was continued even during the time of the
principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra. The
introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in

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 which the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
As in the case of other temples, this temple too has several halls and a unique shrine
designed as a chariot. A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot
streets that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line. These streets were paved
with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set up their shops.
The main temple occupies the center and there are five other structures mostly of the
nature of pillared halls within the enclosures
iii. iii. Hazara Rama Temple: Most probably the work of Virupaksha II, though modest it is
a perfect example of the Viajynagar style of temple architecture. besides the main temple
there are a shrine for the goddess, a kalyanamandapa and other subsidiary temples all
enclosed in a courtyard by a wall 24 feet high. The enclosure is entered by means of a
well proportioned flat roofed porch on the east, which lead to the assembly hall into a
group of four back stone pillars, one at each corner of a central square are the Vimana
with its lower storey of stone and the pyramidal superstructure of brick, now much
decayed, which is less than 50 feet high and quite impressive. The inner walls of the
temple are decorated in relief with scenes from Ramayana.
2. Palaces and Court Architecture
No royal palace structures from the Vijayanagar period have survived intact, and most of what is
known about them has been drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi. Most of the palaces
faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and earth walls.
They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings decorated with carved
friezes. Palaces usually spanned multiple levels and had tall flights of stairs flanked on either side by
balustrades carved with yali and elephants. Pillars and beams were made of wood and the roofs of
brick and lime concrete. The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar was generally made of mortar mixed
with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
Water tanks inside the palace complex have decorative water spouts such as the carved torso of the
Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water flow into the tank The city was surrounded by seven
fortifications. The space in between was used for various purposes such as laying gardens and
growing vegetables etc. The total area of the city was estimated at 64 square miles. There were
beautiful lakes, open gardens, broad and well-laid roads and buildings. The Tungabhadra river had a
dam which provided water for the 40 kilometer long canal of the city.

The palace was the most impressive building in Vijayanagar. There were halls of public and private
audiences. The halls were decorated with beautiful painted pictures. Usually the walls and pillars were
ornamented with sculptures made of stone or wood. Unfortunately, most of the city of Vijayanagar is
now in ruins, represented by the well-known site Hampi which is dotted with little hills of granite and
where not a blade of grass grows. he courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic

11
influences. Examples are the Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly
buildings and domed structures were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble The ruins of the
palace, such as the Kamala Mahal, the Queen’s bath house, are also found in the palace buildings.
These can be seen in the Indo-Arabic style.

The “mahanavami dibba”: Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba”
is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. King Krishna
Devaraya constructed this in commemoration on the victory over Udaygiri (now in Orissa). Archeologists
believe that this platform had undergone systematic enhancements by successive kings came into power.
The whole structure is made as giant square structures in three layers. There are mainly two stairways
to reach the top. The front one (east facing) is highly decorated on either sides with carvings of
elephants, horses and a host of other things. On the top there is nothing special to see except the great
views on the campus around it. At the back of the platform a twin staircase is located. Probably this
was used as a service staircase during the ceremonies. There is evidence that it supported a wooden
structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. Rituals associated with the
structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu
festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dusehra (northern
India), Durga Puja (in Bengal and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular India). The Vijayanagara
kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion. The ceremonies performed on
the occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes
and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and
chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief
nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion. These ceremonies were imbued with deep
symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival the king inspected his army and the armies of the
nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field.. On this occasion the nayakas brought rich gifts for the
king as well as the stipulated tribute.
3. Wall Paintings: Vijayanagar art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara (the Ten Avatars of
Vishnu) and the Girijakalyana (the marriage of Parvati, Shiva’s consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at
Hampi; the Shivapurana murals (the Tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi; and those
at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.

SOCIETY: The social structure of the South Indian macro-region (Vijaynagar empire) is a unique
variant of the Indian society. The uniqueness of the social structure was . three-fold : secular functions
of the South Indian Brahmans dual division of lower social groups territorial segmentation of the
society. The Brahmans live in localities where they controlled land, and their prestige and power was
also derived from their control over those dependent on land. They also enjoyed prestige due to their

12
sacral functions as a priestly class. The emergence of a large number of Vedic temples endowed with
villages (devadanas) gave the Brahmans as temple functionaries the power to exercise ritual control
over all other castes and religious institutions. As managers of these religious centres, the Brahmans
enjoyed great secular authority. Territorial segmentation of society implies that social groups in the
Tamil country were divided on the basis of natural sub-region and occupational patterns associated
with them. Social groups in South India had less interaction with groups at some distance from their
locality. They gave preference to cross-cousin and maternal uncle-niece marriages. Another
characteristic of the social structure was the dual division of lower castes referred to by the right and
left-hand designations (Vaishnavas corresponding to thb right hand division and the Saivites
corresponding to the left hand castes). In most cases, the right-hand castes were involved primarily in
Agricultural production and local trade in agricultural commodities whereas left-hand castes were
engaged in mobile artisan production and extensive trade in non-agricultural products. During the
Vijaynagar period, the peasant was the basis of the social order, on whom all other sections of the
society depended. The satkams, the Tamil poetic genre, regard the leading peasantry as pure sat-
sudras. They claimed ritual purity and respectable secular rank for them. Temples played an important
role in delineati.ng or determining spcial space of groupings who were the participants in the worship
of a particular deity. An important characteristic of lineage in the South Indian kingship is marked by
the common devotion to the lineage tutelary. The non-Brahman priests of the peasants' tutelary
shrines (e.g. amman) also participated in the management of great shrines'of Siva and Yishnu where
the Brahman priests predominated. The matha the seat of sectarian organisation located at great
shrines, consisted of persons of both the Brahman and non-Brahman orders. Thus, the social
organisation of this period comprised of the Brahmans, the left and right-hand castes which included
respectable agricultural castes, namely vellalas and lower castes like the weavers.

Women in general occupied a high position in society and instances of the active part they took in the
political, social and literary life of the country are not rare, besides being trained in wrestling,
handling swords and shields, music and other fine arts, some of them at any rate received a fair
amount of literary education. Nuniz wrties: “ he ( the king of Vijaynagar) has also wwomen who
wrestle, and others who are astrologers and soothsayers; and he has woman who write all the
accounts of expenses that are incurred inside the gates and others whose duty it is to write all the
affairs of the kingdom and compare their books with those of the writers outside; he has women also
for music, who play instruments and sing. Even the wives of the king are well versed in music...it is
said that he has judges, as well as bailiffs and watchmen who every night guard the palace, and these
are women.” Plurality of wives was a common practice, especially among the wealthy classes, and
child marriage was the usual custom. The evil practice of exacting dowries was greatly prevalent
among those who were well placed in life. The State occasionally interfered in social affairs to settle

13
disputes among various communities. The rite of sati, or women burning themselves on the funeral
pyres of their husbands, was very common in Vijaynagar, and the Brahmans freely sanctioned it.

ECONOMIC CONDITION OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE:

It is clear from foreign accounts and also other sources that unbounded prosperity prevailed in the
Vijaynagar Empire. Agriculture flourished in different parts of the realm and the state pursued a wise
irrigation policy. The principal industries related to textiles, mining and metallurgy and the most
important of the minor industries were perfumery. Craftsmen’s and merchants, guilds, played an
important part in the economic life of the kingdom.

Land and Income Rights Rice was the staple crop. Both black and white variety of rice was produced
from Coromandel to Pulicat. Besides, cereals like gram and .pulses were also cultivated. Spices
(especially black pepper) coconut and betel-nuts were other important items of - production. Land-
revenue was the major source of state's income. Rate of revenue demand varied in different parts of
the empire and in the same locality itself according to the fertility and regional location of the land. It
was generally 116th of the produce, but in some cases it was even more ranging up to 114th. But on
Brahmans and temples it was 1 / 20th to 1/ 30th respectively. It was payable both in cash and kind.
We find references to three major categories of land tenure:

i. Amara: The largest category was of the amara villages given by the Vijaynagar rulers to
the amaranayakas. Their holders did not possess proprietary rights in land but enjoyed -
privileges ever its income only. The amara tenure was primarily residual in the sense that
its income was distributed after deductions had been made for support of the Brahmans
and forts. Three quarters of all the villages came under this category. The term
amaramakni is considered by most historians as referring to an 'estate' or a 'fief, but it
literally means one-sixteenth share (makani). Thus, it points to the fact that the
amaranayakas could claim only a 'limited share of village income.
ii. Bhandaravada : The bhandarvada was a crown village comprising the smallest category.
4 part of its income was utilised to maintain the Vijaynagar forts.
iii. Manya: Income from the manya (tax-free) villages was used to maintain the Brahmans,
temples, and mathas.

These indicate the way in which the village income was distributed. The manya rights underwent a
transformation during this period. Land tenures continued to be given by the state to individual
(ekabhogan) Brahmans and groups of - Brahmans as well as to mathas including the non- Brahman
Saiva Slddhanta and Vaishnava gurus. But there was a great increase in devadana grants (conferred
on temples) made by the state as compared to other grants. Besides land-tax, many professional taxes
also were imposed. These were on shopkeepers, farm-servants, shepherds, washermen, potters,
shoemakers, musicians etc. There was also tax on property. Grazing and house taxes were also
imposed. Villages were also supposed to pay for the maintenance of the village officers. Besides,
sthala dayam, margadayam and manula dayam were three major transit dues. Another category of
land right through which income was derived was a result of investment in irrigation. It was called
dasavanda in Tamil country; and Kattu-Kodage in Andhra and Karnataka. This kind of agrarian
activity concerning irrigation was undertaken in semi-dry areas where hydrographic and topographic
features were conducive for carrying out developmental projects. The dasavanda or Kattu-Kodage
was a share in the increased productivity of the land earned by the person who undertakes such
developmental work (e.g. construction of a tank or channel). This right to income was personal and

14
transferable..A portion of income accruing from the increased productivity also went to the cultivators
of the village where the developmental work was undertaken.

Economic Role of Temples: During the Vijaynagar period, temples emerged as important landholders.
Hundreds of villages were granted to the deities who were worshipped in the large temple-. Thple
officers managed the devadana villages to ensure that the grant was utilised properly. The income
from devadana villages provided sustenance to the ritual * functionaries, It was also utilised to
provide food offerings or to purchase goods (mostly aromatic substances 'and cloth) essential for
carrying out the ritual rites. Cash, endowments were also made by the state to the temples for
providing ritual service. Temples took up irrigational work also. Large temples holding devadana
lands had under them irrigation department for properly channelizing money grants made to the
temples. Those who gave cash grants to temples also received a share of the food offering (prasadam)
derived from (he increased productivity. In fact, temples in South India were important centres of
economic activity. They were not only great landholders but they also carried on banking activities.
They employed a number of persons. Mahalingam refers to an inscription which mentions a temple
which employed 37 servants. Temples purchased local goods for performance of ritual services. They
gave loans to individuals and village assemblies for economic purposes. The loans were given against
lands whose income went to the temples. Cash endowments made by the state to the Tirupati temple
were ploughed back in irrigation. The income thus attained was used to carry out and maintain ritual
services. At Srirangam Temple, cash grants were used to advance commercial loans to business firms
in Trichnopoly. Temples had their trusts which utilised its funds for various purposes. Thus, the
temples functioned almost as an independent economic system encompassing persons and institutions
that were bound together by economic links.

Foreign Trade: We get information about foreign trade from the Amuktamalyada of Krishnadeva
Raya, Domingo Paes and Nuniz. They give vivid description of horse trade. The role of the Indians in
the overseas carrying trade was minimal. Barbosa mentions that Indian overseas trade was completely
controlled by Muslim merchants. They used to get special treatment from the rulers. He says that on
returning from the Red Sea the king assigned them a nayar bodyguard, a Chetti accountant and a
broker for i help in local transactions. Such was their status that, at Kayal, even royal monopoly of
pearl-fisheries was given to a Muslim merchant. The Arabs and later the Portuguese controlled horse
trade. Horses were brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the west-coast ports. Goa supplied
horses to Vijaynagar as well as the Deccani Sultanates. Importation of horses was of great military
importance' for the southern states as good horses were not bred in India. Besides, Vijaynagar's
conflict with the northern Deccan Muslim states restricted the supply of horses from north India that
were imported from .Central Asia. Besides horses, ivory, pearls, spices, precious stones, coconuts,
palm-sugar, salt, etc. were also imported. Pearls were brought from the Persian Gulf and Ceylon and
precious stones from Pegu. Velvet was imported from Mecca and satin, silk, damask and brocade
from China. White rice, Sugarcane (other than palm-sugarcane) and iron were the major exports.
Diamonds were exported from Vijaynagar. Nuniz states that its diamond mines were the richest in the
world. The principal mines were on the banks of the Krishna river and in Kurnool and Anantapur.
This led to the development of a great industry for cutting and polishing precious stones like
diamonds, sapphires and rubies in Vijaynagar and Malabar.

Internal Trade and Urban Life: The contemporary foreign accounts show that local and long distance
trade increased t under the Vijaynagar rulers. Roads and roadside-facilities for travellers between
towns were excellent. Carts were used for the transport of grains over short distance. Riverine
shipping especially the backwater-system on the west-coast has also been referred to. Pack-animals
were used for long distance transport. In some places armed guards for long distance transport were

15
employed. Local magnates realised the importance of trade and gave encouragement to town based
trade and auxiliary trade in regular and periodic fairs. Regular and periodic fairs took place along the
main roads leading to big temples during festival times. These fairs were conducted by trade
associations of a nearby town and under the-supervision of the leader of trade association called
pattamswami. Fairs which gave impetus to urban trade were also held at the orders of the local
magnates, e.g. gauda or chief of a nadu. The literary and inscriptional evidences of the 14th to 16th
centuries reveal the existence of 80 major trade centres. Some towns were religious; others were
commercial and administrative centres. Inside these towns were many bazars where business was
carried on by merchants. They paid rents to the towns. There were separate markets for particular
commodities. Markets for agricultural and non-agricultural products were separate in accordance with
the left and right hand caste affiliations. Trade in consecrated food for pilgrims and the sale of the
right of ritual functions and office were important aspects of temple-related urban commerce. The
merchants and artisan organisations in Andhra got identified with certain cities, e,g. the Telugu oil-
pressers and merchants were associated with the city of Berwada (in Krishna district). In these towns,
the transit duties, shop and house-rents provided income to the towns. The temple-records refer to the
prosperity and prestige of merchant^ and artisans. The Vijaynagar state possessed an urban quality
which is not witnessed in any other South Indian state of the time. The capital city integrated within
its precincts markets, palaces, temples, mosques, etc. This urban quality was, however, completely
destroyed by the middle-16th century.

The coinage of the Vijaynagar Empire was of various types, both in gold and copper, and their was
one specimen of a silver coin. The coins bore on them emblems of different gods and animals varying
according to the religious faith of the rulers. The prices of articles were low. The accounts of the
foreign travellers tell us that the upper classes of the people had a high standard of living but the
common people groaned under the weight of heavy taxation, collected with vigour by the local
governors, who were , however, restrained by the supreme rulers.

BAHAMAIN KINGDOMS - SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS: The social structure df the
Bahmanis was cosmopolitan in character. There were Muslims, Hindus, Iranians, Transoxonians,
lraqis and Abyssinians (Habshis). The Portuguese came during the early 16th century. This
heterogeneous character becomes more prominent if we look at its linguistic pattern: Persian, Marathi,
Dakhni (proto-Urdu,) Kannada and Telugu languages were widely spoken in various parts of the
kingdom. Broadly, two classes existed in the society. According to Nikitin, there were poor, and the
nobles who were "extremely opulent and delights in luxury. He says that "the nobles were carried on
their Silver beds, preceded by twenty horses caparisoned in gold and followed by three hundred man
on horseback and five hundred on foot along with ten torchbearers." Nikitin also gives a graphic
account of the grandeur of the Bahmani wazir, Mahmud Gawan. He mentions that every day along
with him 500 men used to dine. For the ,safety of his house alone, everyday 100 armed personnel kept
vigilance. In contrast, the general population was poor. Though Nikitin mentions only two classes,
there was yet another class-the merchants (the so-called middle class).
The sufis were greatly venerated by the Bahmani rulers. Initially, they migrated to the Deccan as
religious auxiliaries of the Khaljis and the Tughluqs. The infant Bahmani kingdom required the
support of the sufism for popular legitimization of their authority. The sufis who migrated to the
Bahmani kingdom were chiefly of the Chishti, Qadiri and Shattari orders. Bidar emerged as one of the
most important centres of the Qadiri order. Shaikh Sirajuddin Junaidi was the first Sufi to receive the
royal favour. The Chishti saints enjoyed the greatest honour. Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz, the
famous Chishti saint of Delhi, migrated to Gulbarga in 1402-3. Sultan Feroz granted a number of
villages as innam for the upkeep of his khanqah.

16
But during the later period of his reign dissensions between the two developed on account of the sufi's
support for the Sultan's brother Ahmad as his successor. It finally led to the expulsion of Gesu Daraz
from Gulbarga. With the large influx of the Afaqis in the Bahmani kingdom, the Shias also found
their place under Fadullah's influence. Ahmad 1's act of sending 30,000 silver tankas for distribution
among the Saiyyids of Karbala in Iraq shows his inclination for the Shia doctrine. The most influential
wazir of Ahmad 111 was also a Shia. Hindu traditions and picture also influenced the Bahmani court.
Sultan Feroz's
(1397-1422) marriage with a daughter of the royal family of Vijaynagar helped greatly in the Hindu-
Muslims cultural harmony. There is a. legend that Feroz even once went to Vijaynagar in the guise of
a Hindu faqir. Even in the most important ceremony like the celebration of urs, Hindu influences are
to be seen. During the urs celebrations, the Jangam (the head of the Lingayats of Madhyal in
Gulbarga district) would perform the ceremony in typical Hindu fashion-conch-blowing, flower
offerings, etc. What is interesting is that the Jangam wore Muslim apparel with the usual cap that the
Muslim danvesh (hermit) used.

Art and Architecture: The Bahmanis were enthusiasts of architecture and art and encouraged distinct
styles with architects from different parts of the Muslim world and blended these with the local styles.
Ala-ud-din Bahman built a large number of buildings including the Jama masjid and the Bala Hisar.
The monuments of Gulbarga were also built and when the capital was shifted to Bidar a d a large
number of buildings were constructed which include the forts, palaces, mosques and tombs
prominent among which are the Rangin Mahal, Gagan Mahal, Chini Mahal and Nagin
Mahal (currently are in broken form). The Persian scholar Mahmud Gawan (minister of Muhammad
Shah III), built the well-known Madrasa in 1472 AD (building with three stories and has lecture halls,
a library, a mosque and residential houses) which stands as a specimen of Bahmani architecture.

The Bahmanis got many forts rebuilt and modified for their suitability in case of military
requirements. These included the covered passages and bastions as an addition. Few forts were built
at strategic places, keeping this structure in mind; some among these are the Gulbarga, Daulatabad,
Gawilgarh, Narnala, Parenda, Raichur, etc The architectural works also include idgahs (prayer
houses) built at Daulatabad, Gulbarga, Bidar and Kovilkonda. Their special feature is the parapet
cresting and a dome in the middle above the central prayer-niche. Prayer niches were also provided in
the walls. However some exquisite tombs were also built that had features like a square configuration
on a raised area with sloping walls which gives an impression of single mass, low flat domes, high
and slender arched doorways, with the use of enameled tile work. Few of the significant tombs
include the Ala-ud-din Hasan, Muhammad I and Muhammad II at Gulbarga and the tomb of Hazrat
Zain-ud-din at Khuldabad. Another significant contribution to the architecture is the Ibrahim Rouza .
'Rouza' meaning garden was built by the ruler Ibrahim. The tomb is known for its minarets,
stonework, calligraphic inscriptions, parapets, etc. and a blend of both northern and southern styles
with distinct elements can be seen. Gumbaz (the largest dome in the world)
and Charminar in Hyderabad are also world-famous examples of Bahamani architecture. An
important heritage in the Indo-Islamic art was left by the Deccans, which included the language and
Islamic tradition that spread in South India. Bahmani Kings patronized Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321-
1422 AD) the great Sufi saint (his dargah of Gulbarga is a pilgrimage to the Hindus and Muslims
alike). He founded the Madrassa (institution) being a great scholar of Islamic wisdom, from his own
funds on the line of universities of Samarkand and Khorasan

17
FOREIGN TRAVELLERS WHO VISITED THE COURT OF VIJAYNAGAR AND BAHAMANI
KINGS

I. Abu Abdullah/lbn Batuta: Ibn Battuta was one of the

great geographers and explorers of the 14th century and
his book “Travels of Ibn Battuta” is a treasure trove for
anyone wishing to know more about Asian trading
routes and hubs of this era and the people and cultures
that populated and surrounded them. He was from
Morocco, who travel thirty years of his life from North Africa, West Africa, Southern
Europe and Eastern Europe in the West, to the Middle East, Indian subcontinent, Central
Asia, Southeast Asia and East China. He left an account of Harihara I’s reign in his
book Rehla (Tuhfat-un- Nuzzar fi Gharaib UL-Amsar WA Ajaib-UL-Assar).

II. Nicolo Conti, an Italian, was at Vijayanagara in

about 1420, just after the accession of Devaraya I.
The first known foreign traveller, he mentions the
fortifications of the city and the thousands of men
employed in the army of the rulers.

III. Althanasius Nikitin: Russian merchant of Tver and one of the

first Europeans (after Niccolò de' Conti) to travel to and
document his visit to India. He described his trip in a
narrative known as The Journey Beyond Three Sea . He
visited Bahamani kindoms during the years 1470- to
1474 in the reign of Muhammad Shah III Nikitin studied
the population of India, its social system, government,
military (he witnessed war-games featuring war
elephants), its economy, religion, lifestyles, and natural
resources
IV. The next visitor in about 1443 was Abdul Razzaq, an
envoy of Shah Rukh, the Timurid sultan of Herat.
Abdul Razzaq noticed seven rings of ramparts
protecting the city, but not all these can be traced

18
 today. He also gives details about the ceremonies of the rulers, and the processions of the
Mahanavami festival. (Reliefs on the Hazara Rama Temple in the Royal Centre carved
about the same time may portray scenes from this festival.) He was a Persian, Timurid

chronicler and a scholar who visited the Vijaynagar Kingdom at the time of Dev Raya II as an
ambassador of Shah Rukh, the Timurid dynasty ruler of Persia. He gives an account of the reign
of Devaraya II in his Matla as Sadain Wa Majma ul Bahrain.

V. Duarte Barbosa: He was Portuguese Writer, Traveller and

explorer who had given a vivid account of Vijaynagara
governance under Krishna Deva Raya in his book i.e. An
Account of Countries Bordering the Indian Ocean and their
Inhabitants.

VI. Domingo Paes : The most detailed chronicles of Vijayanagara are those provided by two
Portuguese visitors, one a soldier and the other
a trader in horses. (The rulers were always in
need of horses imported from the Arabian
Peninsula. After the Portuguese captured this
trade from the Arabs in the early 16th century,
Portuguese traders frequently visited the
capital.) Domingo Paes was at Vijayanagara in
about 1520-22, during the reign
of Krishnadevaraya. The visitor gives
invaluable information on the walls, gates,
streets and markets of the city, as well as the major temples of the city, including
the Virupaksha at Hampi, together with its colonnaded bazaar. Paes describes the
Mahanavami festival at some length, beginning with the preparations within the king’s
palace where ceremonies were held at the House of Victory, all hung with precious
cloths. According to Paes, the festival included numerous processions of animals,
warriors and courtly women, as well as wrestling matches, fireworks and other
entertainments. The climax was the review of the troops that was held at some distance
outside the city. The description of the king’s palace with which Paes’s account concludes
seems to apply to Krishnadevaraya’s new residence in what is now Hospet.

19
VII. Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese horse-trader, composed his account around 1536-37. He was
in the capital during the reign
of Achyutaraya and may have been present at
earlier battles fought by Krishnadevaraya. This
visitor was particularly interested in the history of
Vijayanagara, especially the foundation of the
city, the subsequent careers of three dynasties of
rulers, and the battles that they fought with the
Deccan sultans and Orissan Rayas. Nunez, too,
gives details of the Mahanavami festival, noting
admiringly the extravagant jewels worn by the
courtly women, as well as the thousands of women in the king’s service.
VIII. Cesare Frederici, an Italian traveller who spent seven months at Vijayanagara in 1567,
two years after the city was sacked, suggests that the capital was only partly destroyed
and that Tirumala of the Aravidu dynasty intended to re-establish the Vijayanagara capital
there. This attempt turned out to be unsuccessful and the city was eventually abandoned
for good.
IX. After Frederici, no foreign accounts of the city have
come down come down to us until that of Colonel
Colin Mackenzie, the Scottish antiquarian who
visited Vijayanagara in 1799. Mackenzie’s
description of the site, accompanied by a watercolour
map and views, represent the first modern step to
study the ruins.

20