Studies of eye make-up and shortening

show how psychographics help

Activities, Interests and Opinions

In the early 1950s advertising and contestants and the audience wearied, In addition to the exotic (and largely
marketing were host to an extended the spotlight moved from MR and the unworkable) projective tests, motivation
and lively fad that came to be known couch to OR and the computer. researchers etnployed long, free-flowing
as Motivation Research. Armed with But MR left a legacy. Before MR, narrative interviews, and through these
"projective techniques" from clinical advertising and marketing research had interviews marched an array of moth-
psychology and some exciting notions in fact been a vast wasteland of per- ers who worried about getting the kids
from psychoanalysis, MR practitioners centages. The marketing manager who to school on time, old ladies whose feet
penetrated deeply into the consumer's wanted to know why people ate fhe hurt, fretful young housewives who
psyche, revealing for the first time to competitor's cornflakes was told "32 didn't know how to make a good pie
their astounded clients the "real" rea- per cent of the respondents said taste, crust, fathers who felt guilty about
sons people buy products. 21 per cent said flavor, 15 per cent watching television when they should
The research establishment's reac- said texture, 10 per cent said price, be painting the porch and skinny kids
tion was predictable. Conventional and 22 per cent said don't know or who secretly, but sincerely, believed
researchers insisted that MR was no answer." The copywriter who that The Breakfast of Champions had
unreliable, invalid, unobjective, too wanted to know his audience was told: something to do with their batting
expensive, liable to be misleading, and "32.4 years old, 12.62 years of school- averages. For the first time, research
altogether an instrument of the Devil ing, 90 per cent married with 2.1 brought the marketing manager and
—and whatever was good about moti- children." the copywriter face to face with an
vation research had long been standard To this desert MR brought people. audience or a group of customers in-
practice anyway. TTie motivation re- stead of a bunch of decimals. The
searchers replied that conventional re- marketing manager and the copywriter
Data used in this article were provided
search was sterile, dull, shallow, rigid, thought they were—and they prob-
by Market Facts, Inc. and the Leo Bur-
and superficial. nett Company, Inc. The analysis was ably were in fact—aided in their task
The controversy rolled on through made possible by a grant from the Ford of communication.
the '50s until everything that could be Foundation to the Graduate School of The rise of OR and the computer
Business, University of Chicago.
said had been said too often. As the did nothing to change this need to
27
Journal of Advertising Research

have some sensible contact with be- "When I set my mind to do something questions added significant detail to
lievable humans. As the mathematical I usually can do it," and the respond- this emerging picture. Compared with
models proliferated, percentages and ent answered on a scale that ran from the non-user of eye make-up, the user
averages turned into dots, arrows, 1 (definitely disagree) to 6 (definitely appeared to be much more interested
brackets, boxes, asterisks, and squig- agree). The statements covered a wide in fashion. For instance, she was more
gles. The humans who used to show variety of topics—including day-to-day apt to agree with statements like: "I
up in motivation research reports dis- activities; interests in media, the arts, often try the latest hairdo styles when
appeared into the computer and clothes, cosmetics and homemaking; they change;" "I usually have one or
emerged as regression coefficients and and opinions on many matters of gen- more outfits that are of the very latest
eigenvalues. The copywriter and the eral interest. style;" "An important part of my life
marketing manager, especially the and activities is dressing smartly;" and
copywriter, still needed some way to "I enjoy looking through fashion mag-
appreciate the consumer. Swinging Eye Make-Up User azines."
It begins to appear that this tieed will Secondly, she said in a number of
now be met at least in part by research One of the products on the ques- ways that being attractive to others,
that focuses on consumers' activities, tionnaire was eye make-up. Respond- and especially to men, is an important
interests, prejudices, and opinions. ents were asked how often they use it aspect of her self image. (All the re-
Variously called "psychographic" re- on a seven-step scale ranging from spondents in this study were home-
search, "life style" research and even "never" to "more than once a day". makers. The large majority were mar-
(incorrectly) "attitude" research, it The demographic questions showed ried.) More than the non-user of eye
resembles motivation research in that that eye make-up users tend to be make-up, the user said, "I like to feel
a major aim is to draw recognizably young and well-educated, and tend to attractive to all men;" "Looking at-
human portraits of consumers. But it live in metropolitan areas. Usage rates tractive is important in keeping your
also resembles the tougher-minded, were much higher for working wives husband;" "I want to look a little dif-
more conventional research in that it than for full-time homemakers, and ferent from others;" and "I like what I
is amenable to quantification and re- substantially higher in the West than see when I look in the mirror."
spectable samples. in other parts of the country. She indicated that she is very metic-
This paper is about this new and Cross-tabulation with other products ulous about her person: "I comb my
slightly more sanitary version of moti- showed the user of eye make-up to be hair and put on my lipstick first thing
vation research. It starts with a specific a heavy user of other cosmetics— in the morning;" "I take good care of
example. It mentions various uses. It liquid face make-up base, lipstick, hair my skin;" "I do not feel clean without
describes some of the techniques of spray, perfume, and nail polish, for a daily bath;" and "Sloppy people feel
data gathering and analysis. It ends example. Perhaps less predictably, she terrible."
with a discussion of some criticisms also turned out to be an above-average More than the non-user she said, "I
and problems, and the usual rosy but cigarette smoker and an above-average would like to make a trip around the
cautious predictions about develop- user of gasoline and the long distance world;" "I would like to spend a year
ments in the future. telephone. in London or Paris;" "I enjoy going
On television, she liked the movies, through an art gallery;" and "I like
the Tonight Show, and Run For Your ballet."
Design Life; she didn't like panel programs She said, "I like parties where there
or Westerns. She read fashion maga- is lots of music and talk;" "I like
One thousand questionnaires were zines, news magazines and Life and things that are bright, gay and excit-
mailed to homemaker members of Look; she didn't read True Confes- ing;" and "I do more things socially
Market Facts' mail panel. In addition sions or Successful Farming. than do most of my friends." Not sur-
to the usual demographics and ques- Thus, eye make-up is clearly not an prisingly, she said "no" to "I am a
tions about a variety of products, the isolated product. Instead, it is part of homebody."
questionnaires contained 300 "activity, a behavior pattern, a pattern that sug- As far as household chores are con-
interest, and opinion" statements to gests an organized set of tastes and cerned, she conceded that she is not a
which the respondent indicated degree values. compulsive housekeeper. She said
of agreement on a six-point scale. For Cross-tabulation of eye make-up "yes" to "1 would like to have a maid
instance, the first statement was. with the activity, interest, and opinion to do the housework" and "no" to:
28
 Volume 11, Number 4, August 1971
"I like to go grocery shopping" and "I ucts that go with large families. They favorite room." She also said, "I love
enjoy most forms of housework." were not heavy users of eye make-up to eat" and "I love candy."
Her reaction to her home was style- or any of the cosmetics that go with it. Instead of disliking the job of keep-
conscious rather than utilitarian: "I In the activity, interest, and opinion ing house, she said she likes it: "I
like to serve unusual dinners;" "I am questions the contrast deepened. Al- enjoy most forms of housework;"
interested in spices and seasonings;" most none of the items that correlated "Usually I have regular days for wash-
"If I had to choose I would rather with use of eye make-up also corre- ing, cleaning, etc. around the house;"
have a color television set than a new "I am uncomfortable when my house
lated with use of shortening. When
refrigerator." She said "no" to "I fur- is not completely clean." She disagreed
the same question did correlate with
nish my home for comfort, not for with "I would like to have a maid to
both products, the correlations were
style;" "I try to arrange my home for do the housework" and "My idea of
my children's convenience;" and "It is usually in opposite directions.
housekeeping is 'once over lightly.' "
more important to have good appli- Compared with the light user of
She said she sews: "I often make
ances in the home than good furni- shortening, the heavy user expressed
my own or my children's clothes" and
ture." a much stronger interest in cooking
"I like to sew and frequently do."
and baking. With much greater fre-
Finally, she ascribed to a number of She indicated heavy involvement
statements that suggest acceptance of quency she said "yes" to, "I love to
with her children and with the positive
the contemporary and rejection of bake and frequently do;" "I save
emotional tone of her family: "I try
traditional ideas. More than the non- recipes from newspapers and maga- to arrange my home for my children's
user she tended to agree with, "I like zines;" **I always bake my cakes from convenience," a statement that cor-
to think I am a bit of a swinger;" "I scratch;" and "The kitchen is my related negatively with eye make-up
like bright, splashy colors;" and "I use. She also said, "Our family is a
really do believe that blondes have close-knit group;" "There is a lot of
more fun." She rejected statements love in our family;" and "I spend a
like, "Women should not smoke in lot of time with my children talking
public;" "There is too much emphasis about their activities, friends, and
on sex today;" "Spiritual values are problems."
more important than material things;" An unexpected and certainly non-
and "If it was good enough for my obvious finding was that she is unusu-
mother, it is good enough for me." ally health conscious, and this frame
of mind extends to a personal interest
in fresh air and exercise: "Everyone
The Heavy User of Shortening should take walks, bicycle, garden, or
otherwise exercise several times a
In the same study, another product week;" "Clothes should be dried in the
—shortening—produced a vividly con- fresh air and sunshine;" "I love the
trasting picture. Compared with the fresh air and out-of-doors;" "It is very
heavy user of eye make-up, the heavy William D. Wells is profe^or of psy- important for people to wash their
user of shortening was not as young, chology and marketing in the Grad- hands before eating each meal;" and
had a larger family and was much less uate School of Business, University of "You should have a medical checkup
Chicago. After service in the L].$. at least once a year."
likely to have a job outside the home.
Anny he attended Lafayette College,
She was also much more apt to be liv- where he received an A.B. degree in Finally, she said she is not a party-
ing outside a metropolitan area, and psychology^ and Stanford University goer, and she is definitely not cosmo-
to be living in the South, especially the where he received M.A. and Ph.D. politan: "I would rather spend a quiet
Southeast. degrees, also in psychology. Before evening at home than go to a party"
The clues continued in the product joining the Chicago faculty, he was a and "I would rather go to a sporting
memher of the faculty of Rutgers Uni-
use pattern. Heavy users of shortening event than a dance." She said "No"
versity and a consultant to Benton &
tended to be heavy users of flour, Bowles, Inc. He is now a consultant to "Classical music is more interesting
sugar, laundry detergent, canned lunch to Leo Burnett Company^ Inc., and a than popular music;" "I like ballet;"
meat, canned vegetables, cooked pud- member of the Board of Editors of the and "I'd like to spend a year in Lon-
ding, mustard, and catsup—all prod- Jourruxl of Marketing Research. don or Paris."

29
Jotirnal of Advertising Research
These two sharply contrasting por- up user, while the male Reader's demographic profile matching. The
traits—the eye make-up user and the Digest reader emerges as the soul of correlations that link products to
shortening user—show how recogniz- conservative middle class values— media through psychographics are no
able humans emerge from quantified pro-business, anti-government welfare, stronger than the correlations that link
activity, interest and opinion data. anti-union power, interested in politics, products to media through demo-
interested in community projects and graphics, so a product and a medium
activities. The Time-only reader, com- can have similar activity, interest, and
Portraits of Target Groups pared with the Newsweek-OTs[y reader, opinion profiles without being much
emerges as less concerned about job related to each other. It is always safer
Perhaps the most ohvious use of this security, less worried about govern- to use the direct product-medium link
kind of research is the one already ment and union power, less worried in selecting media than to try to infer
mentioned—portraits of target groups about the peril of communism and this link through some third set of
in the advertising and marketing of more favorably disposed toward ad- variables.
products. If it is granted that all forms vertising (Tigert, 1969). Where psychographics can be of
of advertising and marketing are in Media analysts know that, com- help in media selection is in improving
some sense communication, and if it is pared with magazines, television is a the analyst's understanding of the
granted that a communicator can usu- very "blunt" medium. Since magazine product-medium linkages that are
ally do a better joh when he can audiences select themselves in ac- found through direct cross-tabulation.
visualize his audience than when he cordance with the magazine's special- For instance, if direct cross-tabulation
cannot, it seems obvious that this level ized editorial content, while television shows that many heavy users of home
of descriptive detail is a significant program audiences are usually very permanents are devoted readers of
improvement over the rather sparse large and very heterogeneous, it is True Story, the activities, interests, and
and sterile demographic profiles that usually much easier to find distinct opinions of the women who both use
have heen traditional in marketing demographic differences among the the product and read the magazine
research. readers of different magazines than will help explain the reasons behind
The target group is often, but by among the viewers of different tele- this relationship by showing what, ex-
no means always, the product's heavy vision programs. But work with ac- actly, home permanent users and True
user. The target group may be the light tivity, interest, and opinion variables Story readers have in common. That
user or the non-user. It may be some suggests that television program audi- sort of understanding is often of great
special segment, such as smokers of ences may be more different than some help in making sensible decisions.
mentholated cigarettes. It may be some suspect.
demographic segment, such as young Before Brand Rating Index, Sim-
married men with a college education. mons, and other syndicated product- Other Variables
If a target group can be specified and media services became widely avail-
identified, a useful portrait is at least able, it was customary to match media Questions about activities, interests,
a possibility. with products by demographic "pro- and opinions can shed light on topics
file": "Our product is used by young, other than products and media. They
upscale housewives, so we want to be can give additional meaning to the
Media Values Not in the in a book that appeals to young, up- standard demographic classifications
Numbers scale housewives." It has sometimes hy showing how the executive's wife
been suggested that the psychographic differs from the homemaker in a blue-
Media representatives insist that an profile be substituted for the demo- collar household. They can further de-
audience's quality, as well as its size, graphic profile as a link between prod- fine the generation gap. They can add
should be considered. Activity, inter- uct and media: "Our product is used to what is known about sex differences.
est, and opinion questions provide by women with a certain activity, in- They can further describe the opinion
some insight into audience quality by terest, and opinion pattern, so we want leader, the new product tryer, the
drawing a portrait of the medium's to be in books or on TV programs that television addict, the trading stamp
user. The Piayboy reader, for instance, appeal to people who match that de- saver, the discount shopper, the po-
turns out to be pretty much the male scription." But this intuitively appeal- litical activist, the lady who thinks
ing idea has the same drawbacks as there is too much advertising to chil-
counterpart of the swinging eye make-
30
 Volume 11, Number 4, August 1971
dren on television. For almost any scale name (e.g., "Credit User," "Fash-
identifiable type of behavior there is at Individual Items vs. Scales ion Conscious") encourages the ana-
least the possibility of new insight lyst to think only in terms of the name
when the behavior is viewed in the The user of activity, interest, and rather than the richness of detail in
context of opinions, interests, and ac- opinion material has the option of the individual items. (3) Since scale
tivities. Topics studied in this way in- employing a large, highly diversified items are never exact duplicates of
clude age and social class (Tigert, collection of statements tbat cover as each other, there are times when the
1970), opinion leadership and infor- many different topics as possible, or of scale as a whole correlates with some
mation seeking (Reynolds and Darden, using a more limited number of multi- other variable but individual items do
1971), fashion interest and leadership item scales. The multi-item scale ap- not, and there are times wben individ-
(Summers, 1970), reactions to new proacb is favored by psychometric ual items correlate with some other
product concepts (Nelson, 1971), fur- tradition because properly constructed variable but the scale as a whole does
niture store choice and preferences for scales are invariably more reliable not. Thus, the scale approach some-
furniture styles (Good and Suchland, than individual items. times misses some potentially useful
1970) and Stone's concept of "shop- Unbappily, however, scales have relationships. (4) Use of pre-estab-
ping orientations" (Darden and Reyn- four important disadvantages: (1) lished scales limits the findings to di-
olds, 1971). They limit coverage because they re- mensions the analyst thought would be
duce the number of topics covered by important, thereby precluding discov-
any given number of items, and tbe ery of tbe unexpected.
Getting the Data longer tbe scales, tbe greater the re- The alternative is to tbrow a wide
duction. (2) The shorthand of tbe net and hope to catch something in-
Since activity, interest, and opinion teresting, a practice sometimes dispar-
items are self-administering to literate agingly referred to as a fishing expedi-
respondents, data can be obtained tion. While tbis criticism sbould not
through either personal contact or be taken lightly, it should also be
establisbed mail panels. Personal con- borne in mind tbat going on a fishing
tact permits probability samples. It expedition is one of tbe best ways to
can also, witb enougb effort, reach catch fish. The items listed in Appen-
bard-to-find respondents like young dix 1, and the items cited in the ex-
single males, transients, hippies, and amples, typify items that have worked
prisoners. For many purposes, how- well in past studies. An item library
ever, establisbed mail panels yield a too large for reproduction here is
satisfactory return at a good cost. Be- available from the autbors.
cause activity, interest, and opinion
questions are in general so very inter-
esting to respondents, mail question- Forced Choice vs. Scalar
naires as long as 25 pages have yielded Responses
usable returns from 75 to 80 per cent
of mail panel samples. Douglas J. Tigert is associate profes-
sor of marketing in the School of As an alternative to baving tbe re-
Good items come from intuition, Business, University of Toronto. He spondent mark a scale position to in-
hunches, conversations with friends, received his B. Commerce at Queen*s dicate his answer, some analysts pre-
other research, reading, head scratch- University in Kingston, Ontario, the fer to present two AIO statements
ing, day-dreaming, and group or in- M.B.A. degree at Northwestern Uni- and ask the respondent to indicate
versity and the Ph.D. at Purdue Uni-
dividual narrative interviews. Appendix versity. Prior to joining the staff at which be agrees with more. Others
1 is a list of items that came from the University of Toronto, he was on prefer to ask the respondent to rank
these sources and from Wilson (1966), the staff of the Graduate Schools of a set of statements from most to least
Pessemier and Tigert {1966), and a Business at Purdue University and the agreement. When carefully applied,
set of unpublished studies by Social University of Chicago. Dr. Tigert has these alternatives can help suppress
Researcb, Inc. for MacFadden-Bartell published in the Journal of Market- the undesirable effects of "yeasaying,"
ing Research, Joumal of Business,
Corporation. The items are grouped Management Science, and this Jour- social desirability, and other trouble-
into "scales" through factor analysis. nal. some response styles, and they force

31
Journal of Advertising Research
discrimination among items that might product use scale has seven, the rela-
otherwise be marked at the same scale tionship between each AIO and the Applications
position. On the other hand, forced- product would appear in an ordinary
choice and ranking questions are often 6 x 7 table. Here are three examples of the way
difficult to administer and difficult for But when the sample is small, or relationships between products and
the respondent to handle, and analysis wben either AIO or product responses AIO items have been turned into ac-
of the data presents certain sticky are highly skewed, a 6 x 7 table will tion. Tbey are derived from real situa-
problems. Studies that used the forced have many empty or nearly empty tions, but, for obvious reasons, tbey
choice approach successfully are de- cells. In these common situations, it are heavily disguised.
scribed by Nelson (1969. 1971). The is best to condense the data before- A new car wax is a significant im-
analysis problems are described by hand by grouping scale steps to em- provement over products now on the
Hicks (1970). brace reasonable numbers of respond- market. The plan is to present this
ents. Wben using a six-step scale, a new wax in the context of fantastic
strategy that usually works satisfac- and futuristic space gadgetry, a prod-
Clinical vs. AIO Variables torily is to group steps 1-2, 3-4, 5-6. uct so much better than anything now
If many relationships must be con- available tbat it belongs in the twenty-
Some of the earliest attempts to use sidered, for instance 100 products x first century. An examination of the
tbis sort of material in advertising and 300 AIO items, tbe analyst wbo orders AIO profile of the target group shows
marketing researcb employed stand- a complete cross-tabulation will find no special interest in tbe future, in
ardized inventories designed to meas- 30,000 tables on his desk before he fantasy, in science, or in space. In-
ure general personality traits, with can shut off the computer. One alter- stead the potential customer appears
results that were usually somewhat dis- native is to order a product's X AIO's to be preoccupied with the here and
appointing (Evans, 1959; Westfall, correlation matrix, and to have only now, and to be most impressed by
1962). Much of the later work has those product-AIO correlations tbat facts, by proof, by the testimony of
tended to move away from general are statistically significant cross-tabu- others he trusts and by demonstra-
personality traits toward variables that lated. This strategy may throw away tion. The campaign is reoriented to
are more closely related to tbe behav- some significant and potentially inter- take account of this disposition.
ior under consideration—bomemaking esting curvilinear relationsbips, but it A product traditionally advertised
activities and interests for household avoids tbe stupefying effect of 30,000 in folksy, bomey, small town settings
products, sociability items for cos- tables. A more detailed description of is found to be most heavily used by
metics, and so on. As a result, it has this approach can be found in an young bousewives with an AIO pro-
often been found that significant re- article by Plummer (1971). file almost as swinging as that of the
lationsbips emerged where none had Once the significant relationships eye make-up user. Tbis finding fosters
been found before, and it has often have been found, tbe problem is to consideration of new advertising, and
been easier to visualize uses for tbe organize and understand them. Here produces recommendations for changes
relationships tbat were uncovered. the analyst's skill, experience, and in- in promotion and packaging.
Nevertheless, the use of general per- genuity come to work, just as they did Tbe advertising for a heavy duty
sonality traits has not been abandoned. in tbe analysis of motivation research floor cleaner has been emphasizing its
Their value, especially when combined interview data. Factor analysis is a ability to remove visible dirt such as
with activity, interest, and opinion great help. R factor analysis can help mud, dog tracks, and spilled food. The
items, is clearly demonstrated in stud- condense AIO data by putting related AIO profile of the target group shows
ies by Nelson (1969) andZifi (1971). statements together into categories. Q great concern about germs and odors,
factor analysis can further simplify the and unusual preoccupation with the
problem by grouping respondents into appearance of surfaces. Tbe recom-
Analyses types with similar response patterns. mendation is to place special emphasis
Neitber of tbese procedures is auto- on the product's germicidal qualities
When the sample is large and re- matic or fool-proof, however, and and to feature tbe shiny surface tbe
sponses are well scattered, the simplest there is little danger that the computer product leaves when the job is finished.
way to look at AIO material is ordi- will replace the experienced and in- Further examples of actual and po-
nary cross-tabulation. For instance if sightful analyst in tbe bridge between tential uses of AIO material can be
the AIO scale has six steps, and tbe data gathering and application. found in Husted and Pessemier
32
 Volume 11, Number 4, August 1971
(1971), Nelson (1971). Plummer It should be remembered, however,
(1971) and Tigert (1969, 1971). that the variance "explained" is the Overlapping Portraits
variance in the behavior of individuals,
AIO portraits do not always differ
not the variance in the average be-
Criticisms and Problems as much as the portraits of the eye
havior of groups, so a product-moment
make-up user and the shortening user.
correlation of .2 is deceptively small. Many cosmetics are much alike. The
It has been said that the relationships Consider the following cross-tabulation heavy user of sugar looks like the
between AIOs and products or media table. The product-moment correla- heavy user of shortening and heavy
are merely surface manifestations of tion is .2—4 per cent of the variance user of fiour. These overlaps occur
the more familiar, more "basic" demo- "explained"—yet the relationship is because products themselves overlap,
graphics. The psychographic profile of obviously meaningful. forming families that denote life styles
ihe Playboy reader, for instance, might This point has been discussed in de- (Wells, 1968).
be thought of as merely a sign that tail by Bass, Tigert, and Lonsdale
Playboy''?, readers are young, relatively But even similar portraits sometimes
(1968), so it will not be belabored show useful differences, like the dif-
well-educated males. While this asser- here. Perhaps it is sufficient to say
tion is In part correct, two considera- ferences between heavy users of fresh
that anyone who refuses to look at the oranges and heavy users of fresh
lions suggest that it would be wrong to relationships between AIOs and prod-
depend on demographics only. First, lemons. Both groups of respondents
ucts, or AIOs and media, must also— show a strong interest in cooking and
two products with very similar demo-
to be consistent—refuse to look at the baking, especially with unusual reci-
graphic profiles sometimes turn out to
relationships between products or pes. Both also show unusual interest
have usefully different psychographic
media and demographics, because the in community activities. However, the
profiles. Fresh oranges and fresh
correlations are the same size, or heavy user of fresh oranges, but not
lemons are one example, as noted later
smaller. Further, anyone who rejects the heavy user of fresh lemons is dis-
in this paper.
the relationships between AIOs and tinguished by a strong need for clean-
Second, a demographic bracket in products, or AIOs and media, must liness: "A house should be dusted and
itself means little unless one has a also reject the use of media selection polished at least three times a week."
clear picture of its life style implica- models that depend upon relationships "It is very important for people to
tions. Everyone has some idea of what brush their teeth at least five times a
between media use and product use.
it means to be a young mother with day." "Odors in the house embarrass
These relationships, too, when ex-
a college education, or a middle-aged me." The heavy user of fresh lemons,
pressed as product-moment correla-
male with a blue-collar job, but such but not the heavy user of fresh
tions, are rarely higher than .3.
designations can be richly supple- oranges, is distinguished by an unusual
mented by information about the ac- interest in fresh air and exercise: "I
tivities, interests, and opinions that go love the fresh air and out-of-doors."
with them. Plummer's (1971) study TABLE 1
"I bowl, play tennis, golf or other ac-
of bank charge card users shows ex- CROSS-TABULATION OF
SHORTENING USE AND DEGREE tive sports quite often." And the
plicitly how AIO data can produce re- OF AGREEMENT WITH "1 SAVE heavy user of fresh oranges, but not
sults that did not emerge when only RECIPES FROM NEWSPAPERS
AND MAGAZINES'* the heavy user of fresh lemons, indi-
demographic data were available. cates she is a bargain hunter: "I usu-
Once Few Once a
a Week Times Day or ally watch the advertisements for an-
or Less a Week More nouncements of sales," and "I'm not
Low Correlations (286) (296) (204) a penny-pincher but I love to shop for
Definitely Agree 42% 52% 63% bargains."
Generally Agree 24% 25% 19%
When expressed as product-moment Moderately Thus, the two groups are much
correlations, the relationships between Agree 20% 12% 14%
Moderately, alike, but they also differ along inter-
AIO items and products or media are Generally or esting and actionable dimensions.
low—often around .2, and seldom Definitely
higher than .3 or .4. Thus, they do Disagree 14% 11% 4%
not "explain the variance" very well, • To avoid small cell frequencies both
variables are condensed by combining Are Heavy Users All Alike?
even when put together in a prediction adjacent categories.
equation. Certain products may be heavily
33
Journal of Advertising Research
used for two or more quite different similarity between the consumer in HusTED, THOMAS P. AND EDGAR A. PES-
purposes. For instance, mouthwash SEMIER. Segmenting Consumer Markets
New England and the consumer in with Activity and Attitude Measures. Pa-
may be used as a precaution against Old England than there is between the per No. 298, Institute for Research in
colds, or as a cosmetic. Since the cold the Behavioral, Economic and Manage-
consumer in New England and the ment Sciences, Krannert Graduate School
user and the cosmetic user have very consumer in New Orleans. Increas- of Industrial Administration, Purdue Uni-
different life styles (Nelson, 1969), versity, March, 1971.
ingly, markets will need to be seg-
the picture presented by "the heavy mented more on psychological, social NELSON, ALAN R. A National Study of
user" will be a jumble of the two. It is and attitudinal criteria than on the Psychographics. Paper presented at the
52nd International Marketing Congress,
important to be aware of this possi- traditional bases of geography and American Marketing Association, At-
bility and to separate users into sub- demography." lanta, Georgia, June, 1969.
groups whenever there is reason to Partly as a result of such urging, the NELSON, ALAN R . New Psychographics:
suspect that the product plays a variety Action-Creating Ideas, Not Lifeless Sta-
use of psychographics and related tistics. Advertising Age, June 28, 1971,
of roles. techniques is gaining considerable mo- pp. 1, 34.
mentum. A substantial number of PESSEMIER, EDGAR A. AND DOUGLAS J.
large scale proprietary studies have TIGERT. In J. S. Wright and J. L. Gold-
stucker (Eds.) New Ideas for Successful
Thin Products been conducted, with enough success Marketing, Chicago, 111.: American Mar-
that at least some of the sponsors have keting Association, 1966.
come back to ask for more. The ap- PLUMMER, JOSEPH T . Life Style and Ad-
Not all products correlate signifi- proach has sparked interest among vertising: Case Studies. Paper given at
cantly with a large number of activity, 54th Annual International Marketing
academic researchers, and papers on Congress, American Marketing Associa-
interest, and opinion items. In one it or using it are beginning to appear. tion, San Francisco, California, April,
typical study, of 127 products, 32 cor- 1971.
related significantly with fewer than The danger, of course, is that this
PLUMMER, JOSEPH T . Life Style Patterns
ten of the 300 AIO items, 67 corre- somewhat novel way of sizing up con- and Commercial Bank Credit Card Us-
sumers will be oversold, and that users age. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, No.
lated significantly with more than 10 2, pp. 35-41.
but fewer than 30, and 35 correlated will be disappointed when it does not
significantly with more than 30. Since turn out magic answers to all conceiv- REYNOLDS, FRED D . AND WILLIAM R.
DARDEN. Mutually Adaptive Effects of
portraits provided by fewer than ten able questions. Readers who respond Interpersonal Communication. Journal of
"definitely agree" to the statement, Marketing Research. Forthcoming, 1971.
correlations are usually not very help-
ful, a general rule of thumb would be "Most people have a lot of common SUMMERS, JOHN O . The Identity of Wom-
sense," will hope that that won't hap- en's Clothing Fashion Opinion Leaders.
that the chances of drawing a blank Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 7,
are about one in four. pen. 1970, pp. 178-185.
It is hard to know why some prod- TIGERT, DOUGLAS J. Life Style Correlates
REFERENCES of Age and Social Class. Paper presented
ucts are so "thin". It is not because at the first annual meeting of the Associ-
"rich" products are used by small, BASS, FRANK M., DOUGLAS J. TIGERT, AND ation for Consumer Research, Amherst,
RICHARD T. LONSDALE. Market Segmen- Mass., August, 1970.
way-out segments of the population, tation: Group Versus Individual Behav-
while "thin" products are used by ior. Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. TIGERT, DOUGLAS J. A Psychographic Pro-
5, No. 3, August 1968, pp. 264-70. file of Magazine Audiences: An Investi-
people in general. Instant coffee, cat gation of a Media's Climate. Paper pre-
food, laxatives, and cold cereal have DARDEN, WILLIAM R . AND FRED D . REYN- sented at the American Marketing Asso-
OLDS. Shopping Orientations and Product ciation Consurner Behavior Workshop,
all shown few AIO associations; laun- Usage Rates. Journal of Marketing Re- Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio,
dry detergent, stomach remedies, gaso- search. Forthcoming, 1971. 1969.
line, and fioor wax have shown many. EVANS, FRANKLIN B . Psychological and WELLS, WILLIAM D . In J. Arndt (Ed.).
The potential user should be aware Objective Factors in the Prediction of Insights into Consumer Behavior. New
Brand Choice: Ford vs. Chevrolet. Jour- York: Allyn and Bacon, 1968.
that "rich" results are not automatic. nal of Business, Vol. 32, October 1959,
pp. 340-369. WESTFALL, RALPH. Psychological Factors
in Predicting Product Choice. Journal of
GOOD, WALTER S. AND OTTO SUCHSLAND. Marketing. Vol. 26, April 1962, pp. 34-50.
Consumer Life Styles and Their Rela-
The Future tionship to Market Behavior Regarding
Household Furniture. Research Bulletin,
WILSON, CLARK C . In J. S. Wright and
J. L. Goldstucker (Eds.). New Ideas for
No. 26, Michigan State University, 1970. Successful Marketing, Chicago, III.:
American Marketing Association, 1966.
In a recent issue of this Journal, HICKS, LOU E . Some Properties of Ip-
James Benson, chairman of Ogilvy and sative. Normative, and Forced Choice ZiFF. RUTH. Psychographics for Market
Measures. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. Segmentation. Journal of Advertising Re-
Mather, was quoted: "There is more 74, No. 3, pp. 167-184. search, Vol. U , No. 2, pp. 3-9.
34
 Volume 11, Number 4, August 1971

APPENDIX 1
PRICE CONSCIOUS at home than go out to a party. INFORMATION SEEKER
I shop a lot for "specials". I like parties where there is lots of I often seek out the advice of my
I find myself checking the prices in the music and talk. (Reverse scored) friends regarding which brand to buy.
grocery store even for small items. I would rather go to a sporting event I spend a lot of time talking with my
than a dance. friends about products and brands.
I usually watch the advertisements for
announcements of sales. I am a homebody. My neighbors or friends usually give
nie good advice on what brands to buy
A person can save a lot of money by COMMUNITY MINDED in the grocery store.
shopping around for bargains.
I am an active member of more than NEW BRAND TRYER
FASHION CONSCIOUS one service organization.
When I see a new brand on the shelf I
I usually have one or more outfits that I do volunteer work for a hospital or often buy it just to see what it's iike.
are of the very latest style. service organization on a fairly regu-
lar basis. I often try new brands before my
When I must choose between the two friends and neighbors do.
1 usually dress for fashion, not for 1 like to v/ork on community projects.
comfort. I like to try new and different things.
I have personally worked in a political
An important part of my life and ac- campaign or for a candidate or an SATISFIED WITH FINANCES
tivities is dressing smartly. issue. Our family income is high enough to
I often try the latest hairdo styles when CREDIT USER satisfy nearly all our important desires.
they change. No matter how fast our income goes
I buy many things with a credit card up we never seem to get ahead. (Re-
CHILD ORIENTED or a charge card. verse scored)
When my children are ill in bed I I like to pay cash for everything I buy. I wish we had a lot more money. (Re-
drop most everything else in order to (Reverse scored) verse scored)
see to their comfort. It is good to have charge accounts.
My children are the most important CANNED FOOD USER
thing in my life. To buy anything, other than a house I depend on canned food for at least
or a car, on credit is unwise. (Reverse one meal a day.
I try to arrange my home for my chil- scored)
dren's convenience. I couldn't get along without canned
SPORTS SPECTATOR foods.
I take a lot of time and efFort to teach
my children good habits. I like to watch or listen to baseball or Things just don't taste right if they
football games. come out of a can. (Reverse scored)
COMPULSIVE HOUSEKEEPER I usually read the sports page in the
1 don't like to see children's toys lying DIETER
daily paper.
about. During the warm weather I drink low
I thoroughly enjoy conversations about calorie soft drinks several times a
I usually keep my house very neat and sports. week.
clean.
I would rather go to a sporting event I buy more low calorie foods than the
I am uncomfortable when my house is than a dance. average housewife.
not completely clean.
COOK I have used Metrecal or other diet
Our days seem to follow a definite foods at least one meal a day.
routine such as eating meals at a regu- I love to cook.
lar time, etc. I am a good cook. FINANCIAL OPTIMIST
DISLIKES HOUSEKEEPING I love to bake and frequently do. I will probably have more money to
spend next year than I have now.
1 must admit I really don't like house- I am interested in spices and season-
hold chores. Five years from now the family in-
ings. come will probably be a lot higher
I find cleaning my house an unpleasant SELE-CONFIDENT than it is now,
task.
I think I have more self-confidence WRAPPER
I enjoy most forms of housework. (Re- than most people.
verse scored) Food should never be left in the re-
My idea of housekeeping is "once over I am more independent than most frigerator uncovered.
lightly." people. Leftovers should be wrapped before
I think I have a lot of personal ability. being put into the refrigerator.
SEWER
I like to be considered a leader. WIDE HORIZONS
T like to sew and frequently do.
I often make my own or my children's SELF-DESIGNATED OPINION I'd like to spend a year in London or
clothes. LEADER Paris.
My friends or neighbors often come I would like to take a trip around the
You can save a lot of money by mak- world.
ing your own clothes. to me for advice.
I would like to know how to sew like I sometimes influence what my friends ARTS ENTHUSIAST
an expert. buy. I enjoy going through an art gallery.
People come to me more often than I I enjoy going to concerts.
HOMEBODY go to them for information about
I would rather spend a quiet evening brands. 1 like ballet.

35