VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

"Jnana Sangama", Belagavi- 590 01

INTERNSHIP SEMINAR REPORT
ON
“SOLAR MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT
APPLIANCES”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of

Mr. JOYSUN D’SOUZA., M.Tech,LMISTE,MIE

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru
Submitted by
SONU LS (4AI17EE036)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CHIKKAMAGALURU-577102, KARNATAKA
2020-2021
 ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY CHIKKAMAGALURU-577102
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Internship work entitled “SOLAR MANUFACTURING
EQUIPMENT APPLIANCES” is a bonafide work carried out by Mrs. SONU L S,
4AI17EE036, 8th Semester B. E. in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor
of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of the Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belagavi, during the year 2020 - 2021. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the
report. The Internship report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements of
the prescribed for the said degree.

Signature of Guide Signature of Coordinator

JOYSUN D’SOUZA Mr. SACHIN S

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Department of EEE Department of EEE
A I T, Chikkamagaluru A I T,Chikkamagaluru

Signature of HOD
Dr. G. R. VEERENDRA M. E. Ph.D
Dr.C.T.JAYADEVA.Ph.D
Professor and Head Department of EEE
A I T, Chikkamagaluru
 ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)
CHIKKAMAGALURU, INDIA -577 102

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

I, SONU L S (4AI17EE036) student of 8th semester B.E, in the Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru declare that the Internship report entitled
“SOLAR MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT APPLIANCES” has been carried out by
me and submitted in partial fulfillment of the course requirements for the award of degree in
Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belagavi during the academic year 2020-2021.

Date:
Place: Chikkamagaluru

SONU L S (USN: 4AI17EE036 )

Dept. of E&EE AIT, Chikkamagaluru

INTERNSHIP CERTIFICATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere and humble Pranamas to their Holiness PARAMAPOOJYA
JAGADGURU PADAMABHUSHANA BHAIRAVAIKYA SRI SRI SRI Dr.
BALAGANGADHARANATHA MAHASWAMIJI and his Holiness JAGADGURU SRI
SRI SRI Dr. NIRMALANANDANATHA MAHSWAMIJI and SRI SRI GUNANATHA
SWAMIJI and seek their blessings.

It’s my pleasure to express deep gratitude and sincere thanks to my internship seminar guide
Mr. JOYSUN D’SOUZA, Assistant Professor, Department Of Electrical and Electronics.

I also express my sincere thanks to the kind co-operation shown by the co-ordinator Mr.
SACHIN S, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics.

The cooperation of Dr. G. R. VEERENDRA, Professor and Head, Department of Electrical

and Electronics is beyond comparisons and I am extremely obliged to him.

I owe the success of the technical seminar to my beloved principal Dr. C.T. JAYADEVA
without whose constant encouragement, the completion of technical seminar would not have
been possible.

The satisfaction that accompanies the completion of any task would be incomplete without
naming the people who made it possible and whose constant guidance and encouragement
made the work seek perfection.

I take this opportunity to thank and express our gratitude to my dear parents who have given
us the right education because of which I have been able to reach this stage and have always
been a source of inspiration.
 CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

Chapter 1: COMPANY PROFILE

Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION
2.1 SOLAR ENERGY
2.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
2.3 PV MODULE
2.4 AVAILABLE CELL TECHNOLOGIES
2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC’S

Chapter 3: INTERNSHIP OVERVIEW

3.1 EFFECTS ON PV MODULES
3.2 OTHER PARTS OF SOLAR PLANT

Chapter 4: CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER-1

COMPANY PROFILE

LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS was set up in 2016 in

Bangalore, India with a focus on developing Solar as sustainable energy
alternative India. Our energy solutions are viable both in the near term
and over the longer term providing maximum energy

We strongly believe in the sun’s potential to significantly address the

problems associated with power obtained from non-renewable sources
of energy. It is with this passion that we aim to work and provide solar
solutions to our customers. Quality has always been of utmost priority
for us, and with this drive we challenge ourselves to provide the same in
the most cost effective manner.

We, at LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS, recognize the

importance of every step taken towards to building a greener and safer
future. By harnessing the inexhaustible energy of the sun, we offer
efficient and advanced solutions for energy requirements for today and
tomorrow.
LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS provides turnkey EPC solar
energy solutions from concept to commissioning for solar PV and also
operation and maintenance services throughout the lifetime of the
project. Led by visionary leaders and industry veterans, we provide end-
to-end solutions including engineering, procurement and construction
(EPC) services for our customers seeking to build photovoltaic solar
power plants.

Our expertise and experience gathered from executing solar PV plants

across various terrains and regions hold us in good stead to provide
world-class project management services that provides the shortest
gestation time-period to complete our projects without any compromise
on the quality. Solar Power Plants executed by us rank amongst the
highest generation PV plants in India with consistently high Plant
Performance Ratios throughout the year.

Why LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS

 LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS provides end-to-end

services to design the most suitable and optimal solar solution for your
roof. It specializes in sizing, designing and implementing the roof tops
solar solutions..
 We have been involved in the successful installation of a number
of these solutions. The team members include technical expertise from
the prestigious Indian Institute of Technology Banaras Hindu University
with Core Knowledge of Electronics ,Our Team consist of Experienced
People who had served at Managerial Level in MNCs, Our Technical
Ground Staff have been working on solar technology for last 10 years
and have previous work experience of installing solar power plant in
Industries, Airports ,Hospitals,Hotels, Cold Storages as well as in
Residential.
 LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS has access to the best
quality, most efficient and cost effective equipments from the best
suppliers in the country.

What We Do

Free site and energy demand assessment.

 Free consultation for all types of Solar PV plants.

 Solar PV plant design and installation.
 Solar PV plant performance simulation.
 Project Management and monitoring.
 Operation and maintenance

Vision

A team of youth with the diversified experience contributing the planet

to go green and save environment. Strive to provide the world’s best
solar products in terms of quality, price and performance. Aggressively
capitalize on the emerging Grid and Off Grid opportunities. Partner with
the world’s best solar companies for delivering the best quality
products.

Promote Clean & Green energy Solutions for benefit to the society and
environment.

Mission

Providing Sustainable Business Solution in the field of Renewable

Energy.

CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION
2.1Solar energy

Radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans
since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar
radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind
and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the
available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the
available solar energy is used.

Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and

photovoltaic. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity.
A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling
through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and
disinfection, day lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high
temperature process heat for industrial purposes. To harvest the solar
energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or

active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute
solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials

with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and

designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

2.2 Photovoltaic Effect

Photovoltaic effect, process in which two dissimilar materials in close

contact produce an electrical voltage when struck by light or other
radiant energy. Light striking crystals such as silicon or germanium, in
which electrons are usually not free to move from atom to atom within
the crystal, provides the energy needed to free some electrons from their
bound condition. Free electrons cross the junction between two
dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in the other, giving
one side of the junction a negative charge and, therefore, a negative
voltage with respect to the other side, just as one electrode of a battery
has a negative voltage with respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect
can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light continues to
fall on the two materials. This current can be used to measure the
brightness of the incident light or as a source of power in an electrical
circuit, as in a solar power system (see Fig... 1).
 2.3 PV MODULE

Cell

Array

2.4 Available cell technologies

 Monocrystalline Si
 Multicrystalline Si
 Thin film
 Amorphous Si
 Cadmium Telluride
 CIGS
 Organic
 CSP

1. Mono Crystalline

• Most efficient commonly available module 15-20%

• Expensive to produce
• Circular cell creates wasted space on module
 Mono crystalline Multi crystalline

2. Multi Crystalline

• Less expensive to make than single crystalline module

• Cells slightly less efficient than a single crystalline 14-16%

• Square shape cells fit into module efficiently using entire space

3. Thin Film
A thin-film solar cell (TFSC), also called a thin-film photovoltaic cell (TFPV),
is a solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of
photovoltaic material on a substrate. The thickness range of such a layer is wide
and varies from a few nanometers to tens of micrometers. Many different
photovoltaic materials are deposited with various deposition methods on a variety
of substrates. Thin-film solar cells are usually categorized according to the
photovoltaic material used.
 3(a) Amorphous Silicon

• Most inexpensive technology to produce

• Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides
• Efficiency 6-9%
• Can be deposited on flexible substrates
• Less susceptible to shading problem
• Better performance in low light condition that with crystalline modules

Fig. Amorphous Silicon solar cell

3(b) Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV)
technology that is based on the use of cadmium telluride thin film, a
semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into
electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the first and only thin film

Fig. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell

photovoltaic technology to surpass crystalline silicon PV in
cheapness for a significant

portion of the PV market, namely in multi-kilowatt systems. Best

cell efficiency has plateaued at 16.5% since 2001.
3(c) CIGS

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a direct-bandgap material. It

has the highest efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials. Traditional
methods of fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-
evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at IBM and Nanosolar
attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes.

Fig.showing CIGS solar cell

3(d) Organic solar cell

An organic photovoltaic cell (OPVC) is a photovoltaic cell that uses

organic electronics--a branch of electronics that deals with conductive
organic polymers or small organic molecules for light absorption and
charge transport.

The plastic itself has low production costs in high volumes. Combined
with the flexibility of organic molecules, this makes it potentially
lucrative for photovoltaic applications.
Molecular engineering (e.g. changing the length and functional group of
 polymers) can change the energy gap, which allows chemical change in
these materials. The optical absorption coefficient of organic molecules
is high, so a large amount of light can be absorbed with a small amount
of materials. The main disadvantages associated with organic
photovoltaic cells are low efficiency, low stability and low strength
compared to inorganic photovoltaic cells.

Fig. showing Organic Solar Cell

2.6 Advantages & Disadvantages of Photovoltaic’s

Advantages

 Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do

not use fuel other than sunshine, PV systems do not release any harmful
air or water pollution into the environment, deplete natural resources, or
endanger animal or human health.
 Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.
 Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops
of existing buildings.
 PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is
extremely expensive, if not impossible. PV still powers nearly every
satellite circling the earth because it operates reliably for long periods of
time with virtually no maintenance.
 Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need
 to be imported from other regions of the country or across the world.
This reduces environmental impacts associated with transportation and
also reduces our dependence on imported oil. And, unlike fuels that are
mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce electricity
we do not deplete or alter the resource.

A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy

requirements. Furthermore, the owner of a PV system can enlarge or
move it if his or her energy needs change. Some toxic chemicals, like
cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process. These
environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through
recycling and proper disposal.

Disadvantages

 Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional

sources of energy due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices
and in part to the conversion efficiencies of the equipment. As the
conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the manufacturing costs
continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive
with conventional fuels.
 Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production
dependent on the sun. Solar facilities may produce no power at all some
of the time, which could lead to an energy shortage if too much of a
region's power comes from solar power.
 CHAPTER-3
INTERNSHIP OVERVIEW

3.1 EFFECTS ON PV MODULES

☼ Shading and dirt

Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading.

When even a small portion of a cell, module, or array is shaded, while
the remainder is in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal
'short-circuiting' (the electrons reversing course through the shaded
portion of the p-n junction).

If the current drawn from the series string of cells is no greater than the
current that can be produced by the shaded cell, the current (and so
power) developed by the string is limited. If enough voltage is available
from the rest of the cells in a string, current will be forced through the
cell by breaking down the junction in the shaded portion. This
breakdown voltage in common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead
of adding to the power produced by the panel, the shaded cell absorbs
power, turning it into heat. Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is
much greater than the forward voltage of an illuminated cell, one
shaded cell can absorb the power of many other cells in the string,
disproportionately affecting panel output. For example, a shaded cell
may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at a particular current
level, thereby absorbing the power produced by 16 other cells.
Therefore it is extremely important that a PV installation is not shaded
at all by trees, architectural features, flag poles, or other obstructions.

Most modules have bypass diodes between each cell or string of cells
that minimize the effects of shading and only lose the power of the
shaded portion of the array (The main job of the bypass diode is to
eliminate hot spots that form on cells that can cause further damage to
 the array, and cause fires.).

Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, snow, or other impurities at the

surface of the module. This can cut down the amount of light that
actually strikes the cells by as much as half. Maintaining a clean module

surface will increase output performance over the life of the module.

Fig. VI Characteristics showing effect of dirt on solar cell

• Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to

orientation of the shading

• Shading can half or even completely eliminates the output of a solar

☼ Temperature

Module output and life are also degraded by increased temperature.

Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules
reduces this problem.

In 2010, solar panels available for consumers can have a yield of up to

19%, while commercially available panels can go as far as 27%. Thus, a
photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes of Europe or the
United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m²/day. A typical "150
watt" solar panel is about a square meter in size. Such a panel may be
expected to produce 1 kWh every day. On average, after taking into
account the weather and the latitude.

Fig: V-I Characteristics showing effect of Temperature

 3.2 OTHER PARTS OF SOLAR PLANT

1. BATTERY

Battery basics

Battery = device stores electrical energy (chemical to electrical and vice

versa)

Capacity = amount of electrical energy battery will contain

STATE OF CHARGE= available battery capacity Depth of discharge =
energy taken out of battery
Efficiency= (energy o/p) / (energy i/p)

Battery Details

TYPES

 Primary (Single Use)

 Secondary (Rechargeable)
 Shallow 20% DOD
 Deep Cycle 80% DOD

Unless lead acid batteries are charged upto 100%, they will lose
capacity over time

1.1 Types of battery connections

1. Serial Connection

Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two
or more cells connected in series. Figure 1 shows a battery pack with
four 1.2V nickel-based cells in series to produce 4.8V. In comparison, a
four-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 8V, and four Li-ion
with 3.6V/cell will give 14.40V. A 12V supply should work; most
battery- operated devices can tolerate some over-voltage.
 Fig.1: Serial connection of four NiCd or NiMH cells

Adding cells in a Series increases the voltage; the current remains the
same.

Figure 2 illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 0.6V

instead of the full 1.2V. With depressed operating voltage, this battery
reaches the end-of-discharge point sooner than a normal pack and the
runtime will be severely shortened. The remaining three cells are unable
to deliver their stored energy when the equipment cuts off due to low
voltage. The cause of cell failure can be a partial short cell that
consumes its own charge from within through elevated self-
Discharge or a dry-out in which the cell has lost electrolyte by a leak or
through inappropriate usage.

Fig.2: Serial connection with one faulty cell

Faulty “cell 3” lowers the overall voltage from 4.8V to 4.2V, causing the
equipment to cut off prematurely. The remaining good cells can
2. Parallel Connection

If higher currents are needed and larger cells with increased ampere-
hour (Ah) ratings are not available or the design has constraints, one or
more cells are connected in parallel. Most chemistry allows parallel
configurations with little side effect. Figure 3 illustrates four cells
connected in parallel. The voltage of the illustrated pack remains at
1.2V, but the current handling and runtime are increased fourfold.

Fig 3: Parallel connection of four cells

With parallel cells, the current handling and runtime increases while
voltage stays the same.

A high-resistance cell, or one that is open, is less critical in a parallel

circuit than in serial configuration, however, a weak cell reduces the
total load capability. It’s like an engine that fires on only three cylinders
instead of all four. An electrical short, on the other hand, could be
devastating because the faulty cell would drain energy from the other
cells, causing a fire hazard. Most so-called shorts are of mild nature and
manifest themselves in elevated self- discharge. Figure 4 illustrates a
parallel configuration with one faulty cell.

A weak cell will not affect the voltage but will provide a low runtime
 Fig. 4: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell

3. Serial/Parallel Connection

The serial/parallel configuration shown in Figure 5 allows superior

design flexibility and achieves the wanted voltage and current ratings
with a standard cell size. The total power is the product of voltage times
current, and the four 1.2V/1000mAh cells produce 4.8Wh.
Serial/parallel connections are common with lithium-ion, especially for
laptop batteries, and the built-in protection circuit must monitor each
cell individually.

Fig.5: Serial/ parallel connection of four cells

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility

 1.2 Effects of Loads/sources wired in different combination.

1. Series connection.

Loads/sources wired in series

 Voltages are additive

 Current is equal
 One interconnection wire is used between two components (- to +)
 Combined module makes series string
 Leave the series string from a terminal not used in series connection

2. Parallel connection

Load/source wired in parallel

 Voltage remain constant

 Currents are additive
 Two interrconnection wires are used between two component (+ to + &
- to -)
 Leave off either terminl
 Modules exiting to next component can happen at any parallel terminal

3. Dissimilar modules in series

• voltage remains additive

If A is 30V/6A and B is 15V/3A, resulting voltage will be 45V

• current taken on lowest value

For modules A and B wired in series, what be the current level of array
3A
4. Dissimilar modules in parallel

• Amperage remains additive

For same modules A and B, current will be 9A

• voltage taken on lower value.

For same modules A and B, Voltage will be 15V

1.3 Battery capacity design:

Capacity

Ampere X Hours= Amp*Hrs 100AH = 100A * 1hrs

= 1A * 100hrs

=20A * 5hrs

• Capacity changes with discharge rate

• Higher the discharge rate,lower the capacity and vice versa

• Higher the temperature higher the percent of rated capacity

Rate of charge or/ discharge

Rate=C/T

C=battery rated capacity T= cycle time period

Maximum recommended charge or discharge rate=C/3 to C/5

 Functions of Battery

• storage for the night

• storage during cloudy weather

• portable power

• surge for starting motors

Due to the expense and inherent inefficiencies of batteries it is

recommended that they only be used when absolutely necessary
2. CHARGE CONTROLLER

Charge Controller is necessary since the brighter the sunlight, the more
voltage the solar cells produce, the excessive voltage could damage the
batteries. A charge controller is used to maintain the proper charging
voltage on the batteries. As the input voltage from the solar array rises,
the charge controller regulates the charge to the batteries preventing any
overcharging. Most quality charge controller units have what is known
as a 3 stage charge cycle that goes like this:

Fig: Charge Controller

1) BULK: During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises
to the Bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw maximum
current. When Bulk level voltage is reached the absorption stage begins.

2) ABSORPTION: During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage

level for a specified time (usually an hour) whiles the current gradually tapers
off as the batteries charge up.

3) FLOAT: After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level
usually (13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance current
until the next cycle.
 Fig: The relationship between the current and the voltage during the 3
phases of the charge cycle can be shown visually by the graph below.

3. CHARGE INVERTER

Fig: Showing Charge Inverters

Square Wave power inverters: This is the least expensive and least
desirable type. The square wave it produces is inefficient and is hard on
many types of equipment. These inverters are usually fairly
inexpensive.

Modified Sine Wave power inverters: This is probably the most

popular and economical type of power inverter. It produces an AC
waveform somewhere between a square wave and a pure sine wave.
True Sine Wave power inverters: A True Sine Wave power inverter
produces the closest to a pure sine wave of all power inverters and in
many cases produces cleaner power than the utility company itself. It
will run practically any type of AC equipment and is also the most
expensive. Many True Sine Wave power inverters are computer
controlled and will automatically turn on and off as AC loads ask for
service.
 Grid Tie Power Inverters: Solar grid-tie inverters are designed to quickly disconnect
from the grid if the utility grid goes down. This is an NEC requirement that ensures that in the
event of a blackout, the grid tie inverter will shut down to prevent the energy it produces from
harming any line workers who are sent to fix the power grid. Grid-tie inverters that are
available on the market today use a number of different technologies. The inverters may use
the newer high-frequency transformers, conventional low-frequency transformers, or no
transformer.
Many solar inverters are designed to be connected to a utility grid, and will not operate when
they do not detect the presence of the grid. They contain special circuitry to precisely match
the voltage and frequency of the grid.

Fig: Showing inverter

Inverter features

An electronic device used to convert dc into ac

Disadvantages

 Efficiency penalty
 Complexity
 Cost
4. SAFETY EQUIPMENT

1. Over-Current Protection of PV Systems

According to the National Electric Code, every wire that carries current
needs to be protected from exceeding its rated capacity. In fact, each
ungrounded electrical conductor within a PV system needs to be
protected by over current devices such as fuses or circuit breakers. If the
current through a given circuit exceeds the rated amperage, the fuse or
breaker will engage and stop any potential problems down the line such
as wires melting, fire, etc. The maximum over current protection is
nothing more than the maximum amperage each wire within your
system can carry.

2. Fuses

● Why Use a Fuse

With the positive and negative cables securely fastened to the battery
terminals, and the solar panel outside and exposed to the elements, any
cable connection failure is most likely to happen near the solar panel
rather than at the battery. If the end of the negative cable touch any
exposed metal of the positive cable (or vice versa), a short circuit will
occur. Huge amounts of electric current will flow potentially causing
sparks, melting the cable, and/or even causing the battery to explode.
 Fig: Showing a typical battery and solar panel connection

3. DC circuit-breakers

In addition to fuses, protection of photovoltaic modules is provided by

string circuit- breakers. They protect photovoltaic modules from fault
currents. For example, in large systems they prevent regeneration from
intact modules to modules with a short-circuit. Their advantage over
fuses is that they are immediately ready for use after a trip and when the
cause of the trip has been remedied.
4. Grounding

A ground system provides four primary functions:

● To help disperse or divert energy from lightning strikes

● To provide safety in case some problem or fault energizes the cabinet or chassis
of equipment with dangerous voltages

● To provide a controlled RF return path for end-fed (single wire feed) or poorly
conFig...ured or improperly designed transmission-line fed antennas

● To provide a highly conductive path for induced or directly coupled radio-

frequency currents, rather than having them flow in lossy soil

A ground will NOT.....

A ground normally will not help reception. The exception is an antenna

system design problem or installation problem causing the antenna
system to be sensitive to common mode feedline currents. If adding a
station ground helps reception or transmission, there is an antenna
system flaw.

A ground will not reduce the chances or number of lightning strikes. A

properly installed and bonded entrance ground can only reduce or
eliminate lightning damage from hits.
GRID TIE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig: A typical Grid Tie Solar System

It is a photovoltaic (PV) system interacting with the utility, and can

be with or without batteries, that utilizes relatively new breed of
inverters that can actually sell any excess power produced by your solar
array back to the utility grid. These systems are easy to install and since
some do not have batteries for back-up, the lack of batteries in these
systems means no messy maintenance or replacements to worry about.
The solar modules can be mounted on roof or out in the yard.

In this system, excess electricity produced is sell back at same retail rate
in which one buy electricity from utility company. This is called "net
metering" and is the simplest way to setup a grid-tie PV system. In
such a system you only have one utility kWh meter and it is allowed to
spin in either direction depending on buying or selling energy
 CHAPTER-4

CONCLUSION

This internship has been an excellent and rewarding experience. I

have been able to meet and network with so many people that I am
sure will be able to help me with opportunities in the future. I learnt
verbal communication, non-verbal communication, problem solving,
time management skills, observation, self-motivation and time
management. I learnt to motivate myself by getting encouragement
from senior staff in the office.
When I first started I did not think that I was going to be able
to make myself sit in an office for eight hours a day, five days a
week. Once I realized what I had to do I organized my day and work
so that I was not overlapping or wasting my hours. During task
given by company, I interacted with my interns and senior engineers
to determine the problems. As well internship indirectly helps to
improve my communication skills, and strengthening as well when
communicating with others. During my internship period, I have
received advice from senior engineers and technician when mistakes
were made; I took their advices in positive way to improve my
carrier.