Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism
Shaivism (/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/) is one of the major Hindu traditions
that worships Shiva, also called Rudra,[1][2][3] as the Supreme Shaivism
Being.[4][5][6] It is considered to be the oldest living religion in
the world.[7][8] One of the largest Hindu denominations,[9][10] It
incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional
dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented
monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism.[11][12][13] It
considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important
sources of theology.[14][15][16]
Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the Shiva (above) is the primary deity of
1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious Shaivism. Ritual at Muni ki Reti,
tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.[2] It arrived in Southeast Rishikesh
Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands
of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as
Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions.[19][20]
Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the
Atman (self, soul) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some
Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.[13] It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic
life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be
one with Shiva within.[11][12][21] The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivas".
Contents
Etymology and nomenclature
Overview
Origins and history
Indus Valley Civilisation
Vedic elements
Emergence of Shaivism
Puranik Shaivism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 1/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Post-Gupta development
South India
Southeast Asia
Indonesia
Beliefs and practices
Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism
Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions
Texts
Vedas and Principal Upanishads
Shaiva minor Upanishads
Shaiva Agamas
Traditions
Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga
Pashupata Atimargi
Lakula Atimargi
Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga
Shaiva Siddhanta
Nayanars
Tantra Diksha traditions
Kashmir Shaivism
Nath
Lingayatism
Demography
Influence
Shaktism
Smarta Tradition
Vaishnavism
Sauraism (Sun deity)
Yoga movements
Hindu performance arts
Buddhism
Jainism
Temples and pilgrimage
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 2/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shiva (IAST: śiva, Sanskrit: शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[22][23] As a
proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".[23]
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities,
including Rudra.[24] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious
one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[25][26] The
term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an
auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[25][27]
The Sanskrit word śaiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva",[28] while the related beliefs,
practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.[29]
Overview
The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in
Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.[30][31] While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a
complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no
ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any
binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic,
atheistic, or humanist.[32][33][34]
Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the
Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in
philosophy.[35] Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from
nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools.[36]
Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the
Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of
projecting "later practices into archeological findings".[44][45] Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other
archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 3/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the
bull interpretation is likely more accurate.[40][46]
Vedic elements
Emergence of Shaivism
The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.[66] Other evidence that
is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such
as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is
controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to
Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian
subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography, but this evidence is
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 4/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Puranik Shaivism
During the Gupta Dynasty (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purana literature
developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters
on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of
Shiva in the 3rd century CE. Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by
Art of Mathura or then.[40][59] The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the
Ahichchhatra.[65] Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana.[40][67]
Post-Gupta development
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 5/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest
them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in
extreme experimentation,[note 1] while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are
non-Puranik.[76]
South India
Southeast Asia
Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into
China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many
cases.[80] For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a few caves include Shaivism
ideas.[88][note 2] The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 6/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in An image collage of 1st millennium
southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam CE Shaivism icons and temples
between the 5th and the 15th-century. Shaivism and Shiva held the from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva
paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring in yoga pose, Nandi, Prambanan
islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively temple, Yoni-Linga and Hindu
integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.[92] In the centuries temple layout.
that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast
Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these
developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.[92][93]
Indonesia
In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya" into
five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the
observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.[94]
Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik
(esoteric, tantric).[96][97] They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while
placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.[97]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 7/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in
others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 8/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Rituals,
Affirms[114][115][116] Affirms Affirms Optional[117] [118]
Bhakti
Ahimsa and Recommends,
Recommends,[114] Optional Affirms Optional [119][120]
Vegetarianism Optional
Free will, [107]
Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms
Maya, Karma
Brahman
Brahman (Shiva), Atman Brahman [107]
Metaphysics (Devi), Brahman, Atman
(Soul, Self) (Vishnu), Atman
Atman
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison
1. Perception
1. and analogy
1. Perception
2. Inference
Perception
4. Postulation,
Epistemology
2. Inference
[122][123][124]
3. Reliable testimony
2. Inference
derivation
(Pramana) 3. Reliable
3. Reliable 5.
4. Self-evident[121] testimony
testimony Negative/cognitive
proof
6. Reliable
testimony
Vishishtadvaita,
Dvaita, qualified advaita, Shakti- Advaita, qualified [125][126]
Philosophy Dvaita, qualified
advaita advaita advaita
advaita, advaita
Videhamukti, Jivanmukta,
Salvation
Jivanmukta,
Yoga,
Bhakti, Advaita, Yoga,
[128][129]
(Soteriology) Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[127] champions Tantra, Yoga champions
householder life monastic life
Texts
Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by Shaiva manuscripts that have survived
traditions.[131] Among the notable and —Alexis Sanderson, The Saiva Literature[79][130]
influential commentaries by dvaita (dualistic)
theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century
Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th
century Bhojadeva.[131] The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita
(nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,[note 5] the 10th
century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna,
Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.[133][134][135]
The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of
specific sub-traditions.[15] The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and
earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.[15] The Vedic
literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy
and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony,
will be acceptable to the Shaivas.[15] According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva
Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well
as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas".[14] This school's view can be summed as,
The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[136] is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic
philosophy of Shaivism.[note 6]
Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva
Upanishads.[137] These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus
of Hindu literature.[137][138] The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while
the last ones in the late medieval era.[139]
The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a
synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.[140]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 10/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism Upanishads
Composition
Shaiva Upanishad Topics Reference
date
1st millennium Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self- [141][142][143]
Kaivalya Upanishad
BCE knowledge
1st millennium [144][145][146]
Atharvashiras Upanishad Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism
BCE
1st millennium [147]
Atharvashikha Upanishad Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation
BCE
Late medieval,
Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, Tripundra [148]
Brihajjabala Upanishad post-12th
tilaka
century
Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual [149][150]
Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown
Shaivism
Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, [151]
Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown
monism
Late medieval,
Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism [153]
Akshamalika Upanishad post-12th
in Shaivism iconography
century CE
Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, [154]
Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown
nondualism
Late medieval,
Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why [155][156]
Bhasmajabala Upanishad post-12th
rituals and Varanasi are important
century
After the 10th Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra [137]
Rudrakshajabala Upanishad
century recitation
16th or 17th Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, [157]
Ganapati Upanishad
century Satcitananda
About 7th Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, [158][159]
Pancabrahma Upanishad
century CE Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge
Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash [160]
Jabali Upanishad unknown
and body art
Shaiva Agamas
The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.[161] These texts
include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices,
four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of
practice.[162][163] These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit[162] and in south Indian languages such as
Tamil.[164]
The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute
monism.[165][166] In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-
cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.[16] The Bhairava
Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.[114][167]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 11/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (soul, self) and
the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.[12] The
texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual soul
and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.[12] Kashmir Shaiva
Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is
present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference
between life, matter, man and God.[12] While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy
and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been
acceptable to the Shaivas.[15]
Traditions
Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions.
These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic
dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or
practices of the two.[168][169] Sanderson presents the historic
classification found in Indian texts,[170] namely Atimarga of the
Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both the
renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in
Shaivism.[171] Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on
Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.[172]
Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai
Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu
Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga Monastery(shaivaite) in the United
States.
The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation)
– or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual
pursuits.[173] It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was
described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and
pleasures in life.[174] The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in
ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).[175]
Pashupata Atimargi
Pashupata: (IAST: Pāśupatas) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by
Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.[100][97] It is a monist tradition, that considers
Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is
one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.[177] Pashupata theology, according to
Shiva Sutras, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own
unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action
becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.[178]
The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the
chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the
beast,[179] and the Atman (self, soul, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.[180] The
tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive
literature,[180][181] and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving
into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha)
and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).[182][183]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 12/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their
canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are
believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.[187]
The horizontal three ash lines (Tripundra) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions
symbolizing Om.[188][189]
"Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both
householders and monks.[171] It grew from the Atimarga tradition.[190] This tradition sought not just
liberation from Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures
(bhoga), both in this life and next.[191] The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks,
and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic
techniques and mantras.[190] Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient
than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.[190] Mantramārga grew to
become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's
Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and Cham.[192][193]
The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This
literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.[194] This literature was highly influential not
just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.[195]
Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The
tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The
theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[196][197] Shaiva Siddhanta
is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.[197]
Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.[198][199] Its central premise has been that
the Atman (soul, self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at
understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the
monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools
consider Maya as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the
existential diversity.[198]
Shaiva Siddhanta
The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a Tirumular, the great Tamil
sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Śaivasiddhānta poet and
Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).[207] mystic saint (siddha).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 14/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.[208] The philosophy of
Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.[209]
The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.[210] The tradition includes both
Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.[210] Unlike the
experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the
Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat".
Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,[210] worship and loving devotion to Shiva as
SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.[211][212] This tradition diversified
in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.[213]
Nayanars
The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely
revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.[222]
A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and
bala (powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies
(abhicarah).[223][224][225] Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and
cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis.[222][226] The cult
of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of
the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.[226]
Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the
powers as anima (awareness than one is present in everything), laghima (lightness, be free from
presumed diversity or differences), mahima (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own
consciousness), prapti (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), prakamya (forebearance,
grasp and accept cosmic diversity), vasita (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 15/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
wants), isitva (self lordship, a yogi is always free).[227] More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought
nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning
(yuktih), scriptures (sastras) and the initiating Guru.[228][225]
Kashmir Shaivism
A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism,
Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism.[230] For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts
Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This
tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was Trika, or modal
triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.[230][236][240]
Nath
Nath: a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition
based on Yoga.[241] The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru,
and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose
devotees were called "Yogi or Jogi", given their monastic unconventional
ways and emphasis on Yoga.[242][243][244]
They formed monastic organisations,[241] and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to
resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.[246][247][248]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 16/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Lingayatism
They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the
A necklace with pendant
territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region
containing linga symbol of
first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their
Shiva are worn by
scripture to be Basava Purana, which was completed in 1369 during the
Lingayats.[249]
reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.[259][260] Lingayat (Veerashaiva)
thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the
shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.[261][262] The
13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for
example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."[261][262]
Demography
Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Shaivism compared to other traditions of
Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Shaivism tradition is the second
largest group with 252 million or 26.6% of Hindus.[9] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan,
Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.[10] Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern
Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu &
Kashmir, Uttarkhand and Madhya Pradesh. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana,
Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh.[263][264]
According to Galvin Flood, that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many
Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[265] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius
Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy
with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava
adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly,
Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important
in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[266]
Influence
Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja)
have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 17/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th
century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of
Indo-China, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as
Sumatra, Java and Bali.[267] This influence on classical Cambodia,
Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived
with the same Indians.[268][269]
As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion
(though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola and
the Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and
pre-Islamic Malaya.[275][276] In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular
form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Shaktism
The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of
India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, Shaivism itself got
influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and
essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).[277] The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is
considered as the inseparable partner of god Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between
Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to
separate.[265] Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.[13]
Smarta Tradition
Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of
Hinduism.[278] The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices
include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 18/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the
Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of
Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.[30]
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are
icons of saguna Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate
Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas
as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal
God with form), rather than as distinct beings.[279][280] The ultimate goal
in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a
philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman
(soul, self) and Brahman (metaphysical reality) – as "That art
Thou".[278][281][282]
Vaishnavism
Shaivism iconography in Cambodia, at Kbal Spean river site. As in India, the site also co-features Vaishnavism-related
iconography.[284]
Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the
theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and
asserts that they are one with Vishnu.[285] The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand
attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.[286]
Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples,
such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main
temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.[287] Harihara temples in and outside the Indian
subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple
in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism
embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic
manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the
spiritual.[288]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 19/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of
the same divine.[289] The Skanda Purana, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is
Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva".[290]
The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms
particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These
devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially
acknowledges these.[291] For example, the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts,
almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for
large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains.
Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita
acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of
Shaiva text Vathula-Kalottara.[291]
Yoga movements
Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has
been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha
Yoga.[292][293][294] Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha
(pilgrimage) centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a
giant statue wherein Shiva is a loner yogi meditating,[295] as do Shaiva
texts.[296]
Many Shaiva temples present
In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who Shiva in yoga pose.
seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi.
The Shiva Sutras (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms.
According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the
"realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive",
and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one
is.[297]
Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods such as
by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the Nath Yogis, a Shaivism sub-
tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. It was founded by
Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath.[243][244][298] The texts of these Yoga
emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.[note 7]
Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.[300][301][302] This is celebrated in Shaiva
temples as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text
on performance arts called the Natya Shastra.[301][303][304]
Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu
temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and
others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as
Bharatanatyam and Chhau.[305][306][307]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 20/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Buddhism
Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since
ancient times, in both South Asia and Southeast Asia. Their Siddhas and
esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists
and Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto
Machindranath. In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in
competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the
same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster
and simpler.[308] Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from
Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but
they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.[309]
Dancing Shiva
Nataraja at the 6th
The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism
century Badami cave
comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the
temples.
northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the
1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.[310][note 8] The Buddhist
Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,[311] but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva
Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.[310] According to Richard
Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in
common with Shiva in Shaivism.[311] The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the
contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.[312] In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts,
syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common.[313]
The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was
not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian
subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.[92] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu
Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[92][note 9] In
the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though
not identical religions.[315][note 10] This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern
states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara
(half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun
god) on left.[317][318]
On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are
officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.[92][319][320]
Jainism
Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India
where it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.[321]
In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-
goddesses.[321][322] These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas (mantra recitation)
and making offerings into Homa fire.[321]
According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more
transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.[323] The 11th-century Jain text
‘’Bhairavapadmavatikalpa’’, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of
Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 21/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology,
Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of
the lower world according to Jainism.[321]
Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism
near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.[324] While Shaiva and Jain
practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community
differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian
and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.[325]
Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of
Ganges River (and pancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are
particularly revered spots in Shaivism.[336][337] Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been
particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of
infiniteness,[338][339][340] as per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa.[341] They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna,
Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha, Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara,
Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and Grishneshwar.[337] Other texts mention five Kedras
(Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 22/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of
Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.[337] Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly
special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads
such as the Jabala Upanishad.[342][343]
The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using
these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.[344][345]
See also
Chaturdasa Devata
Ein Sof
Hindu denominations
History of Shaivism
Jangam Lingayat
Siddha
Sophia (wisdom)
Notes
1. Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground, revered the fierce
Bhairava form of Shiva, engage in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol, and sexual fluids. However,
states David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas, and historical information
about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them.[74][75]
2. The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly about the
Buddha, but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as Shiva, Vishnu,
Ganesha and Indra.[89]
3. There is an overlap in this approach with those found in non-puranik tantric rituals.[99]
4. Pashupatas have both Vedic-Puranik and non-Puranik sub-traditions.[97]
5. Vasugupta is claimed by two Advaita (Monistic) Shaivism sub-traditions to be their spiritual
founder.[132]
6. For Śvetāśvatara Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti 1994, p. 9.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 23/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
7. For example:
[It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of oneself.
[...]
Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just explained,
Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all [within].
Then once he has transcended all lower realities, he should seek the Shiva level. [v. 51–
53]
[...]
How can a person whose awareness is overwhelmed by sensual experience stabilize his
mind?
Answer: Shiva did not teach this discipline (sādhanam) for individuals who are not
[already] disaffected. [v. 56–57]
[...]
References
1. Bisschop 2020, pp. 15-16.
2. Bisschop 2011.
3. Chakravarti 1986, p. 1.
4. Flood 2003, pp. 200–201.
5. S Parmeshwaranand 2004, pp. 19–20, 272–275. sfn error: multiple targets (2×):
CITEREFS_Parmeshwaranand2004 (help)
6. P. T. Raju (1985). Structural Depths of Indian Thought (https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths000
0raju). State University of New York Press. pp. 10 (https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raj
u/page/10)–14, 509–516. ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191112
164851/https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju) from the original on 12 November 2019.
Retrieved 27 February 2020.
7. Jaideva Singh (2016). Pratyabhijnahrdayam: The Secret of Self-Recognition (https://www.mlbd.in/coll
ections/tantra/products/pratyabhijnahrdayam-the-secret-of-self-recognition-sanskrit-text-with-english-
translation-notes-and-introduction-jaideva-singh-9788120803220-8120803221-9788120803237-812
080323x) (9th Repr. ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1. ISBN 81-208-0322-1.
8. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV., The Religions (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/180130386).
Haridas Bhattacharyya, Bhagavan Das. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
2001. p. 98. ISBN 81-87332-05-0.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 24/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
9. Johnson, Todd M; Grim, Brian J (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to
International Religious Demography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SAzizViY30EC). John
Wiley & Sons. p. 400. ISBN 9781118323038. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019120919425
1/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAzizViY30EC) from the original on 9 December 2019.
Retrieved 10 March 2017.
10. Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=OgMmceadQ3gC). Infobase. p. 474. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170323232140/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC) from the original on
23 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
11. Flood 1996, pp. 162–167.
12. Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1892-7,
pages 16–19
13. Flood 2003, pp. 202–204.
14. David Smith (1996), The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-48234-9, page 116
15. Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, Gregorian University and Biblical Press,
ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7, pages 31–34 with footnotes
16. Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-
0595-8, pages 43–44
17. Chakravarti 1986, p. 66-70.
18. Chakravarti 1986, p. 1, 66-70.
19. Flood 2003, pp. 208–214.
20. Jan Gonda (1975). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions (https://books.
google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ). BRILL Academic. pp. 3–20, 35–36, 49–51. ISBN 90-04-
04330-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170205085012/https://books.google.com/books?id
=X7YfAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
21. "Introduction to Hinduism" (http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects).
Himalayan Academy. 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150430102410/http://www.brita
nnica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti) from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 1 February
2014.
22. Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0567-4, p. 919.
23. Macdonell, p. 314.
24. Chakravarti 1994, p. 28.
25. Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology (http://www.ibiblio.org/
sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170227192855/
http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html) 27 February 2017 at the Wayback
Machine, Oxford University Press, pages 1074–1076
26. Chakravarti 1994, p. 21-22.
27. Chakravarti 1994, p. 21-23.
28. Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0567-4, p. 927
29. Flood 1996, p. 149.
30. Flood 1996, p. 17.
31. Keay, p.xxvii.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 25/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
32. Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge,
ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense
described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One
may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist,
and still, be considered a Hindu."
33. Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic
Press, 2008
34. MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism (http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_
hinduism.pdf) 24 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see
page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
35. For an overview of the Shaiva Traditions, see Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions",, Flood (2003),
pp. 200–228.
36. Tattwananda, p. 54.
37. Gavin Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152
38. Chakravarti 1986, p. 66-106.
39. For dating as fl. 2300–2000 BCE, decline by 1800 BCE, and extinction by 1500 BCE see: Flood
(1996), p. 24.
40. Flood 2003, pp. 204–205.
41. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.
42. For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
43. Flood 1996, pp. 28-29.
44. Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pages 25–34
45. Samuel 2008, p. 2–10.
46. Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-
0521795661, pages 240–250
47. Flood 1996, pp. 153–154.
48. Loeschner, Hans (2012) The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great (http://www.sino-plat
onic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161
220223231/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf) 20 December
2016 at the Wayback Machine, Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 227 (July 2012); page 11
49. Bopearachchi, O. (2007). Some observations on the chronology of the early Kushans. Res
Orientales, 17, 41–53
50. Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. South
Asian Studies, 23(1), 31–37
51. Flood 2003, p. 205.
52. Chakravarti 1986, p. 66.
53. Flood 1996, p. 150.
54. Chakravarti 1986, p. 69.
55. Chakravarti 1986, p. 66-69.
56. Chakravarti 1994, pp. 70–71.
57. Chakravarti 1986, p. 70.
58. Laura Giuliano (2004). "Silk Road Art and Archaeology: Journal of the Institute of Silk Road Studies"
(https://books.google.com/books?id=xU_rAAAAMAAJ). 10. Kamakura, Shiruku Rōdo Kenkyūjo: 61.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200229012548/https://books.google.com/books?id=xU_rAA
AAMAAJ) from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
59. Flood 1996, p. 154.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 26/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
[b] R G Bhandarkar (2001), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge,
ISBN 978-8121509992, pages 106–111
62. Robert Hume (1921), Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford
University Press, pages 400–406 with footnotes
63. A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309–314;
doi:10.1017/S0041977X00146531 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00146531)
64. D Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96–97 and
Chapter 9
65. Pal, Pratapaditya (1986). Indian sculpture, Volume 1 (https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec01pa
lp/page/198). p. 199.
66. Michael W. Meister (1984). Discourses on Siva: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Nature of
Religious Imagery (https://books.google.com/books?id=9I3pAAAAMAAJ). University of Pennsylvania
Press. pp. 274–276. ISBN 978-0-8122-7909-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201906270724
21/https://books.google.com/books?id=9I3pAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 27 June 2019.
Retrieved 12 March 2017.
67. Lorenzen 1987, pp. 6–20.
68. "Early Strata of Śaivism in the Kathmandu Valley, Śivaliṅga Pedestal Inscriptions from 466–645 CE"
(https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-05904001). Indo-Iranian Journal. Brill Academic Publishers.
59 (4): 309–362. 2016. doi:10.1163/15728536-05904001 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-0590
4001).
69. Ganguli, Kalyan Kumar (1988). Sraddh njali, studies in Ancient Indian History. D.C. Sircar
Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. p. 36. ISBN 978-81-85067-10-0.
70. Dandekar (1977). "Vaishnavism: an overview" (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse
_v8f2). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion. MacMillan (Reprinted in 2005).
p. 9500. ISBN 978-0028657332.
71. Bakker, Hans T. (12 March 2020). The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia (https://books.google.
com/books?id=ZLnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98). Barkhuis. pp. 98–99 and 93. ISBN 978-94-93194-00-7.
72. Alain Daniélou 1987, p. 128. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAlain_Daniélou1987 (help)
73. Tattwananda 1984, p. 46.
74. David N. Lorenzen (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C). University of California Press. pp. xii, 4–5. ISBN 978-0-520-
01842-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170205143113/https://books.google.com/books?id
=Q4hm-k6fKs4C) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
75. Flood 2003, pp. 212-213.
76. Flood 2003, pp. 206-214.
77. Sanderson 2009, pp. 61–62 with footnote 64.
78. Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20191123062515/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/) 23 November 2019 at the
Wayback Machine, UNESCO World Heritage Sites; Quote: "It is known especially for its rathas
(temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the
famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory
of Shiva."
79. Alexis Sanderson (2014), 'The Saiva Literature, Journal of Indological Studies, Kyoto, Nos. 24 & 25,
pages 1–113
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 27/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
80. Ann R. Kinney, Marijke J. Klokke & Lydia Kieven 2003, p. 17.
81. Briggs 1951, pp. 230–249.
82. Alexis Sanderson 2004, pp. 349–352.
83. Pratapaditya Pal; Stephen P. Huyler; John E. Cort; et al. (2016). Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and
Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent (https://books.google.com/books?id=NXolDQAAQBAJ&pg
=PA61). University of California Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-520-28847-8. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20170326150329/https://books.google.com/books?id=NXolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61)
from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
84. Heather Elgood (2000). Hinduism and the Religious Arts (https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAw
AAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-304-70739-3. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20190809073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ) from the original
on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
85. Heather Elgood (2000). Hinduism and the Religious Arts (https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAw
AAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 143–167. ISBN 978-0-304-70739-3. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20190809073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ) from the original
on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
86. Wendy Doniger (2009), An Alternative Historiography for Hinduism, Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 2,
Issue 1, pages 17–26, Quote: "Numerous Sanskrit texts and ancient sculptures (such as the
Gudimallam linga from the third century BCE) define (...)"
87. Srinivasan, Doris (1984). "Unhinging Śiva from the Indus civilization". Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain & Ireland. Cambridge University Press. 116 (1): 77–89.
doi:10.1017/s0035869x00166134 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x00166134).
88. S. J. Vainker (1990). Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=zaA0AQAAIAAJ). British Museum Publications for the Trustees of the British
Museum. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-7141-1447-7.
89. Edward L. Shaughnessy (2009). Exploring the Life, Myth, and Art of Ancient China (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=EMgYyKoshGEC&pg=PA70). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-
4358-5617-2.
90. Ann R. Kinney, Marijke J. Klokke & Lydia Kieven 2003, p. 21-25.
91. Balinese people (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Balinese-people) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20190417161643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Balinese-people) 17 April 2019 at the
Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
92. R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong
Kong Press, pages 4–6, 14–16, 94–96, 160–161, 253
93. Andrea Acri (2015). D Christian Lammerts (ed.). Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern
Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=wgGhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA261). Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 261–275. ISBN 978-981-4519-06-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170328110026/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgGhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA261) from the
original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2017.
94. James Boon (1977). The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597–1972: Dynamic Perspectives in
Marriage and Caste, Politics and Religion. ISBN 0-521-21398-3.
95. Axel Michaels (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present (https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOM
QC). Princeton University Press. pp. 215–217. ISBN 0-691-08952-3. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170205003241/https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC) from the original on 5
February 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
96. Sanderson 1988, pp. 660-704.
97. Flood 2003, pp. 206–207.
98. Flood 2003, pp. 205–207, 215–221.
99. Flood 2003, pp. 221–223.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 28/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 29/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
17. Prem Prakash (1998). The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti
Sutras (https://books.google.com/books?id=oA7BLTFoOicC). Inner Traditions. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-
0-89281-664-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191223072138/https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=oA7BLTFoOicC) from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
18. Frazier, J. (2013). "Bhakti in Hindu Cultures". The Journal of Hindu Studies. Oxford University Press.
6 (2): 101–113. doi:10.1093/jhs/hit028 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhit028).
19. Lisa Kemmerer; Anthony J. Nocella (2011). Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy
from the World's Religions (https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC). Lantern. pp. 27–
36. ISBN 978-1-59056-281-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191227015011/https://books.
google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC) from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March
2017.
20. Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of Life, Plants of Death (https://books.google.com/books?id=KE
UAbrBoeBAC). University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-299-15904-7. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20191207073745/https://books.google.com/books?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC)
from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
21. K. Sivaraman (1973). Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective (https://books.google.com/books?id=I1bl
W4-yY20C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 336–340. ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20191228181231/https://books.google.com/books?id=I1blW4-yY20C) from the original
on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
22. John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
23. Flood 1996, p. 225.
24. Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett),
Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245–248
25. McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls (https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpI
j9SdkC). Oxford University Press. pp. 89–91. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170104022224/https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC) from the original on
4 January 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
26. Matthew James Clark (2006). The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages into an
Order (https://books.google.com/books?id=g3DXAAAAMAAJ). Brill. pp. 177–225. ISBN 978-90-04-
15211-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191230094518/https://books.google.com/books?id
=g3DXAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
27. Hurley, Leigh; Hurley, Phillip (2012). Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and
the Left-Hand Path (https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0983784728). Maithuna Publications.
p. 5. ISBN 9780983784722.
28. Kim Skoog (1996). Andrew O. Fort; Patricia Y. Mumme (eds.). Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=U1EZjyLbxYAC). SUNY Press. pp. 63–84, 236–239. ISBN 978-0-
7914-2706-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191225072647/https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=U1EZjyLbxYAC) from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
29. Rajendra Prasad (2008). A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=D5Hk8EkmQBcC). Concept. p. 375. ISBN 978-81-8069-544-5.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191229161604/https://books.google.com/books?id=D5Hk8
EkmQBcC) from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
30. Sanderson, Alexis (2013). "The Impact of Inscriptions on the Interpretation of Early Śaiva Literature".
Indo-Iranian Journal. Brill Academic Publishers. 56 (3–4): 211–244. doi:10.1163/15728536-13560308
(https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-13560308).
31. Flood 2003, pp. 223–224.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 30/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 32/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
67. JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0407-4, pages 252, 259
68. Gonda 1977, pp. 154–162.
69. Sanderson 1995, pp. 16–21.
70. Sanderson 1988, p. 663.
71. Sanderson 1988, pp. 663–670, 690–693.
72. Sanderson 1988, pp. 660–663.
73. Sanderson 1988, pp. 664–665.
74. Sanderson 1988, p. 664.
75. Sanderson, Alexis; "Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions." In The World's Religions, edited by S.
Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp.
665–666, context: pp. 660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by
F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72.
76. Cynthia Packert Atherton (1997). The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=ZkxXK5wFob4C). BRILL. pp. 92–97, 102–103. ISBN 90-04-10789-4. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170402173857/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkxXK5wFob4C) from
the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
77. Sanderson, Alexis; "Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions." In The World's Religions, edited by S.
Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp.
660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by F. Hardy. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72.
78. Vasugupta & Mark Dyczkowski (Translator) 1992, pp. 140–141.
79. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z (https://archive.org/detail
s/illustratedencyc0000loch). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 505 (https://archive.org/details/illustrate
dencyc0000loch/page/505). ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202003
16052117/https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch) from the original on 16 March 2020.
Retrieved 27 August 2019.
80. Alain Daniélou (1987). While the Gods Play (https://books.google.com/books?id=6pRe5Ta1W1YC&p
g=PA120). Inner Traditions. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-0-89281-115-1. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170330123711/https://books.google.com/books?id=6pRe5Ta1W1YC&pg=PA120) from the
original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
81. Dasgupta 1955, pp. 5-6.
82. Alain Daniélou (1987). While the Gods Play (https://books.google.com/books?id=6pRe5Ta1W1YC&p
g=PA120). Inner Traditions. pp. 124–129. ISBN 978-0-89281-115-1. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170330123711/https://books.google.com/books?id=6pRe5Ta1W1YC&pg=PA120) from the
original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
83. Paul E. Muller-Ortega 2010, pp. 31-38. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFPaul_E._Muller-
Ortega2010 (help)
84. Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA206). Penguin Books. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170330124702/https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdA
KFpkQC&pg=PA206) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
85. See Alexis Sanderson's Śaivism among the Khmers Part I, pp. 349—462 in the Bulletin de l'École
française d'Extrême-Orient 90—91 (2003—2004).
86. For Pāśupata as an ascetic movement see: Michaels (2004), p. 62.
87. Sanderson 1988, pp. 665–666.
88. Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda (https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGU
Y0gC&pg=PA789). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 789–790. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20200313065543/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA78
9) from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 33/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
89. Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-
9004178960, pages 182-183
90. Sanderson 1988, pp. 667–668.
91. Sanderson 1988, pp. 664, 667–668.
92. Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 44.
93. Flood 1996, p. 171.
94. Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.120
95. Sanderson 1988, pp. 662–663.
96. Guy L. Beck (1995). Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound (https://books.google.com/books?
id=ZgybmMnWpaUC&pg=PA173). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 173–175. ISBN 978-81-208-1261-1.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170402092411/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgybm
MnWpaUC&pg=PA173) from the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
97. Gavin Flood (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC). I.B.Tauris. pp. 58–61. ISBN 978-1-84511-011-6. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20140814100801/http://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC) from the
original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
98. John Myrdhin Reynolds (1996). The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First
Dzogchen Master (https://books.google.com/books?id=SJbxvDZOZz8C&pg=PA243). Shambhala.
pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-1-55939-868-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192511/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=SJbxvDZOZz8C&pg=PA243) from the original on 24 March 2017.
Retrieved 24 March 2017.
99. Braj B. Kachru (1981). Kashmiri Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C&pg=
PA10). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-3-447-02129-6. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170325024449/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C&pg=PA10) from
the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
00. Elaine Fisher (2017). Hindu Pluralism: Religion and the Public Sphere in Early Modern South India (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ZxsXvgAACAAJ). University of California Press. pp. 11–12, 209–
211 note 28. ISBN 978-0-52029-301-4.
01. Elaine Fisher (2017). Hindu Pluralism: Religion and the Public Sphere in Early Modern South India (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ZxsXvgAACAAJ). University of California Press. pp. 9–12, 220.
ISBN 978-0-52029-301-4.
02. A Topographical List Of The Inscriptions Of The Madras Presindency (collected Till 1915) With Notes
And References Volume I (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.34628), V. Rangacharya,
Madras Government Press, pages 47–48
03. Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 45.
04. Mariasusai Dhavamony 1971, pp. 14–22, 257–258.
05. Shaiva Siddhanta (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20170318092809/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) 18 March 2017 at the
Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
06. S Parmeshwaranand (2004). Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvb
JDacNDMC). Sarup & Sons. pp. 210 (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC/page/n21
6)–217. ISBN 978-81-7625-427-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190719230327/https://ar
chive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC) from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved
27 February 2020.
07. Flood 2003, pp. 209–210
08. Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. p. 34
09. S. Arulsamy, Saivism – A Perspective of Grace, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi,
1987, pp.1
10. Sanderson 1988, pp. 668–669.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 34/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 36/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
52. Aya Ikegame (2013). Princely India Re-imagined: A Historical Anthropology of Mysore from 1799 to
the present (https://books.google.com/books?id=bV5ElF17ezwC&pg=PA83). Routledge. p. 83.
ISBN 978-1-136-23909-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170214234243/https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=bV5ElF17ezwC&pg=PA83) from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved
11 March 2017.
53. Lingayat Religion – Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements, Jayant Lele (https://books.google.
com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA77). Brill Archive. 1981. ISBN 9004063706. Retrieved 22 May
2015.
54. Fredrick Bunce (2010), Hindu deities, demi-gods, godlings, demons, and heroes,
ISBN 9788124601457, page 983
55. Jan Peter Schouten (1995), Revolution of the Mystics: On the Social Aspects of Vīraśaivism, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812383, pages 2–3
56. David Levinson; Karen Christensen (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia (https://books.google.com/
books?id=iUoOAQAAMAAJ). Gale. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-684-80617-4. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20170214234047/https://books.google.com/books?id=iUoOAQAAMAAJ) from the original on
14 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.; Quote: "The Lingayats are a Hindu sect concentrated
in the state of Karnataka (a southern provincial state of India), which covers 191,773 square
kilometers. The Lingayats constitute around 20 percent of the total population in that state."
57. A. K. Ramanujan 1973.
58. R. Blake Michael 1992, pp. 168–175.
59. Edward P. Rice (1982). A History of Kannada Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=2fhCH-
NRatUC&pg=PA64). Asian Educational Services. pp. 64–72. ISBN 978-81-206-0063-8. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170215013237/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fhCH-NRatUC&pg=
PA64) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
60. Bill Aitken (1999). Divining the Deccan (https://books.google.com/books?id=sUJuAAAAMAAJ).
Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110, 213–215. ISBN 978-0-19-564711-2. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20170215013220/https://books.google.com/books?id=sUJuAAAAMAAJ) from the
original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
61. Leela Prasad (2012), Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town,
Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231139212, page 104
62. Velcheru Narayana Rao & Gene H. Roghair 2014, p. 7
63. "Kashmir Shaivism: From Kashmir to Tamil Nadu" (https://such.forumotion.com/t10657-kashmir-shai
vism-from-kashmir-to-tamil-nadu). Such.Forumotion. 6 February 2013.
64. "Shaivism in Tamils" (https://shaivam.org/scripture/English-Articles/1397/saivism-of-the-tamils).
Shaivam.org.
65. Gavin Flood (2008). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=SK
Bxa-MNqA8C). John Wiley & Sons. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20191223102025/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C) from the original on
23 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017., Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully
distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".
66. Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge,
ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pages 40–41, 302–315, 371–375
67. Sanderson 2009, pp. 44–45 with footnotes.
68. Chakravarti 1986, p. 171.
69. K. R. Subramanian (1 January 1989). Buddhist Remains in Āndhra and the History of Āndhra
Between 225 & 610 A.D. (https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA140) Asian
Educational Services. pp. 140–. ISBN 978-81-206-0444-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
170315005522/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA140#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse) from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 37/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
70. R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong
Kong Press, pages 16, 123, 494–495, 550–552
71. R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong
Kong Press, pages 130–131, 550–552
72. Hariani Santiko (1997), The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1178725) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180822214426/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178
725) 22 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226
73. R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong
Kong Press, pages 15–17
74. R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong
Kong Press, pages 155–157, 462–463
75. Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. "A Historical Sketch of Saivism", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), Volume IV pages
63 -78.
76. For more on the subject of Shaivite influence on Indonesia, one could read N.J.Krom, Inleiding tot de
Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst/Introduction to Hindu-Javanese Art, The Hague, Martinus Nijhof, 1923
77. Sanderson 2009, pp. 45–52 with footnotes.
78. Gudrun Bühnemann (2003). Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60). BRILL Academic. p. 60. ISBN 978-9004129023. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170205143322/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC
&pg=PA60) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
79. Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000fl
oo). Cambridge University Press. p. 17 (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/17).
ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
80. Diana L. Eck (1998). Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=
wWqaD9Hz1bMC). Columbia University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-231-11265-9. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20200225230234/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC) from the
original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
81. The Four Denominations of Hinduism (https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-se
cts) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170328151222/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/re
adlearn/basics/four-sects) 28 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Basics of Hinduism, Kauai Hindu
Monastery
82. James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (https://archive.org/detail
s/artarchitectureo00harl). Yale University Press. pp. 140 (https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0
0harl/page/140)–142, 191, 201–203. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
83. Frederick Asher (1981). Joanna Gottfried Williams (ed.). Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of
India (https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ). BRILL Academic. pp. 1–4. ISBN 90-04-
06498-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170205102943/https://books.google.com/books?id
=-qoeAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
84. Anupa Pande; Parul Pandya Dhar (2004). Cultural Interface of India with Asia: Religion, Art and
Architecture (https://books.google.com/books?id=PvxtAAAAMAAJ). National Museum Institute.
pp. 159 with note 13. ISBN 978-81-246-0262-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170327011
608/https://books.google.com/books?id=PvxtAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 27 March 2017.
Retrieved 26 March 2017.
85. Rocher 1986, p. 246, 248 with footnote 501.
86. Lipner 2012, pp. 319–320.
87. Stella Kramrisch 1993, p. 57.
88. Lipner 2012, pp. 312–313, 315–317, 374–375.
89. Lipner 2012, pp. 319–333.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 38/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 39/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 40/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
19. Christiaan Hooykaas (1974). Cosmogony and creation in Balinese tradition (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=dKdkAAAAMAAJ). Bibliotheca Indonesica, Volumes 9–10. Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-,
Land- en Volkenkunde. pp. 1–3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170328105934/https://book
s.google.com/books?id=dKdkAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 28 March
2017.
20. Jacob Ensink (1978), Siva-Buddhism in Java and Bali, Buddhism in Ceylon and studies on religious
syncretism in Buddhist countries, Vol. 133, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pages 146–177
21. Sanderson 2009, p. 243.
22. Gray 2016, p. 17.
23. Sanderson 2009, pp. 243–244.
24. Sanderson 2009, pp. 245–246.
25. Sanderson 2009, pp. 245–249.
26. Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press
27. Edi Sedyawati; Hariani Santiko; Hasan Djafar; et al. (2013). Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa: Indonesian-
English (https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLiCQAAQBAJ). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.
pp. 4–15. ISBN 978-602-17669-3-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170314152207/https://
books.google.com/books?id=MsLiCQAAQBAJ) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved
13 March 2017.
28. Fredrik Barth (1993). Balinese Worlds (https://books.google.com/books?id=L2nfb7UyssMC).
University of Chicago Press. pp. 31–36. ISBN 978-0-226-03834-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170314071445/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2nfb7UyssMC) from the original on 14
March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
29. Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC). Penguin Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20170418131501/https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC)
from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
30. Jack M. Clontz (2016). Khon Mask : Thailand Heritage (https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCw
AAQBAJ&pg=PA222). MOCA Bangkok. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-78301-872-7. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20170314071453/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222)
from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
31. Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, क्षेत्र (http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160912063425/http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html) 12 September 2016 at the
Wayback Machine "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage".
32. Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, ISBN 978-
0415590389
33. Ariel Glucklich 2008, p. 146, Quote: The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era
were called mahatmyas.
34. Geoffrey Waring Maw (1997). Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas
(https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ). Sessions Book Trust. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-
85072-190-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170216202914/https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
35. Sanjukta Dasgupta; Chinmoy Guha (2013). Tagore at Home in the World (https://books.google.com/
books?id=iBiJCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76). SAGE Publications. p. 76. ISBN 978-81-321-1149-8. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170330124831/https://books.google.com/books?id=iBiJCwAAQBAJ&
pg=PA76) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
36. Diana L. Eck (1998). Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=
wWqaD9Hz1bMC). Columbia University Press. pp. 65–67. ISBN 978-0-231-11265-9. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20200225230234/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC)
from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 41/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
37. B Sarawati (1985). Traditions of Tirthas in India: The Anthropology of Hindu Pilgrimage (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=cqEcAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2). N.K. Bose Memorial Foundation. pp. 5–7, 12.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170330114119/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqEcAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA2) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
38. Lochtefeld 2002, pp. 324-325
39. Harding 1998, pp. 158-158
40. Vivekananda Vol. 4
41. Venugopalam 2003, pp. 92–95
42. B Sarawati (1985). Traditions of Tirthas in India: The Anthropology of Hindu Pilgrimage (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=cqEcAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2). N.K. Bose Memorial Foundation. pp. 36–41.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170330114119/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqEcAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA2) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
43. Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. pp. 141–143.
ISBN 978-0-19-507045-3.
44. Indira Peterson (1983), Lives of the wandering singers: Pilgrimage and poetry in Tamil Śaivite
hagiography, History of Religions, University of Chicago Press, Vol. 22, No. 4, pages 338–360
45. Indira Peterson (1982), Singing of a place: pilgrimage as metaphor and motif in the Tēvāram songs
of the Tamil Śaivite saints (https://www.jstor.org/stable/601112) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170330083539/http://www.jstor.org/stable/601112) 30 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine,
Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 102, No. 1, pages 69–90
Sources
Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers. ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5. (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
Basham, A. L. (1989). Zysk, Kenneth (ed.). The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507349-2.
Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna Gopal (1913). Vaisnavism, Śaivism, and Minor Religious Systems. New
Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0122-2. Third AES reprint edition, 1995.
Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956). The Cultural Heritage of India (https://archive.org/details/cultural
heritage04bhat). Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes.
Bisschop, Peter C. (2020), "Early Śaivism - From Mantramārga Back to Atimārga: Atimārga as a
Self-referential Term", in Goodall, Dominic; Hatley, Shaman; Isaacson, Harunaga; Raman, Srilata
(eds.), Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson, Gonda
Indological Studies, 22, Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 14–32, doi:10.1163/9789004432802_003 (http
s://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004432802_003), ISBN 978-90-04-43266-6, S2CID 229212351 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229212351).
Bisschop, Peter C. (2018), Universal Śaivism: The Appeasement of All Gods and Powers in the
Śāntyadhyāya of the Śivadharmaśāstra, Gonda Indological Studies, 18, Leiden: Brill Publishers,
doi:10.1163/9789004384361 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004384361), ISBN 978-90-04-38246-
6, S2CID 158081966 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158081966).
Bisschop, Peter C. (2011), Shaivism (http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-97801
95399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml), Oxford University Press
Briggs, Lawrence Palmer (1951). "The Syncretism of Religions in Southeast Asia, Especially in the
Khmer Empire". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (4): 230–249. doi:10.2307/596106 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F596106). JSTOR 596106 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/596106).
Chakravarti, Mahadev (1986), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages (first ed.), Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 42/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Chakravarti, Mahadev (1994), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages (Second Revised ed.),
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0053-3
Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505742-3.
Daniélou, Alain (2017) [1964]. The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism
(https://books.google.com/books?id=OIXtDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover). Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3638-9. OCLC 24247413 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24247413).
S2CID 169604069 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169604069).
Daniélou, Alain (1984) [1979]. Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC&printsec=frontcover). Rochester, Vermont: Inner
Traditions. ISBN 0-89281-374-1. OCLC 25281659 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25281659).
S2CID 191033152 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191033152).
Daniélou, Alain (1987). While the Gods Play: Shaiva Oracles and Predictions on the Cycles of
History and the Destiny of Mankind (https://books.google.com/books?id=qNZrAwAAQBAJ).
Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions. ISBN 978-1-59477-736-3. OCLC 15696932 (https://www.world
cat.org/oclc/15696932).
Dasgupta, Surendranath (1955). A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 5: The Southern Schools of
Śaivism (https://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyBySurendranathDasgupta-5Volumes/
A.History.of.Indian.Philosophy.by.Surendranath.Dasgupta#page/n2311/mode/2up). Cambridge
University Press.
Mariasusai Dhavamony (1971). Love of God according to Śaiva Siddhānta: a study in the mysticism
and theology of Śaivism (https://books.google.com/books?id=tD8qAAAAYAAJ). Clarendon Press.
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism
(https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). "The Śaiva Traditions". The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405132510.
Gray, David B. (2016). "Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism". Oxford
Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.59 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F97801993403
78.013.59). ISBN 9780199340378.
Grimes, John A. (1995). Ganapati: Song of the Self. SUNY Series in Religious Studies. Albany: State
University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2440-7.
Harper, Katherine Anne; Brown, Robert L. (2002). The Roots of Tantra. Albany, New York: State
University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5306-3.
Ariel Glucklich (2008). The Strides of Vishnu : Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture
in Historical Perspective (https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC). Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971825-2.
Gonda, Jan (1977). "Ch. 10-13". Medieval Religious Literature in Sanskrit. A History of Indian
Literature 2.1. Harrassowitz Verlag.
Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.
Ann R. Kinney; Marijke J. Klokke; Lydia Kieven (2003). Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple
Art of East Java (https://books.google.com/books?id=sfa2FiIERLYC). University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN 978-0-8248-2779-3.
Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva (https://books.google.com/books?
id=O5BanndcIgUC). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01930-7.
Lorenzen, David N. (1987). "Śaivism: An Overview". In Mircea Eliade (ed.). The Encyclopedia of
Religion. 13. Collier Macmillan.
Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=OgMmceadQ3gC). Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 43/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Lipner, Julius (2012). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5.
Mallinson, James (2012). "Nāth Sampradāya". In Knut A. Jacobsen; Helene Basu; Angelika Malinar;
Vasudha Narayanan (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 3. Brill Academic.
Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9.
R. Blake Michael (1992). The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects: A Typological Analysis of Ritual and
Associational Patterns in the Śūnyasaṃpādane (https://books.google.com/books?id=wclA8r5f_LcC).
Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0776-1.
Paul E. Muller-Ortega (2010). Triadic Heart of Siva, The: Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the
Non-dual Shaivism of Kashmir (https://books.google.com/books?id=2maVlGOSdlMC). State
University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-1385-3.
Rigopoulos, Antonio (1998). Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the
Transformative and Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity. State University of New York
Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3696-7.
Nath, Vijay (March–April 2001). "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great
Tradition". Social Scientist. 29 (3/4): 19–50. doi:10.2307/3518337 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F35183
37). JSTOR 3518337 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518337).
Oberlies, T. (1998). Die Religion des Rgveda. Vienna.
S Parmeshwaranand (2004). Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvb
JDacNDMC). Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-427-4.
Pathak, V. S. (1960). History of Śaiva Cults in Northern India from Inscriptions, 700 A.D. to 1200 A.D.
Motilal Banarsidass.
Indira Viswanathan Peterson (2014). Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=kQwABAAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6006-7.
A. K. Ramanujan (1973). Speaking of Śiva (https://books.google.com/books?id=J4tIpcyRKZUC).
Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044270-0.
Velcheru Narayana Rao; Gene H. Roghair (2014). Siva's Warriors: The Basava Purana of Palkuriki
Somanatha (https://books.google.com/books?id=5hwABAAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-1-4008-6090-6.
Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447025225.
Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra (https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrT
Grbpf4C), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-69534-3
Sanderson, Alexis (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early
Medieval Period" (http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2009_the_s
aiva_age.pdf) (PDF). In Shingo Einoo (ed.). Genesis and Development of Tantrism. Tokyo: Institute
of Oriental Culture.
Sanderson, Alexis (1988). "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions". In S Sutherland; et al. (eds.). The
World's Religions. Routledge.
Sanderson, Alexis (1995). "Meaning of a Tantric Ritual". In AM Blondeau; K Schipper (eds.). Essais
sur le Rituel. Louvain: Peeters.
Alexis Sanderson (2004). "The Śaiva Religion among the Khmers Part I". Bulletin de l'École
Française d'Extrême-Orient. 90/91: 349–462. JSTOR 43732654 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/437326
54).
Alexis Sanderson (2010). Dominic Goodall & Andre Padoux (ed.). Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire
d'Hélène Brunner: Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner (https://books.google.com/books?id
=cHnhXwAACAAJ). Institut Français de Pondichéry. ISBN 978-2855396668.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 44/45
19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Hilko Wiardo Schomerus (2000). Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought : Presented
as a System and Documented from the Original Tamil Sources (https://books.google.com/books?id=
uUL8r9cOMXcC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1569-8.
Sharma, Ram Karan (1988). Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 978-81-208-0544-6. Second edition.
Tattwananda, Swami (1984), Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship (First Revised ed.),
Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd.
Vasugupta; Mark Dyczkowski (Translator) (1992). The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with
Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika (https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC). State
University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1264-0.
Winternitz, Maurice (1972). History of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint
Corporation. Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of
Calcutta.
External links
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Shaivism" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism)
Saivism.Net (http://www.saivism.net/)
Alexis sanderson, Publications (https://web.archive.org/web/20171207081214/http://www.alexissand
erson.com/publications.html), scholarly studies in Shaivism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 45/45