The Theory of

Everything

By Erik Jorgensen
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Introduction
1: Relativity Gravity Quantum
Starting with Newtons Laws
Special Relativity and why its important
Quantum Mechanics and why its important
The Dirac Equation
Fixing Problems with the Theory
Feynman Rules of QED
The Core Theory
General Relativity and Black Hole Orbits
2: The Leonard Jones Potential
Does QED predict the Leonard Jones Potential
What is Movement, Sound, and Heat
Perception of Sound and Music
Self Gravitating Fluids
3: Hydrogen and Helium
In the Beginning
The God Particle
Quarks Bind Together
Antimatter Matters
Fusion Creates Helium
Primordial Plasma
First Atoms
Structure Formation
Our Insignificance
Most Abundant Materials
4: It from Bit
What is a Bit
Logic Gates
The Adder Circuit
The Memory Circuit
The Central Processing Unit
Computer Programming
Conclusion
 Introduction
Wow, where do I start? I am autistic. I love the universe, and want to know how everything
works. I am very sensitive, in particlular my sense of sound. I think its my insane curosity for nature
and my ability to understand it all, that makes it possible for me to write this book.
On the other hand, I have many challenges with my disability. Sometimes my thoughts are
incomplete, and I have very few friends. Most importantly, I’d rather do my science, than poop in the
toilet. I even would rather attack people, than to have them not understand me.
Make no mistake. I love the universe, which includes people. I always try to be on my best
behavior, and as of now, I’m even dating my older half sister. The last time I saw her was many years
ago. It’s not easy having autism. For me, autism is a two edged sword. I am laser focused on science,
which is both good and bad.
The intent of this book is to share the gift of knowledge to the reader. In it, I will be talking to
you about the universe, how it works, and how it relates to us. Come with me, and you will learn all
about the place in which we live.
We will build our universe on a computer. This will not be easy, and is a daunting task.
However I believe that anyone can do it if they put their mind to it. I started programming the universe
when I was 7 years old, and found out the theory of everything before I even began middle school. This
book is a guide for understanding nature, and I’m sure it will blow your mind.
 Chapter One: Relativity Gravity Quantum
It is said that relativity theory and quantum theory are mutually incompatible. Scientists even
state that the theory of everything is impossible. This is very far from the truth, since physics has to be
compatible in order to be part of this one universe.
To find out what it means for something to be relativistic or quantum, we should start off
reviewing the rules of which modern physics is built. You can think of these rules as the ten
commandments of science. After I state all the rules, I will go over each one in detail.

Here are the rules that everything in nature follows:

1. 3D Space and 1D time form a 4-dimensional continuum.

2. There exist spacetime frames with respect to which freely falling objects move in straight lines at
constant velocity.
3. The speed of light is a universal constant, the same in any inertial frame.
4. The laws of physics are the same in any inertial frame, regardless of position or velocity.
5. Gravity and Acceleration are Equivalent.
6. The state of the system is represented by a wave function.
7. Physical quantities are in one-to-one correspondence with linear, quantum operators.
8. The system can be in a specific mode with a specific probability.
9. The result of a measurement is one of its modes.
10. The time evolution of the system is described by the Schrodinger equation.

For those of which this is unfamiliar, I will break the main ideas down into visual ideas that you
can explore with only pure thought. These ideas are known as thought experiments, and it was through
these experiments that many theoretical physicists find the answer.
I will also show the math that corresponds to each rule. In doing so, we can use high school
math to solve problems that usually would be too hard to solve mentally. For those who do not
understand math, or find it difficult, I have made a section explaining all of the notation and details of
what everything means.

Section 1, Starting with Newtons Laws

Now, before we have fun with QED in all its glory, we will take a quick detour and talk about
newtons laws of motion. All physics is really based on newtons laws, which means that we would not
understand what relativity and quantum is without this prior knowledge. For two and a half centuries,
newtons laws was the only known physics. So it seems like this is a great starting point, considering
that all that follows was built upon it.
Newtons laws are basically a set of five equations. Because of its simplicity, we will gloss over
it rather quickly. So lets begin and talk about the first equation:

v =∂ x / ∂ t

This equation defines what a velocity is. Imagine a particle traveling through space. The change
in position, as time passes is its velocity. The velocity is simply the speed that a particle is moving at.
This kind of a gradient is known as a derivative. Specifically a time derivative. Applying a second time
derivative of position, gives us the acceleration of a particle:

a=∂ v /∂ t

The acceleration is simply the change in velocity through time. Note that the acceleration is a
second time derivative. Why not a third derivative? As it turns out the acceleration is simply as far as
we go in terms of physics. We will multiply the acceleration by the mass, to get the force. This abstract
quantity is basically the amount of a push or a pull an object experiences:

F=ma

Now, the force is a special quantity in physics. This is because unlike the other quantities, you
can add forces together, and apply them to specific particles. How much force a particle experiences is
the net force, or the sum of all of the forces acting on that particle. The definition of net force is given
here.

F =∑ ( F )
i ij

To sum up, a particle, or group of particles, tends not to move in any direction. In fact particles
tend to stay in their state of motion. We call this inertia. In order to preserve this fact, we need all forces
to come in pairs, so that if particle A is moving to the right, this tells us the particle B is moving to the
left. The formula is given here:
ij ji
F =−F

Basically all of this can be summed up in three rules, or laws of motion. Firstly objects tend
maintain their motion. Next, the force is defined to be mass time acceleration. Lastly, forces come in
equal and opposite pairs. By applying these rules to many different situations, we can learn almost
anything about the natural world. It's amazing that so few rules, can explain so much.
However, that is not the end of the story. Because problems were eventually found, that show
that these rules don't apply in certain situations. Two of those situations, are high speed and perfect
uncertainty. This is where new physics is needed to explain what the hell is going on!

Section 2, Special Relativity and why its important

In the next few sections, we will abandon newtons laws, and use our ten rules we listed above.
So now, lets begin with the first rule which goes like this:

1. 3D Space and 1D time form a 4-dimensional continuum.

In order to understand what it is saying, we have to know what a dimension is. To start, think of
an infinite number line that goes from negative infinity to positive infinity. A point on this line would
obviously be sitting on a number. This number is known as a coordinate.
Next, on a two dimensional piece of paper, we need two coordinates to specify where the point
is. These are the x and y axes that you learned in school. In short the number of dimensions is just the
number of coordinates we need to know where the point is in space.
 Z

( x, y, z)

O z
x
y Y

How many coordinates does space have. To find out all we need to do is to find how many
sticks we can join in right angles to each other. If you do this thought experiment, we find that three
sticks would be needed to construct the space. This means that space is itself three dimensional. Who
knew?
Putting the three numbers x, y, and z, in a list is known as a vector. The position vector is shown
here as:
u
X =[t , x , y , z ]

You might wonder why time is included here. Lets try to find out what happens when we
include time into this picture. What this rule is saying is that time is the fourth dimension. To really
understand how time can be a dimension, we need to lift ourselves from the third dimension. But how
can we do that if three dimensions are all there is to space?
The answer comes to us, when thinking of time in snapshots or moments. If you took the frames
of video, separated the frames, and then glue them up in order, one by one. You would have a block
containing space and time. This block is known as spacetime. The point in space, even us, are basically
little spaghetti strands running into the future.
 So why do we have such a sharp distinction between space and time. The answer is that time is
perceived one moment after the next. Its as if you were constantly moving in the fourth dimension into
the future. Everything around you would just be a slice in time that contains the three dimensions of
space.
In short, if you were going to meet someone, you would need to specify the coordinates of
spacetime in which to meet. Think of it. You need to know both where and when the meeting is. For
example the three dimensions are simply the street, avenue, and floor number.
If we simply had the address but not the time, we would arrive too early or too late and we
would miss the meeting. On the other hand, knowing the time but not the address would be just as bad.
In that case you would not know where the meeting is. We need four coordinates or numbers to specify
an event in spacetime.
From the first rule, we cannot talk of just space or time, because space and time are woven
together into a 4D structure known as spacetime. Therefor spacetime rather than space is the
background in which things happen.
The second rule is as follows:

2. There exist spacetime frames with respect to which freely falling objects move in straight lines at
constant velocity.

Here there is lots to unpack. First what is a local spacetime frame? Second how can a freely
falling object move in a constant speed straight line? To solve the first mystery, we will understand
what a local spacetime frame is.
A frame or reference frame is simply put someones perspective on spacetime. For example you
could stick three sticks together in right angles and put a clock at the origin of the sticks. This is your
personal reference frame. In this frame, the x axis would be to your right. The y axis point directly to
the front. Finally the z axis points directly overhead. Don't forget about time, the clock continuously
ticks away into the future.
Say for example, someone else was lying in bed. Their coordinate system looks different
because some of the space axes are rotated into each other. The next example shows that space and time
can also be rotated into each other. Here you are standing still, while the other person is in an airplane.
Here you might say the airplane is moving, but the passengers, inside the plane feel as if their sitting
still within it. Therefore to them it seems as if the ground is moving. The plane's time axis and your
time axis are pointing in different directions through spacetime.
With the idea that all spacetime frames are different from other spacetime frames, makes us
arrive at the conclusion that we could transform one frame to another using rotations in space, and
boosts in spacetime.
With this idea in mind, what the rule is basically saying is that spacetime frames are defined in a
frame that is freely falling. If you were to drop a hammer and feather, the feather is not falling freely,
because it is falling through the air and encounters wind resistance. As such only the hammer is falling
freely. However not all objects are affected by the wind. Try a pencil, a marble, or any other
lightweight object that falls freely.
Now the experiment says to drop the hammer and the pencil. What happens, they both fall at
exactly the same rate. To explain why, try jumping while you drop them. For a fraction of a second,
they hammer and pencil seem to float right in the air in front of you. You, the hammer, and the pencil,
are moving in constant speed straight lines, through your spacetime frame.
Once you touch the ground and maybe crash land. The hammer and pencil begin to accelerate
downward, as if the ground is accelerating upward. You are no longer in a single spacetime frame,
because your path through that frame is also accelerating upward. So in order to simplify the math,
spacetime frames are defined in free fall, so that all the objects in that spacetime are not accelerating.
So far, we have seen that all objects live inside spacetime, a fusion of space with time. And not
only is every spacetime frame different, but they all must be freely falling so that objects travel in the
simplest way, a straight line.
Straight lines are easy to understand in physics because their motion is linear, meaning only the
first derivative is necessary to completely describe the motion. Shown here is the first derivative of the
position. We call this the velocity vector given by:

u ∂ Xu
V =
∂s

where the number s is simply a graduation or label on the path through spacetime. In the next
section we will show what this label actually is. Now that we have tackled the basics, lets move on to
the cornerstone of the theory that we are developing. The rules goes as follows.

3. The speed of light is a universal constant, the same in any inertial frame.

In order to figure what radical changes this makes to our model, we need to think in terms of
spacetime as one thing, and most importantly, make our coordinate system in deep space, far away
from any gravity that would disrupt our model.
Here all objects travel through the void in constant speed straight lines. As such, picture you at
rest and your friend moving at an extremely high speed. From your partners point of view, you are the
one who is moving, but in exactly the opposite direction. What does the speed of light have to do with
this?
If we shine a laser through the vacuum, the rule says that it must move out from the pointer with
a constant speed. Since you are moving at high speed relative to your partner. Common sense tells us
that the speed of light must be your speed plus light speed. But that breaks rule three. How do we make
the speed of light stay the same while we change our point of view?
 Going back to our model of spacetime as a big block. We see that from the point of intersection,
the speed of light maps out a cone in spacetime. Trying to find out how the speed of light remains the
same has been to find out which transformations leave the angle of the light rays at 45 degrees through
space and time.
In math terms we want the change in time to always equal the change in space. We can write
this as follows:

∂ t=∂ r

We define the variable r to be the radius or distance traveled. Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
we end up with this:

r 2= x 2 + y 2 + z 2

Rotations in space just rotate the cone around the time axis. Nothing special. We know how to
rotate space into space. But there are three options of how to rotate space and time into each other. The
answer lies in the fact that the axis of time rotates in the opposite direction than do the axes of space. In
essence time is different from space for this reason. We can see why by solving the two equations
written above.
When we solve these equations, we get an interesting result, shown here:
2 2 2 2
+∂ t −∂ x −∂ y −∂ z =some constant

With this knowledge, we see that the axes of space and time scissor together. We see that the
light rays are squeezed and stretched at right angles, preserving the speed of light. From this
breakthrough, time runs at different rates depending on how you are moving.
Since this so called space time interval is a constant for all reference frames, makes us wonder if
it is related to the constant in last section. In fact it is the definition of s itself. This is shown here:
 2
some constant =∂ s

Plugging in the last two equations we arrive at the following idea:

V u Guv V v =1

where the metric G is nothing other than the space time interval:
uv
G =diag[+1 ,−1 ,−1 ,−1 ]

Not only this but just like how momentum is movement of matter through space, we see that the
reason why kinetic energy is larger for faster moving objects, is that energy is movement of matter
through time. This all comes from the simple notion that time must slow down for objects that are
moving.
At the speed of light, time stops completely. From our analogy with energy, we can see that this
would require infinite kinetic energy, making the objects much harder to accelerate close to light speed.
However because of time dilation, we could rocket across the universe at nearly the speed of light.
simply by accelerating the whole time. When we arrived back home, we would have only aged a few
years, while the whole earth would have aged billions of years. Amazing! We found the secret to
interstellar travel.
Now that we have a recipe for understanding spacetime and how it behaves, lets turn our
attention to the final rule of spacetime.

4. The laws of physics are the same in any inertial frame, regardless of position or velocity.

Lets go back to our own freely falling reference frame. What we are saying here, is that all
reference frames are equally important. As such we are no longer the center of our universe, nor is
everyone the center of their own universe. We are all part of this one universe, with the same laws of
physics.
This sense of democracy is central to physics. We do not want physics to change when we
change our point of view, because then we cant trust it in those particular reference frames. We want
the math to be correct no matter what.
You, your partner, the hammer, and the pencil, may use different coordinates to describe your
surroundings. However they still are in the same universe, which means they must obey the same laws
of physics. This tells us that the math we are using must apply to all reference frames.
So how do we make our laws of physics invariant or immune to boosts or rotations. The answer
again lies in the space time interval.

A rotation keeps this quantity invariant:

x2+ y2

Similarly a boost keeps this quantity invariant:

2 2
t −z
 Together, we see that the spacetime interval is the ultimate invariant, it stays the same no matter
what. Therefore our equations must build off of this invariant interval, in order to be correct. This is the
main idea of relativity.
Just to spoil it, the next rule is much more complicated. So we will finish off with the rules and
come back to the equivalence principle later.

Section 3, Quantum Mechanics and why its important

Now we are halfway done with the rules. Lets continue with the first rule of quantum
mechanics:

6. The state of the system is represented by a wave function.

Simply put a wave function, is just like it sounds. The wave intensity is a function of our
coordinates in spacetime. If you give a function an input, the function will spit out an output. Functions
are used in computer science to define new and more complicated equations. Indeed, our equations are
getting quite complicated.
Here is an example of a function:

y =func( x )

In our case, the wave function is given by:

ψ ( X u)

So far we do not know what the value of the wave function is at any point. Even so, we have
figured out that it must depend on the coordinates of spacetime.
Since we know that the coordinates are inputs to the wave function, tells us that the values near
such a point must be fairly similar. However to gain new insight, we really need to include new rules to
further refine the kinds of values the wave function possesses.
So now we go to the next rule of quantum physics, which says:

7. Physical quantities are in one-to-one correspondence with linear, quantum operators.

To understand this, we need to know what the quantum operators are for a given physical
quantity. Take momentum for example. So far we have defined momentum as follows:

P u= M V u

Where M is nothing other than the mass of the particle we are considering. We already know
that total momentum is conserved, because spacetime itself is invariant to translations. Therefore we
might guess that the quantum operator for momentum must be invariant under translations. Lets try a
derivative through spacetime and see if the physics matches:

P= ∂u
u

∂X
 Now to find out if this gives the right answer, all we need to do is to multiply this by the wave
function and see if it reproduces a point particle traveling in a straight line through spacetime. Here we
multiply by the wave function:

∂ψ
Eψ=
∂t

Since the components of the momentum vector and the position vector give the same equations,
means we need to only consider one of the four equations. In fact a nice option is to use the time
component.
We can see that the slope through time of the function equals the value of the function. The only
function that obeys this rule is an exponential. To demonstrate why this is a failure, we just need to
realize that in either the deep past or deep future, the value of the wave function explodes off to infinity
and on the other end, decreases to zero. This is not good. Lets find out if any changes to the quantum
operator will fix this issue, obviously without modifying the correspondence between momentum and
position, or the fact that the function must be translation invariant.
One thing we have overlooked is the fact that unlike spacetime coordinates which must be
ordinary numbers, there is no restriction of the value of the wave function taking on a value which is a
square root of a negative number. These numbers are for some reason known as imaginary numbers.
Lets learn what effect this has on our wave function:

∂ψ
E ψ =i
∂t

where the imaginary unit i is defined by:

2
i =−1

Now instead of the wave function exploding off to infinity, it oscillates around the origin in the
complex plane. To see what this means, lets break the solution up in terms of its real and imaginary
components as follows:

ψ =cos( Et )+i sin( Et )

We see here that energy of the wave is directly proportional to the wave frequency. This is good
because the wave function does not blow up at all. Instead it maintains its magnitude at all times. This
means the wave function conserves its energy. This was exactly what we wanted.
 We can allow both the energy and time to be inputs to the wave function. In doing so we see
that we form a particle, that moves through time. How much the particle is spread out through time and
energy depends on the scale you are considering. Here is an equation that describes the uncertainty of
the waves:

∂ E ∂ t >1

This tells us that if the energies and times are close enough together, we would run up into the
waves themselves. However as usual, most energies in every day life are large compared to a single
particle. This is because we are ourselves make of many trillions of particles. This in turn means that
time scale of the waves is extremely brief. In other words, you need an extremely powerful slow
motion camera to detect the uncertainty in time. So from our scale, the waves condense into particles.
So all we have done so far, its to determine what the quantum operators are. This is clear,
because the three other momentum operators, do exactly the same thing as the energy operator. So far,
we know that the components of the position vectors and momentum vectors are related to the
spacetime interval and the mass respectively.
We can tell that quantum physics relates the momentum vector to its corresponding operator and
that relativity says that the momentum operator is related to the invariant mass of the particle. By
merging the two equations, we get an equation known as the relativistic wave equation. The derivation
is shown here:

P =i ∂ u
u

∂X
u uv v 2
P G P =M

Now merging the two equations gives us:

( ∂ u G ∂ v )+M =0
uv 2

∂X ∂X
 This is the equation that merges relativity and quantum. So far so good. Now we want to see
how this equation holds up in the last few rules of quantum physics. To start lets see if the wave
equation is compatible with the next rule. It states the following:

8. The system can be in a specific mode with a specific probability.

To start, we need to find the modes of this wave equation. Earlier, we saw that the energy is
proportional to frequency. From reasoning that all the quantum operators are all the same, we can say
that momentum is proportional to wave number. Writing the wave equation in this way is known as a
dispersion relation. The relation is shown here:
2 2 2
+ω −k =M

So when the wave number is zero, the wave function oscillates only through time at a perfectly
defined rate. However when the wave number is very large, we can see that the wave function produces
waves that travel in a specific direction at almost light speed.

Each of these modes has it's own amplitude or probability to occur. To understand the rules of
probability, we need to remember that when something has more than one way to happen, we add every
way that this thing can occur. This means that we add every mode together, and each mode is weighted
with its own probability.
This is the same idea as the rule we are discussing. Therefore so far, our equation is compatible
with every rule. Now lets move on to the next rule, given here:

9. The result of a measurement is one of its modes.

That sounds simple enough. How is a measurement going to collapse a wave? Because if it
didn't collapse the wave, matter would spread out into a large diffuse blob. The act of measuring the
wave function actually shapes the waves into existence.
So what is the probability of detection? By definition, the particle has to be somewhere so the
probability must add up to one when averaged over all of spacetime. The probability is actually another
kind of Pythagorean theorem. This raised a natural question. What is the metric or the magnitude for
finding the probability from the wave function?
 Since we are using complex number here, means that we should find the norm of the complex
numbers. This is easy to compute. Since these numbers rotate in a circle, the probability is simply a
sum of squares. Each component is the real and imaginary numbers that make up the wave function.
So what is the formula for computing the probability?
2
|ψ |

Now everything is seeming to hold together. Lets see if it passes the test of being truly a
quantum of version of relativity. To do that lets consider the last rule:

10. The time evolution of the system is described by the Schrodinger equation.

The Schrodinger equation goes as follows:

∂ψ
E ψ =i
∂t

We have already seen that the energy depends on both the momentum and mass. This gives us
our familiar wave equation. Sounds like we completed our job of merging relativity and quantum
together. That is, until you realize that by definition the energy needs to be first order in time. Seems
like were screwed!
Now we have one problem with the wave equation. It is second order in time. So our attempt to
merge physics together has resulted in finding a first order solution to the wave equation. In the next
section, we solve this problem. And we finally learn how weird reality is.

Section 4, The Dirac Equation

Lets recall the second order wave equation. It goes like this:
2 2
(∂ +m )ψ =0

The reason why it should be first order is simply because, a second order quantum operator is
quadratic, meaning it has both first order and second order derivatives. It is these second order
derivatives that destroy the conservation of probability.
To fix this, lets try to take the square root of this equation, by factoring it into two halves. Our
equation should now look like this:

i γ uab Guv ∂v −m I ab=0

Now that we factored out the other part, we still need to define what the gamma matrices are.
By doing some tedious algebra, we would find out that the relations between gamma and the metric. It
is shown here:

γ uab γ vab +γ vab γ uab =2 Guv I ab

These matrices are known as Dirac matrices or just gamma matrices. These matrices are
basically the square root of the space time interval. When plugged into the first order wave equation,
these matrices produce a fully relativistic quantum equation called the Dirac equation:
 uab uv v ab a
(i γ G ∂ −m I )ψ =0

This equation gives four wave functions, The first two are the spin up and spin down electrons.
The last two are the spin up and down positrons. This new first order wave equation is spin half. On the
other hand, the second order wave equation is spin zero.
Now we might expect that since the Dirac equation is the only equation that allows positive
probabilities, means spin half particles are the only particles in the universe. Now we know that spin
one particles exist as light waves. So our model must be incomplete. How do we make, the spin zero
and spin one equations have a positive definite probability, just like the spin half equation?
Also for completeness, I will show the equation for a spin one particle, also known as
Maxwell's equations:
u u v u v u 2 v
∂ ∂ A −∂ ∂ A −m A =0

Not only do these equations have negative probability, but they all have negative energies too.
When we couple the equations together using interactions, these negative energy wave modes, cascade
down to infinite energy. This seems serious! We need a radical new solution to this problem.

Section 5, Fixing Problems with the Theory

We will study this problem in detail with the spin zero wave equation first. This is because
quantum spin, makes the calculations very cumbersome and difficult. We will deal with spin later.
To solve this problem, we need to redefine what a particle is. Previously, a particle was a
disturbance in the wave function. Now a particle is an excitation of a quantum field. Remember the
dispersion relation we developed, to find all of the modes of oscillation. We previously said that each
mode has its own chance of being measured. The greater the chance of detection, the stronger the mode
is.
However, since the probabilities are negative, tells us that we can't interpret the wave function
as a probability wave anymore, because probabilities go from zero to one. Since a stronger wave means
more its more likely to find the particle, means we can say that a stronger wave actually contains more
particles.
First, this makes sense. Say we have 1,000 trials with a probability of 1 percent. This tells us
that we should expect 10 particles to appear, because 10 out of a 1000, is 1 percent. We also previously
stated that the square of the wave function gives the probability. Lets say the wave function has an
amplitude of 10. If we square this to get the probability, we get 100, because 10 squared is a 100. We
also said that the number of particles needs to be proportional to the probability. In this case this means
we have a 100 particles. This can all be understood if the wave function has an amplitude of 10.
So 100 particles has amplitude of 10. In other words, the amplitude is the square root of the
number of particles. The only thing we know that obeys this rule is the Quantum Harmonic Oscillator.
 This means that the quantum harmonic oscillator solves the problem of negative probabilities. If
you tried to remove a particle from nothing, you would zero the probability for all field strengths. In
fact, that is the definition of nothing. To understand how to create and destroy particles in the quantum
harmonic oscillator, we need to learn what the so called creation operators are:

a=(ϕ −∂ /∂ ϕ ) exp( Pu Guv X v / √( P u Guv P v ))

To make particles out of the vacuum, we obviously need the vacuum itself to begin from. The
wave function for the vacuum state is given by:

ψ =exp(−ϕ 2)

This is nothing other than a bell curve. In other words spacetime isn't empty, its full. It has so
much energy, that I had to subtract the infinity off of it for simplicity. For this reason, you might want
to take these last two equations with a grain of salt. However they do explain how particles are excited
states of an underlying quantum field.
Finally, to make particles exist in our theory, we just multiply the vacuum state with a bunch of
creation operators. Each operator is a particle. In this way, more particles in a given mode will enhance
and strengthen that mode. This solves the idea of negative probabilities.
But what about the negative energies we encountered earlier. Now, since all particles have a unit
mass, means that the probability is proportional to the energy. We saw earlier that the quantum
harmonic oscillator has a positive definite probability. As such the energy is also positive. In so doing,
we now have solved both the negative probability and energy problems. Now we are ready to tackle the
rule we we laid off for later:

5. Gravity and Acceleration are Equivalent.

So gravity right? The thing that Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein worked on. Going back to
newtons laws, the force of gravity is an inverse square force field. Why an inverse square law? This is
because all inverse square force fields are the way they are because of the fact that space is 3D. In 2D
space, gravity would only have an inverse relationship to distance, and in 1D space, gravity is a
constant force. If space had a different dimension, we would not exist, simply because atoms and the
solar system would fly apart.

If a force field lives in 3D, it must be an inverse square force field, just like gravity. In fact,
since gravity is not the only force, lets talk about the other force we know is an inverse square force
field. The electric force. This force attracts opposite charges and repels like charges. In gravity, the
reason why gravity and acceleration are equivalent is simple. Larger masses have greater forces applied
to them. This is essentially newtons second law, force equals mass times acceleration. In other words
the amount of gravity is proportional to the amount of inertia, where the inertia is simply the resistance
to motion. Stated like this, gravity is just like electricity, where the electric charge is replaced by a
gravitational charge.
Some important differences arise when we introduce relativity into the mix. First the metric G is
the force field of gravity, while the vector A is the force field of electromagnetism. The electric
potential energy also known as voltage is now simply the time component of the vector A. Similarly the
double time component of the metric also known as time is also the gravitational potential energy.
In fact the key difference between gravity and electromagnetism is spin. Yes, the same quantum
spin as we discussed earlier. Gravity is spin two, while electromagnetism is spin one. What?! Light
waves are electromagnetic waves. Amazing!
 Now once we include quantum mechanics into our picture, we see that our task is simple.
Simply write out all of the relativistic wave equations, from spin zero to spin two. Then we replace the
waves with quantum harmonic oscillators to give us a relativistic quantum theory of nature.
Next we allow all of the fields to interact with all other fields. This will give us the forces of
nature. These include the interaction with the spin two field which is gravity, and the interaction of
fields with the spin one field which is electromagnetism. But what this rule is telling us is that not any
interaction will do. We need interactions that respect certain symmetries of our equations. For example,
we can't have interactions between two or more spacetime points, because that would violate the
symmetries of special relativity. In other words the spacetime interval would be broken. Other
symmetries include the complex phase of the wave function. This is nothing other than the electric
charge.
 Section 6, Feynman Rules of QED
In QED, we only care about electrons and photons. Electrons are spin half and Photons are spin
one. In other words the excited states of the Dirac Equation and Maxwell Equation are the electrons
and photons. Now we have a relativistic quantum theory.
Here are the wave equations that electrons and photons obey:
uab uv v ab a
(i γ G ∂ −m I )ψ =0
u u v u v u 2 v
∂ ∂ A −∂ ∂ A −m A =0
We will set the mass of the electron to be one, and set the mass of the photon to be zero. This
gives us:
uab uv v ab a
(i γ G ∂ − I )ψ =0
u u v u v u
∂ ∂ A −∂ ∂ A =0

Next we allow the fields to interact each other, while respecting the symmetries of our theory.
This is achieved by locally multiplying our fields together. The interaction is given by the term shown
here:

0.3i A u γ uab ψ a ψ b

We are almost done making our relativistic quantum theory of electrons and photons. Now all
that is needed is to describe the motion of the electrons and photons through spacetime is to define a
greens function.
A greens function is the solution to a wave equation, with a source term at the origin in
spacetime. This will give us the propagators or the probability for a particle to jump to a new event in
spacetime.

The electron propagator:

uab u ab 2
i(Y P +I )/( P −1)

The photon propagator:

uv 2
−i G /(P )

The interaction vertex:

uab
−0.3 i γ

These equations can be rewritten in terms of an interaction diagram. The complexity of the math fades
away into the simplicity of the diagrams.
 Section 7, The Core Theory

We are finally ready to learn the theory of everything. The theory of everything is really just
several extensions to QED. To understand how we are extending our theory, we need to first break
down the theory in terms of particles and interactions. Particles are just waves with a certain mass and
spin. These waves obey a series of Klein Gordon equations. The interactions are much more
complicated, but I think you can handle it. In short, the core theory is simply every kind of particle
interacting in every possible way. This sounds kind of vague, so I will explain every part one by one.
In QED, we saw that the electron and photon fields, were interacting, because there was a term
in our wave equations that couples one field to another. Such a coupling is usually written as the
product of many fields at every spacetime point. We also interpreted this interaction as the electric
charge. In fact the value is around 1 / 137.036. We will encounter many more of these interactions.
In the core theory however, we are not limited to electric charge alone. All interactions that are
dimensionless are allowed. Also the only allowed particles are, spin 0, spin ½, and spin 1. The wave
equations that these particles obey are also all dimensionless. This greatly limits the number of
interactions from infinity to only a few. Through interactions, a spin 0 particle gives mass to other
particles, a spin ½ particle makes up the matter we see around us, and a spin 1 particle holds that matter
together through forces.
We can elaborate some more with the interaction of matter with forces. Spin 1 particles
sometimes need some extra symmetries for the math to work out. These symmetries include the unit
circle, the unit sphere, and the unit hyper sphere. These symmetries do not exist within spacetime, but
exist inside the interactions themselves. The matter particles then have charges that correspond to each
of these symmetries. These charges include the familiar electric charge, the flavor charge, and the color
charge. The color charge causes quarks to bind together into the nuclei of atoms. Then the flavor charge
causes neutrons to decay into protons. Finally the electrons are held in orbits around the nuclei due to
the electric charge of these particles.
The spin 0 particle then gives mass to all of the other particles. The carriers of the flavor
interaction and the spin 0 particle itself are extremely heavy. These particles weigh about the same as a
plutonium nucleus. Other particles do not weigh anything. This includes the carriers of the color
interaction and the carriers of the electric interaction. Neutrinos which jump out of the nucleus, every
time a neutron decays does not have mass either. However the two kinds of quarks, known as the up
and down quarks, along with the electrons, have a comparably small amount of mass. The quarks and
electrons have two other heavier counterparts. These particles can weigh anything from a significant
fraction of a proton to beyond the mass of the largest atoms.
Now that we have our core theory describing the microscopic landscape, two important
questions arise. What about the macroscopic force of gravity? How do we get our everyday world out
of this theory? These are good questions. What is gravity? Gravity is mediated by a spin 2 particle,
which causes spacetime to curve. It is this curvature that explains phenomena such as gravitational
waves, black holes, and even the expansion of the universe. By the way, the only way of getting our
universe out of these equations is to run a truly massive computer simulation. So lets do this!
Again for those who want the math, I give both an equation and a picture.
 Here are the corresponding diagrams.

Section 8, General Relativity and Black Hole Orbits

Back in the 1600s, Galileo rolled balls down inclined planes, and found out that the balls
velocity increases as it falls. It accelerates. Not only that, but this acceleration is constant. This means
that a car and a pencil, would fall in lock step, gaining speed as it fell, and then crashing into the
ground.
 At about the same time, Kepler discovered the laws that govern planetary motion. They worked
very well to describe the apparent wandering of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, in the night
sky. These were the only planets known at the time.
Kepler’s laws go as follows. Imagine two nails sticking out of a piece of wood. Then take a
loose piece of string, and tie it between the two nails. With the string taught between pencil and the
nails, you can draw a kind of flattened circle, known as an ellipse. The nails are the focus of the ellipse,
where as the center of the ellipse is halfway between the nails. The longest line inside the ellipse is the
major axis, and the shortest line between the ellipse is the minor axis.
Kepler’s first law says that the Sun is at one focus, with the other focus completely empty. This
means that one side of the ellipse is farther away from the sun, and the other side is closer. The farthest
point from the sun is known as the apogee, while the closest point to the sun is known as the perigee.
Kepler’s second law says that a line connecting the sun to the planet, sweeps out equal areas in
equal time intervals. This means that a planet moves faster when it is closer to the sun, and moves
much slower farther out.
Lastly, Kepler’s third law states that the semi major axis, which is half of the longest line
running through the ellipse, is somehow related to the time the planet takes to orbit around the sun. In
fact this average distance cubed is directly proportional to the orbital period squared.
As it turns out, Kepler and Galileo were talking about the same force. Gravity. Kepler’s laws
worked all over the solar system, even the major moons of Jupiter, that Galileo discovered, obey
Kepler’s laws. Galileo’s laws worked only near the surface of the largest planets and moons.
In 1687 Isaac Newton published the masterpiece, Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. In it he develops calculus, which is based on rates of change. Then he develops his laws of
motion, and finally applies them to the gravitational force.
The rate of change of position is the velocity, and rate of change of velocity is the acceleration.
The total force experienced on an object is its mass multiplied by its acceleration. Then all forces
between all the objects, come in equal and opposite pairs. It is the force that is important here.
With a force of zero, an object just flies through space in a constant speed straight line.
However the force dilutes away with distance, just as a sound or light appears more intense when you
are closer. This is known as the inverse square law, since the surface area of a sphere enclosing the
gravitating mass, is given by the square of the distance. This explains both the laws of Galileo and
Kepler.
The rule that Newton came up with is known as the Universal Law of Gravity, or just Universal
Gravitation. It says that all objects attract all other objects in an inverse square force field. It works so
well, that today we can send probes to the distant reaches of the solar system and beyond.
Newton realized that the force of gravity works both in the heavens and the earth. On the earth,
we can shoot a cannonball up into the air, the path the object takes is a parabola. In fact, if you were to
zoom out, you would realize that this path is nothing other than an extremely elongated Kepler’s
ellipse. In fact the path of the cannonball looks like a parabola close to the earth, since you are zoomed
way into the apogee of the orbit.
Allowing the cannonball to not hit the surface of the planet, requires shooting it out horizontally
with amazing speed. This speed is 7 miles per second. Wicked Fast. As it turns out, shooting at a higher
speed would raise the altitude of the other side of the orbit. Eventually, going fast enough, you could
break free of earth’s gravity, and orbit the sun. This is how we went to the moon.
Just like how Newton Law of Gravity, united the gravity of the heavens and the earth, Special
Relativity unites the speed of light, with the relative motion of objects. Going back to newton, his laws
said that the velocity or speed of an object is relative to your point of view.
If you threw an object off of your car, while you were driving, the speed of the object is the
speed of the car plus the speed of your throw. This means that the speed of an object depends on what
your perspective on who is moving and who is standing still.
 This works fine, until you require that light moves a the same speed from all perspectives. This
speed is 186,000 miles per second. To see why is is a problem, first realize that if we said that light
moves at the speed of light relative to the ground, then the speed of light relative to the car and the
object would be different. The same goes for choosing any other relatively stationary object for the
speed of light to move against.
So how can the two ideas be reconciled. It turns out that what gives is the rate at which time
flows. Time slows down for objects in motion. This effect is very negligible for everyday objects, and
the slowing is directly related to the kinetic energy of the object. How can this be?
The answer is the time is a dimension, just like space. The only difference is that the dimension
of time rotates differently than the three dimensions of space. This four dimensional construct is known
as spacetime.
The motion of an object is just the path through this spacetime. To better understand how the
time dimension behaves, we need to reduce the number of dimensions. Imagine a stone dropped into a
lake. The waves spread out at a fixed speed relative to the lake. Then imagine taking a video camera,
and filming the waves from above.
The filmed video shows a series of circles, one slightly larger than the previous. By stacking the
frames of video vertically, we get a block containing both space and time. The shape of the circles
through time is a cone. A light cone.
Now what Einstein did in 1905, is he reconciled slow speed motion with the speed of light, by
finding what transformations would leave the light cone unchanged. Two kinds of transformations are
known as boosts and rotations.
A rotation is simply a rotation in space. It is quite obvious that this would not change the cone,
since it is round in the space dimensions. In our full three dimensional space, this would include
rotations along a sphere, rather than a circle.
A boost is more complex. A rotation or shear would change the angle between the edges of the
light cone. This is bad. However, a kind of squeeze stretch transformation, would actually work, as
long as the volume inside the cone is the same as before. The angles between the edges of the light
cone are the same, which means that the speed of light is the same from all perspectives.
Now imagine a clock sitting in the middle of the lake, ticking away. Each of the ticks would be
line segment running into the future. Going back to our light cone analogy, a small boost, would look
like a slight shear to the edge of the cone. Playing the video back, we say that the clock is moving.
However if we apply a much larger boost, this line segment, gets squeezed towards the edge of
the cone, while the line gets exponentially longer. The time on the rapidly moving clock seems to be
running a lot slower, while it flies away an almost the speed of light.
This kind of time travel is caused by objects moving at a significant fraction of the speed of
light. Theoretically, we would take a 10 year round trip moving at near light speed. Since time slows
down from out point of view, we would be time traveling way into the future. Not only that, but since
eons of time at light speed equates to cosmic distances, we could rocket across the universe, at almost
light speed.
For most situations, objects are moving slowly enough that relativistic effects don’t really
matter, or are moving fast enough that gravitational effects don’t matter either. However, there is a gray
area in between relativity and gravity, that is completely unexplored. This is the concept of a black
hole.
This is the idea that the escape velocity for the earth which is 7 miles per second, and light
speed which is 186,000 miles per second, are equal in magnitude. This would happen if we compressed
the earth into a marble, and the sun into a city.
Now the speed needed to escape the black hole is greater than the speed of light, and since
nothing moves faster than light speed, means anything that comes this close to the hole is trapped
forever. The boundary which separates the inside from the outside of the hole is known as the event
horizon.
It turns out that orbits get really wonky, and behave like nuts right outside of this region. To
understand how this works, remember how Kepler says that an object moves faster when it is closer
and slower when it is farther away. This is due to the angular momentum of the object in orbit. The
same force that causes a skater to spin faster as she pulls in her arms.
When the orbiting object is moving close to the speed of light at it’s closest approach, time ticks
slower down there, and this causes the object to spend more time closer in. After every orbit, the orbit
seems to twist around in the same direction as the object is orbiting. After a while the object traces out
a daisy pattern.
However there is a point of no reasonable return outside of the horizon. At three times the
horizon distance, the gravity is so strong that circular orbits are unstable at this distance. Anything
slower, and we would plunge into the hole. This is like a ball standing on a hill. And the faster the
object is moving the bigger the hill is.
Closer than three times the horizon distance, the speed needed to maintain an orbit increases,
such that elliptical orbits, like the way the planets orbit, become unstable. Circular orbits here are
impossible. However a highly elongated elliptical orbit can still penetrate this region.
At two times the horizon distance even elliptical orbits become impossible, now only flyby
orbits, like the ones we used to get to the moon, exist. There is still plenty of room to go faster, near
light speed.
However, below one and a half times the horizon distance, light fails to orbit here. This means
that any attempt at an orbit, would require a sideways velocity greater than the speed of light. However,
it is still possible to escape, by flying directly upward, out away from the hole.
As we near the horizon, really weird stuff begins happening. Time slows down to a screeching
halt, and space funnels into the black hole. But, below the horizon, even this way of escaping becomes
impossible, and since you can’t leave this region, you are doomed. Since nobody can return to tell the
tale, it is beyond the scope of this book to explain what happens down there.
Imagine a large pool with a small one inch hole on the bottom. The pressure will be around 15
to 20 pounds on that inch. This causes the water to spiral into the hole and slowly drain out the water of
the pool.
To really understand what goes on here, requires us to think in terms of the geometry of the
pool. First since water is flowing out of the pool, means that the water next to the hole, must replace it,
and the water further out must replace that, and so on.
Since there is many tons of water far away from the hole, the water flows very slowly towards
the hole. But closer to the hole in the pool, there maybe is only a few pounds of water there, and the
small quantity of water has to replace the water lost down the drain, and thus moves very rapidly down
the drain. This explains the inverse square law of gravity.
It turns out that the rate at which the water flows is equal to the escape velocity of the gravity. If
you dive into the water, you can easily see the water waves being dragged down into the hole. The
speed of this shearing is directly proportional to the rate of which the water is flowing towards the hole.
As we saw earlier, we can’t detect absolute motion, other than the speed of light, which in this
model is the speed of the water waves in the pool. This means that although shear transforms would
work to understand the movement of the water in the pool, for a floater dropped in the water, it would
be the squeeze stretch transforms that would define the motion of the floater, since it is moving slower
than the water waves.
Imagine splashing in to the whirlpool, on it’s rim. The water waves moving directly away from
the hole, would be just sitting there on the rim of the whirlpool. But, since you can’t swim faster than
these waves, means that you are trapped inside the rim of the whirlpool. In this sense a whirlpool acts
exactly like a black hole.
 In fact a black hole curves the spacetime continuum around it, as if it was empty space itself
falling inside the black hole. Then as we know, space and time unite into the light cone structure, just
like the water waves around the whirlpool. Sound Familiar?
 Chapter Two: The Leonard Jones Potential
So we started with a few simple rules, such as relativity, quantum, and interactions, and found
out that only one set of equations explains the facts. These equations are the equations of QED. In the
beginning, we said rather arrogantly that the rules of relativity and quantum are all there is to nature.
We want to prove if they actually describe nature at our scale, or is just another theory of point
particles, such as newtons laws.
In order to prove this, we need to zoom out step by step and see if the equations still hold. This
will be quite a journey as we are zooming out more than 15 orders of magnitude out from where we
start. This will allow us to deduce the structure of matter itself, by analyzing their inter molecular
potentials.

Section 1, Does QED predict the Leonard Jones Potential

To begin our journey, we will take note of the scale we are considering. The equations of QED
use the mass of the electron, the speed of light, and planks constant, to produce a natural unit system
that makes QED work. Without these units of measurement, we might assume that the equations were
describing completely different phenomena with completely different precision.
However, by using the natural system of units that QED was designed for, we find ourselves at
a scale 137 times smaller than the atom itself. It is at this scale that gamma rays could start produce
electron positron pairs. It is also the size scale of the electron waves themselves. Any smaller, and the
waves would spread out faster than light, and as such violating relativity.
By zooming out 137 times, some new discoveries can be made. Firstly, because of the
uncertainty between position and momentum, an uncertainty in position of factor of 137, will focus the
uncertainty in momentum by another factor of 137. If we then transform our reference frame to be that
identical of the electron, we find that the electron is on average moving 137 times slower than light
speed.
Since the speeds are much slower than light speed, means we can forget about relativity, and use
the classical equation of kinetic energy. Plugging in 1/137 into the formula, gives us a kinetic energy
1/37,538 compared to that of an electron. Realizing that an electron weighs as much as 511,000
electron volts, gives us 13.6 electron volts of kinetic energy. Surprisingly, this is also the potential
energy of an electron in an atom.
This realization tells us that atoms are 137 times larger than the scale of QED, which was what I
said earlier on. The electrons are uncertain up to the size of the atom, which means that our theory so
far is quantum. However the electrons are moving much slower than speed of light, so relativity drops
out of our equations. Finally, since the potential energy of the atom is significant to the energy scale,
means that the electrostatic force is the main force under consideration.
So lets include a central electrostatic force in good old quantum mechanics. We find out, when
we solve the equations, that the electron orbits in a series of standing waves. Loosely speaking, each
standing wave corresponds to an elemental excitation of the electron. In fact, the energy differences
between each orbit, are nothing other than the hydrogen spectral series. This tells us that QED not only
explains particle physics, but also atomic physics.
 Now we arrive at the critical question. If QED is applicable to atoms, is it applicable to
molecules and bulk matter itself? We can find out by listing out all the forces that act on atoms. In the
real world, we have electronic repulsion, Pauli exclusion, magnetic dipoles, and the vacuum energy.
But in the world of QED, do such forces exist?
Electronic repulsion, states that when atoms overlap, the electrons inside them repel. In QED
we found that electrons orbit in standing waves inside atoms. These standing waves exist when the only
force acting on the electron is the central electric force of the atomic nucleus. But if we bring two
atoms right next to each other, so that a part of the electrons in one atom, overlap with a part of another
atom, we will see that an additional force acts on the electrons. Since both electrons are of the same
charge, tells us that the two electrons would repel. So QED explains electronic repulsion.
In real life, we know that atoms act like tiny magnets. How can this happen in QED? In QED,
we know that electrons are orbiting the nucleus in standing waves. Think of a coil of wire. The
electrons are flowing in a loop around the core. This coil becomes a magnet, simply by allowing
current to flow through the wire. This kind of magnet is known as an electromagnet. Similarly in an
atom, the electrons are orbiting the center. This tells us that the atom itself should act like an
electromagnet. And QED is right, because atoms do in fact act like tiny magnets.
Lets try to merge these two forces together. To find out which one dominates, we need to find
out the distance to which the two forces act. We saw earlier than electronic repulsion acts when the two
atoms overlap. But if the atoms are placed a little farther out, they wouldn't be overlapping, which
means no repulsion. However, since the atoms are magnetic they would rotate and snap together. The
magnetic force does not require the electrons inside the atoms to overlap, and as such is much longer
range. This tells us that atoms strongly repel when overlapping, otherwise they might weakly attract.
In fact the shape of the force curve, looks exactly like the Leonard Jones potential in chemistry.
As it turns out, that is what the potential actually is. But the potential depends on atoms being
magnetic. Since the electrons in the atom are moving less than a percent of light speed, we would
expect that the magnetic field be just as weak. This indeed tells us that the electronic repulsion is
hundreds of times stronger than the longer range magnetic dipole attraction.
The vacuum energy, might seem like it has been taken right out of science fiction. Strangely
enough, the vacuum energy actually exists. This is because we have measured the force of the vacuum
itself pushing on tiny metal plates. Since there is more activity outside than inside, the plates are
pushed together.
In QED, both the electron field and the photon field are quantum in nature. Remembering from
our discussion on quantum physics, we know that at large scales a quantum wave looks like a particle.
This means that on large scales, the we might know the exact strength of the electric field. But on
microscopic scales with only a few photons here or there, the strength of the field becomes uncertain.
This uncertainty in field strength still exists when no photons exist. This is known as the
electromagnetic quantum vacuum. And since we know that these uncertainties would actually force the
metal plates to attract each other, means that just like the plates, atoms and molecules should also
attract each other. QED thus predicts that the atoms would attract each other. QED seems to explain
everything in condensed matter physics so far.
Finally, the exclusion principle states that two electrons can't share the same quantum state. This
effect causes a strong pressure when two electrons with the same spin are squeezed on top of each
other. In an atom, a maximum of two electrons, one of each spin, can fit inside an atom. This is because
an atom is a single mode or quantum state. This means if we want to fit more electrons in the same
volume, we would need to increase the number of states available in that volume.
One way would to have a nucleus with a larger charge. Since atoms are neutral, means that this
would make more electrons fill up the energy levels in the atom. These energy levels are nothing other
than the colors of each element in a fluorescent tube.
The other way to make more quantum states available, is to bring two atoms together. If the first
atom had an electron with counterclockwise spin, and the second atom's electron has a clockwise spin.
The two atoms could coexist in the same quantum state. This is why hydrogen atoms come in pairs and
are reactive and why helium atoms are single and inert.
Now that we know the power of the exclusion principle, does QED predict it? In fact when we
quantize a relativistic wave equation, we needed to impose commutators for the fields. Photons are spin
one, where as electrons are spin half. This means that electrons anti commute, compared to photons
which commute. By analyzing the statistics of the quantum states of electrons and photons, we can see
that no more than two electrons can occupy a single quantum state, which means that QED directly
predicts the Pauli exclusion principle.
What we have learned is that even though the speed of electrons is much slower than light
speed, the magnetic properties which result from a moving charge, still dominate when talking about
the forces between atoms. Not only is magnetism important, but also is the spin of the electrons
themselves. This spin causes atoms to bind into molecules. Magnetic properties and quantum spin are
the result of relativistic effects.
Even the vacuum itself, which is randomly vibrating here and there, also causes a significant
effect on the forces of atoms. This tells us that both relativity and quantum are necessary to explain the
forces between atoms. In short QED predicts everything.
 Section 2, What is Movement, Sound, and Heat
So now we know that QED predicts the forces between atoms. So how do these forces produce
the amazing world we live in? To start, lets try to make a scale model of the universe at the atomic and
molecular scale. In it we will describe the forces that control its structure and evolution.
Without any forces atoms would pass right through each other, continuing on at the same speed.
But we know that QED predicts electronic repulsion. Therefore, whenever atoms are squeezed into one
another, a powerful repulsive force is produced. This gives atoms a hard bouncy surface. A gas is a
bunch of atoms flying around everywhere. They will collide like rubber balls inside of a container. In
fact that is actually why gasses exert pressure and expand.
Next, we know that the atoms are slightly magnetic. This would be as if we put a magnet inside
each bouncy ball. Now, atoms bind together into large collections. If the collection is rigid with each
atom stuck in place, the collection is solid. But if we hammer on it, the balls would be vibrating so
much that they would lose their spot and move about. This blob of magnetic bouncy balls is still held
together because the balls are sliding past one another, and not moving too far away. This is a liquid.
However if we heat up the liquid some more. The movement would be enough to overcome the
magnetic attractions of the balls, and the atoms would be flying freely once again. We know this as a
gas.
So now the atoms produce the states of matter we were taught in school. After this, we know
that atoms and molecules can take on different forms, which all depends on which quantum states are
filled, and which are empty. Now some atoms form bonds with other atoms, sharing electrons in
different quantum states and energy levels. This produces the molecules that form us, and everything
around us.
Some molecules have such a weak magnetism that they are only bound together by the vacuum
fluctuations. Examples of these are coal, oil, and gas. The fossil fuels that run our society. However
other molecules like oxygen and water are polar, that is they have a much stronger attractive force due
their magnetism. This is why natural gas and water vapor, have such different boiling points, despite
the fact that they are about the same size.
Also, sometimes the magnetic force on some atoms is enough to disrupt the standing waves of
the nearby atoms. This disruption usually leads to an exchange of electrons between a metallic atoms.
This is why metals are shiny, conduct electricity, and can withstand high heat. When a metallic atom
nears a non metallic one, the exchange of electrons causes an extremely strong bond, due to the electric
attraction. This is why glass and rocks, can also withstand high heat.
 Now that we have our model, we are going to explain what movement, sound, and heat are.
These three effects are related by a simple idea. Atoms and molecules vibrate. The frequency of
vibration determine what kind of effect it represents.
When the vibrations are fast, they have a wavelength on the order of the atoms themselves. This
causes the atoms to vibrate erratically. This random noise is known as heat. On the other hand,
movement is just a vibration so slow, that the wavelength is much larger than the objects in
consideration.
But what are these waves? These are sound waves. We usually hear sound waves that vibrate
thousands of times per second. But if the waves are powerful enough, we can hear low pitched sounds
that only vibrate several dozens of times per second. All of the music we hear, is just art made out of
sound waves.
Movement, sound, and heat, all control our lives. And the amazing thing about it, is that QED
predicts everything about it. QED was built out of the rules of relativity and quantum. This tells us that
modern physics isn't this theory that predicts things we would never encounter. It is the cornerstone of
reality, and the reason we exist is because QED exists.

Section 3, Perception of Sound and Music

We are fine tuned for sound. Everyone has their own taste of music. Everyone may speak a
different language, but we all have things in common. Music is one of these things that we have in
common, and it blows my mind how hardwired humans are for sound.
For example, an average person can hear sounds as low as a rumble of a tuba, to as high as a
squeak of chalk on the blackboard. We can hear sounds as loud as a rock concert, down to leaves
blowing in the wind.
It all comes down to the frequency of the sound waves. Try this experiment. Try swimming or
flapping your hands in the air. You might feel the wind on your hands. If you adjust the number of
times you move your hand per second, you can change the rate or frequency of the sound waves. The
frequency of your breathing is 0.3 cycles per second. Your heart rate, might be 1.5 cycles per second.
You flapping of the hands, might be up to 5 cycles per second. If you vibrated your hand right next to
your ears, you might hear a repeated “whoosing” sound. However the fun lies at higher frequencies.
The lowest any subwoofer can play at is around 20 cycles per second or 20 Hertz. The power
grid runs at 60 Hz, while in europe its 50 Hz. The tuba we mentioned earlier might go as low as 40 Hz.
That is the same as the lowest string on a bass guitar. The low E.
It turns out that the musical scale, was based on the way people hear sound. For example small
whole number ratios, like halfs or thirds, sound pleasant to the ear. Other more exotic ratios sound
horrible, that is if you have perfect pitch like me. The reason why each octave of the piano sounds the
same, it because an octave is a power of two in frequency. Middle C is 256 Hz, Low C is 128 Hz, Deep
C is 64 Hz, and Petal C is 32 Hz. You might recognise these numbers as powers of two.
Continuing on with out journey of frequencies, 440 Hz is the tuning note, and you won’t know
what note it is until you hear it. For those who don’t have perfect pitch, it sounds like a rather high
pitched “oooooh” sound. The sensor beep on comedies and tv shows, when someone says a bad word,
like fuck, shit, or ass, is replaced with an anoyying tone of 1000 Hz. 1000 Hz, also known as 1 kHz, is
1 thousand cycles per second. 4 kHz is the tone of a smoke alarm beep. Finally, 16 kHz is the tone that
an old television tube makes, when it is turned on. A quite ear shattering “sssssss” sound. For the
elderly out there, they might not remember this sound, because only young kids can usually hear this
sound. Moving on we enter the region of ultrasound. Then as usual, we come across heat rays, light
rays, X rays, and cosmic rays.
Somehow math is built into music in a profound way. Every octave is a power of two in
frequency. We hear 10 octaves of sound, that is over 3 orders of magnitude in frequency. From 20 Hz to
20 kHz. Lets imagine playing tones with equally spaces frequencies, say multiples of 32 Hz. This is
Petal C. A factor of two, is 64 Hz, which is Deep C. Next, at 96 Hz, we have Deep G. Then Low C,
Low E, Low G, and so on.
These tones are known as harmonics, they arrise out of a complex sound. The quality of the
sound is completely determined by its harmonics. For example a violin has lots of harmonics, while a
flute has only a few. A clarinet has a few odd harmonics. And the tuning note has no harmonics other
than the first.
Why would people find a variety of sounds with a variety of harmonics, played sequentially
beautiful. Well simple, music is what that is. Any song uses a few instruments, with different qualities.
When we play these notes into chords, what we are doing is changing the harmonic content of the
sound. Remeber the C, E, G? This is a major chord. It comes right out of the harmonics. Even the way
the sounds are constructed as we play them is so beautiful, that we are making art out of the sound
waves. These sound waves then travel as fast an airplane through the sky, where they reach your ears.
However, light moves a million times faster. In fact all forms of light do this, from radio waves,
to X rays, they all move at this speed. Gravity waves also move at light speed. These gravitaional
waves are ripples of spacetime, just like how sound waves are ripples in the air. But since there is no air
in space, other than the occasional star, there is absolutely no sound in space. But, what if we could
make art out of these gravity waves, like how we make music. This would be really awesome. It turns
out that nature itself did this, and we are a byproduct of these gravity waves! No wonder we enjoy
music!

Section 4, Self Gravitating Fluids

On microscopic scales, gravity is completely negligible. All of the other forces of nature are
around 40 orders of magnitude stronger than gravity. As a sense of comparison, the ratio of the size of
the universe, to the granularity of space is 60 orders of magnitude. Also there are 80 orders of
magntitude of atoms in the whole universe. This means that we can safely ignore gravity, in
calculations of the core theory.
But gravity is different from the other forces in two ways. First most forces act within
spacetime, whereas gravity is the shape of spacetime itself. Secondly, the pressure, flux, density, and
viscosity, affect the shape of spacetime. Stated more simply, this means that gravity is always attractive,
since a particle can’t have a negative energy.
This means that the other forces cancel each other out. The nuclear forces, only act at an
extremely short range. But in some sense, also the electromagnetic force acts at a short range, even
though the carriers of this force, light, can travel as far as one wants. This is why we studied the
leonard jones potential. It is the residuum of the electromagnetic force, after all of the positive and
negative charges cancel inside of each molecule.
This cancellation happens for any force with equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
The only exception to this rule is gravity, which is always attractive. This means that for larger and
larger objects, such as the largest objects in the universe, gravity is the dominant force in shaping the
cosmos.
Zooming out, gravity begins to dominate, and starts holding matter together ever more tightly.
For example, an asteroid is just a rock floating in space with no self gravity. However with extremely
large quantities of matter, such as a planet or moon, gravity holds the object together very tightly. This
forms a spherical world.
If this world were hot, it would be a bloated ball of vapor. The extreme heat, sends out infrared
waves in all directions. Slowly the planet cools. Eventually the vapor condenses into a ball of liquid.
After quite a while, the liquid would freeze and the planet would be dead.
Now lets impart some spin on to the planet. If the planet were frozen, it wouldn’t change shape.
But imagine a spinning liquid blob planet. The liquid would be spinning faster at the equator then at the
poles. This would cause fluid mayhem. Storms racing all over the planet, just like storms on the earth.
Large planets have significant atmospheres, since their gravity is strong enough to hold on to
hot gas particles. This is why the gas planets are so big, and why an asteroid is a small solid rock,
without any air around it.
Now imagine a planet and a moon, both with random spins. The spins of the two worlds cause
them to bulge at their equators. Now gravity is stronger, closer to the two objects, this tidal force
stretches the two worlds directly towards each other. After a while, the two worlds will experience
forces to slow their spin. This will cause the planet and moon to heat up. It is amazing that such a
simple force such as universal gravitation, can cause so many complex phenomena.
This is because how interrelated all of the effects of gravity have. Tides, slow spin. Slowing
spin, causes heat. Heat melts surface ice. The spinning liquid, causes storms, and so on, and so forth.
Don’t get me started on collisions, because it is so awesome!
So far, we have talked about gravity acting at a distance. However, if you have a rare cloud of
gas, under the influence of gravity. It would naturally form planets and moons, all orbiting around each
other. This happens when the rocks collide by accident, then when the objects get big enough, it’s self
gravity draws in all of the material around it, and it grows much faster.
Eventually, you have built yourself a solar system, simply by allowing a small amount of
gravity to act on our magnetic bouncy balls. This is the power of emergence, how adding a simple
gravitational perturbation, causes all of these amazing complex effects to emerge.
However, beyond the scale of our galaxy, the gas pressure becomes negligible, and gravity has
the freedom to do what it wants with the matter and energy in the universe. It is at this scale we find the
cosmic web. A massive network of trillions of galaxies, all woven together by gravity. The reason it has
this shape is simply that whenever there is more matter, there is more gravity, and vice versa. The
gravity of the early universe right after the big bang, caused the thin uniform gasses to differentiate and
form the cosmic web. It is this idea that we will be talking about next. The big bang.
 Chapter Three: Hydrogen and Helium
Now that we have our core theory, means that we are finally ready to program this theory into a
computer. This will produce our universe on the computer. Our universe is extremely complex, and as
such we will only be focusing on the most common interactions throughout the history of the universe.
Each section is all about a specific era of the big bang. In fact, since everything in the beginning
happens so rapidly, we will use a logarithmic time scale. Get Ready, Get Set, and Execute!

Section 1, In The Beginning

In this computer simulation, it is a good idea to remember the scale that we are dealing with.
This scale is known as the plank scale. The plank scale sets the granularity of space and time. This is a
good thing, because infinities appear in our core theory, at smaller scales than this. As such, it is natural
to set the grid scale and iteration time to be the plank length and plank time. In particular, if we run this
core theory up to the present universe, we would have needed a computer with enough processing
power to run an almost infinite number of iterations throughout an almost infinite number of data
cubes. However, we would not let that stop us from exploring, what would really happen if we had an
infinite computer, with infinite processing power.
In fact, modern science, can’t really figure out what happened before the beginning, without
messing around with highly abstract and weird ideas. There are string theorists who would claim that
their own theory would describe our universe. But that is not the case. No matter how hard we try to
come up with a successful theory, we inevitably fail. So to avoid being labeled as a crank, we will just
set the initial conditions ourselves and let it run.
The free parameters of the standard model of particle physics and the general theory of
relativity, are tabulated online, free for anyone to grab. This is because, modern particle physicists and
cosmologists, have gone through impressive lengths to gather the these numbers from experiments and
observations. Now all we need to do is to plug these numbers into our machine, and let it run.
For the first few iterations, space and time have weaved themselves into a pretzel. This occurs
naturally in quantum gravity, and is known as the quantum vacuum. For the next few hundreds of
iterations, gravity gradually settles down, as the universe expands. The black holes that were created
during the first few iterations, evaporate away through Hawking radiation. At this point, the spacetime
fluctuations are no longer violent enough to produce black holes.
As every iteration ticks by, space expands just enough to counteract the gravity of the matter
and radiation inside it. This story of the battle between expansion and gravity will continue for eternity.
As the universe expands, the matter and radiation dilute away, and the temperature drops. As such there
is less gravity produced, and the whole process starts to snowball. If the expansion was not exactly
right, the universe would not produce our universe we see today.
All of the matter and radiation inside our universe, pretty much remains unchanged for a million
million million million million iterations. The particles inside it are moving so rapidly due to the
temperature, that they are moving at the speed of light, and appear to be without mass.
However as the temperature drops, so does the kinetic energy of the particles. At some point the
kinetic energy would be comparable to the mass of the heaviest particles. This occurs around a
millionth of a microsecond after the start of our simulation.
 Standard Model of Elementary Particles
three generations of matter interactions / force carriers
(fermions) (bosons)
I II III
mass ≃2.2 MeV/c² ≃1.28 GeV/c² ≃173.1 GeV/c² 0 ≃124.97 GeV/c²
charge ⅔ ⅔ ⅔ 0 0
spin ½ u ½ c ½ t 1 g 0 H
up charm top gluon higgs

SCALAR BOSONS
QUARKS
≃4.7 MeV/c² ≃96 MeV/c² ≃4.18 GeV/c² 0

γ
−⅓ −⅓ −⅓ 0
½ d ½ s ½ b 1

down strange bottom photon

≃0.511 MeV/c² ≃105.66 MeV/c² ≃1.7768 GeV/c² ≃91.19 GeV/c²

GAUGE BOSONS
μ τ
−1 −1 −1 0
½ e ½ ½ 1 Z
electron muon tau Z boson

VECTOR BOSONS
LEPTONS

<1.0 eV/c² <0.17 MeV/c² <18.2 MeV/c² ≃80.39 GeV/c²

0
½ νe 0
½ νμ 0
½ ντ ±1
1 W
electron muon tau
neutrino neutrino neutrino
W boson

Section 2, The God Particle

At this point, it is a good idea to remember that the quarks and electrons, each have two heavier
counterparts. There are the Up, Charm, and Top quarks, with an electric charge of +2/3. Then there
exist the, Down, Strange, and Bottom quarks, each with an electric charge of -1/3. There also exist
heavier versions of the electrons, and are known as mu particles, and tau particles.
Tabulated in the previous picture, include the rest mass of all these particles. As we know from
relativity in the last chapter, the energy increases for faster moving objects. This kinetic energy reaches
a minimum when all the particles stop moving. This temperature scale depends on the mass of the
particle in consideration.
Another process that occurs is the annihilation of the matter and antimatter versions of these
particles. After they annihilate, one matter particle is left behind for every billion matter antimatter
pairs that once existed. This discrepancy has to exist, otherwise there would only be heat and nothing
else in today’s universe.
If physics tells us that matter and antimatter are in balance today, means that the antimatter does
exist, but it might be so far away from us, that we would never know it is there. The fluctuations in
matter to antimatter most likely were tiny at the time of creation, but after a millionth of a microsecond,
the fluctuations have already spread out so much that this one in a billion discrepancy seems universal.
Right at the start of this era in history, all particles have to interact with the god particle, which
is the only scalar particle in the model. However with the temperature high enough for the flavor force
and the electric force, to be unified. That means that before those two forces separate, all particles,
including the top quark, the god particle, and the flavor force carrying particles, were without mass and
moved exactly at light speed.
As the universe continues expanding as it always does, the temperature drops enough for the
two forces to separate, and suddenly all of these supermassive particles, including the god particle,
decay and annihilate into particles and antiparticles with less mass. After a few thousandths of a
microsecond, the same process of annihilation occurs for the bottom quarks, the tau particles, and the
charm quarks.
 Section 3, Quarks Bind Together

At 1 microsecond, the only particles and antiparticles that exist include mu particles, strange
quarks, down quarks, up quarks, electrons, neutrinos, gluons and photons. Mu particles are heavy
electrons, and strange quarks are heavy down quarks. Both weigh about 200 electron masses.
The quarks and gluons form an intimate fluid, known as a quark gluon plasma. The force
holding quarks and gluons together is the strong nuclear force. This force is an inverse square force
field, just like electromagnetism or gravity. However, at longer distances, strength of the force becomes
a constant. This constant force is literally several tons. At very large distances, the potential energy is
enough to produce a new quark anti quark pair. The reason why the force does not fade away, is
because the gluons interact with themselves, producing flux tubes that hold the quarks and gluons
together.
As every microsecond ticks by, the universe expands and cools, causing the average separation
between quarks to increase. In turn, the strong nuclear force gets much stronger. Eventually the up,
down, and strange, quarks and anti quarks, bind together to form new composite particles. Most of
these particles are quark, anti quark pairs. The lightest of which, weigh as much as a strange quark, or a
mu particle.
Since the beginning of time, there was and still is a slight excess of matter over antimatter. This
excess is less than a part per billion. This means that for every billion anti quarks, there are a billion
and one matter quarks. The billions of quark anti quark pairs form, leave a tiny fraction of purely
matter quarks. These matter quarks, bind together in groups of three. The lightest of these composite
particles are the protons and neutrons.
The universe is now 20 microseconds old. It is filled with extremely heavy composite particles,
that weigh many hundreds, even thousands of times heavier than the electrons and anti electrons. Since
the average energy of all particles is around 300 electron masses, means that the heaviest composite
particles instantly decay, into the lightest particles. In particular bound strange quarks, decay into
bound down quarks, in a few nanoseconds after their formation.
As tens of microseconds pass by, the temperature drops below the threshold to produce mu
particles and pi particles. They quickly annihilate into photons, which are particles of light. At this
point only the very lightest particles and antiparticles exist in thermal equilibrium. These include the
electrons, the anti electrons, also known as positrons, and the neutrinos and photons. The small excess
of matter over antimatter, produced the protons and neutrons, which are known as nucleons.
 Section 4, Antimatter Matters

As the age of the universe approaches 1 second, neutrinos decouple from the rest of matter and
antimatter. These neutrinos keep the small residuum of protons and neutrons in equal numbers. Now
that neutrinos hardly interact with matter any more, halts the thermal conversion of protons and
neutrons.
However, there is still plenty of electrons and positrons around to be able to continue this
conversion between neutrons and protons. But unlike the neutrinos, which don’t have mass, electrons
and their antimatter counterparts have a relatively tiny amount of mass that makes it increasingly
difficult to produce neutrons from protons. Soon one in six nucleons are neutrons, with the rest being
protons.
This would be a great time to remember how rare matter is compared to the other particles. The
universe is almost entirely made of electrons, positrons, photons, and neutrinos. But since neutrinos
hardly interact with anything, we can ignore them.
As the first few seconds pass by, it becomes increasingly hard to produce electrons and
positrons out of photons. As most photons lose energy to the expansion of the universe, the remaining
billions of electrons and positrons, annihilate to produce more photons. These photons reach an
equilibrium temperature slightly higher than the neutrinos which decoupled before the disappearance of
antimatter.
Only a few electrons survive the annihilation, and are in the minority along with protons and
neutrons. The only particles that really exist are the photons, also known as the particles of light. They
outnumber electrons to a billion to one.
 Section 5, Fusion Creates Helium

We are now 10 seconds after time zero. Other than the thermal radiation that fills our universe
with gamma ray light, we have a small residuum of matter left over from the annihilation. These
particles include protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The electrons now do not have enough energy to reproduce neutrons from protons, or to
produce electron positron pairs. Neutrons are a few electron masses heavier than protons, which means
that neutrons and protons are now distinct from each other.
Even though electrons cannot do much damage, the light energy is so intense that it is
preventing the fusion of neutrons and protons. The temperature and density of the nucleons is well
above the threshold of nuclear fusion, which means we should see everything form iron 56 nuclei
almost immediately. But that would be forgetting that all the subatomic particles are bathed in an ocean
of extremely energetic light.
The particles of light are preventing protons, neutrons, and electrons from combining. Since
electrons do not interact through the nuclear force, they just scatter away with enormous speeds. On the
other hand, the nucleons are strongly interacting and much heavier, than the electrons. So while
electrons will be bouncing around for almost an eternity, protons and neutrons are starting to feel the
nuclear force.
As seconds turn into minutes, the light energy decreases enough for the nuclei to not be broken
apart right after their formation. Three minutes in to history, each neutron merges with a proton to form
deuterium, or the nucleus of heavy hydrogen. Then these nuclei swiftly merge to form alpha particles.
But why alpha particles? Alpha particles which are made of two protons and two neutrons, are
the most stable nucleus one can build. Most small nuclei have a binding energy of a few electron
masses. Alpha particles have a whopping binding energy of 50 electrons. This means that as soon as
alpha particles form, it is extremely hard to destroy them.
Four minutes in, all of the neutrons have merged into alpha particles. The remaining particles
are the protons. For the next fifteen minutes, nuclei are still fusing into one other. So why doesn’t
oxygen and carbon nuclei form from helium nuclei. The reason is simple. All nuclei with 5 or 8
nucleons is completely unstable. This means that as soon as an alpha particle or proton fuses with
another alpha particle or proton, it decays right back where it started.
If neutrons still existed, they would be protons by now. This is because free neutrons beta decay
in less than 15 minutes. But since all neutrons are bound together into alpha particles, means that they
are stable.
Now 20 minutes in to creation, nuclei are moving much slower. Nuclei are held together by
virtual pi particles. Since these particles decay very rapidly, tells us that the lines of nuclear force
weaken with distance. At a distance of three proton radii, the electromagnetic force, which is carried by
virtual photons dominates. In layman's terms, the nuclei are not moving fast enough to overcome the
electronic repulsion between the protons.
The nuclei are not getting close enough to fuse, and just nearly miss each other, as they fly by.
The remaining unstable nuclei decay back into protons and alpha particles.
 Section 6, Primordial Plasma

After 20 minutes have passed, all nuclear fusion has stopped. This means that the ratios of the
first elements and isotopes are fixed. For every twelve protons, there is one alpha particle. But what are
these particles. To find out, we need to examine their properties. We will frame our units in terms of the
electron. The last subatomic particle to exist at this time.
A proton is about 1840 times heavier than an electron. Comparatively, an alpha particle weighs
in at 7300 times heavier than an electron. Particles of light, known as photons do not weigh anything,
this is because they move at the ultimate speed limit, the speed of light. The Protons and Electrons that
make up hydrogen are spin half particles. Alpha Particles are spin zero, while particles of light are spin
one.
The electric charge of a proton is positive one, where as the electric charge of an alpha particle
is positive two. This reflects the fact that a proton is the nucleus of hydrogen, and that an alpha particle
is the nucleus of helium. Since, electrons have a charge of negative one, means that these nuclei will
attract electrons until they form neutral atoms and molecules. Photons, the particles of light, are neutral.
But at this time, temperature was in the millions of degrees, and no atoms have formed yet. It
was still an opaque fog, consisting of the hydrogen and helium nuclei. The electrons and photons were
scattering around everywhere. Virtual photons create the forces that are causing the electrons to attract
to the nuclei. But real photons, which constitute the radiation between the atoms, are having no trouble
bouncing of the electrons. This creates the opaque fog that tightly locks radiation and matter together.
This state of matter is known as plasma.
This primordial plasma lasts a very long time. After one day, the plasma still exists. It is still
there after a whole year. Even thousands of years pass, and it is still plasma. However the universe is
expanding this whole time, and after 380 thousand years, the age of the plasma comes to an abrupt end
as the first atoms form.
 Section 7, First Atoms

As photons lose energy due to the expansion of the universe, the temperature drops from many
millions of degrees to just a few thousand degrees. At this point the electrons are moving slow enough
to be captured by the nuclei, forming the first atoms. The light that was bouncing around between the
atoms is now free, since atoms are now electrically neutral.
The light that is emitted is about 3000 degrees C, or 5000 degrees F. As usual the universe
expands. Over time, the light waves stretch out and lose energy. After 5 million years, there is no light
to be seen, by the unaided eye. However, there is still plenty of near and far infrared, which we feel as
heat. As millions of years pass, the background heat gradually gets colder and colder, until today of
which we hear this background noise in radio stations.
Lets admire the beautiful complexity that we name an atom. Both the hydrogen atom and the
helium atom, are made of electrons bound to nuclei. The force that holds the electrons in orbit, is the
electromagnetic force, which is carried by virtual photons. By definition, a hydrogen atom contains one
electron, and a helium atom contains two electrons.
The electrons themselves have mass, and so they have a minimum radius given by the Klein
Gordon equation, this radius is about 386 billionths of a micron. However the electrons orbit 137 times
farther away, because of the feebleness of the electromagnetic force.
The nucleus is only a couple of billionths of micrometers in size. An alpha particle is made of
four nucleons, two of each kind, where as a single proton, is just that, a proton. The nucleons are held
by the residual nuclear force which is carried by virtual pi particles. Pi particles, weigh in over 200
electron masses, which is still a fraction of the mass of a nucleus. Just like how nucleons can be both
neutral or charged, so can pi particles.
Nucleons and pi particles, are the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. Nucleons, are
built out of three quarks, whereas pi particles, are built out of a quark anti quark pair. These particles
are in the midst of a swarm of interacting virtual quarks and gluons. It is this swarm that causes these
composite particles to outweigh electrons by many thousands of times.
Finally beta decay, which causes neutrons to decay into protons, is a very weak force, that
doesn’t play a significant role until you are thousands of times smaller than a nucleus. It is at this scale
that we see the God particle, giving mass to the quarks, electrons, their heavier counterparts, and the W
and Z particles, which carry the weak nuclear force.
So in short, the matter of the universe is made of an assortment of particles, interacting via
forces that hold the particles together in complicated ways. These is one force that we left out, gravity.
So far gravity has just been causing matter to dilute as the universe expands. Then this matter causes a
slowing in the expansion.
But now that atoms are free, tiny irregularities in their density left over by inflation, leads to a
runaway collapse of matter in some areas and a runaway dilution in other areas. It is this topic we will
talk about next.
 Section 8, Structure Formation

The tiny irregularities that existed in the very early universe were less than 1 part in 100
thousand. This is also the square root of the number of light particles per atom. For the first 300 million
years, only two forces exist. Gravity, which causes bulk matter to attract itself, and Gas Pressure, which
fights against gravity. Everything we see today, was sculpted by these two forces. In fact computer
simulations of deep space, rely on both fluid dynamics and gravitation.
By running computer simulations of the early universe, we see that matter clumps together into
a cosmic web, with gaseous filaments strewn all over the primordial sky. As millions of years go by,
not much happens. The only thing that does happen is the difference in density between the empty
voids and the somewhat dense filaments, drastically increases.
After 300 million years of this differentiating, a vast array of structures emerge. The cosmic
web, galaxies, stars, worlds, landscapes, living creatures, molecules, and atoms. Most of this structure
formation occurs on a huge range of scales of both space and time.
At the scale of the cosmic web, the density gradient continuously becomes more drastic, as the
universe expands. Huge filaments, containing trillions of galaxies merge, and tie the cosmic web in
knots. Eventually the cosmic web gets so vast, it spans the visible universe.
Zooming inside the tiny nooks and crannies of the cosmic web, we find the first galaxies. These
galaxies are messy in shape, and are known as irregular galaxies. But as the cosmic web grows, the
irregular galaxies merge into larger and larger structures. These include spiral galaxies, such as the our
own milky way galaxy. Lastly, as the cosmic web continues to grow, two spiral galaxies, one from each
filament crash into each other, similar to the future collision between the milky way and Andromeda
galaxies. This produces a huge ball of stars known as an elliptical galaxy.
Zooming inside each galaxy, we arrive at the stars that make up the galaxy. Irregular galaxies in
the early universe, are made of high mass stars, which weigh 10 times that of the sun, and last only 10
million years each. A middle aged spiral galaxy, tends to be made of sun like stars, and most last the
whole age of the universe so far. An old aged elliptical galaxy, tends to be made of trillions of smaller,
dimmer, more longer lasting stars, than the sun.
The bigger a star is, the brighter it is, and thus the faster it burns through it’s nuclear fuel. With
the fuel spent, larger stars tend to die more violently than smaller stars. The stars are supported by their
own weight, through the heat produced by nuclear fusion reactions. Stars fuse elements together, where
the big bang couldn’t have. These stars continue burning helium, into mostly oxygen and carbon, with
small amounts of nitrogen, neon, iron, silicon, magnesium, sulfur, argon, and trace amounts of every
molecule, element, and isotope, that exists in the periodic table. And then when these stars end their
lives, they contaminate the spiral arms of galaxies with their nuclear fallout. Today, these materials
make up the majority of planets, moons, comets, asteroids, and living thinking beings such as us.

Section 9, Our Insignificance

We are nothing in comparison to nature. In fact, lets just list out all of the reasons why people
are insignificant in comparison to the cosmos. To start, we are made of exactly the same materials as
the universe is, so there’s nothing special there. If you list out the ingredients for life, and compare
them to the ingredients of the universe, you will find that they match almost exactly. Other than the
primordial gasses in the big bang, supernovae crank out water and amino acids, the same materials that
make us up.
Also we are tiny critters that live on a thin film over an ordinary rocky planet, orbiting a
somewhat average star, inside of a usual disk galaxy, inside of the cosmic web. It turns out that we
aren’t significant here either, because of our tiny size.
Not only that, but if there exist other creatures throughout the entire universe, then we can’t say
that we are the only species that’s significant, because there will be other alien life forms that were
created out of the same organic chemicals that fill deep space. We are nothing, and that’s that.
 In fact, what separates us from the cosmos, is the sense that we want to feel important. It is this
drive to feel important, that empowers us to build modern civilization. This is what is means to be
human. Humanity is nothing other than a cosmic virus, colonizing and destroying everything it touches.
No other species does this. In the next chapter we will talk about one of these inventions, the modern
computer.

Section 10, Most Abundant Materials

black holes
hydrogen

helium
water

methane

ammonia
carbon dioxide

nitrogen

neon
talc

iron

hydrogen sulfide
 Chapter Four: It from Bit
In this chapter, we will learn to construct a computer from the smallest unit of information, a
bit. Mathematics is the language for both computers and the universe. This is why computer
simulations are so useful. They literally are pocket universes, because they follow the same
mathematical rules.
But. What if it is math that is fundamental, and not physics? Could there be other universes with
different mathematical rules? Do we just find ourselves in a universe that happens to obey the core
theory. The answer is a resounding yes. Why should we restrict ourselves to physics, when we could
explore the other worlds of mathematics.
Computers, are machines that process and store information. The fact of the matter is that all of
math could be written as computer code. For example, multiplication is a series of additions, whereas
variables are a series of memory locations. Saying C = A*B in math, is simply a series of instructions
for the central processing unit.
This means that the most general formula for making a universe is just computation alone. Out
of the nearly infinite number of mathematical codes, we find QED, our universe, or other more bazaar
shapes such as a fractal pattern. But first, we will have to learn how to build a computer, in order to
know what is really going on under the hood.

Section 1, What is a Bit

There are only two kinds of bits. True and False. A bit is the smallest unit of information. It is a
very hard thing to define what information is. To get an idea of what kinds of bits there are, we need to
think about different kinds of energy. There exist mechanical bits of information, sonic bits of
information, thermal bits of information, and so on. In fact, you could make a bit out of anything you
want.
Our brains use electric and chemical bits to store and process their information. Our modern
electronics also use electricity to store and process information. So even though a bit has many
analogies, we will just use electrical bits for our purpose.
So what are the bits of electricity? To arrive at our answer, we need to ask a deceptively simple
question. Is there electricity flowing or not? If there is electricity, then the statement is true. If not, then
the statement is false. To really grasp this idea of statements being true or false, we can rephrase the
two bits mathematically, with the numbers 1 and 0. How many true statements do you have? 1 true
statement, or 0 true statements.
In order to control the flow of electricity, we need a digital switch, known as a transistor. This
will allow us to make immensely complex circuits that interpret the information that it is given. Again,
there are many kinds of switches that could be used, like vacuum tubes, mechanical relays, water taps,
or anything else that controls the flow of a medium. We will later learn that its the huge variety of ways
we can build circuits out these smaller components, that makes computers possible.
 Section 2, Logic Gates

So far, we only have wires that carry electricity. These wires are either powered, recording a 1,
or off, recording a 0. We also talked about a kind of switch, known as a transistor. As it turns out, each
of these components by themselves, isn’t that helpful. Rather, it’s the huge array of permutations and
combinations between these components that makes them so useful.
To start, we will define three universal circuits, known as logic gates. These gates are the AND
gate, the OR gate, and the NOT gate. Since, large circuits generally contain large numbers of logic
gates, the definition of where one gate starts and another ends is arbitrary. Its all up to your taste of
what you think is the easiest way of explaining logic operations.
These logic operations are best understood if we include another way of representing the two
bits. These are true and false. Also known as correct, and total bullshit. Now, each logic gate, gives a
true when each input satisfies the logical operation. For example. The AND gate is only true when both
its inputs are true. In other words, if A and B are true then C is true. Similarly for the OR gate, if A or B
are true, then C is true. Finally the NOT gate is just that, the opposite.
In the world of digital electronics, three symbols are used for the logic gates.

These symbols might seem like we just made them up, and that is true. The actual inner
workings of these circuits are just transistors, hooked up in series, and parallel. The diagrams are just a
visual aid, to help reduce the complexity of all the connections.
The inputs A and B, give an output like we discussed earlier. However logical operations give
answers, only for certainties, which is why they are so useful in binary. The advanced among you, will
recognize that, the logic is the same as multiplying and adding probabilities.
So how are the transistors connected in each of these logic gates? To start, the AND gate is just
two transistors in series. The circuit diagram for this interaction is given by the following picture. To
see how this produces the logic of an AND operation. Just realize that in series, of one switch, or light
bulb breaks, the whole circuit turns off. Anyone who is familiar with Christmas tree lights, knows that
it is a real pain to find the bulb that broke. This fact makes constructing an AND gate easy, because the
only way for all the lights to be on, is to have a continuous path of current. This can only happen if all
of its inputs are on.
 Next up, we have the OR gate. Like the AND gate, it contains two transistors. The only
difference is that the transistors are parallel to each other, instead of in series. The fact that the circuit is
parallel, makes the circuit more like lights in your house, than like Christmas tree lights. We all know
that when one bulb breaks, the other lights stay on. This means that you are still paying your electric
bill, even though one of your lights broke. The only way for you to be off the grid, is for all of your
lights to be off. This fact is the basis for the OR gate. The only way for the OR gate give an output of 0,
is for all of the inputs to be 0. If any switch is on, then the output is on. This is the OR gate.

Finally, we have the NOT gate. Notice how the output comes before the input. To design a NOT
gate, we need to remember that all the current takes the path of least resistance. When the input is off,
the current is blocked from traveling through the transistor. As such, all the current flows to the output.
If the output was after the input instead of before, the gate would just pass the same signal on, and
would be a buffer.
 We have seen that the AND gate is the all on gate, and the OR gate is the all off gate. The NOT
gate just an inverter. Now our next step is to combine these gates in to more complicated circuits. These
circuits are very useful, for a broad range of applications.

Section 3, The Adder Circuit

One circuit we will need for our computer, is a circuit that adds two numbers. These two
numbers will use the binary number system. To really understand this circuit, we need a way to
understand binary numbers.
In normal base ten numbers, that we use today, we have a ones place, a tens place, a hundreds
place, a thousands place, and so on. This is because we have 10 numbers, which are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
Similarly, in the English alphabet, we have 26 numbers, or characters. The Greek alphabet has 32
variables. Our last example is time of day, which is base 60.
As we can tell, the base of our number system is completely up to us. The more characters we
have, the larger the base of our number system. Binary has just two numbers 1 and 0. This means that
we have a ones place, twos place, fours place, eights place, and sixteens place.
As we all know from adding numbers, we carry numbers that overflow. For example, 1 plus 1 is
2. But since the number two doesn’t exist in our computer, we have to carry a 1 into the next column.
This is similar to how adding 1 to 9 produces 10. We need a need the tens place or in our case, the twos
place in order to represent this number.
Going through all the possible ways of adding single digits together, we find that we carry the
AND operation, and the sum is given by; It seems like we have our first problem, it does not
correspond to any logic gate we have so far.
The first three operations are 0+0, 0+1, and 1+0. These correspond to the OR gate. As we talked
about earlier, that should not be a surprise, because that’s the math symbol for that gate. However, we
know that adding 1+1 gives 2, or 10 in binary. As such the OR gate needs to be modified to give a 0
instead of a 1. This new logic gate is known as the XOR gate.
We can build it from our three original gates like so.

B Q

Q=(A+B)⋅(A̅ +B̅ )
 As we can see, this gate plays a key role in the addition of two digits. The reason for that might
not first seem apparent, but it is because the gate only gives an output, when it’s inputs are different.
The XOR gate, is represented as an OR gate, with a smile. Well kind of. But where are the NOT gates?
They are represented differently than before, as tiny circles before and after logic gates.
Putting all this knowledge together, we put two XOR gates and two AND gates in parallel, with
the first half adder feeding in to the other half adder. Finally, we OR the two carry bits, and we arrive at
a full adder.

A
B
S
Cin

Cout

Section 4, The Memory Circuit

Now that we got our adder circuit out of the way, we still need to make a memory circuit. This
circuit is a little easier than building the adder, so lets get to it. First, we need to remember that so far,
our circuits always flow in one direction, from the input to the output. So what happens if we make a
circuit that feeds its output back on itself?
Trying that out with some logic gates, and adding some gates on the outside to separate the data
flow from the control flow, gives us a circuit known as a flip flop. This is the circuit diagram of the D
flip flop, or data flip flop.

D
Q

Q
E

Section 5, The Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit, is the brains of any computer. It is the thing that makes a computer
what it is. The two circuits we built, is the adder and the memory. Each of these circuits can only
handle one bit of information at a time. In order to do anything useful, we need to scale up. The more
bits, the more powerful is our machine.
However, we have already completed the construction of a 1 bit CPU, since we made the adder
and memory circuits for it. But that’s clearly not enough computer power to do anything useful, other
than to show off how it works.
What we really want is to build a computer that has enough guts to produce our entire universe.
This means that we will have to find the total number of bits that our universe is made of? So lets take a
detour and talk about our universe.
Our universe has three dimensions of space and one time dimension. Each of these dimensions
has at least 10 to the power of 60 bits. That number would be the same as saying the word million, ten
times. This is such a big ass number, that we could just say that it was infinite. But it’s still finite. We
would need 256 bit computers.
In the early days of computing, the first computers could store 8 bit numbers in 256 different
locations. Before that computers could store 4 bit numbers in 16 different locations. And yet further
back, 2 bit numbers in 4 different locations. You might notice that the number of locations equals the
value of the largest number it can store. So for example, there are 256, 8 bit numbers. Which means
that each 8 bit number has it’s own location.
Lastly, let’s connect our 256 bit adder to our 256 bit memory to produce our computer. Now, we
have our computer. This massive CPU, still rivals today’s 64 bit computers, including my own
computer I am writing this on.
There is still one missing piece, which is, how do we connect the circuits to themselves. This is
the essence of computer programming. The more ways we can connect these parts, the more complex
programs we can run on it. Each program, is a particular configuration of components, similar to the
connections inside our heads.
Let’s now turn our attention to programming this machine, and learn that our universe, might
just be a large computer game after all.

Section 6, Computer Programming

In computer programming, there are several primary things a computer can do. Primary in the
sense that any computer program uses these fundamental operations. These operations are, load, store,
add, negate, jump, and halt.
In computer science, it is important to remember that more complex programs such as
multiplication, or the sine of an angle, or even the theory of everything are all built from these six
simple operations. These operations are quite easy, one you get the hang of it.
The Load instruction, loads a particular number in memory into a temporary memory, known as
a register. But unlike the actual memory, a register can only store one number at a time. The Store
instruction does the opposite and saves the number back into memory.
Once we have two numbers in memory, we can either add or subtract them. Addition is easy, but
subtraction would require us to build a new subtract circuit. Not really, in algebra, you know that
adding a negative number is the same as subtraction. This means we can invert our entire input, we
want to negate, and feed this into our adder. This kind of inversion is known as the two’s compliment.
Next, the jump instruction is useful whenever you don’t want your program to run over
unnecessary codes in sequential order, and help control the flow of your code. For example a
multiplication code, uses a loop that repeatedly adds a number a certain number of times. This means
that without the loop, multiplying two numbers would be impossible.
 The loop jumps back before the addition to allow the repetition when doing such a calculation.
There are other uses for the jump instruction, which includes testing if a number is negative, these
kinds of flow controlling operations are common in low level computer programming software.
Lastly the Halt instruction, stops the program from crashing and giving you a hard time fixing a
blue screen. This is because our program would process all the zeros in memory after your current
program and the operations would turn into a mess, crashing your computer.
Now that we know how to program a computer, we can turn a bunch of connected circuits into
easily understandable mathematics, that anyone can read. So every time we say we are going to
program this or that equation, just remember that what we are really doing is changing the codes in our
computer.
 Conclusion
Okay, so, we successfully made a whole universe on our computer. This universe is completely
identical to ours. If so, does that also mean that our universe is a computer simulation. Who knows, but
there is plenty of evidence.
Today, computers are fast enough to produce 3D detailed landscapes and fill them with sentient
life. Don’t believe me, well just too bad, life changes. Do those beings think their in a simulation, of
course not, the game most likely is about finding some poo on an alien space ship, than being about a
simulated universe.
This means that we actually do not need an entire universe bit by bit, we only need the part of
the universe that is visible to us. This means that you will need to try really really hard to find anything
that isn’t in our universe, even though the game’s program known nothing about physics. If this is true,
then our universe isn’t about physics, it is about us, and trying to make it look realistic to us.
For the game lovers out there, God might have produced our universe as his own computer
game, and we reason why we find inconsistencies in physics is not because the universe is that way, but
because he used visual effect trickery to make the simulation faster and real time for us. This might
actually be so, with the infinity of universes all existing on hard drives throughout spacetime.
But before you junk physics and all that it has accomplished, I will have to point out, that we
have proven that this theory of everything does a much better job, albeit a very slow job, of producing
our universe. And even though God might change the laws of physics from time to time, we already
have put together the theory of everything from everything we discovered and we know that it works.
Should I say that I am a total nerd, or not. It depends on what you think. Yes, I am extremely
obsessed with the universe, and how it all works. However, it is wrong to say that we could live
without science. It isn’t just some thing you have to learn to get your PHD. Like it or not, is the
foundation of reality itself. Everyone likes something, and everything exists within the universe,
therefore everyone likes science.
Most people don’t call it that, less know what science is and how it works. In science, you put
ideas to the test. If the test fails, then there must be a contradiction somewhere in your logic, and the
fun part is to figure out where they contradict. Rinse, repeat, and before you know it, you are building
universes inside of computers.
So what does all of this have to with people. That is because we all live in a dangerous universe.
From the next person, to a supernova in an alien galaxy, anything could destroy us. This is why science
is so helpful. Science produced technical advancements that improves our lives. From the computer I
am writing this on, to the GPS that guides all of us to work, to the power grid that makes life more safe
and enjoyable, and well anything man made that ever exists, is here because of some scientist that
figured something out about the universe.
Once we unlocked the power of electricity, we were able to build machines capable of think for
themselves. Imagine, what it would happen if we discovered everything. We would be living among the
stars.
Why this, well without us living between the stars, amounts to us all being crammed into one
planet. If some disaster hit us, naturally or man made, there is a small chance that everyone will be
gone. This is known as a mass extinction.
Currently we are living in a mass extinction. This extinction isn’t some asteroid impact that
wiped out the dinosaurs or volcanic eruption that kills almost every creature on earth. This one is
caused by people.
Human beings are dangerous creatures, and if we want to survive, we need to spread our
population to more than one planet. We need our eggs to be in more than one basket. And let me tell
you, it’s not easy at all to do this. However, unlocking more technologies might be one of our only
options to improve our society.
So out of all this, what is science all about. Science is about finding out what is true, and what is
false. Moreover, we want our ideas in science, to always be correct, no matter what. This amounts to
finding universal truths, such as gravity, relativity, and quantum. In fact, merging these three ideas, is
the central key to finding the theory of everything. However, many practicing scientists will tell you
that the theory of everything does not exist.
A string theorist, is not working on actual physics, because they think their own equation,
somehow explains everything around them. String theory is just fake physics. They believe in all sorts
of mythical things, such as extra dimensions, time being an illusion, many universes, forms of matter
we could never detect, consciousness affecting matter, our universe being a huge computer game,
particle physics is not enough quantum, and that gravity and quantum are incompatible.
Now, engineers have another problem, which is they would say that “newtons laws of motion
are the only true thing in the universe.” Newtons laws are not wrong, but they are very obsolete. They
would use these laws in all situations, including those where it isn’t designed to be used.
Newtons laws are the first real physics that works. But it doesn’t always work. Again the three
areas that newton’s laws need improvements on are, you guessed it, gravity, relativity, and quantum.
When an engineer sees the theory of everything or anything related to it, if it isn’t newton’s laws, they
would say to you, “Your theory, does not explain reality.”, when it actually does explains reality. The
truth is that the theory of everything explains reality better than the newtons laws, which work only in a
rather small domain in nature.
String Theorists have gone too far, whereas Engineers have not gone far enough. I think that, if
engineers and string theorists payed more attention to the theory of everything, we would be a galactic
civilization by now. This is because the theory of everything will unlock the doors to the survival of our
species in an otherwise hostile universe.
This universe we live in is the most amazing thing that exists, because everything that exists,
exists within the universe. We all know that the universe is arranged with immense detail at all scales.
Take a tree for example, zooming in on the tree trunk, reveals the branches, then the leaves, and
eventually the veins inside each leaf. This kind of self similarity is known as a fractal.
Our universe is a fractal. The conditions have to be exactly right for an intricate object to
appear. However, different objects will require different conditions to exist. These conditions could be
anything you want. For a human being, it requires, food, water, shelter, and many other insignificant
utilities. For a star such as the sun, it requires a balance between nuclear fusion and the sun’s self
gravity.
This does not mean that stars or people are rare, it means exactly the opposite. There are an
infinite number of stars, planets, moons, cities, people, or anything else in nature. You just need to
zoom out to see the varieties of all of these objects.
For example, there are many stars like the sun out there, but that doesn’t mean they are the sun.
These stars can have very different temperatures and pressures, but they all follow from the same basic
rules that create all stars, which is a balance between fusion and gravity.
Now if we restrict our search for these stars, and say that we want stars that have this or that
feature. Then it is increasingly unlikely that we would find such a star, and we would have to look to
much farther distances to find them.
Unique as we may seem, there exist an infinite number of us, with each of us being slightly
different. This blurs the line between people and aliens. There might even exist aliens that look and act
exactly like everyone on earth, but live on a planet that they call “Earth”, but exists an unfathomably
large distance away from us.
These so called people, will be on another timeline, that is identical to our timeline. This means
that the farther we look into the past, the more we have in common with these aliens, because we are all
related. You and your sibling, have the same parents. You and your cousins have the same grandparents.
Going back millions of years, all of the plants and animals are descended from a common ancestor.
Using this analogy, we learn that simplicity is common, and complexity is rare. Many of moons
of the outer planets likely have simple bacterial life, where as in order to find a parallel timeline of
human history requires us to leave our galaxy to find such an “Earth”.
Going deep enough into the fabric of spacetime, we might find creatures that not only share our
past, but share our future, possibly millions of years ahead. The next time we are visited by ET, it is
most likely our descendants from a parallel earth like world. No wonder the TV show ancient aliens is
so popular.
In this vast cosmos, exist beings that understand it. These beings include us. Since we are made
of the cosmos, means that just like how we understand ourselves, so does the universe understand
itself, through beings like us. The universe is conscious.
That might seem like a bold claim, but with some simple reasoning, we get to this conclusion
rather easily. If we are really a byproduct of the universe’s existence, then we should expect that as time
progresses, sentient beings will dominate over the entire cosmos.
And that’s exactly what we see! Take earth life for example. It took billions of years for bacteria
to evolve from the chemicals of the early earth. Then multicellular life evolves in the last few hundred
million years. Finally human society evolves within the last few thousand years. Clearly, complexity
builds exponentially. Given our current population growth rate, in another 8,600 years after the modern
age, or 10,600 AD, we would have consumed all the matter in the universe in the form of human
beings.
Lets now look at how insignificant we are from the perspective of the universe. Today, our cities
make up a thin film of earth’s surface. Earth itself is a rather small ball of rock and iron. It is part of a
solar system, made of 1 star, 8 planets, 19 moons, 5 dwarf planets, and a shit ton of small debris.
This solar system, when viewed from our galaxy, the milky way, is one of billions of solar
systems, each with their own worlds, that might harbor sentient life. The milky way galaxy is just a
drop in an ocean of billions of galaxies. These galaxies arrange themselves into a sponge like structure
known as the cosmic web.
And all of this has lasted for 13.8 billion years. Think of it. Billions of years of nothing much
happening, and then all of a sudden, Boom! Sentient life floods the universe in a few thousand years.
The universe gave birth to us, and it would be a waste to let our civilization die out. We have a
responsibility to take care of the world around us. If we fail, the cosmos will likely not produce another
human race, simply because every thing is unique. We are precious, and we need to expand out into the
cosmos.
We learned that firstly, computers are not magic, they are a bunch of connected wires all put
together in a way to solve a certain math problem. We then learned that the laws of physics that rule our
universe are ultimately math, which can be programmed on a computer. After that, we found out what
the theory of everything is, and then interpreted the computer simulation that follows from this theory.
This will bring humanity into paradise, as we continue exploring our amazing universe.