Husbandry Manual Giraffe
Husbandry Manual Giraffe
Husbandry Manual Giraffe
ljolly@zoo.org.au
1
2
3
1.0 Introduction
4
1.1 History in Captivity
• Giraffe were imported into Egypt in 2500 BC, where they no longer
occurred naturally. Two translations for giraffe in Egyptian
hieroglyphics are `ser’ and `mimi’ (Dagg & Foster 1976).
• In Europe, many giraffe were seen in roman times, but with the
decline of the Roman Empire giraffe largely died out and were
forgotten in Europe. Giraffe were reintroduced into Europe in 1215,
when the sultan of Egypt gave King Fredrick II one as a gift,
giraffe specimens were very rare for the next few hundred years.
(Dagg & Foster 1976).
5
1. 2 Popularity and Benefits of Zoo Giraffe
Giraffes are held in zoos around the world and are a popular display
animal, despite being difficult and expensive to transfer, especially
as adults. The species breeds well in captivity and animals generally
live for more than ten years. Surplus males can be held successfully in
small bachelor groups. The Australian captive giraffe population is
managed in order to ensure the long-term viability and persistence of
giraffe within ARAZPA zoos for education, entertainment and
conservation purposes, the population is not being managed for
potential reintroduction to the wild as this is logistically difficult
and presently not required.
2.0 Taxonomy
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Giraffidae
Genus: Giraffa
Species: camelopardalis
6
2.2 Subspecies and Taxonomic Issues
Giraffe taxonomy has been much debated. Each subspecies has been
identified by a particular geographical range, coat pattern and coat
coloration. The home ranges of several subspecies overlap, and
subspecies hybridization occurs in the wild. Formerly there are nine
recognised subspecies of giraffe, (Dagg & Foster 1976 Table 1).
7
8
3.0 Natural History
9
3.1 General Giraffe Biology
3.1.2 Coloration
• The body from the chin to the upper part of the limbs is covered in
large irregularly shaped patches of colour divided from one another
by a network of light colored, off-white bands. The actual colour of
the patches is due to variations in hair colour, it is variable and
tends to darken with age. (Skinner & Smithers 1990).
• The different subspecies of giraffe have been described in part due
to the different shape and colour of the coat patches. The two most
distinctly different coat patterns are that of reticulated giraffe
G.c. reticulata, with it’s latticework of thin lines separating a
uniform darker colour with regular edges and the Masai giraffe G.c.
tippelskirchi which has most irregular jaggered edged patches (refer
to figures 1 and 2.).
• The exact coat pattern is unique to each individual as a
fingerprint, the coat pattern is maintained throughout life though
the colour may vary with season or with age (Murray 1997).
• Melanistic giraffes have been recorded, as have white or partially
white individuals (Kingdon 1984).
3.1.3 Physiology
10
3.1.4 Senses
11
3.1 General Giraffe Biology
3.1.5 Locomotion
12
3.3 Status and population Trends
However, population trends for giraffe vary from region to region and
therefore for the different races or subspecies. For example there has
been a 70 % decline in giraffe population of G.c. tippelskirchi in the
Masai Mara area of Kenya in the past 20 years due to non-migration,
poaching, changes in land use and vegetation types, and increased
livestock (Ottichilo et al 2000). Where as in North Tanzania, giraffe
populations have recently increased due to the decrease in elephants in
turn providing more browse trees (Van der Deugd & Prins 2000).
13
14
3.3.2 Captive Population Trends - Australasia
• Of the animals in the studbook 12.7% are wild-caught and 87.3% are
captive-born, There have been 214 (110.97.7) giraffe births in this
region since 1937. (Jolly 2000).
• The annual rate of growth (lambda) is 1.037 for females and 1.034
for males, indicating that the numbers of both sexes are increasing
slightly ( lambda > 1.0 means decreasing growth rate, lambda < 1.0
means increasing growth rate) (Jolly 2000).
15
Table 3. Current Living giraffe Worldwide
Region Organization Current Coordinator, institution
Living
Population*
Europe EAZA 520 Dr. Gunther Schleussner,
WAZA Studbook Keeper, Stuttgart.
North America AZA 574 Laurie Bingaman Lackey,
& Canada Studbook Keeper, ISIS.
Joe Christman, Species
Coordinator, Disney,
Florida.
Mexico, AMACZOOA 43 Laurie Bingaman Lackey,
Central and Studbook Keeper, ISIS.
South America
Australasia ASMP 57 Lorraine Jolly Species
Coordinator, VORZ.
Japan JAZGA 193 Mizuki Karasaw, Studbook
Keeper, Tama Zoo, Tokyo.
The Rest of SEAZA 107
Asia
TOTAL 1497
(* Data current – Jan 2003)
16
17
4.0 Housing Requirements
Giraffe exhibits vary greatly in design, the following are some design
constraints to be considered.
• The more natural the setting the greater the likelihood more natural
behaviors will be displayed.
• The slope of the ground should be no steeper than 40 degrees slopes,
and should be mainly firm dry ground.
• The perimeter of the enclosure will require adequate fences and
boundaries. Giraffe will lean against fences to try and reach plants
so they must be very sturdy.
• A range of fence materials have been used to confine giraffe: solid
walls, high mesh fences, lower metal, wood or cable fencing,
electric fencing, water filled or dry moats and piled rock
boundaries.
• With dry moats, it is best to have and exit route in case an animal
should fall in. Example dry moat dimensions: 4.5m wide, 1.5 m deep,
rising from the outside wall at 60 degrees (Lee 1991).
• Any reachable trees will need to be protected or will be destroyed
over time by giraffe and a accessible and surrounding plants should
be non toxic.
• Raised feeding areas are required and will need a supporting
structure, such as a dead tree, or wall.
4.1 Exhibit Design Con’t
18
• A water source is required; this can be at ground level or raised.
• Consider the aspect of the exhibit, areas of shade and shelter from
wind are required. Giraffe are particularly vulnerable to a drop in
temperature accompanied by rain and strong winds, having such a
large body surface area it is difficult for adult giraffe to find
shelter from wind. (Clauss et al 1999).
• Good vehicular access is required, particularly for large trucks and
cranes, for loading and unloading giraffe crates.
• The larger to area and the more varied the terrain can lead to
better physical condition of giraffe due to the increased
opportunity to exercise. The minimum size for a giraffe yard is 18m²
(Geldenhuys 1993b).
19
20
4.2 Giraffe House Design con’t
4.3 Substrate
Giraffe are rarely seen lying down on hard surfaces, such as cement
(Murray 1997). Captive giraffe spent a much greater time standing that
wild giraffe, particularly in metro zoos. To prevent the problem of
overgrown hooves, a hard abrasive surface is recommended for giraffe.
The surface needs to be non-slip. The following has been used: textured
cement or concrete, scoria, various crushed gravels, decomposed
granite, granitic sand, asphalt and loose sand spread over concrete.
The abrasive surface is not required throughout the exhibit, but
recommended for walkways, feed stations and areas of heavy traffic.
Inside giraffe houses, cement, and rubber mat flooring has been used,
this is usually covered with some form of bedding material, such as
sawdust, straw or mulch.
Excessive dust can effect giraffes eyes and can cause lung problems,
earth or dirt yards or decomposed pine bark mulch can be sprayed with
water to reduce the dust level (Geldenhuys 1993b).
21
5.0 General Husbandry
22
5.2 Record Keeping
Giraffe are generally identified visually, by their sex, size and coat
colour and pattern. Each individual giraffe has a unique coat pattern,
like a finger print, often photographic records are kept to identify
giraffe. Other identification methods such as ear tags and microchips
have been used in giraffe. The internationally recognised location for
a microchip in a giraffe is the base of the left ear.
23
6.0 Diet
24
6.2 Captive Diet
• Exact giraffe diet formulas vary between zoos, in most cases giraffe
are fed a pelleted ration, lucerne hay, browse branches and small
amounts of fruit and vegetables.
• Pelleted rations are made from a variety of cereals and grains, with
vitamins and minerals added. (Analysis of “Giraffe Cube” made by
Ridley AgriProducts is listed in the appendix).
• Giraffe as browsers require a high protein level, pelleted rations
with protein levels of 15-25 %, and lucerne hay with protein levels
of 15-20%.
• The volume of food offered should be 1.5- 2% of the giraffes body
weight, (eg at 2%, a 1000kg giraffe requires 20kg of food daily)(Lee
1991).
• Browse should be provided as much and often as available, being the
giraffe natural diet (figure 8).
• The following plant species can be fed to giraffe as browse: acacia,
eucalyptus, willow, elm, coprosma, fig, prunus, myoporum, palm and
cassurina.
• Pregnant, lactating and young growing giraffe require a diet
containing at least 18 % protein (Lee 1991)
• The amount of activity, which often collates with the size of the
enclosure, will have a bearing on an individuals daily food
requirements.
• Small amounts of fruits and vegetables are fed to giraffe; these are
often used as a reward during a training session or in order to get
an individual to take an oral medication.
• The following fruits and vegetables are suitable for feeding
giraffe: apples, Pears, melon, carrots, lettuce, silver beet, kale,
endive, beans, sweet potato.
Care should be taken not to cut fruit or vegetables up too small,
which is a choking risk.
• Do not offer giraffe the following: white potato, banana, or stone
fruit
6.3 Supplements
25
6.4 Presentation of Food
• Due to their size and rapid growth rate in their first year, giraffe
are fairly difficult and expensive to transport between zoos. For
example importation of a giraffe to Australasia from North America,
transportation costs only (as no price is placed on the animal
itself) in 1994 exceeded $50 000 AUD.
• Ideally Australasian giraffe are managed to minimize importations
and exportations outside this region. Wherever possible giraffe
transfers within regional zoos are recommended prior to the birth of
the animal, so planning can commence as early a possible.
• Young giraffe, under 3m in height can be transported by air (Figure
11). Transport options for taller giraffe are by road or by sea
(Figures 10 & 12) or often both.
• All giraffe being transported will require a custom built transport
crate or trailer.
• Crate training and familiarization, will reduced stress on the
travelling animal.
• Additional stress during transit must be kept to a minimum; this may
involve avoiding excessive noise, lights, unfamiliar visitors and
stable temperatures.
• Giraffe should not be transported in extremes of heat or cold, the
use of crate covers and tarpaulins can help prevent cold draughts.
• Checking of respiration rate during transportation is a good
indicator of stress levels, and ruminating is a good indicator of a
relaxed giraffe.
26
27
28
7.1.1 Transport by Road and Sea
• The giraffe is secured into a transport crate and then loaded onto a
semi-trailer truck by crane and secured.
• Due to the height of adult giraffe crates the trailer is often a
low-loader, where the crate sits on a trailer lower than the tyres.
• The travel route and timing of the trip needs to be planned well in
advance, a support vehicle and often a police escort should travel
with the giraffe.
• Often power lines need to be raised to allow access under them.
• Giraffe travelling by container ship should always be accompanied by
keeping or veterinary staff.
• Sea journeys are generally a week or longer, so ample food and other
supplies are needed. Giraffe have suffered from seasickness on sea
voyages (Joe Christman pers comm.).
• During the transport process the animals quarantine status must
remain and it should not come into contact with other animals.
• For air transport, giraffe crates must comply with IATA Live Animal
Regulations (container requirement 12 for ungulate species (IATA
1994).
• The crate must be sturdy enough not to twist or warp, but not be
overly heavy for air transport.
• The crate should have a covered roof or roof frame with canvas
opening cover.
• Crate design: Floor size and height are critical. The young giraffe
should be able to lay down and get up again during transport.
(Figure 13).
• The crate should have provisions to provide food and water, and
receive medical treatment through a number of hatches.
29
7.3 Restraint methods
30
31
8.0 Health
32
Diet and nutritional problems have been encountered in captive
giraffes, due to their selective browsing habits, captive diets need a
high protein content. Clauss et al (2001) hypothesize that giraffe
deaths linked to nutritional problems can be explained by the fact
giraffe who are browsing ruminants, are not able to adapt to the
physical structure of grass or lucerne hay and ingest these in
comparatively lesser amounts than grazing ruminants would. Other
important considerations are temperature and amount of activity, which
is linked to size of enclosure. Giraffe are very susceptible to the
cold and their body temperature is likely to fall when ambient air
temperatures are low, in these circumstances the giraffe will have
increased energy demands (Clauss et al 1999).
Many hoof problems have been encountered in giraffe, these are thought
to be related to diet and or substrate. Giraffe with overgrown claws
occur in the wild, suggesting the view that hoof problems may be a
partially hereditary condition (Veasey et al 1996). Overgrown hooves
can impair movement and lead to complications such as sprained tendons
and arthritis. Most giraffe immobilizations, (80%) are to correct
overgrown hooves (Benbow & Lyon 1997). Provision of suitable substrate
and appropriate facilities for correction are recommended, in addition
to appropriate nutrition (Lee 1991).
33
8.5 Giraffe Immobilization
In the 1970s & 1980s Fowler & Boever (1986) stated that 25-30% of
giraffe immobilized did not survive the procedure. Giraffe anesthesia
has advanced over the past three decades and the immobilization
mortality rate has declined to approximately 10-15% (Benbow & Lyon
1997). The main improvement to giraffe immobilizations is the
development of newer and safer drugs and the development and use of
physiological monitoring equipment. The size of the giraffe has a major
factor in the anaesthetic success, with smaller animal having a better
success rate than very large adults.
34
35
8.5.2 Immobilization Procedure
36
37
8.5.3 Immobilization Recovery
38
9.0 Behaviour
9.1 Habits
39
40
9.2 Reproductive Behaviour
41
9.3 Behavioural Problems con’t
42
43
9.5 Intraspecific Compatibility
Giraffe have been kept with a variety of other species both large and
small, such as gazelles, assorted larger antelope, zebras, camels,
water buffalo, deer, Rhinoceroses, ostrich, cranes, geese, and even
meerkats.
The most important factor is enclosure size, species groups and
individuals need to be able to avoid each other if they choose to,
areas that can only be accessed by animal of a particular size are
ideal The provision of the correct type and amount of food per group or
individual can be difficult in mixed species exhibits.
As with all mixed species exhibits, there are pros and cons, it usually
depends upon individuals of a species rather than the species itself,
one zoo may display zebra with giraffe without problems, but another
zoo may have a particularly territorial zebra stallion that is not
compatible with their giraffe group.
At Victoria’s Open Range Zoo, they had problems of giraffe aggression
directed towards a white rhino, this was resolved by chemical
castration of the giraffe.
44
10.0 Breeding
Females
Age range of possible reproduction (age of youngest 3 years 4 months
and oldest animals recorded breeding – birth of – 27 years 5
offspring) months
Age range of peak reproduction (Age classes for which 4 years – 14
average (median) Mx value is exceeded) years
Males
Age range of possible reproduction (age of youngest 3 years 6 months
and oldest animals recorded breeding- birth of –
offspring) 24 years
Age range of peak reproduction (Age classes for which 6 years –14 years
average (median) Mx value is exceeded)
Giraffe will breed throughout the year, in wild giraffe there is some
correlation between rainfall one-month before conception and conception
(Skinner & Smithers 1990). Most females conceive for the first time in
their fourth year, but males do not generally reproduce before the age
of seven if housed with older bulls. When the only bull in a group
captive male giraffe have proven to be precousious, with many breeding
at three or four years of age the youngest bull to sire offpsring did
so at age 2 years and 7 months.
Giraffes produce a single offspring (rarely twins) after a gestation
period of 15 months (450 days). Three set of twins have been born in
Australasia, out of 214 births, (one set at Auckland Zoo that survived
and two premature sets at Western Plains Zoo, from the same dam, none
of which survived) (Jolly 2000).
Giraffe cows can conceive again several months after birth, the minimum
interval between births is 16 months. Lactation lasts 6 to 12 months
and female giraffe continue to reproduce until around 20 years of age.
Female giraffe have reproductive tracts similar to other ruminants,
ovaries are paired and symmetrical, with a bipartate uterus and
symmetrical horns. The estrous cycle length is about 15 days, ovulation
occurs with equal frequency from both ovaries. Oestrus lasts about one
day and males giraffe detect oestrus by urine sampling. A postpartum
oestrus has been observed, however a lactational anoestrus of several
months is the norm (Calle et al 1993).
45
10.1 Mating Systems con’t
Mature male giraffe move about herds checking females for reproductive
status by urine testing. The bull sniffs the cow’s vulva, stimulating
her to urinate (figure 28), the bull draws urine into his mouth, with
his head raised, mouth open and upper lip curled up, (figure 29) the
urine is sampled in the Jacobson’s organ in a typical flehemen response
(Calle et al. 1993).
Giraffe bull dominance is a linear hierarchy expressed by the
displacement of subordinates from estrous females, which frequently
occurs by the mere fact of their presence. Dominant bulls are generally
older and larger (Calle et al. 1993). Once a bull has located a cow in
oestrus, he attempts to maintain a tending bond and keep rivals away. A
tending bond describes the attempt of a male to monopolize mating
opportunities by staying close to an estrous female and fending off all
rivals, this behaviour is typical of nonterritorial, polygynous mating
systems in ungulates. The male follows the female closely, moves close
and displays a foreleg lift. When the female is ready to mate, she
stands still, the male mounts from the rear (figure 30) by sliding his
forelegs loosely onto her flanks, and stands bolt upright, with an
ejaculatory thrust (Estes 1991).
The reproductive organs of the male giraffe differ little in morphology
and histology than those of other ungulates. Spermatogenesis begins at
4 years of age and coincides with rapid increase in testicular weight.
Mature male giraffe testes are ovoid, 10 to 14 cm long and 6 to 8 cm
wide and suspended with the long axis vertical in a pendulous scrotum.
Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands are all
present (Calle et al 1993). There is an absence of seasonal patterns
in testicular testosterone levels, which is consistent with giraffe
breeding throughout the year (Hall-Martin et al 1987).
46
47
10.2 Birth
48
10.3 Growth and Development
49
10.4.2 Contraception
The decision to hand rear a giraffe calf should not be taken lightly,
it is going to require a lot of work and patience lasting over six
months. If a female giraffe is not going to rear her calf it is
generally fairly obvious, her behaviour may range from completely
ignoring the calf to being actively aggressive or fearful of it.
Unfortunately these females tend to be habitual poor mothers an never
rear their own calves (Colin Wallbank, Pascale Benoit pers comm.).
In a few circumstances, giraffe mothers have been sedated to induce
them to accept, or allow their calf to suckle (Fischer et al 1997). Any
giraffe calf that stops suckling within its first four months should be
bottle fed, with additional milk as it is unlikely to be able to obtain
sufficient nutrients for solid food at this age (Lee 1991).
Analysis of giraffe milk indicate that the fat content ranges from
12.5% (day 10 of lactation) to 4.8% (day 150 of lactation), suggesting
different requirements at different stages of development (Lee 1991).
It may be necessary to physically restrain the young giraffe for
feeding for the first few days until they voluntarily accept the bottle
and feed. In some cases a nasogastric tube may be required for calves
that are reluctant to be restrained or are morbid. Where force-feeding
is required, take care to avoid aspiration pneumonia.
It is important to ensure that the meconium (first faeces) has been
passed, sometimes the meconium is retained resulting in colic symptoms,
and a rectal exam and removal will alleviate the symptoms (Lee 1991).
It is important to be able to monitor the growth and development of the
giraffe being reared, to compare it progress with parent reared
individuals. Giraffe calves can easily be trained to walk onto scales
for weighting. The following ARAZPA zoos have hand reared giraffe
calves: Western Plains Zoo, Taronga Zoo, Melbourne Zoo & Perth Zoo.
50
11.1. Housing for Rearing
For the safety of both the calf being reared and the staff attending to
it, it is best to be kept separated from the other giraffe initially. A
stall within the giraffe house is ideal, with a deep straw bed, heating
may be required depending upon the season. The calf will also need a
larger area in which to exercise. At almost 2m in height at birth,
keeping staff may need to elevate themselves on a step or platform in
order to feed the calf at a reasonable head height.
If the giraffe calf has not suckled from its mother, it is recommended
that the first feed be colostrum (ideally from the calf own mother, but
rarely available), bovine colostrum available from most cattle dairies
is the best alternative. (Burgess & Blyde 1991). No protein should be
given before the colostrum, as this will prevent the absorption of
immunoglobulins (Lee 1991)
The milk formula is offered in a 3 litre bottle with a latex teat, 20cm
in length and 2.5cm in diameter (Burgess & Blyde 1991). Care should be
taken to ensure the teat is secure as calves have been known to swallow
them. Artificial milk replacer “Denkovit” at a dilution rate of 100g
powder to 1L of water has been used to rear giraffe. “ Denkovit, a
calf milk replacer is similar in consumption to giraffe milk (Greed
1961) and is readily available. The water used to mix the formula is
first boiled then allowed to cool to body temperature before feeding.
After each feed the teat and bottle are washed with detergent, rinsed
thoroughly and stored in Halamid solution, which is changed every three
days.
As a general rule, a giraffe calf is expected to consume between 10-
20% of it body weight over a 24hour period (Lee 1991).
Example Feeding regime - five feeds per day at four hourly intervals
(between 0600to 2200hrs), from week 1 to week 5 about 6.5 litres were
feed daily, from week 6 to 10 about 10 litres were fed daily, from week
10 onwards the daily volume and number of feeds was slowly reduced as
the intake of solid food increased. (Burgess & Blyde 1991).
11.3 Weaning
Young giraffe begin browsing when a few weeks old and begin ruminating
for short periods at 1 to 4 months of age (Lee 1991). From about two
months of age, it is recommended that solid foods (browse, lucerne,
vegetables and pelleted ration) be introduced and the amount offered be
51
slowly increased as the daily volume of milk formula be gradually
decreased until weaning is achieved (Burgess & Bylde 1991).
52
12.0 References
Asa, C,S., Porton, I., Baker, A.M., & Plotka, E.D. (1996) Contraception
as a management tool foe controlling surplus animals. In Wild Animals
in captivity, principles and techniques. Eds. Kleiman, D.G. Allen, M.E.
Thompson, K.V. & Lumpkin, S. The University of Chicago Press.
Benbow, G.M., & Lyon, D.G. (1997). Experiences with Restraint and
Immobilization of Captive Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in Zoos and
Safari Parks in Europe. www. vetgate.ac.uk
Bush, M., Grobler, D.G. and Raath, J.P. (2002) The Art and science of
Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) Immobilization/Anesthesia. Zoological
Restraint and Anesthesia. Heard, D. (Ed). International Veterinary
Information Service.
Dagg, A.I. and Foster, J.B. (1976). The Giraffe, its biology,
behaviour, and ecology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers. U.S.A..
Dagg, A.I. and Foster, J.B. (1982). The Giraffe, its biology,
behaviour, and ecology. Appendix E Updated Supplementary Material for
Reprint Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers. U.S.A..
53
Fischer, M.T., Miller, R.E. & Houston, E.W. (1997). Serial
tranquilization of a reticulated giraffe (giraffa camelopardalis
reticulata) using xylazine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine.
28(2). Pp. 182-184.
Fowler, M. E. & Boever, W. J. (1986) Giraffidae. In: Zoo & Wild Animal
Medicine.2nd edition , M.E. Fowler (ed.). W.B. Saunders company,
Philadelphia. U.S.A.
Hugh-Jones, P. Batrer, C.E, Hime, J.M. and Rushbridge, M.M (1978) Dead
space and tidal volume of the giraffe compared with some other mammals.
Respiration Physiology. 35 (1) Pp. 53 – 58.
54
Jensen J.M. (1999). Preventative Medicine Programs for Ranched
Hoofstock. In Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine. Current therapy 4, M.E.Fowler
& R.E. Miller (eds.). W.B. Saunders company, Philadelphia. U.S.A.
Kimani, J.K. & Opole, I.O. (1991) The structural organization and
adrenergic innervation of the cariotid arterial system of the giraffe.
Anatomical Record. 230 (3) Pp. 369-377.
Lee, A.R. (1991). Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo Animals
– Giraffe. The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and
Ireland, London.
Ottichilo, W. K., De Leeuw, J., Skidmore. A..K., Prins. H.H.T. & Said.
M.Y. (2000). Population trends of large non-migratory wild herbivores
and livestock in the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, between 1977 and
1997. African Journal of Ecology 38(3) Pp. 220-216.
55
Reason, R. (2000) Reproductive parameters in female giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis) at Brookfield Zoo. Animal Keepers Forum 27 (3). Pp.120-
123.
Skinner, J.D. & Smithers, R.H.N. (1990). The Mammals of the Southern
African Subregion. University of Pretoria Press, Pretoria. Republic of
South Africa. Pp. 604 – 606.
Van der Deugd, H.P. & Prins, H.H.T. (2000). Movements and group
structure of giraffe(Giraffa camelopardalis) in Lake Manyara National
Park, Tanzania. Journal of Zoology (London). 251 (1) Pp. 15-21.
Veasey, J.S., Waran, N.K., & Young, R.J. (1996) On Comparing the
behaviour of zoo housed animals with wild conspecifics as a welfare
indicator, using the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) as a model.
Animals welfare 5 Pp. 139-153.
13.0 Bibliography
13.1 General
Dagg, A.I. and Foster, J.B. (1976). The Giraffe, its biology,
behaviour, and ecology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers. U.S.A.
Dagg, A.I. and Foster, J.B. (1982). The Giraffe, its biology,
behaviour, and ecology. Appendix E Updated Supplementary Material for
Reprint Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishers. U.S.A.
56
Kleiman, D.G., Allen, M.E. Thompson, K.V. & Lumpkin, S. (1996) Wild
Animals in captivity, principles and techniques. The University of
Chicago Press.
Skinner, J.D. & Smithers, R.H.N. (1990). The Mammals of the Southern
African Subregion. University of Pretoria Press, Pretoria. Republic of
South Africa. Pp. 604 – 606.
13.2 Taxonomy
Ottichilo, W. K., De Leeuw, J., Skidmore. A..K., Prins. H.H.T. & Said.
M.Y. (2000). Population trends of large non-migratory wild herbivores
and livestock in the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, between 1977 and
1997. African Journal of Ecology 38(3) Pp. 220-216.
Van der Deugd, H.P. & Prins, H.H.T. (2000). Movements and group
structure of giraffe(Giraffa camelopardalis) in Lake Manyara National
Park, Tanzania. Journal of Zoology (London). 251 (1) Pp. 15-21.
57
13.4 Husbandry and Captive Management
Lee, A.R. (1991). Management Guidelines for the Welfare of Zoo Animals
– Giraffe. The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and
Ireland, London.
13.5 Nurtition
Baer, D.J., Ofledaal, O.T. & Fahey, G.C. (1988) Feed selection &
digestibility by captive giraffe. Zoo Biol. 4 Pp. 57 –64.
Pellew RA. (1984a). Food consumption and energy budgets of the giraffe.
J Appl Ecol 21: 41-159.
58
Robbins, C. T. (1993) Wildlife Feeding & Nutrition Academic Press Inc.
San Diego.
Calle, P.P & Bornmann, J.C. (1988). Giraffe restraint, habituation, and
desensitization at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo. Zoo Biology 7 (3) Pp.
243-252.
Reason, R., Sevenich, M., Horvath, A. & Laird, E. (1998). The use of
physical restraint devices for medical procedures on captive giraffe.
Zoologische Garten 68 (2). Pp. 112-118.
Benbow, G.M., & Lyon, D.G. (1997). Experiences with Restraint and
Immobilization of Captive Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in Zoos and
Safari Parks in Europe. www. vetgate.ac.uk
Bush, M., Grobler, D.G. and Raath, J.P. (2002) The Art and science of
Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) Immobilization/Anesthesia. Zoological
Restraint and Anesthesia. Heard, D. (Ed). International Veterinary
Information Service.
59
Fischer, M.T., Miller.E. & Houston, E.W. (1997). Serial tranquilization
of a reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) using
xylazine. Journal of Zoo & Wildlife Mecicine. 28 (2).
Langman, V.A., Bamford, O.S. & Maloiy, G.M. (1982) respiration and
metabolism in the giraffe. Respiration Physiology 50 (2) pp141-152.
Radcliffe, R.M., Turner. T.A., Radcliffe, C.H. & Radcliffe, R.W (1999)
Arthroscopic surgery in a reticulated giraffe. J Zoo Wildl Med. 30 (3).
Pp. 416-420.
Bashaw, M.J., Tarou, L.R., Maki, T. & Maple, T.L. (2001) A survey
assessment of variables related to stereotypy in captive giraffe and
okapi. Applied Animal Behaviour 73 (3). Pp235-247.
60
Horwich, R.H. (1983) Behavioural developments in okapis and giraffes.
Zoo Biol. 2 (2) Pp. 105-125.
Tarou, L.R., Bashaw, M.J. & Maple, T.L. (2000) Social attachment in
giraffe: Response to social separation. Zoo Biology 19 Pp. 41-51.
61
Foxworth, B., Flores-Foxworth, G., Robeck, T., Portillo, T. & Kraemer,
D. (1993) The Successful development of artificial insemination
technology in the reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis
reticulata) with subsequent birth of live offspring. AAZPA Annual
Conference Proceedings. Pp. 407-409.
Greed, R.E. (1960) Composition of the milk of the giraffe. Int. Zoo Yb.
2 p 106.
Oftedal, O.T. (1984) Milk composition, milk yield and energy output at
peak lactation: A comparative review. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 51 Pp. 33
–85.
14.0 Appendix.
62
Appendix 2. Australasian Zoo Contacts
63
Appendix 3.Taronga Zoo giraffe Training Protocol
By Natalie Connors and Anthony Dorrian - Keepers African Division, Taronga Zoo. 2000
Taronga Zoo African Division staff conditioned one male and two female giraffe
for assisted reproduction techniques. The giraffes are conditioned to entering,
standing in and being physically confined in the crush to enable tactile
conditioning. The giraffes at Taronga Zoo tolerate rectal examinations as well
as vulval examinations quite well. We concentrate much of our work on rectal
examinations as the ultrasounding to locate the ovaries is critical for the
project. The following outline is the conditioning protocol which was followed
to achieve the possible artificial insemination of female giraffe without the
need for chemical restraint.
Step 1 Conditioning for semen collection should begin with familiarisation in a crush. The crush should be designed
in such a way that it can be walked through as part of the daily routine.
Step 2 Once the giraffe are comfortably walking through the crush they should be re-enforced for standing and
feeding in it by simply introducing a feed basket. This gives them the opportunity to leave the crush if they feel
threatened. A gate can then be introduced to effectively close one end of the crush. Food can then be placed on this gate
to encourage the giraffe to walk into the half closed crush. Until the giraffe are confidently walking into and remaining
in the crush they should have the option of backing out and re- entering.
Step 3 Full containment in the crush should be attempted when the keepers deem it possible for short periods of
time. Length of time spent contained in the crush can then be extended as the animal’s stress level dictates that it is
comfortable in the crush. If the animal appears stressed it should be released from the crush and encouraged to re-enter
without being fully contained. This ensures that the conditioning ends on a positive note. Prior to the commencement
of any tactile work the giraffe should be voluntarily entering the crush and capable of standing and feeding without
showing excessive signs of stress.
Step 4 Tactile conditioning should begin with a still hand on the rump progressing to continuous strokes on the rump
region, legs and underbelly. Progression of tactile conditioning will differ with individuals and should be once again
predicted by the animal. If the animal is comfortable standing in the crush and feeding and shows no anxiety then
progression from a still hand on the rump to gentle stroking can be attempted. We began with touching all areas around
the rump and tail prior to attempting any internal work. We found that the initial touch startled the animals but they
settled down quickly as long as continuous strokes were used therefore keeping a hand on their rump the whole time.
Step 5 Rectal examination should be approached by either going under the tail or moving it to one side. If possible
avoid lifting the tail, it has been found to be unsettling to Taronga Zoo’s females in the past. Rectal gloves and lots of
lubricant are essential for this part of the conditioning. Prior to the insertion of a probe the giraffe should be
conditioned to having a hand and forearm inserted into the rectum and moved around. This should be achieved as
slowly as possible to avoid any undue stress on the animal. The giraffe should then be introduced to the probe. Not
until the giraffe is tolerating the probe without any stimulation should electro-ejaculation be attempted.
To be very specific, rectal examination began slowly. One gloved finger with
lots of lubricant, progressing to two, then three etc until a whole hand was
able to be inserted. We found that the most uncomfortable time for the animals
was until the hand was inserted to the wrist. The muscles contract and relax
continuously at this time and we always found it best to apply constant
pressure and not to go too slow. Once a hand is inserted our giraffe tend to
stand relatively quietly. This is as far as the keepers, could go without the
assistance of a vet. So on the days when vets were unavailable the keepers
would work on doing exactly what the vets would do- that is trying to identify
organs and moving a hand around internally. The vets performed several rectal
examinations before bringing a specialist artificial insemination vet in to
help with ultrasounding.
The vets found that the ovaries are located much closer than would probably be
expected. From a lay man’s perspective without all the technical jargon, once
you enter the rectum head down rather than proceeding straight ahead and you
will probably only need to reach as far as half way up your forearm- on the
average person. The ultrasound equipment used at Taronga Zoo is an Aloka 500
unit with a 5MHz veterinary electronic linear probe (model no. UST-588U-5).
64
The probe is one that is used for cattle artificial insemination and fits
snuggly within the hand so provides no extra discomfort on insertion.
In Taronga Zoo steps 1 to 5 were achieved with female giraffes over a 3 month period with daily 15 minute training
sessions. It is recommended that at least initially a minimum number of people are involved in the conditioning until
the animal is used to the conditioning routine.
65