Historical Books of the

Old Testament1
0 Presentation
Holy Scripture shows the mystery of the union between Divinity and Humanity, in
specific historical situations.
Complementary ways of interpretation:
Historical-critical: gives us the key to understand the sacred text and its history using a
historical and critical-literary approach.
Canonical: looks for what the text teaches, how it preannounces the New Testament, and
the new meaning the text acquires based on this reading.

1 History, text, and message of the Old Testament.

Revelation is the discovery, the re-vealing of a message.
Divine Revelation is known through:
Creation, or Natural Revelation.
Specific historical facts, or Supernatural Revelation:
a. Actions: events revealing some aspects of God. God can inspire some men chosen
by Him, and through their actions God intervenes in History.
b. Words: actions are accompanied by words giving a more precise meaning. God
uses the words of men to transmit His message. Prophecy is one peculiar class on
its own, where God sends a message through a human being.
Scripture
God encourages men and cooperates with them to write what He has already revealed
through actions and words. In the process of writing, God doesn’t add anything new. His
purpose is to fix these fundamental truths for future generations' use.
Inspiration is God’s action in the process of writing.
Writers, especially in historical books, didn’t just intend to tell stories for future
generations. Their purpose was to transmit a specific message, with implications for the
readers, about God’s intervention in human affairs, and as a result of their own meditation in
God’s wondrous deeds.
Composition of books and interpretation: Three steps.
New Testament
Life and teaching of Jesus.
Apostles’ preaching, by words, by their own life, by institutions.
Revelation written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
Old Testament
Historical events, particularly in the people of Israel.
Oral prophetical proclamation of religious teaching implied by those events
and words, transmitted up to then by tradition. This proclamation is reflected in
written materials and institutions.
The message being transmitted by words, deeds, and institutions is written
with the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
Interpretation
Through textual, literary, and historical critique the exegete understands the
historical frame.
Through literary critique he follows the traces left by the message.
He looks for the message the sacred author wants to transmit to his
contemporaries, which constitutes the literal meaning. Then the texts have to be
understood in the light of the New Testament and in the Church.

Historical Books of the Old Testament.

2.1 Hebrew Bible
Hebrew Canon: Pentateuch (Torah), Prophets (Nebi’im), Writings (Ketubim)
Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
Prophets: (Earlier) Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, (Later) Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,

1 This outline was made by students at the Faculty of Theology of the University of
Navarre. Translation into English by Fr. Diego de Jodar [Enugu, 2007].
 and the twelve minor prophets, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
Writings: Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Qohelet, Lamentations,
Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
Different level of inspiration in each group.
Pentateuch: Highest authority. It is the unchangeable word of God for all times and
circumstances. “Do this and don’t do that.” Is the word of God, down to each
individual letter, immutable, static, and permanent.
Prophets: the writer looks at his surroundings in the light of God’s Word. “What you
are doing now is good or is evil.” Is the dynamic word of God, actualized day by
day.
Writings: transmit the same truth, with rational arguments. “To do this is or isn’t
worthwhile.” The human word speaks about divine things in a practical way,
teaching how to sanctify ordinary realities.
Holy Scripture presents then a closed vision of life. Everything God has to say is in the
Torah. The New Testament doesn’t have any place in the Bible.
We can summarize the Hebrew Bible as three concentric circles, with the Torah as the
centre, Prophets in the middle circle, and Writings of the Wise in the exterior. Each level has a
characteristic accent: gift, life, reflection.

2.2 Greek Bible

Greek-speaking Jews divided the Bible into historical, prophetical and poetical-wisdom
books.
Historical: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Maccabees.
Prophetical: Isaiah, Jeremiah (together with Lamentations and Baruch), Ezechiel,
Daniel, and the twelve minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
Poetical and Wisdom books: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Qohelet, Song of Solomon, Wisdom,
Sirach.
The books missing in the Palestinian canon are Tobit, Judith, Maccabees, Baruch, Wisdom,
Sirach, parts of Daniel, Esther and the Letter of Jeremiah.
This classification made at Alexandria was adopted for Christian Bibles as it shows more
clearly how the Old Testament looks at and is fulfilled in the New.

3. Bible and History

That God is an Absolute Being doesn’t mean that all the words in Scripture have an
absolute character. This would be a rather immature proposition. We need to study the kind
of history the Bible transmits. Nevertheless, the purpose the authors had in mind was
eminently didactic, pointing at the relation of dependence between man and God.
Israel was the people chosen by God from among all the nations, to show that this relation
of dependence has a universal value. Teachings, behaviour, moral norms included in the
Bible are not only for Israel, but, making allowance for time and cultural differences, have a
permanent value for all civilizations.
We don’t find in the Bible a mere account of what happened but a reflection on history,
looking for solutions to present and future problems in the light of the past. This reflection
was made and put in writing under the action of the Holy Spirit.

3. Issues raised by Literary Analysis

Some events are told twice, in different ways. Sometimes, the two accounts are fused or
harmonised into one, like in the Universal Flood. Or the accounts appear in different places,
like the sister-woman theme (Gen 12:10-20 vs Gen 20:1-14).
Different accounts of the same fact share the same common tradition. But each account
tells the story in a different way, with characteristic style and intentionality, and with some
difference in details.
Many biblical stories were well known by other civilizations of the same area, the Fertile
Crescent. The Universal Flood has parallels in other accounts, many times very similar, like
the Gilgamesh Epic, the great mythological hero from Uruk, in Sumer. The Epic was
transmitted orally, and improved gradually from the beginnings of the second millennium
BC. The most elaborated versions date from 13th or 12th century BC. The most complete text
comes from Nineveh, tablet XI from the library of king Ashurbanipal, 7th century BC.
Many apparently important details are literary fiction and not the historical substrate
coming from tradition.
Each account has a specific theological intention, according to the public it was destined.

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 The existence of different versions for the same story is not exclusive to Pentateuch. Other
historical books do the same. Many of the stories in the book of Kings are found again in the
Chronicles.
Therefore, we should keep in mind when reading and interpreting historical books:
Repetitions in biblical texts reveal they were not composed following a prearranged
plan by the author but rather as a compilation of material from tradition.
Analyzing parallel accounts we discover differences of style and vocabulary, as well
as discordances in anecdotal details. And, what matters most, each tradition makes
a different interpretation of the same facts.
In some cases, these differences make us think the interpretations are an answer to
different historical and religious circumstances we can easily date following the
history of Israel.
Everything shows the composition of biblical texts has a very complex and checkered
story. Some conclusions can be taken as sure, but we are not yet able to understand
fully all the steps taken by Divine Revelation from the beginning till the definitive
text as we know it now.

4. The formation of Pentateuch. Criticism until 1975

4.1 Jewish and Christian tradition
The pre-exile prophets speak about the Law of the Lord without specifying whether is
written or spoken. After the Exile the Law is called the Law of Moses. Nevertheless, 4 Ezra, an
apocryphal book, claims that the books of Moses were burnt in the Exile and Ezra wrote them
again, miraculously restoring them as they were before.

4.2 Literary criticism from its beginnings until Wellhausen

Rabbi Abraham Ibn Erza affirmed in the 11th century that Moses could not have been the
author of the whole Pentateuch.
Bodenstein Carlstadt (16th cent.) brought the discussion to the fore: Moses could not have
written his own death. A. Maes spoke about a previous text, or at least some corrections here
and there after Moses.
B. Spinoza (17th cent.) looks at the Pentateuch as a part of a wider book spreading to the
books of Kings, with a final polishing by Ezra. R. Simon claims Moses’ authority for the law,
and some other texts were brought in after his death.
Winter (18th cent.) noticed differences of style between the two accounts of Creation.
Shortly after, J. Astruc proposed the Documents Hypothesis: he noticed that different divine
names in Genesis are used alternately and thought it was due to texts coming from two
parallel documents. Eichorn, speaking about the Universal Flood, described better the
different characteristics of these two documents, though he suggested there were some more
documents involved. Ilgen, towards the end of the century, spoke about three documents.
At the beginning of the 19th cent. Geddes, Vater and De Wette proposed the Fragments
Hypothesis: The Pentateuch was the recompilation of thirty nine different fragments. Years
later, De Wette shifted to the Complements Hypothesis, advanced by Kelle, Ewald and Delitzsh.
The unity achieved by Pentateuch comes from a Fundamental Text, using the name Elohim,
complemented by other texts.
In the second half of the 19th cent. H. Hupfeld named the Fundamental Text as First Elohist,
later on called P, followed by Yahwist, and another Elohist, interspersed with the Yahwist.
Later on, Riehm showed the relation between Deuteronomy and Josiah’s Reformation (622
BC). A. Kuenen showed that the priestly laws had some late elements dated after
Deuteronomy. Finally K.H. Graf proposed changing the order of documents. The
Fundamental Text became the last, written during the exile (587-538 BC)or even later. It was
approved and read publicly by Ezra (398 BC) and served as foundation for the other three.
Yahwist and Elohist were the oldest documents, joined by Deuteronomical, from Josiah’s times.

4.3 Wellhausen Hypothesis (1885)

The six first books of the Bible were written down from four different documents: Yahwist
(J), Elohist (E), Deuteronomical (D), and Priestly Code (P).

Document Date Place Characteristics

J Monolatry 10-9 BC Southern Kingdom Anthopomorphic
when speaking
about God

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 Document Date Place Characteristics
E Monolatry 8 BC Northern Kingdom Covenant Theology
D Monotheism 6 BC South Josiah’ Reform
P Gnomism, norms 6-5 BC
given by God

Around 400 BC somebody wrote Gen, Ex, Lev and Num using P as the frame and
interpolating a JE text resulting from joining J and E at an earlier date. Finally D gave origin
to Deuteronomy and Joshuah, that should be read with the other five books. Wellhausen
spoke of a Hexateuch.
Wellhausen presented the final Hexateuch as a dialectic evolution following the laws of
Hegel (thesis, antithesis, synthesis). Nothing has been revealed by God, who not even exists.
Everything is an evolution of the natural religious feeling man has.
Weak points: prejudice against the supernatural, explaining religion away as a Hegelian
process. Insufficient knowledge of the Middle East: archaeological discoveries led to a deep
reelaboration of his hypothesis. Insufficient knowledge of literary genres: Wellhausen thinks
the books are mere fiction, ignoring the ways history was transmitted in the past.

4.4 Critical reactions to Wellhausen

Cornel, Vigouroux, Mangenot continued upholding Moses as the author responsible for
and writer of the Pentateuch, as shown by the book itself and the whole Bible.
Volz and Rudolph conclude that E cannot be an independent and complete source; P is
neither coherent with nor parallel to J, as it is just a revision of a formerly existent source.
Lohr doubts that elements so characteristic and important in P, as chronologies, really
belong to P.
Casuto, since 1934, attacked Wellhausen foundations and proved its fragility.

4.5 Catholics and Higher Criticism

De Hummelauer, in books published between 1895 and 1901, accepted a Mosaic origin,
widely modified. Samuel could be the author of Deuteronomy. Admits some sources like J
and E. Pentateuch was completed by Ezra.
In a Catholic Congress at Fribourg, 1897, some scholars analyzed the progress of literary
criticism about the Old Testament. M.J. Lagrange, French Dominican founder of the Biblical
School of Jerusalem, granted that literary criticism had a point, but it had to be balanced by
studies on ways of writing in the Ancient Middle East, as well as the legislative process in
ancient cultures.
Others, like Prat, Durand and Brucker, without denying Moses as author, accepted that
many parts have been added to his work, even, possibly, four documents written after the
Exile. They had reservations with Lagrange.
Loisy and von Hugel worked on literary criticism, only to fall away into Modernism
afterwards. Many who could have given a scientific orientation to Catholic Exegesis left the
Church.
The Magisterium tried to defend the faith. Leo XIII published Providentissimus Deus (1893)
advising prudence and insisting on the inspired character of biblical books, reminding of
consequences like inerrancy and holiness.
In 1902 Pope Leo established the Pontifical Biblical Commission to answer questions
regarding specific difficulties in faith and morals in the Bible. Its first decrees were prudential
in character, trying to prevent the faithful accepting theories that by then were mere
hypothesis, promoted many times by non-Catholic authors. Among its decrees, there is one in
1906 on Moses's authorship of Pentateuch, and in 1909 on the historical character of the first
three chapters of Gen.
After some years, the contributions of literary criticism could be better evaluated and the
Magisterium cleared some misunderstandings originated by the answers of PBC. Important
in this regard are the Encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu in 1943, and the 1948 letter from PBC to
Card. Suhard. Both integrate confirmed discoveries of literary criticism, proved by archeology
and exegesis, with a truly Catholic reading of the Bible.

4.6 From the History of Forms to the History of Traditions

History of Forms: [Forms: Gattung, songs of triumph, of lament, parables, fables, taunt-
songs, etc.] Gunkel (1910) studied the first chapter of Gen and realised that even though its
composition was relatively recent, it was indebted to a previous literary story. Inside each
Wellhausen's documents we have to discover previous literary forms and establish the ways
each have been used in each document. To understand them is important to discover the

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atmosphere (Sitz im Leben) in Israel which originated each.
History of Traditions: Von Rad (1938) suggested that Pentateuch was the final evolution of a
primitive “historical creed” of Israel, the primeval confession of faith in God intervening in
history. Some fragments of that primitive creed can be found in Deut 25:5-9 and 6:20-24.
Based on that confession, other stories were created, linked to Sinai traditions, developing
commandments and exhortations, together with stories about the conquest of Canaan.
Yahwist gave unity to all these accounts, prefacing them with the Patriarchs as an
announcement of the conquest and covenant. Then the creation and origins of mankind
served as a foreword to give a universal value to the history of Israel. Deuteronomist
followed the structure and perspective of Yahwist. Elohist and Priestly while contributing
important details didn’t modify the final structure.
Martin Noth (1948) is the best representative of this trend. He looks for the history of
traditions, not trying to prove whether Pentateuch transmits history, but whether those
traditions are really historical, that is, he tries to study the existence of traditions, and their
evolution, whether in written or oral form. Deuteronomy is the first historical book of Israel,
from Canaan to Babylon. The present Pentateuch was formed by adding Deut to the
Tetrateuch. Israel was in possession of five great traditions: flight of Egypt, entrance in
Canaan, promises to the Patriarchs, the wilderness, revelation in Sinai. The five converge in
the elaborations now known as J, E and P, and from there, the Tetrateuch.

4.7 Tradition according to the Scandinavian School

Engnell (1945) offered a new perspective: everything before the Pentateuch was written,
was transmitted orally. He accuses Wellhausen of not thinking about how in Semitic cultures
tradition is mostly transmitted by word of mouth. Tetrateuch has its origin in Ex 1-15, slavery
and liberation from Egypt. It was initially a worship-legend, based on certain historical facts,
that became “historical” by telling and retelling plus being actualized in worship, that is, was
accepted as an event that really happened. The structure and physiognomy of the written text
belongs to a priestly group of Jerusalem. The first traditions to be written were the legal texts.
Tradition was already in a fixed state by the time it was written. The Bible text didn’t add
many things.

5. Formation of Pentateuch: criticism since 1975

5.1 R. Rendtorff (1975)
He denied that Yahwist ever existed and generally rejects any documents hypothesis.
Criticizes Von Rad and Noth for jumping without justification from the history of tradition to
the documents. He thinks there are six basic units before Pentateuch: origins (Gen 1-11),
Patriarchs (Gen 12-50), Moses and Exodus (Ex 1-15), Sinai (Ex 19-24), the wilderness (Ex 16-
18, Num 1-11), Transjordania (Num 20-36). There are no sources with theological intentions
behind. Each unit has its own intention and the fusion was made by deuteronomists texts.
There wasn’t any great first Theologian, the Yahwist, in Solomon’s times.

5.2 Yahwist comes under attack

Van Seters and Martin Rose are the main proponents. The people of Israel took conscience
of its existence during the Exile, 6th cent., and needed a justification for it and an
understanding of its history. A historian belonging to the Deuteronomic school put all ancient
traditions together, under the theological orientation of “obedience-disobedience to God.” He
used the palace chronicles from the monarchy (1-2 Kings). He completed them with the
annals of David and Solomon (1-2 Samuel) and reached Judges and the conquest (Joshuah,
Judges). This came to be the “great Deuteronomic history.” Another Deuteronomist author—
also called the Yahwist, being just a Deuteronomist—wrote the Tetrateuch as an introduction
to the Deuteronomic History, this time under the theological perspective of “theology of
divine grace.” The Yahwist lived after the exile. Thereafter, the priestly account was written
and inserted to balance the Pentateuch with a “theology of worship.”

5.3 KD and KP
E. Blum, Rendtorff’s disciple, published some studies on the composition of Pentateuch in
1990. He thinks there are two late accounts which include, after a re-elaboration, more ancient
traditions. One is KD, beginning with Abraham (Gen 12) and reaching up to the last chapters
of Deuteronomy. It has a Deuteronomist bend. It was composed by the first generation that
came back from the Exile. The other account is called KP, growing around the topic of
“community.” It uses more ancient traditions, it has a priestly character and was composed
during the Persian domination. The Pentateuch was a compromise between the two trends,

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KD and KP.

5.4 Redaction Criticism

Now the focus is shifting from the history and formation of Pentateuch to understanding
the composition, that is, which text can be considered as the final or canonical text, and how it
came to happen. Synchronic methods and canonical approaches are widely used.
Scholars are converging towards a consensus in the following issues:
a. The decisive influence of the Deuteronomic school. Deuteronomic elements don’t
constitute a unity, but they have been achieved by authors of undeniable
creativeness using ancient existing traditions.
b. Priestly texts do really exist. There is no agreement, though, as to whether there is an
independent priestly text or is just a specific period of time during the
Deuteronomic process of formation.
Even more complex than the sources of Pentateuch is the problem of the final version.
What can be called “final text”? Noth had already suggested that Deuteronomy was the
foreword of the Deuteronomic History, idea little by little substituted by the Tetrateuch as the
foreword to that History. But at the end, Deuteronomy lost its first place to form the Torah or
Pentateuch with the other four.
We can say the present text is the result of a very complex process that shows a progress
and deepening of theological understanding. Paradoxically, we know better the initial steps
in the formation of the Pentateuch, even though they are farther away in time.
Cornelius Houtman (1989) in his study of Exodus thinks this book is part of a
Deuteronomic book starting in Genesis and ending in 2 Kings.

6. The Pentateuch
Alexandrian Jews called the first five books of the Bible “Pentateukhos,” the “five scrolls.”
Jewish tradition knows the five as Torah.
Pentateuch is a unique book where narratives and laws intermingle. Narratives, from
Creation till the entrance in the Promised Land, provide a foundation for the laws. And the
laws are justified and explained by the narratives.

6.1 General Structure

1. Origins of mankind (Gen 1—11) Creation and history until Abraham. Prehistory.
2. Origins of Israel (Gen 12—36) Abraham, Isaac, Jacob.
3. Origins of Israel (Gen 37—50) Joseph.
4. Slavery in Egypt and liberation (Ex 1—15).
5. Through the wilderness to Sinai and laws (Ex 16—40) Decalogue, Covenant Code
and ritual prescriptions.
6. Legislation (Lev 1—27) Sacrifices, priesthood, ritual purity and holiness.
7. Departure from Sinai with some laws (Num 1—10)
8. From Sinai to Kadesh through the wilderness (Num 11—20) New laws on
sacrifices and priests.
9. From Kadesh to Moab (Num 20—36) Some more laws.
10. Last dispositions and Moses’ death (Deut 1—34) Three addresses by Moses
remembering the wilderness and the commandments.
There is a gradual selection in Pentateuch, beginning with the whole of mankind to
concentrate only on the chosen people of Israel. Mankind appears till the universal flood.
After Noah the attention is attracted towards the descendants of Shem, the narrative
following his family line until Abraham. From him the narrative selects Isaac and Jacob,
marginalizing first Ishmael and then Esau. The twelve children of Jacob, the roots of the
twelve tribes, take the stage, with special roles for Judah and Joseph. In the book of Exodus
the protagonists will be Moses and Aaron, descendants of Levi. After Exodus the whole
people of Israel will be the protagonist.
The present Pentateuch is a very delimited book that explains how God chose the people
of Israel and gave them the Law through Moses. That the book ends just before entering the
Promised Land without having yet fulfilled the promise made to Abraham has a deep
meaning: The people of Israel must always have the same hope of entering or possessing the
land. That is the intention of the Law. Secondly, the promise is left open to include not only
the land of Canaan, but also the heavenly land, the definitive fatherland. The key to
understand the Pentateuch, therefore, is to read it as the first step in the history of salvation, a
history whose culmination will only be clear at the end of the Bible, in the New Testament.

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6.2 Composition of the five books
The present form dates from the Restoration after the Babylonian exile (6th to 5th cent. BC)
and before the Samaritan schism at the end of the 4th cent. BC. The Law of Moses that Ezra
read (Neh 8:1-8) doesn’t seem to be the present Pentateuch.
We don’t know with certainty details about materials used in the final version. Probably
Deuteronomy, due to its style, was already written as a sort of introduction to a longer
History of Israel (The Deuteronomist History), from the entrance to the Promised Land with
Joshuah to the Exile (2 Kings). It also seems certain that the great legal codes and other
narratives, like the origins, Patriarchs, Israel in Egypt and the crossing of the wilderness, were
already written.
Maybe the last writers besides speaking about the origins, sorted the other narratives
according to an ancient tradition Israelites followed when presenting the first fruits, a kind of
confession of faith: “My father was a wandering Aramaean (The patriarchs). He went down
into Egypt . . . Yahweh brought us out of Egypt with mighty hand (Israel in Egypt) . . . He
brought us here (crossing of the wilderness) a land where milk and honey flow. Here then I
bring the first-fruits of the produce of the soil that you, Yahweh, have given me” Deut 26:5-
10).
These four narratives plus the Code were like the foreword to the Deuteronomist History
existing at the end of the 5th cent. The book of Deuteronomy—at that time the foreword to
the History—was thought then a fitting epilogue to the new book.
The final text was made by putting into order, with appropriate finishing touches, all the
literary patrimony formed during centuries, and presenting it as the proclamation of a faith
matured and deepened in the Exile and the return.
Central doctrine: Israel is the chosen people, it has received the Law as a gift, and it will
fulfill it if it is to remain in the Promised Land. This doctrine is very clear in the
Deuteronomy. At the end of the book, Deut 32, a canticle, attributed to Moses, concludes the
book, reflecting the spiritual atmosphere surrounding the formation of the Pentateuch: the
history of the world was ordained to God's election of Israel, and Israel, in spite of infidelities
deserving punishment, is the instrument of God’s revelation to all peoples (cf Deut 32:43).
Pentateuch was written as one book. The division into five books or scrolls came after the
composition. The reason why was eminently practical, as a single scroll would be too
voluminous. After dividing the books each had the same size, internal coherence and unity.
The initial words describe the contents and in Jewish tradition give title to the book.
 Genesis, in Hebrew, bereshit, in the beginning, shows the first stages of history, and
Israel’s election by God. Answers the when and how mankind, and the people of
Israel, began.
 Exodus, begins with: “This are the names of those who went to Egypt.” There is a
new beginning that makes election specific.
 Leviticus, begins: “Yahweh called Moses, and from the Tent of Meeting addressed
him.” That is, called the people to his service and gave him instructions. The
question asked in the book is how to obtain forgiveness and live in holiness. God
himself, through Moses, commands his people how to serve him at all times.
 Numbers, begins with: “Yahweh spoke to Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai.” The
history of Israel receiving God’s Word is properly speaking the history of the
wilderness. The deep intention is to show the tension between punishment and
salvation.
 Deuteronomy, begins with “These are the words spoken by Moses to the whole of
Israel.” The days before entering the Promised Land were the perfect moment to
put all the great Mosaic speeches. It shows that the history of Israel is the history
of salvation: Israel has been chosen by God because of His great love for her, not
because of big size in population or extraordinary qualities.

6.2 Religious teaching

Is fundamentally religious in character: God intervenes in human history by creating
Israel, and shows how His people have to answer. Also, the history of God’s manifestation is
the history of man getting to know the true God.
Election. God intervenes in history choosing a people to be the instrument of salvation for
others. This election, out of free love, is the key to understand the whole biblical history.
Promise. The election comes with a promise. Pentateuch is also the book of promises made
to Abraham, the people, and all descendants of Adam.
Covenant. Promise and election are ratified in the Covenant. This is the central core of the
Pentateuch. This Covenant, through Moses’ mediation, is the culmination of previous
covenants: with Adam, Noah, Abraham, and the patriarchs.
Law. Covenant leads to Law, what the people agree to do to keep the covenant with God.
The Law of God is a gift: to accept the Law freely is to accept the election gratefully, and to

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fulfill the Law is a sincere and efficacious desire to achieve the gift contained in the promise.

6.4 Pentateuch in the light of the New Testament

Pentateuch is the first stage of salvation history, which continues and is accomplished in
Jesus Christ and the Church, the new People of God. The God revealed by Jesus Christ is no
other than the God who spoke to Moses and the Patriarchs, the One God acting in human
history. The New Testament teaches that God has overdone Himself: He has made Himself
Man to save man. And in this central event of History God has revealed His Trinity of
Persons in the One God.
Election. Israel was chosen to be an instrument of blessing for all peoples, something
fulfilled in the New Testament, as the Saviour comes out of Israel. Christ represents Israel.
Promise. In Pentateuch election goes together with the promise. In the New Testament
promises are fulfilled in Christ, The Chosen One. The promises are above the mere possession
of the land, they point to the Kingdom of God.
Covenant. Covenants that ratified the election and promise reach their zenith in the new
and eternal Covenant sealed by the Blood of Christ.
Law. The New Law, based on the Old, is now the Law of Christ, written in man's heart by
the Holy Spirit.
The Pentateuch, in Paul’s words, was and is the guardian leading to Christ (cf Gal 3:24).

7. The Beginnings
Genesis means The Beginnings. Without pretending being accurate regarding time or
place, Genesis speaks about religious truths using a symbolic language widely used in
antiquity: the language of myths.

7.1 Myths of Beginnings in the Middle East

Myths cannot just be dismissed as false stories. They are symbolic expression of realities
that cannot be told in a rational language. Worship is joined to the myth, as a symbolic
representation of what is told in the myth, with the assurance of expressing the realities told
by the myths.
Some common ideas of myths about the beginnings of the world and man in the Middle
East:
 Chaos at the beginning. Texts found in the pyramids (2500-2300 BC), Enuma Elish
(Babylon, 23rd-20th BC).
 The sea existed first. Introduction to Gilgamesh Epic (Mesopotamia, before 20th BC),
Papyrus 1350, Leyden (Egypt, 13th BC).
 God intervenes through words and actions in creation. Papyrus 1350 Leyden
(Egypt, 13th BC), Papyrus 3048 Berlin (Egypt, 12th BC).
 Creation of man and gods' council before fashioning their masterpiece. Papyrus
Golenischer, St Petersburg (Egypt, 15th BC), Babylonian poem (20th BC).
There are many narratives of religious and ritual value. The best known is Gilgamesh
Epic. We presently know many mythical texts found in the Middle East regarding the
beginnings, like Atrakhasis, a Babylonian poem starting with the creation of man and the
flood, with an arrangement generally analogous with the “history of the beginnings” found in
the book of Genesis.

7.2 Contents of the “history of the beginnings”

In its present form the sentence “These are the generations” marks the different chapters.
1. Creation of the world (Gen 1:1—2:3). “These are the generations” in Gen 2:4 starts the
second account of Creation.
2. Origins of mankind (Gen 2:4—4:26). “These are the generations” in Gen 5:1 starts a
new section with the descendants from Adam to Noah.
3. Patriarchs before the Flood (Gen 5:1—6:8). “These are the generations” in Gen 6:9
stops the genealogies to introduce the story of the Flood.
4. Noah and the Flood (Gen 6:9—9:29). “These are the generations” in Gen 10:1 ends
Noah’s life and takes the genealogies up.
5. The population of the earth (Gen 10:1—11:9). “These are the generations” introduces
the last section of the “history of the beginnings.”
6. Genealogy of Abram (Gen 11:10-32).

8
7.3 Composition of the “History of the beginnings”
The diversity of texts with different characteristics in the first 11 chapters of Genesis can be
attributed to the Yahwist and Priestly traditions. Though the terminology used by
Wellhausen is still used, it doesn’t have the same connotations. As van Seters already proved,
Yahwist and Priestly are two different independent interpretations of very ancient traditions,
each one with proper literary characteristics, and also with deep mutual relationships.
The sacred authors took from neighbouring countries some literary elements adequate to
and understandable by their contemporaries' sensitivity. They used them to explain the
message the Holy Spirit wanted to transmit through their writings to the people of Israel and,
through their religious experience, to the whole of mankind.
The language of myths was very important in ancient times. The Bible uses it to express
the mystery of the beginnings, but stripping myths of polytheism and pagan rituals, while
drenching them in the faith in One God. Besides the symbolic language borrowed from
Middle East mythologies, the History of the Beginnings uses other literary elements
borrowed from local traditions of Canaan and Mesopotamia, amplifying their content to
cover the whole mankind. The Bible also employs genealogies to fill in periods of time, of
which we know nothing, to show how mankind was growing until it filled the earth.
As they stand now, the first eleven chapters of Genesis are an introduction to Abraham,
with whom history takes on a new direction marked by God’s call and man’s obedience.

7.4 Teaching of the "history of the Beginnings"

Expresses with solemn language the "mysteries of the beginnings": creation, fall, and
promise of salvation.
God has created the world with all its wealth and admirable order. When the work of God
finishes every day at creation Genesis says that "God saw that it was good," since creatures
reflect divine wisdom and goodness.
The human being, man and woman, is the summit of creation because he is made in God's
image, uniting in his own nature the material and spiritual world. God created him in
friendship with him. Man is called to act as the Creator by means of his work. Man must
respect the all-wise order imprinted by the Creator in His creatures and care for the goodness
of each being respecting its nature.
Man is called to live in friendship with God, respecting the order of things, and he submits
freely to his Creator. Nevertheless, man disobeyed the divine command, he wanted to be like
God. In this way sin entered into the world and broke the original harmony: creation becomes
hostile to man, work becomes laborious, and death enters in his life.
After the fall, God did not leave the man. He mysteriously announced his victory over evil
and the coming of a descendant of the Woman to defeat the serpent in mortal combat.
The call to safeguard the original order in spite of the tension between the unity of
mankind and the diversity of nations will be a task that will serve to restrain the pride of a
fallen humanity that looks to restore unity by themselves away from God, as in Babel.

7.5 The "history of the origins" in the light of the NT

Jesus Christ ratifies the perennial value of the "beginnings" when, for example, he recalls
its teaching to explain the insolubility of marriage (cf. Mt 19:4-6).
In the light of the NT, the creation of the world "in the beginning" is understood as a work
of a God who is Love, communion of Persons in Himself. At creation the Word of God— who
was to come to the world as a man—was also acting; the perfect Image of God, Christ Jesus,
was already present in the creation of the world and man. All things were created because of
that Image, participated by all human beings.
In the light of the NT, which shows Christ as the new Adam, the unity and solidarity of all
human beings in the sin of the first Adam can be understood, and how that sin involves the
whole creation; the full happiness of living with God is understood better, Eden being a
symbolic expression.
The Ark of Noah is a figure of Baptism opening the doors of the Church, the universal
sacrament of salvation. Also, the covenant with Noah remains in place until the proclamation
of the Gospel to all nations.

8.0 The Patriarchs

The "history of the patriarchs" can be located in the geographic context of Middle East—in
particular, in the crescent made by Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt—around the 18th
century BC, when Abraham's arrival to Canaan could have taken place. Its religious meaning
is that the Patriarchs are the people's fathers, God made the promises to them and with them
He signed His covenants.

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8.1 Patriarchs traditions in the light of the history of the Middle
East in the 20th cent. BC
Gen 11:31 says that Terah, Abraham's father, migrated to Haran from Ur of the
Chaldaeans. This city was located in the land of Padan Aram, also called Aram Naharaim
(Gen 24:10), between Tigris and Euphrates, and more concretely between two tributaries of
the Euphrates: Balikh and Khabur rivers.
Around the year 2000 BC several invasions took place in the Middle East, leaving the
blooming civilization partially collapsed. The invaders settled mainly in Syria and
Mesopotamia, where the Babylonians gave them the name of "western", or "Amorites"
according to Old Testament terminology. These invaders were Semites.
Shortly after 2000 BC "Amorites" nations appear in Mari, Haran, Nahor, Catna and Ugarit,
all of them with Amorite kings. Even in Babylonia there was an Amorite state. The famous
Hammurabi was one of its kings.
Another invading group known in Mari is the "hapiru". It seems that the term, more than
a town, designates a social status: nomads without permanent abode. In Gen 14:13 Abraham
is called “the Hebrew”.
In archives found in Nuzi, a city to the Southeast of Nineveh, small tablets were
discovered, showing some aspects of the Patriarchs' life. It was the custom that couples
without descendants adopted somebody as a son, who had to take care of them, and later on
became the heir. But if a son was finally born the agreement was void. This explains why
Abraham says that because he had no son, Eliezer would have to succeed him.
Another Amorite custom known from those tablets explains the amazing request of Sara
to Abraham to try to have children by means of his slave since she was barren. It was clear for
the Amorites that marriage was for the purpose of having children. Therefore, if a woman
could not have issue, she had to offer a slave to her husband, to sire children in her stead.
The Egyptian story of Sinuhe, shows the background of Canaan between 1960-1936 BC. It
shows the life of nomadic clans moving their cattle from Canaan down to Egypt, as well as
the presence in Canaan of some more or less settled powerful sheiks exerting their power on
territories by the use of force.
Gen 23 shows how Abraham bought the cavern of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite.
The Hittite legal code found at Boghaz-Kuy (in present Turkey) illustrates some details of that
story. Abraham in principle wanted only to buy the cavern, not all the land of Ephron, but he
resisted selling only part of his possessions. The reason seems to be that Hittite land transfers
entail a series of feudal obligations, but if one bought only part of the land, he didn't have to
fulfill all those obligations. Possibly Ephron wanted to take advantage of this opportunity to
pass his burden to Abraham. Also the trees mentioned in Gen 23:17 are interesting since
according to Hittites documents, it was necessary to enumerate exactly those sold in the
transaction, since it seems trees were not always sold with the land.
Nuzi tablets also show how oral blessings and last wills were held as very important and
irrevocable. This can explain why Isaac did not change his blessing on Jacob, once he
discovered he had been deceived. According to Nuzi texts, the possession of family
"teraphim" (statuettes of domestic gods) was of great importance: they not only guaranteed a
prosperous life, but also assured their owner of the inheritance. These passed from father to
sons, and if there was none, to daughters. Laban had two daughters, Leah and Rachel, but it
seems that later he had sons (cf Gen 30:35), and that is why Jacob and his family did not have
the right to hold the teraphim: taking them away was considered as robbery (cf Gen 31:30).
Even the Israelite names of ancestors are very old, going back to the beginnings of the
second millennium. Particularly, the names of Abamram and Yaqobuel are known as
Amorrite names in Mari texts.

8.2 The content of the "history of the patriarchs"

By repeating the same sentence as done before—"these are the generations"—the author
starts different blocks. In Gen 11:27 the formula "these are the generations" marks the
beginning of the Patriarchs’ history, introducing Terah's descendants: Abraham, Nahor and
Haram.
(1) Life of Abraham (Gen 12:1—25-:12). In Gen 25:12 the sentence "these are the
generations" introduces a brief section on the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham by
Hagar, the slave. In Gen 25:19 the same formula introduces the descendants of Isaac, second
son of Abraham, born of his wife Sara.
(2) Life of Isaac and Jacob (Gen 25:19—35:29). In Gen 36:1 "these are the generations"
changes section to speak about the descendants of Esau, Isaac's first son. In Gen 37:2 the same
formula closes this section and starts the history of Israel in Egypt, beginning with the the
history of Joseph.

10
8.3 Composition of the "history of the patriarchs"
These stories gather very old traditions, going well beyond the second millennium BC.
Archeology confirms the socio-cultural context they reflect. But at the same time one can
easily see that such traditions have been re-written to reach the present text.
For many centuries, before the Bible was written, Israelite parents told their children
stories about the patriarchs, stories of clans or tribes about their origins, their traditions, and
their ancestors. This type of stories, oral traditions of epic or poetic character, constitutes a
peculiar literary genre called "saga". Although the verisimilitude of each detail cannot be
verified with other sources, is possible at least to state that they reflect the environment,
customs and conditions of life in Canaan from the 18th century BC onwards.
The oldest texts of the prophets hint to those traditions and, surely, they were already
known from long before. Each one of those traditions, coming from different tribes and
sanctuaries, was put in writing and re-elaborated to enlighten the faith of Israel at latter times.
Other passages of patriarchal history were stories of cultic character, that is, related to
shrines of Canaan, like Bethel, Mamre or Sichem. Those stories explained the sacred character
of a certain place, whose story was tied to a patriarch or a name or manifestation of the
divinity. In the book of Genesis, such stories are disconnected now of their original
environment and put under the perspective of the faith in the One God, the Lord, who
accompanied and protected the patriarchs.
With the integration of traditions the Israelites formed collections of stories as cycles
around persons and places. The stories of Abraham and Jacob were joined, with the story of
Isaac as a link between both.

8.4 Teachings of the "history of the patriarchs"

The central idea of the "history of the patriarchs" is God's election of Israel.
The promise made to Abraham, that he would be the father of a large crowd receiving
Canaan as inheritance, as fruit of faith, inaugurates the economy of the salvation. Through
this promise the people of God begins.
The correspondence of Patriarchs to that divine election constitutes an admirable
paradigm of a trusted and friendly relationship with their Lord, and an answer with facts to
the word of God.
The history of the Patriarchs shows how God fulfills the election and confirms the
promises, whose final fulfillment will always be in the future.

8.5 The "history of the patriarchs" in the light of the NT

The New Testament understands that the promise God made to Abraham refers to Jesus
Christ. He is "Abraham's son" (Mt 1:1). Jesus is the true "descendant" of Abraham (cf Gal
3:16), and those that have faith in Christ truly are the children of Abraham (cf Gal 3:7),
fulfilling in this way the promise that in Abraham all nations will be blessed (cf Gal 3:8-9).
The Letter to the Hebrews praises the faith of the patriarchs, particularly Abraham. This
praise, shared with other persons throughout the history of the salvation, is because they
fulfill the definition of faith found in the same letter: "faith is guarantee of what is expected,
the test of the realities not yet seen" (Heb 11:1).
The Christian hope in the fulfillment of divine promises has its model in Abraham’s hope,
purified by the test of the sacrifice.
Also Jacob, origin of the twelve tribes of Israel (cf Gen 28:10-22) shared in the promises
made to Abraham. Before meeting Esau, his brother, he spent one night fighting a mysterious
person, who did not want to reveal his name to him, but blessed him before disappearing.
The Christian spiritual tradition has seen in this story a symbol of prayer as a combat of faith
and victory in perseverance.
The patriarchs, just like other great personages of the Old Testament, are venerated as
saints in all the liturgical traditions of the Church.

9.0 Israel in Egypt

The story of Joseph, by form and style, is clearly different from patriarchal stories and
rather looks like an exemplary history.

9.1 The traditions of Israel in Egypt 18 to 13 century BC

Shortly before 1700 BC Egypt entered a period that would last for about 150 years. It
started with the invasion of Asians whom the Egyptians named Hycsos. They established
their capital in Avaris, located in the Nile delta, founded between 1720 and 1700 BC.
Two Egyptian inscriptions attest that certain Egyptian border officials let some Bedouins

11
from Palestine or the Sinai settle in the delta in times of famine. This custom to allow
foreigners in was very old.
A detailed study of Egyptian official records also reveals that during the New Empire
(from 1570 BC) there were slaves who became favorites of the Pharaohs; and specially during
the Hycsos period.
Before the Hycsos arrival, the land in Egypt was owned mostly by powerful nobles.
During the 18th dynasty (Hycsos) that class of landowners gave way to a bureaucracy of
government functionaries, somehow the land was “nationalized”. For that reason the text of
Gen 47:20-21 is not surprising: “Thus Joseph acquired all the land in Egypt for Pharaoh, since
one by one the Egyptians sold their estates, so hard-pressed were they by the famine, and the
whole country passed into Pharaoh's possession. As for the people, he reduced them to
serfdom from one end of Egypt to the other.”
Gen 39:7-20 tells the story of Joseph and the wife of Potiphar that presents an
extraordinary parallelism with the Egyptian story of two brothers: Anubis and Bitiu.
Also, the interpretation of dreams in Egypt was a highly esteemed office. In the New
Empire a book was published with keys to interpret dreams.
The Nile wealth was proverbial in all the region, since its harvests did not depend on
rains, which could be very little in years of drought, but of the Nile overflowing and making
the soil fertile. In many occasions nomads from the steppes would go to Egypt in search of
food. Thus appears, for example, in the praise of Pharaoh Amenhemet (20th century BC).
However, there are also testimonies of periods of great shortage, like the one described by
the priest Heqanekhti to his family. There is an inscription in stone near the first cataract
speaking of a period of seven years of hunger. It was written in the 2 nd century BC, but speaks
about a tradition coming from the third millenium BC.
Egyptologists assume that Moses is an Egyptian name, meaning “child ” or “son”, as in
Tut-mosis (= son of Tot), Ah-mosis (= son of Ah) or Rameses (= son of Ra).
With regard to the story of the boy saved from the waters, there is the legend of Sargon of
Agade (Mesopotamia, 25 century BC), without parallels in Egyptian literature, that
remembers in many details the birth of Moses and his liberation from death in the Nile (cfr Ex
2:1-10). The upbringing of Moses in Pharaoh’s palace is not at all improbable, since we know
by Egyptian documents that some Pharaohs educated Asian children in their court to prepare
them to perform administrative functions in the Asian provinces of the empire.
Regarding the plagues in the book of Exodus, some similar phenomena take place in
Egypt: seasons in which the Nile carries off a strong reddish color due to mud, proliferation
of frogs, mosquitoes and flies, clouds of locusts, hailstorms destroying the crops, and sand
clouds dragged by sirocco and bringing darkness in broad daylight. God's intervention
combining all these phenomena in a short space of time was enough to influence Pharaoh's
decision to let them go off. That divine action by means of His ordinary Providence, was later
narrated in an apologetic way and presented more explicitly.
To follow the itinerary of the Israelites by the desert with a map is quite difficult, since
although many of the geographic names also are known in Egyptian documentation, it has
not been possible to establish the exact location of those places.
Most remarkable are references to the Red Sea. In the Biblical text it is not called “Red Sea”
but “yam suf” (sea of reeds), which does not seem possible to identify with the present Red
Sea, since there are no reeds. Besides, according to Exodus, it seems that the “Yam suf” is the
border between Egypt and the desert; but if they had to reach the Red Sea, first they must
have crossed several days of desert before arriving to the Red Sea.
A text describing the wonders of Tanis says that there were two masses of water (=lakes)
near the city. One was “the water of Horus”, and the other the “swamp of papyrus (sup)”,
possibly what the Bible talks about. That would be then a prolongation of the Menzaleh lake
towards the south; now everything has been changed by the Suez Canal. Before the
construction of the canal, there was intermittent water communication between the lakes and
the gulf of Suez during high tide. That also suggests divine providence intervening in the
“passage of the Red Sea” and Exodus emphasizing God's intervention, just like with the
plagues.
Regarding the date of departure from Egypt, the Stele of Merenptah, successor of Ramses
II, in the 12 century BC, mentions a victory on “Israel”, referred to as a “people”, not a
“geographic place”.

9.2 Content of the history of Israel in Egypt

The history of Israel in Egypt is built like a diptych, with two great narrative blocks
around two decisive persons: Joseph, a Hebrew who occupied the top position in the
Pharaoh's court, and Moses, born in Egypt, that would be the man chosen by God to free his
people from oppression in Egypt. The first block is at the end of the book of the Genesis, and
the second at the beginning of Exodus.
(1) coming into Egypt (Gen 37—50).
(2) escape from Egypt (Ex 1:1—15:21)

12
9.3 The composition of the history of Israel in Egypt
Joseph's life joins traditions about the patriarchs with traditions about the escape from
Egypt. Its literary history is very complex. Maybe some data come from oral traditions from
the clan of the makirites about their most excellent son: Joseph “the sold one” (Hebrew:
makir). This clan was absorbed by the tribe of Manasseh, that made those traditions their
own, to the point that the Northern tribes were called the “house of Joseph”. These traditions
were later elaborated using some models of Egyptian origin. To a large extent the literary
genre used is short novel with wisdom teaching. It is possible it was put in writing in the
court of Solomon.
On the other side, the traditions of the Northern tribes firmly maintained that their
ancestors had been in Egypt, and God took them from there. This is reflected in texts of its
first prophets: “When Israel was a child, I loved him, and from Egypt I called my son” (Hos
11:1). Some religious celebrations, like Passover, provided a favorable occasion to compile
canticles and stories that remembered the prodigious liberation from the oppression they
suffered in Egypt, forming an ordered account of those events.
The story of Joseph and Exodus, which gathered the older traditional elements about the
stay of Israel in Egypt, were retouched in priestly circles during the Exile in Babylon, and, on
their return the accounts reached a definitive form with the final Pentateuch.

9.4 Teachings of the history of Israel in Egypt

The history of Israel in Egypt speaks with a grandiose tone, using the style of religious
epic, about the election and liberation of Israel, which will definitively turn it into a people
and the Lord's property. It exalts the greatness of the Lord, who has performed so many
wonders, and the dignity of Israel, depositary of so many benefits.
The salvific events told in the book of Exodus form the foundation of Israel's history and
religion, and will remain alive in her memory. The formula “God took Israel from Egypt” and
the widest “God took Israel from Egypt with powerful hand and stretched arm” appear in the
Old Testament more than seventy-six times.
The liberation of Egypt is presented as a proof of predilection on God's side, that has not
always been appreciated by Israel. The memory of these salvific events moves to penance.
The memory of the stay and liberation of Egypt is, mainly, the foundation of hope,
because God, who performed so many wonders during the exodus, is ready to repeat them
again to achieve a new and more lasting liberation. Thus the return from the Babylonian exile
is described as a new and glorious exodus. Since the exodus caused the creation of the people
as such, the return from the deportation, described as a new exodus, is like a new creation.
The “memorial” of the liberation of Egypt is an element with deep roots in the liturgy and
spirituality of the chosen people. When this “memorial” is updated in the paschal supper the
events are somehow made present, to conform each one's life to those relived events.

9.5 The history of Israel in Egypt in the light of the New

Testament
The New Testament considers events narrated in Exodus like figures announcing Christ.
Jesus was sold by Judas in a way analogous to Joseph, who was sold by his brothers.
Hosea assign to God the words “from Egypt I called my Son” (Hos 11:1), referring to the
people, and an ancient Christian tradition, reflected in the New Testament, applies them to
the return of Jesus, Joseph and Mary after Herod's death (cfr Mt 2:15).
Jesus, “the unique mediator between God and men” (1 Tim 2:5), takes the role performed
by Moses as intercessor before God for all the people to its fullness. The dialog between
Moses and God has become a model of prayer for Christian spirituality.
Christ, by means of his oblation and blood spilled on the Cross, is the new paschal lamb
that has rescued us from the slavery of sin to give us true freedom (cfr Gal 5:1). The memorial
of the paschal night gets a new meaning in the New Testament. In the Eucharistic celebration
the Passover of Christ is made present anew, the sacrifice Christ offered once and for all to
obtain our full liberation.
The liberation of Israel from the slavery of Egypt, through the crossing of the Red Sea, has
been contemplated in Christian tradition as a model and prefiguration of the liberation of sin
performed by Baptism.

10.0 The crossing of the Wilderness

This block contains the main elements of Israelite legislation in narrations gathering old
traditions about a long stay in the desert.

13
10.1 The traditions of Israel in the desert and historical
testimonies
There are no archaeological testimonies of the stay and passage of the Israelites by the
desert. It is not strange, because of peculiar characteristics of deserts, and because of the
nomadic type of life. Nevertheless, there are traits left in the people of Israel: in idioms, as for
instance, “tent” means “house”; in some customs, like blood revenge and the importance of
hospitality; the structure of tribes; and, mainly, in its religion centered in the cult to the Lord.
The testimony, therefore, of Numbers and Exodus, that Israel came from the desert, has a
high historical probability, at least in some general aspects.
What is more difficult is to answer some questions presented by the sacred text. For
example, the mountain where the Theophany took place, when God appeared to Moses,
receives the name of Sinai in some Biblical texts (J) and Horeb in others (E and D). Christian
tradition puts it to the south of the present peninsula of the Sinai, in the mountain called
Djebel Musa. However, Ex 3:1 relates it to the territory of Midian, that is, in the Arabic
peninsula, in the region of Harab, still called today Madyan. In addition there is an old Jewish
tradition, well documented, which St Paul echoes, that says that “the Sinai is in Arabia” (Gal
4:25).
Traditions certainly gathered old memories rooted in the desert years; but very often they
are anecdotes that somehow had been disconnected from the group they originated from and
have been applied to the whole of the people of Israel. It is not strange, therefore, that some
historical aspects are somehow obscure. Some questions are: What was the route followed
from Sinai to Moab? Probably, it wasn't only a group, lead by Moses, who traveled by the
wilderness, but, at least two: one going by the north of the peninsula and entering Canaan
from Kadesh, and another going through the route described in Numbers: from Sinai by the
south of the peninsula they went to Kadesh, and from there, going again down to the south to
the gulf of Aqaba, they bypassed Moab and went again in a northeast direction to
Transjordania. However, it seems most logical to think than these groups had contact among
them in the desert, perhaps at Kadesh, what would explain their union later in Canaan,
worshiping the same God Yahweh.
Another question is the time they spent crossing the desert. The common tradition speaks
of forty years. But looking at the data offered by Numbers it is not possible to explain how
long is forty years. Everything seems to imply that forty years are a generic figure to express
the duration of a generation, since those leaving Egypt couldn't enter the Promised Land.

10.2 The legal regulations of the chosen People.

Israel and Judah, like many peoples of the Middle East, had their own laws regarding
social life and worship.
No Canaanite legislative documents previous to the arrival of Israel have survived. The
texts of Ugarit, so rich in mythological references, are very poor in legal questions. The older
known laws are those of Ur-Nammu, founder of 3rd dynasty of Ur (towards 2000 BC). The
more famous legal text is the Code of Hammurabi, a compilation of previous legislation
composed in Babylonia during the first half of the 18th century BC.
With regards to legislation originated in the wilderness, according to the sacred authors,
perhaps the most important document is the Decalogue. One formulation is in Ex 34:15-28
and another in Deut 5:7-21. The two versions are similar, nevertheless. They do not agree in
the limits of each commandment. The history of the revelation of the Decalogue is extremely
complex. Some of these commandments have their parallels in legal codes of other cultures
and others are totally unusual—to worship the Lord, not to make carved images, and to
sanctify the Sabbath.
About the ethical sensitivity of other peoples of that time, concretely the Egyptians, it can
be useful to read the “Confession of the dead before Osiris” (15 th to 12th centuries BC), that had
to be said by the priest in the name of the deceased. Also the “shurpu” Babylonian ritual is
very interesting, a series of questions asked of a sick man to detect the cause of his evils,
which were attributed to personal sins.
Israel also had its own customs with legal value, analogous to those of neighboring
peoples. Most of those legal texts are contained in the “Code of the Covenant” (Ex 20:22—
23:19). They reflect the conditions of a rural society, living more on cattle than on agriculture,
and where the family had a fundamental role. It is surprising that in the first Israelite code, in
contrast with other codes of the ancient East, there is an intimate mutual union between the
sacred and the profane, trend that will become more marked as time goes by.
After several centuries in the promised land, the agricultural life started influencing
worship, establishing a calendar for celebrations based in the cycle of harvest, giving a
different rhythm to the liturgy. It gave origin to a core of legal dispositions that went into
legal codes—with all the formal characteristics of codes of that time, which served to organize
religious life. Inheriting the old “Code of the Covenant”, two new legal compilations started
being formed, each one independently: the “Deuteronomy Code” and the “Law of the

14
Holiness”.
The “Deuteronomy Code”, thus called because it is in the book of the Deuteronomy (Deut
12—25), has many points in common with the “Code of the Covenant” but also some
differences as can be appreciated in the re-elaboration of some primitive norms and the
inclusion of new ones. It draws up a suitable program to live the faith of Israel in a settled and
established society in the land of Canaan. Its main interest is emphasizing the unity of people
and worship, the people must devote themselves to honor the only God, giver of the land and
all its goods.
On the other hand, the “Law of Holiness”, started in the last years of the kingdom of
Judah before the Exile and developed by priests of the Temple, is oriented much more
directly towards aspects related to worship. It presupposes the idea of God as transcendent to
profane realities, and worship as a way to reach to “holiness”, that is, the divine. This code is
now part of the book of Leviticus (Lev 17—26). It possibly inspires the great priestly tradition,
that will have so much influence in the definitive composition of the Pentateuch.

10.3 Contents of the history of the crossing the wilderness

(1) the people of Israel from the Red Sea to the desert of Sinai (Ex 15:22—18:27).
(2) the people of Israel in the Sinai (Ex 19:1—Num 10:10).
A. The Covenant of Sinai. In this context the first important legal norms begin to be
inserted:
(a) First the proclamation of the Decalogue (Ex 20:2-17).
(b) Next, the Code of the Covenant (Ex 20:22—23:33).
B. Norms on worship and the sanctuary.
C. Legal prescriptions, regarding mainly legal purity, like what circumstances or events
can make lose this purity (Lev 11—16).
D. Law of Holiness (Lev 17—25). Two sections: social life (Lev 17—22) and celebration
of sabbatical years and jubilee years (Lev 22—25).
E. Preparations for the crossing (Num 1:10—10:10).
(3) the people of Israel in Paran (Num 10:11—20:.21).
(4) the people of Israel on the way between Kadesh and Moab (Num 20:22—21:35).
(5) the people of Israel in the plains of Moab (Num 21:36—36:13).

10.4 Composition of the history of the crossing the wilderness

The process of writing the traditions about Israel in the wilderness does not have to be
much different from the process of Genesis and first part of Exodus, where three lines of
literary tradition are intermingled: Yahwist, Elohist and Priestly. In Leviticus almost
everything belongs to the Priestly tradition. In Exodus and Numbers, nevertheless, though it
is easy to distinguish content belonging to the Priestly tradition, is not so clear how to assign
the rest to one of the two other traditions. Rather it seems that the editor already got them
mixed together, forming what is called Yahwist-Elohist tradition. This is the source of those
passages with a more primitive flavor.
Yahwist's main interest concerns the tribe of Judah.
Elohist, however, keeps recollections about the spirit of prophecy. Also, the Elohist speaks
about some concrete tribes, like Reuben or Gad and Manasseh.
The Priestly tradition has much more force and extension. Many of the passages of the
Exodus, all the book of Leviticus and great blocks of the book of Numbers, like the ten first
chapters, belong to it. The Priestly tradition reinterprets what is said by other sources,
according to the priestly point of view. In effect, the Priestly tradition is mostly interested in
everything concerning the tribe of Levi, the distinction between priests and levites, their
respective functions, and everything related to the cult.
Whereas other traditions emphasize the rebellious character and stubbornness of the
people, stressing the wrath and forgiveness of God, the Priestly tries to display the people as
a holy community, perfectly organized and integrated in twelve tribes, plus Levi that is like
the soul of the religious constitution of the people. Also this tradition knows about the sin of
the people in the wilderness, but that allows to explain the rites of expiation to be able to
make reparation.
Within the Priestly tradition all the book of Leviticus has a particular importance. The
book, where laws of different times are grouped together, has a remarkable unity and
coherence. Its zenith is the “Law of Holiness”, the great sacerdotal legal code. This code is the
foundation of the book of Leviticus and all the Priestly tradition.
Around the central subject, the worship of God three times holy, the sacred author puts
different legislative material together: (1) rituals that were to be followed in the offering of
sacrifices; (2) rites for the institution of men that would offer those sacrifices, the priests; (3)
norms teaching priests and people how to be “pure”, that is, acceptable for worship; (4)
prescriptions about what is proper for the worship of God, that is to say, “holy”, what is
divine.

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 The final form of the march of Israel by the wilderness fundamentally maintains the spirit
of the Priestly tradition.

10.5 Teaching of the history of the crossing the wilderness

God is the guide of his people through the wilderness towards the promised land. The
people in the desert are not a shapeless crowd, as when they left Egypt, but a holy
community, formed by virtue of the Covenant as told at the beginning of this great story.
The wilderness is a passing place, full of difficulties, were the people feels the temptation
of discouragement, and rebelliousness against God who has taken them there; but it also
knows pardon and divine mercy. In spite of the rebellious attitude of the people, God carries
out his aim to lead them to the land of Canaan.
The mysterious presence of God in the middle of his people on pilgrimage, is symbolized
by the Cloud. God Himself leads His people from one place to another, wherever he wants,
although the people sometimes do not understand the reason why. Witnesses to the
recognition of the divine presence are the Tent reserved to the meeting with God and the Ark
of the Covenant, where the tablets of the Law are kept. But God also manifests Himself
through events.
God purifies his people by means of successive trials before leading them to the Promised
Land, until that generation dies in the wilderness; but He does not destroy his people. The
people that will enter the land is a renewed people. God takes care of them and guides them
to Him, not only by showing the way to follow, but also how to live and how to serve him, by
mediators whom he himself legitimizes.
The time of pilgrimage through the wilderness survived in the memory of Israel like a
golden time of relation with God, in contrast to the relaxation that took place at latter times in
the monarchy. Remembering what happened in the wilderness, the Psalms also urge to
conversion to God whenever they are recited: today (cfr Sal 95:7-11). The traditions of the
wilderness give meaning to the pilgrimage of the people of God through their history. In this
pilgrimage through time what happened in the wilderness has a value for understanding and
interpreting present events.
The Covenant of Sinai will also be a model of other covenants God made in previous times
with Adam, Noah or Abraham, and at a later time, through Joshua (Jos 24) or David; and in
the messianic times a new covenant will be established (cfr Jer 19:7) fulfilled through the
blood of Christ.
The legal norms contained in the laws of worship and those related to the priesthood, as
well as the norms of “holiness” contain deep teachings:
(a) God is the Creator and Sovereign of whatever exists. Therefore, the sacrifice was the
most excellent action of worship, the most suitable manifestation of the feelings of man
towards God: adoration, recognition, gratitude, supplication.
(b) Little by little the cult of God was organized and the priestly function was needed,
together with men exercising it, priests. In ancient times, during the system of tribes, the
family head functioned as a priest. Soon after, the king was performing the royal function and
priesthood at the same time. Later the king would delegate this function. In addition to the
celebration of worship, priests would have to fulfill an important educational work,
explaining the Law and transmitting, from generation to generation, the legislation born from
customs and traditions. They were, in a word, those who proclaimed the will of God to the
people. They performed, therefore, a double mediation, worship and the word. In the first
they interceded before God on behalf of men, whereas in the mediation of the word priests
addressed men on behalf of God.
(c) “Impure” is what is not fitting for the cult to God. “Purity” in these prescriptions is
external and ritual, although it has a deep religious sense. However, “holiness” is an internal
quality of man. He is “holy” who internally and externally lives for God, the one who stays
within his reach. And unto this the Lord calls all men: “be holy, because I, the Lord, your
God, am Holy” (Lev 19:2).
Leviticus does not offer only merely formal norms, but in it we found moral norms that
reflect a peculiar teaching on God and man, and the relation between man and his Lord. In all
of them, and above certain specifications that respond to peculiar cultural and historical
circumstances, a deep religious sense with permanent values emerges.

10.6 The history of the crossing of the wilderness in the light of the
New Testament
Jesus Christ, before beginning his public ministry, was lead by the Spirit to the wilderness,
where he was also tried and tempted. But Jesus, unlike the people of Israel, left victorious. He
has the fullness of divine gifts, whereas the gifts in the wilderness were a figure.
The Holy Gospels also present Jesus Christ as fulfilling the wilderness. The virginal
conception of Jesus in the purest womb of Mary is done by an action comparable to God's
presence in the Cloud (cfr Lk 1:35). The life of Christ in the midst of men is understood as the

16
presence of the Tent of Meeting in the camp of the Israelites (cfr Jn 1:14).
The Tradition of the Church, interpreting these stories, follows the suggestions of the New
Testament, and has discovered numerous symbolisms regarding Jesus Christ, the Church,
and the Christian life.
The Beatitudes are proclaimed from the mountain (cfr Mt 5) as the Law of Moses was
proclaimed in Sinai; also the transfiguration took place in a mountain (cfr Mt 17:1-8).
Saint Paul will recall many wonders of the wilderness, considering them like figures of
realities of the new economy: the manna is a figure of the Eucharist and the rock from which
Moses brought water forth, is a figure of Christ (cfr 1 Cor 11:1-5).
The tradition of the march by the wilderness, therefore, represents, in the books of Holy
Scripture, the Word of God that encourages us to walk in hope at the rhythm God says, to
fight in the middle of difficulties, and to serve Him with sincere worship.
On the other hand, all legislative and cultual texts inserted in the march through the
wilderness aim at higher realities. It is in the light of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross that
we understand better the legislation on sacrifices. Everything is a prefiguration of the reality
that will reach its fullness with redemption.
Many texts of the New Testament, and particularly the Letter to the Hebrews, have these
laws as reference points, resorting to them whenever it speaks about sacrifices, celebrations or
the liturgy. A full section of that Letter is dedicated to show that the Sacrifice of Christ is
above all the sacrifices of the Old Law (Heb 8:1—10:18). Also there is a section in the Letter to
the Hebrews showing that Christ is the High Priest, and above all the priests of the mosaic
Law. Particularly, prescriptions about priests serve to discover clearly and firmly the supreme
and eternal priesthood of Christ.
Among the characteristics of Christ as priest emphasized by the Letter to the Hebrews are,
indeed, purity and holiness, deep attitudes that have remarkable importance in the legislation
stemmed from the wilderness and that continue keeping all their value. True purity requires
purification of the heart. Holiness consists in being in God's sight, and in the New Testament
we discover that the Word became incarnate to be our model of holiness. And moreover, the
mission of Christ has been to open the doors of holiness to all the members of the people of
God.
The main teachings of these traditions find their culmination and more admirable
synthesis in the teachings of Jesus.

11.0 The Deuteronomy and “Deuteronomist History”

The book of the Deuteronomy can be seen as the closing of the Pentateuch, recalling the
main events through great discourses, before the entrance in the Promised Land.
The Deuteronomy can also be seen as the introduction of the main theological concepts
which will be explained in the books coming next in the canon: Joshua, Judges, Samuel and
Kings.

11.1 Literary criticism from the beginnings to M. Noth

From the 19th century there are two main hypotheses on the formation of these books:
1. As the continuation of some of the sources of the Pentateuch: Yahwist and Elohist
(authors: Eissfeldt, Hölscher)
2. Each one would be an independent work, later on joined and modified by
deuteronomist authors during Josiah's reformation.

11.2 “Deuteronomist History” according to M. Noth

Hypothesis: the contribution of deuteronomists circles would not only be mere
modifications, but deeper: they were true authors. These books form a unity that, beginning
by Deuteronomy, ends in 2nd Kings, called “Deuteronomist History”.
In the composition of this work authors would have used previous materials developing
them in depth according to a plan:
a) first edition of the Deuteronomy;
b) different traditions about the conquest with geographic lists about land distribution;
c) heroic stories about the “judges”;
d) three cycles of narratives about Samuel, Saul and David;
e) prophetic cycles of Elijah, Elisha and Isaiah; and
f) some official sources of the kingdoms (Annals and Acts).
This “Deuteronomist History” would have been written at Mispah, shortly after the
beginning of the Babylonian exile. A pre-established plan was carried out following this
literary elements:
a) Active presence of prophets at decisive moments of history (Nathan with David,
Elijah with Ahab, etc.);

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 b) association of main historical moments with important persons: the Law with
Moses, the conquest with Joshua, the Temple with Solomon, the centralization of
the cult with Josiah;
c) narration of events according to the outline “promise—fulfillment”;
d) recurring to speeches attributed to different persons.
This plan establishes a theological purpose:
1. The land promise is not absolute, but conditioned to the fulfillment of the Covenant.
2. Correlation between fidelity to the Covenant and possession of the land, and between
infidelity and expulsion of the land. This would be the fundamental norm when judging
different events. The scheme “rebellion—punishment—repentance—salvation” will be
repeated many times.

11.3 Literary critic after M. Noth

Noth's hypothesis rests on two fundamental ideas:
1. All “Deuteronomist History” is one work, written by a historian in Palestine shortly
after the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar's army (around the middle of 6 th century
BC).
2. That the writer maintains in his work a historical and theological thesis: “a pessimistic”
interpretation of that catastrophe, as a just and definitive punishment of God to the constant
infidelity of His people.

A) Theological evaluation
This hypothesis does not explain well the numerous optimistic affirmations in the Biblical
text. E. Janssen noticed that the elements of instruction and example were essential in the
Deuteronomist work.
Gerard von Rad (1947) offered the strongest objection: “promise—fulfillment” appears
eleven times in 1st and 2nd Kings, but only regarding the northern kings. It does not happen in
the south, because of David and the promise made to him by Nathan: God acts in the South
judging and exterminating, but also saving and forgiving.
H. W. Wolf (1961) noticed that the editor is not as pessimistic as Noth would have it, but
neither as optimistic as von Rad thought. For Wolf the intention of the historian is, simply, to
call to conversion.
These differences in theological interpretation can be explained if there wasn't a single
author. Therefore, Noth's hypothesis is in need of correction.

B) Edition of the “Deuteronomist History”

Most critics think that the Deuteronomist History has had more than one edition, but
differ about number and dates.
Germans researchers speak about three editions, all of them during the exile. Among
them:
Alfred Jepsen (1951);
Rudolph Smend (1971): Most important. He speaks about an edition made up by historical
material (DtrG), prophetical material (DtrP) and nomist (DtrN) emphasizing legal aspects.
These three materials follow the sequence “history—prophetism—nomism”, that agree with
the three stages in the evolution of the Israelite religion postulated by Wellhausen according
to a hegelian model.
George Hentschel (1984): follows Smend, although he accepts post-deuteronomists
comments at the return from exile, plus other materials.
Erns Wuerthwein (1984): Adds two stages to the second writing of prophetic character:
DtrP1 (insertion of the previous story, corresponding to the scheme “prophecy—fulfillment”
and some threatening oracles) and DtrP2 (adding prophetic stories).
On the other hand, Anglo-Saxon scholars speak of two editions: one in the last years of the
Kingdom of Judah, and another after the exile. Among these:
A. Kuenen and Frank Moore Cross (1973): there is no theological reflection in the text
about the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar's army.
Richard D. Nelson (1981) and Gerald E. Gerbrandt (1986): suggest the first edition
provided the bulk of the history, the second would just slightly alter the previous text to offer
a new edition.
Ian N. Provan (1988): a first edition was made during the reign of Josiah (end of 7 th century
BC) including the history of the monarchy from its origins to Hezekiah. In Josiah's times, the
history of Samuel, and part of Judges were added. During the exile Judges was completed,
and Joshua and Deuteronomy were added.
Latest studies reach a consensus in some areas: the value of the last edition, certainly
during the exile; and that before the first edition there were already plenty pre-
deuteronomists materials.

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C) Pre-deuteronomist documentation
Almost all contemporary scholars agree about the existence of some previous materials. It
is assumed that these “pre-deuteronomists documents” are not a continuation of documents
of the Pentateuch.
F. Campbell (1986): There is a document of prophetic origin, 9 th century, about the
monarchy from its origins to the division of the kingdom.
Mark O'Brien (1989): disciple of Campbell, provides a new hypothesis on deuteronomist
history: at the beginning was a history of the guides of Israel from Moses to Josiah. It was
divided into three parts: a) Moses and Joshua; b) Judges and the transition to monarchy and
c) prophets and kings. The reform of Josiah was like the fulfillment of what was established
by Moses.

11.4 Content of the book of the Deuteronomy

The entrance to the promised land is the Deuteronomy background: Moses teaches the
people, with words of farewell and testament, the behaviour they will always have to follow.
He recalls the main events that happened during the exodus and encourages them to keep the
fundamental Law of the Covenant or “Decalogue”.
The Deuteronomy can be divided in the following way:
1) historical introduction;
2) first speech of Moses: recalling the historical events of the exodus;
3) second speech of Moses: this is the fundamental part of the book (the moral
Decalogue, the Shema (Deut 6,1-9), the Deuteronomist Code or Covenant of
Moab);
4) third speech of Moses: restating the exhortations to be faithful to the Covenant;
5) historical conclusion: election of Joshua, Canticle of Moses, Blessings of Moses, and
his death.
The primitive core of Deuteronomy appears to be a code similar to legal codes of the
Ancient Middle East. Later on, with some additions, it took the form of a pact of submission,
and acquired its present form at a later date.

11.5 Legal codes of the Ancient Middle East

The Code of Hammurabi is the most famous among old legal texts. It was composed in
Babylon during the first half of the 18th century BC. These legal texts have three different parts:
1) prologue;
2) collection of laws, the main part of the document;
3) epilogue with blessings and curses.

11.6 The pacts of submission in the Ancient Middle East

The “pact of submission” is a bilateral commitment between a patron and his subject who
sign a contract of mutual help. Different types of treatises have been discovered in Ugarit and
among Hittites, in 15th to 13th centuries BC. All follow a similar pattern:
a) introduction: the king appears as protector of the subject;
b) historical prologue: describing the relations between the two sides;
c) stipulations;
d) List of gods witnesses to the agreement;
e) blessings for whoever fulfills it and curses for whoever does not fulfill it.

11.7 Formation of Deuteronomy

A typical characteristic of religious texts is that they usually have a slow gestation,
throughout which they are incorporating new elements on top of the older. Deuteronomy is
not an exception.
The oldest layers of “primitive Deuteronomy” (Deut 6—28) were composed in the last
years of the Northern kingdom, shortly before the fall of Samaria. Perhaps this fragment
could be identified with the “book of the Law” that formed the base for Josiah's reformation.
At this stage, the book was in its form like the legal codes of the Ancient East:
an introduction (Deut 6:4-9; 7; 10:12—11:25),
a legal body (Deut 12—25)
blessings and curses (Deut 26—28).
After the fall of Jerusalem, this Law was like a reference to reflect on the history of Israel
and to judge past events in the light of what it prescribed. This reflection started the
“Deuteronomist History”.
With these modifications the Deuteronomy partly lost its formal character of legal code
and became more similar to a “pact of submission”:

19
 a) introduction: “I am the Lord, your God” (Deut 5:6)
b) historical prologue: remembrance of what happened since leaving Mount Horeb
(Deut 5—11)
c) proclamation of the Law (Deut 12:1—26:15)
d) mutual commitment between God and the people (Deut 26:16-19)
e) blessings and curses (Deut 27:1—30:18)
f) call of witnesses (Deut 30:19-20)

11.8 Teachings of the book of Deuteronomy

The theological teachings of Deuteronomy can be summarized as follows:
1) One God: whose unity is solemnly proclaimed in the Shema (Deut 6:4);
2) One people: unlike the priestly tradition, Deuteronomy does not speak about tribes and
families in the people;
3) One temple: the cult had to be unified in the Temple of Jerusalem (Deut 12);
4) One land: the land of Israel is a gift from God to His people;
5) One law: as expression of God's will showing His people the way to follow.

11.9 Teachings of Deuteronomy in the light of the New Testament

The great topic of Deuteronomy, unity, finds its fullness in Christ.
The behavioral model Jesus proposes to his disciples can be reduced to a single law: love.
In the New Covenant there is only one supreme manifestation of worship: the redemptive
sacrifice of Jesus on the Cross.
Each one of the members of this people is a pilgrim on this land, in the world he/she has
received as a gift from God. He has to be detached from earthly goods, in his way towards
the definitive land.

12.0 The Tribes of Israel. The Books of Joshua and

Judges
12.1 The Israelite tribes in Canaan
The book of Joshua gives the impression that all the land of Canaan was conquered and
devastated by the Israelites, but the first chapter of the book of the Judges presents an
different image and, possibly, next to the reality.
Archaeological data show that there were many and violent disturbances in Palestine
during the 13th century BC, and the following centuries—12th and 11th—were even worse. They
also reveal some notable historical inaccuracies in the book of Joshua (for example, the
conquest of Jericho and 'Ay).
It is not clear in the book of Joshua what “Israel” meant at that time: it didn't seem a
people, but rather a group of related tribes living in Canaan. Also some tribes did not come
from Egypt as can be deducted from some Biblical texts.
An instance is that Joshua does not say the central area of Palestine was
conquered. Nevertheless, the most important city in the area, Sichem, was chosen
by Joshua to gather the tribes and renew the Covenant.
The book of the Judges presents those years as a time of convulsions, with the Israelite
tribes lacking political unity. This anarchical situation is confirmed by archeology.
Most of Canaan consisted of state-cities, each one with its own king, whereas Israel was a
group of independent tribes whose common bond was not strictly political but religious.
Nevertheless, the faith in the Lord was still at a very primitive level: simple people had an
inclination to make idols of molten metal, while giving them domestic worship.
When the Israelites were attacked there appeared charismatic leaders, the Judges, who
coalesced people around them to defend against enemy attacks. But these Judges were not a
model of ethical behavior, at least in the light of subsequent legislation. For instance: Samson
married a philistine woman; Jephthah made a reckless vow he fulfilled by sacrificing his own
daughter.

12.2 The book of Joshua

A) Contents
a) prologue (chap 1): proclaims the main topic of the book: God has given the promised
land to His people, but the possession of this gift depends on their fidelity to the divine law;
b) conquest of the promised land (chaps 2—12);
c) land distribution among the tribes (chaps 13—21);

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 d) epilogue.

B) formation of the book of Joshua

The core was formed by conquest stories passed through oral tradition, that each tribe put
later on writing in the light of the deuteronomist theology.
The list of tribes is a document with possible origins in the Southern kingdom. Detailed
description of borders reflects a pre-monarchic situation and is, therefore, very old.
Also there are many etiological stories (explaining origins) with a devotional style,
explaining the reason why some places have a concrete name.

C) Teachings of the book of Joshua

The sacred author presents some fundamental ideas:
a) God is faithful and fulfills His promises.
b) the land where Israel lives is a gift of God.
c) Relationship between God and His people is regulated by the Covenant. God will
remain with His people when they are faithful, but He will abandon them if they disobey
him.
d) All of Israel is only one people, and must recognize only one God, that is the Lord.
The canonical text was possibly written up completely when the people had lost the land
the land God had given to Joshua. The book explains that the cause of this misfortune is
infidelity, but gives new hope: the same God that gave them the land can give it back if they
imitate the fidelity of Joshua's generation as told in the book.

D) The book of Joshua in the light of the New Testament

Joshua, uniting all tribes, and their salvation, with a universal outlook, represents a true
prophetic anticipation of Jesus Christ. In the Sermon of the Mountain Jesus broadens to all
men the promises God made to his people: “Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the
land” (Mt 5:5).

12.3 The book of Judges

A) Contents
a) Historical-geographical prologue: settlement of the tribes in Canaan.
b) Doctrinal prologue. Describes the theological key that unlocks the book, the outline:
“sin—punishment—conversion—salvation”. It also explains why there are Canaanite islands
inside Israel.
c) History of the Judges. Six judges: Othniel, Ehud, Debora and Barak, Gideon and
Abimelech, Jephthah, and Samson.
d) Appendix: portraying the anarchical situation the tribes lived in.

B) Formation of the book of Judges

Previous materials existed as a stories originated in tribal traditions. The book seems to
have had several phases through which all those fragments were assembled.
H. Cazelles: There was a first compilation of those traditions in the Northern kingdom,
towards 9th century BC, what would be a “book of liberators”. Stories of other judges had their
own development. The appendix also had an independent development.
The last editors used those materials to portray the situation of the chosen people before
the monarchy began.

C) Teachings of the book of Judges

Local traditions entered the Bible because they show in an exemplary way the relation
between God and His people: God still shows interest for His people after giving them the
promised land: He sees their faith and repentance and releases them from their enemies.
Because of sin, and after doing repentance, the saving action of God begins by the
gratuitous election of the man, who will redress the situation.
The whole book is a call to fidelity, since without it the Covenant cannot subsist. Sin is a
very serious breach of that fidelity by introducing disorder in the relation with God.

D) The book of the Judges in the light of the New Testament

The incarnation of the Son of God and His saving mission is a clear manifestation that God
does not abandon His people.
Vocation of those chosen by God is undeserved. This can already be seen in the book of

21
Judges, and it is clearly revealed by St Paul (1 Cor 1:26-29).
The experience of liberation conveyed by the book of Judges is an anticipation of Christ's,
fully freeing Man from sin and death.

13.0 THE MONARCHY. BOOKS DE SAMUEL AND

KINGS
The books of Samuel and of Kings constitute a single work. The separation obeys to
practical reasons of handling parchment rolls. The books of Samuel speak about the origins of
the monarchy, and Kings tell the history of the monarchy of Israel and Judah from the death
of David to the captivity of Babylon.

13.1 The beginnings of Israel's Monarchy

A) Samuel and Saul
The first book of Samuel begins with the story of Samuel, presented as a “seer” or
“prophet”. In many ancient religions of the Middle East, ecstatic prophecy was very common.
But in Israel ecstasy was not considered to be essential to prophecy: the prophet is first of all a
messenger sent by God to communicate something. The first great prophet in Israel was
Samuel.
Restoration of the monarchy: it became indispensable to have a centralized power due to
the Philistine aggressive expansionism. The book of the Judges (chaps 6—9) displays
traditions related to the first Israelite attempts to establish a monarchy. The most serious
attempts are centered in Saul, a seasoned young of the tribe of Benjamin. After his victory
against the Ammonites, Saul is proclaimed king in Gilgal.

B) David
After the death of Saul, David managed to be proclaimed king of Judah in Hebron. David
conquered the city of Jerusalem, an event of enormous political and religious importance.
Jerusalem did not belong to any of the Israelite tribes, reason why it was a neutral, ideal city
to establish as the capital without any tribe feeling marginalised by the election. Once the
royal court was established in Jerusalem there was a first attempt of centralization of worship
with the Ark's transfer to the city.

C) Solomon
The first book of Kings presents king Solomon as the prototype of a wise king. He also was
a great administrator of the kingdom, dividing it in provinces, putting governors as heads.
He built the Temple, next to his palace.
The Temple follows the normal pattern of Canaanite temples. These included a hekal or
sanctuary with two columns at the entrance, and a debir or Holy of Holies, with two altars for
incense, and inside the enclosure a massebah.
Solomon undertook massive building all over the kingdom: besides the Temple of
Jerusalem, he extended the walls of the city and reinforced several fortresses.
Solomon was succeeded by his son, Rehoboam. He was accepted without difficulty by the
tribe of Judah, but not so with the tribes of the north. In Shechem, the assembly of Israel
requested to Rehoboam to lighten the burden laid by his father on them, but he refused to
such request, and these tribes rejected him, and with him the Davidic monarchy.

Kings and Prophets

Judah Israel
The Southern Kingdom The Northern Kingdom
Kings Prophets Kings Prophets
Rehoboam Shemaiah  Jeroboam I Ahijah the Shilonite
. Iddo the Seer . Man of God from Judah
. . . Old Prophet at Bethel
. . . Iddo the Seer
Abijam Iddo the Seer Nadab .
Asa Azariah Baasha Jehu, son of Hanani
. Hanani Elah .
. . Zimri .
. . Omri .
Jehoshaphat Jehu, son of Hanani Ahab Elijah

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. Jahaziel . Elisha
. Eliezer . Micaiah, son of Imlah
. . . Unnamed Prophets
Jehoram Obadiah Ahaziah Elijah's Translation
. Elijah . Elisha
. . Joram Elisha
Ahaziah . Jehu Elisha
Queen Athaliah . . .
Joash Joel Jehoahaz Elisha
Amaziah Unnamed Prophets Jehoash Death of Elisha
Uzziah Isaiah Jeroboam II Jonah
. Zechariah . Amos
. . . Hosea
. . Zechariah Hosea
. . Shallum Hosea
Jotham Isaiah Menahem Hosea
. Micah Pekahiah Hosea
Ahaz Isaiah Pekah Hosea
. Micah . Oded the Prophet
Hezekiah Isaiah Hoshea Hosea
. Micah
Manasseh Nahum
. Unnamed Prophets
Amon .
Josiah Jeremiah
. Zephaniah
. Huldah the Prophetess
Jehoahaz Jeremiah
Jehoiakim Jeremiah
. Habakkuk
. Daniel
. Urijah son of Shemaiah
Jehoiachin Jeremiah
. Daniel
Zedekiah Jeremiah
Daniel
Ezekiel

Southern Kings and Prophets

with References
Kings Prophets
Rehoboam 1Kin 14:21-31 Shemaiah  2Chr 11:2-4;
. .
. 2Chr 9:31-12:16 Iddo the Seer 12:5-7,15
Abijam . Iddo the Seer 2Chr 12:15
. 1Kin 15:1-8; . 2Chr 13:22
Asa 2Chr 13:1-14 Azariah .
. 1Kin 15:9-24 Hanani 2Chr 15:1,8
Jehoshaphat 2Chr 14:1-16:14 Jehu, son of Hanani 2Chr 16:7-10
. 1Kin 22:41-50 Jahaziel 2Chr 19:2,3
. 2Chr 17:1-21:1 Eliezer 2Chr 20:14-17
Jehoram . Obadiah 2Chr 20:37
. 2Kin 8:16-24 Elijah .
Ahaziah 2Chr 21:1-20 . 2Chr 21:12-15
. 2Kin 8:25-9:29 . .
Queen Athaliah 2Chr 22:1-9 . .
. 2Kin 11:1-20 . .
Joash 2Chr 22:10-23:21 Joel .
. 2Kin 11:21-12:21 . .
Amaziah 2Chr 24:1-27 Unnamed Prophets .
. 2Kin 14:1-20 . 2Chr 25:7-9,15,16
Uzziah 2Chr 25:1-28 Isaiah .
. 2Kin 15:1-7 Zechariah .

23
Jotham 2Chr 26:1-23 Isaiah 2Chr 26:5n 21:10.
. 2Kin 15:32-38 Micah .
Ahaz 2Chr 27:1-9 Isaiah .
. 2Kin 16:1-20 Micah .
Hezekiah 2Chr 28:1-27 Isaiah .
. 2Kin 18:1-20:21 Micah .
. 2Chr 29:1-32:33 . .
Manasseh Is 36:1-39:8 Nahum .
. 2Kin 21:1-18 Unnamed Prophets .
. 2Chr 33:1-20 . 2Kin 21:10
Amon . Jeremiah 2Chr 33:18
. 2Kin 21:19-26 Zephaniah .
Josiah 2Chr 33:21-25 Huldah the Prophetess .
. 2Kin 22:1-23:30 . 2Kin 22:14-20
Jehoahaz 2Chr 34:1-35:27 Jeremiah 2Chr 34:22-28
. 2Kin 23:31-34 . .
. 2Chr 36:1-4 . .
Jehoiakim Jer 22:1-12 Jeremiah .
. 2Kin 23:34-24:7 Habakkuk .
. 2Chr 36:4-8; Jer Daniel .
. 22:13-23;26;36 Urijah son of Shemaiah .
Jehoiachin . Jeremiah Jer 26:20
. 2Kin 24:8-17 Daniel
. 2Chr 36:9,10; Jer  .
Zedekiah 22:24-30;52:31-34 Jeremiah
2Kin 24:17-25:7 Daniel
2Chr 36:11-21; Jer Ezekiel
39:1-10; 52:1-11

Northern Kings and Prophets

with References
Kings Prophets
Jeroboam I 1Kin 11:26-40; Ahijah the Shilonite 1Kin 11:29-39;
. 12:1-14:20 . 14:1-18
. 2Chr 10:1-11:4; Man of God from Judah 1Kin 13:1-32;
. 11:13-16;13:2-20 . 2Kin 23:15-18
. . Old Prophet at Bethel 1Kin 13:11-32;
. . . 2Kin 23:18
. . Iddo the Seer 2Chr 9:29
Nadab 1Kin 15:25-31 . .
Baasha 1Kin 15:16-22, Jehu, son of Hanani 1Kin 16:1-7
. 27-29, 32-34; . .
. 16:1-7 . .
Elah 1Kin 16:8-14 . .
Zimri 1Kin 16:9-12,15-20 . .
Omri 1Kin 16:16-18,21-28 . .
Ahab 1Kin 16:29-22:40; Elijah 1Kin 17-21;
. 2Chr 18:1-34 . 2Kin 1;2
. . Elisha 1Kin 19:19-21
. . Micaiah, son of Imlah 1Kin 22:8-28;
. . . 2Chr 18:7-27
. . Unnamed Prophets .
Ahaziah 1Kin 22:51-2Kin 1:18; Elijah's Translation 2Kin 2:1-18
. 2Chr 20:35-37 Elisha .
Joram 2Kin 3:1-9:26 Elisha .
Jehu 2Kin 9:1-10:36 Elisha .
Jehoahaz 2Kin 13:1-9 Elisha .
Jehoash 2Kin 13:10-13,25; Death of Elisha .
. 14:8-16; . .
. 2Chr 25:17-24 . .
Jeroboam II 2Kin 14:23-29 Jonah .
. . Amos .
. . Hosea .

24
 Zechariah 2Kin 15:8-12 Hosea .
Shallum 2Kin 10,13-15 Hosea .
Menahem 2Kin 15:14,16-22 Hosea .
Pekahiah 2Kin 15:23-26 Hosea .
Pekah 2Kin 15:25,27-31;16:5 Hosea .
. 2Chr 28:5,6; Is 7:1 Oded the Prophet 2Chr 28:9-11
Hoshea 2Kin 15:30; Hosea
17:1-6; 18:9,10

Kings of Judah 
(South, 2 Tribes)
Date of Relation to Yrs. of Char-
Name Manner of Death
Reign Predecessor Reign acter
Rehoboam 931-913 Son 17 Bad Died
Abijam 913-911 Son 3 Bad Died
Asa 911-870 Son 41 Good Died
Jehoshaphat 873-848 Son 25 Good Died
Jehoram 853-841 Son 8 Bad Stricken by God
Ahaziah 841 Son 1 Bad Murdered by Jehu
Athaliah 841-835 Mother 6 Bad Murdered by Army
Joash 835-796 Grandson 40 Good Murdered by servants
Amaziah 796-767 Son 29 Good Murdered
Azariah (Uzziah) 792-740 Son 52 Good Stricken by God
Jotham 750-732 Son 16 Good Died
Ahaz 735-716 Son 16 Bad Died
Hezekiah 716-687 Son 29 Good Died
Manasseh 697-643 Son 55 Bad Died
Amon 643-641 Son 2 Bad Murdered by servants
Josiah 641-609 Son 31 Good Wounded in battle
Jehoahaz 609 Son 3 mon. Bad Desposed in Egypt
Jehoiakim 609-598 Brother 11 Bad Died in Siege?
Jehoiachin 598-597 Son 3 mon. Bad Deposed in Babylon
Zedekiah 597-586 Uncle 11 Bad Deposed in Babylon
Kings of Israel 
(North, 10 Tribes)
Date of Relation to Yrs. of Char-
Name Manner of Death
Reign Predecessor Reign acter
Jeroboam 931-910 . 22 Bad Stricken by God
Nadab 910-909 Son 2 Bad Murdered by Baasha
Baasha 909-886 none 24 Bad Died
Elah 886-885 Son 2 Bad Murdered by Zimri
Zimri 885 Cpt of Chariots 7 days Bad Suicide
Omri 885-874 Army Captain 12 Bad Died
Ahab 874-853 Son 22 Bad Wounded in battle
Ahaziah 853-852 Son 2 Bad Fell through lattice
Joram 852-841 Brother 12 Bad Murdered by Jehu
Jehu 841-814 none 28 Bad Died
Jehoahaz 814-798 Son 17 Bad Died
Jehoash 798-782 Son 16 Bad Died
Jeroboam II 793-753 Son 41 Bad Died
Zechariah 753-752 Son 6 mon. Bad Murdered by Shallum
Shallum 752 none 1 mon. Bad Murdered by Menahem
Menahem 752-742 none  10 Bad Died
Pekahiah 742-740 Son 2 Bad Murdered by Pekah
Pekah 752-731 Army Captain 20 Bad Murdered by Hoshea
Hoshea 731-722 none 9 Bad Deposed by Assyria

25
13.2 The kingdoms of Judah and Israel
A) The Northern Kingdom
The tribes of the North proclaimed Jeroboam as king, who had already rebelled against
Solomon. To complete the breach with the South, Jeroboam elevated two old temples, Dan
and Bethel, to the category of royal sanctuaries.
Omri began a new dynasty and a time of splendor in the Northern kingdom. He founded
a new capital, Samaria, developed agriculture and cattle, as well as commercial relations with
the Phoenician cities of the coast.
His son and successor was Ahab, who undertook the development of Samaria, but at his
time moral corruption and idolatry grew. Elijah the prophet confronted him, preaching
fidelity to God untiringly.
His son Ahaziah succeeded in the throne for one year, and then Jehoram, Ahab's brother,
took over. While Jehoram was recovering of wounds caused during a siege, a general of his
army, Jehu, was secretly anointed king by an envoy of prophet Elisha.
Jehu started a new dynasty. During his reign, he lost all of Transjordania and had to pay a
heavy tribute to Shalmaneser III of Assyria (as appears in an obelisk, 840 BC).
Jeroboam II succeeded him, restoring power to Israel; he also revived commerce and the
economy. But moral behaviour was terrible, and injustices of all type abounded, as showed
by the preaching of Amos and Hosea. Assyrian documents testify to a tribute paid to Tiglath-
Pileser III.
King Hosea also paid tribute to the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III, but at his death
Hosea tried to shake the Assyrian yoke off, with Egypt's help. The new Assyrian king,
Shalmanaser V, besieged Samaria and captured king Hosea. After three years (722 BC) the city
surrendered. The successor of Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, organized the deportation.

B) The Southern kingdom

Solomon's successor, Rehoboam, fortified the cities of his kingdom. His son Abijam
succeeded him, having a long and prosperous reign: he fortified Jerusalem and other cities,
and promoted agriculture.
With the ascent to power of Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria the whole region started
changing. Israel opted for open confrontation. Meanwhile, Judah, as it did not enter the anti
Assyrian alliance, was not conquered, but it became vassal of Tiglath-Pileser III. They learned
the lesson their neighbors got, and remained as faithful vassals of Assyria.
Ahaz followed the same policy: submission to Tiglath-Pileser III and Shalmaneser V.
When Hezekiah became the king, he did not want to submit to Sargon II, and joined in an
alliance with the Philistines against Assyria, with Egypt's support. Sennacherib became the
Assyrian king and organized a military campaign against the rebels: he conquered Philistine
territory, and from there Judah. Eventually, he besieged Jerusalem, that had to pay a heavy
tribute. The Hexagonal Prism of Sennacherib gives an account of this campaign.
Hezekiah made a pond and a great channel, from the source of Gihon to the pool of
Siloam, for the water supply to Jerusalem during sieges. Also he carried out a great religious
reform. Because of the shock caused by the fall of Samaria he tried a purification of religious
practice in Judah.
His son Manasseh promoted worship to Baal and Astarte, Canaanite gods. His son Amon
succeeded him, being faithful to Assyria and the idolatry of his father.
After him, Josiah looked for political and religious independence. He recovered part of the
old kingdom of the North: Betel, Samaria and Megiddo. He destroyed local shrines and
established the Temple of Jerusalem as the only place for worship. His reign was
characterized by the deep religious reform he undertook.
At the same time the Assyrian power was weakening, and on the verge of extinction
under the Babylonian and Medes invasions. Nebuchadnezzar became the paramount ruler in
the Middle East.
Jehoiakim surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar (597 BC), who took him prisoner, and imposed
a heavy tribute to Judah, deporting to Babylonia all influential people, removing any possible
cause of rebellion. A Babylonian chronicle gives an account of this first siege of Jerusalem.
Arguments between two sides continued in Jerusalem: those for submission, supported by
Jeremiah, and those for rebellion. Zedekiah was in favor of submission, but later entered into
anti-Babylonian plots. In the tower of Lachish, 18 ostraka have been found speaking about
battles against Babylonian armies, until they were eventually conquered.
Nebuchadnezzar again besieged Jerusalem in 588 BC. The city fell in the middle of 587. The
Babylonians decreed a new deportation. The Temple was set afire and the walls destroyed.
Nebuchadnezzar rewarded Jeremiah's fidelity by setting him free to do whatever he wanted
and providing him with means of subsistence.

26
13.3 Content of Samuel and Kings
At the beginning the narration is centered around people whose character is displayed
little by little. These are Samuel, Saul, David and Solomon. From the death of Solomon,
already in the books of Kings, the narration preserves, more or less, a chronological sequence,
jumping from one kingdom to another, trying to display together, as much as possible, events
happening contemporaneously.
The book can be divided into several sections:
a) Samuel: two traditions about Samuel.
b) Samuel and Saul: also two different traditions.
c) Saul and David: duplicates abound too.
d) David.
e) Solomon.
f) Both kingdoms.
g) Judah until captivity.

13.4 Composition of the books of Samuel and Kings

The work has a certain unit, though it contains a great diversity of previous materials. As a
whole, the work is an interpretation of the history of the monarchy in Israel in the light of
Deuteronomist theology. There are many valid historical data, although they are intrinsically
united to theological reinterpretations, and the use of different rhetorical and literary
resources.
There are several elements, of independent origin, inserted in the book during its
composition. There are also incomplete materials from the royal archives. Most of Samuel is a
detailed chronicle, written shortly after the events.
It could be that writing became more widespread in Palestine at that time, compiling
documents speaking about the most significant facts of life in the kingdom. The chronicle of
the succession to David is the first masterpiece of this new sort. It was written in the years
immediately after the events.
Several literary groups of independent origin can also be recognized: the chronicle of the
succession to David, the history of Solomon, the history of the schism, the cycle of Elijah, the
cycle of Elisha, and some others; each one had its own literary history before being
incorporated into the books of Kings.
The date of final composition was around the second half of the exile.

13.5 Teachings of the books of Samuel and Kings

These books offer a religious vision of history: the way followed by kings and people,
leading to the kingdom's final collapse. The lessons of this period of history transmit
fundamental teachings: there is only one God; the chosen people is a unity; proper worship to
God can be given only in the Temple of Jerusalem; the land has been given by God for His
people; and a law has been given by God to instruct its people.
The theological character of this history becomes particularly clear by the many prophets
intervening. The scheme “prophecy—fulfillment” appears forty five times throughout the
books of the Kings. Is the technique of “projection of history” whose background is the
certainty that the word of God, uttered by the prophets, guides and directs the history of
Israel.
The religiosity of the protagonists is still quite primitive. In this context it is outstanding
David's exceptional religious sentiment: his magnanimity towards his enemies, his personal
sense of sin and penance. David is presented as the prototype of the Messiah.
Unlike what happened to the monarchies of neighboring peoples, the king does not
become divinized. Nevertheless, from Solomon, son of David, kings are considered as
adoptive children of God: “I will be a father for him and he will be a son for me.”
In the oracle of Nathan, the Lord commits himself forever with David's dynasty. The
commitment is gratuitous and unconditional, based on a promise God will not recant. It
differs from the Covenant of Sinai that this was bilateral and conditioned to the fulfillment of
what agreed.
Several purifications, like the exile, will be needed to understand the messianic idea and
the proper character of his mission: spiritual and fundamentally scatological.
When considering the destruction of Samaria, and later on, Jerusalem, as proper, the
books of Kings emphasize the demands of the Covenant and the true existence of infidelity
among the people. Despite this there will always be a “remnant”, always faithful to God.

27
13.6 The books of Samuel and Kings in the light of the New
Testament
Jesus' coming made totally clear the deep values of the promise made to David: it wasn't a
promise of the eternal presence of a temporary kingdom, but the coming of a kingdom in a
descendant of David's blood-line, a kingdom of a peculiar nature.
The Church recognizes herself as the true Israel, that “little remnant” that has not bent its
knee before Baal. Also, the coming and activity of the Messiah has been anticipated by
repeated announcements from the prophets. In the light of what happened it can be seen how
God has been guiding history until leading it to the “fullness of times”.
The holy city of Jerusalem does not cease being a protagonist in the New Testament: the
kingdom of God, established by Jesus Christ, looks at the new Jerusalem, heavenly and
scatological, as its ideal capital, where God dwells with men.

14.0 The “history of the Chronicler”. The books of

Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah
Chronicles is called by the LXX Paraleipomena, “things omitted” in previous books. Both
books of Chronicles form a unit, together with Ezra and Nehemiah, which are a continuation.
These books are a general history of the chosen people from the origins to the Persian
conquest. This “History of the Chronicler” is comparable to the “Deuteronomist History”, but
with a different orientation.

14.1 The “History of the Chronicler”

The first nine chapters are a series of genealogies. After it, the narrative section begins
with a very well known subject: the institution of the monarchy, Saul's death and David's
ascent to the throne. From that moment history, already known in its particulars, is reread.
Why was the history of the chosen people written again? The reason is that, although the
“Deuteronomist History” and the “History of the Chronicler” speak about the same events
they are not the same history. The situation of Judah in the Persian era was different from the
situation during the exile, and it was necessary to meditate on history with a new theological
intentionality to enlighten the readers.
Many details indicate that there is a deliberate intention: to justify by history the solutions
given to different problems in the Persian period. There is also a particular interest in putting
David as the source of the fundamental elements that constitute the Jewish community.
The most significant variations, when compared to the books of Samuel and the Kings, are
the following ones:
a) There are important omissions: the relation of David with Saul is omitted, as well as
David's adultery and murder, or Ammon's incest and Absalom's; it doesn't speak about
Solomon's sins in his last years, and he is excused for some of his actions, etc. David is
idealized, as we aren’t told about his weaknesses, or sins from his own family.
b) Common sources have been adjusted: expressions are modified, the order of events is
altered, glosses added, and facts are commented from a different perspective.
c) Numerous additions have been introduced. The most characteristic are: five chapters
describing the organization of worship made by David, and religious reforms attributed to
Asa and to Joas, whom we don't know from the Deuteronomist History.
The author doesn't try to lie about history, but to rethink the already well-known history,
to learn from it according to the new situation, to sustain faith in God and to reinforce the
practice of the Law.
The Chronicler composed it after the return from the Exile, probably in the 3 rd century BC,
at the beginning of the Hellenization of Palestine.

14.2 Judah, as a Persian province

In the 539 Cyrus entered Babylon without a fight, acclaimed by the crowds who hated
king Nabonid out of religious reasons, since he had suspended the New Year celebrations in
honor of Marduk.
Cyrus was tolerant with the religious beliefs of nations he conquered. He restored the cult
to Marduk in Babylon, and restored his temples. After him, Darius I selected indigenous
people as governors in the different provinces of his empire, people that enjoyed all his
confidence. Zerubbabel, one of the descendants of king Jehoiachin, and therefore, of David's
descent, was chosen for Judah.
From 520 BC prophets Haggai and Zechariah witnessed to the hope of restoring David's
monarchy. They also exhorted the people of Judah to show a real interest in rebuilding the
Temple.
At the time of this “Second Temple” a fundamental change took place. The political power

28
was dominated by foreigners, the Persians, but the Jewish community needed their own
authority, and that authority would be exercised from then on by the priesthood. The rite of
anointing, until then proper to the king only, was performed also for the High Priest.
This is the historical context of Ezra's and Nehemiah's missions. First preached Nehemiah,
then Ezra.

A) Nehemiah
Nehemiah was an important Jew in the court of Artaxerxes I, and got from the king to be
sent to Judah around 430 BC and authorized to continue rebuilding the city. In spite of
Samaria's opposition, Nehemiah managed to rebuild the city walls and to attract people back
to Jerusalem. In addition to that, he reorganized public life.

B) Ezra
Ezra was a scribe of priestly family. It is not known with certainty when did he live. It
could be around 398 BC, during Artaxerxes II. He was empowered to enforce the “law of his
God” as law of the Persian government for the Jews, and got funds from the king for the
maintenance of the cult in the Temple. He gathered the people and read them “the book of
Moses' law”, and later arranged many social issues according to the Law, specially mixed
marriages.

14.3 Content of the “History of the Chronicler”

The history from Creation to the restoration of Judah in the Persian era. The following
parts can be distinguished:
a) From Adam to David (1 Chr 1—9).
b) David (1 Chr 10—29).
c) Solomon (2 Chr 1—9).
d) the kings of Judah (2 Chr 10—36).
e) Return of the exile and reconstruction of Jerusalem (Ezra 1—6).
f) Mission of Ezra ( Ezra 7-10).
g) Mission of Nehemiah (Neh 1—13).

14.4 Composition of the “history of the Chronicler”

These books fundamentally recombine old writings with oral traditions. The main sources
are:
a) Sacred writings: genealogies and many stories.
b) Official profane sources: Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah, Book of Kings of Judah
and Israel, Book of the Kings of Israel and the Facts of the Kings of Israel. Maybe all these
names refer to the same book.
There is a particularly important document, written in Aramaic, the diplomatic
correspondence between the Persian court and the Samaritan party opposed to the
restoration of the city walls and the reconstruction of the Temple.
c) Other sources: stories or sayings related to some well known persons, then considered
as prophets.
d) Oral traditions: memories kept in Judah, and in the Persian era.
With all these materials the author wrote a history, while at the same time providing with
religious teaching. For this reason he used a peculiar literary genre: theological rewriting of
history. The date of composition is probably around 300 BC.

14.5 Teachings of the “History of the Chronicler”

The books of Chronicles present sacred history. What they try to do is to reflect
theologically on important facts to transmit teachings from already known events. The main
ideas standing out are the following:
a) The centrality of David, without the negative elements of his life, as the ideal king of
God's people.
b) Safeguarding the unity and integrity of the people, with particular stress in
emphasizing the racial purity of the chosen people by means of genealogies.
c) Retribution principle: God always rewards goodness and punishes evil.
The books of Ezra and Nehemiah make some special contributions by stressing the
restoration of Judah as a new era in the History of the Salvation:
a) Emphasize the religious character of the community. A political autonomy is no longer
to be expected. Jews concentrate around the Temple. The Law becomes matter of reflection.
b) Stress a growing tendency towards isolationism regarding other nations, and towards
literalism in the fulfillment of the Law.

29
 c) With this restoration, part of the chosen people could overcome the influences of
Hellenism in Palestine.

14.6 The “History of the Chronicler” in the light of the New

Testament
We see the birth of Judaism in these books, including concrete ways of living the Jewish
religion that will still be followed in times of Jesus Christ.
The prudential resolve of Jewish legal norms at the Persian time will serve to safeguard
the fidelity of the “remnant”, faithful to the Lord. That remnant is the type of the Church, the
new people of God.

15.0 The Books of Maccabees

The title comes from the nickname given to Judas, protagonist of the struggle against
Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Both books are totally independent from each other, but they talk
about the same historical period.
The original text of 1 Mac was in Hebrew; 2 Mac was composed directly in Greek.

15.1 The Maccabees revolt

In times of the Seleucid king Antiochus III there were two parties among the Jews: the pro-
Seleucid aristocracy (Tobias) and conservative elements (Onias, priestly family).
During the reign of Antioch IV Epiphanes the process of Hellenization of Jerusalem
reached its zenith. In 171 BC Onias III was assassinated, the last legitimate zadokite priest.
The Tobias party took advantage to seize power in Jerusalem; they paid Antioch IV for the
appointment of High Priest for one of their own (Jason) and tried to transform Jerusalem into
a Hellenistic polis, abandoning the Torah as constitutional law.
The decrees of Antioch III were abolished, and the freedom to follow the “traditions of our
ancestors” was replaced by the order of “constituting only one people, giving their own
traditions up”. Sacrifices and cult in the Temple were forbidden, pagan altars built in all
cities, circumcision and the Sabbath rest abolished, sacrifices of pigs restored, and inspectors
appointed to oversee the fulfillment of these impositions. Even the Temple was dedicated to
the “Lord of the Heavens”, equivalent to the Olympic Zeus in Greece.
Very soon the passive resistance of the people evolved into armed rebellion. The priest
Matathias and his five sons fled to the mountains and began guerrilla warfare. Matathias
soon died and his son Judas became the military leader of the rebellion, receiving the
nickname “Makabim” (=hammer), passed to the whole family. After some victories, Judas
reoccupied Jerusalem, purified the Temple and rebuilt the altar. The feast of Hanukkah
commemorates this Dedication of the Temple.
But the struggle continued. Judas died and his army was defeated. Later on, a group of
rebels chose Jonathan as leader. At his death the people chose his brother Simon, not only as
military leader but also as High Priest. In 140 BC an assembly of priests decided to legitimize
Simon's powers and made them hereditary. With this act a new dynasty was born, the
Asmonean, keeping the political and religious power of Israel until the Roman conquest. This
dynasty was not Davidic.

15.2 The first book of Maccabees

A) Contents
Tells the story of the first Asmonean generation, beginning with the ascension of Antioch
IV to the Syrian throne and ending with the death of Simon, last surviving Maccabee. The
contents are:
a) Historical background of events.
b) Judas Maccabee, head of the Jewish resistance.
c) Jonathan, successor to Judas.
d) Simon's military campaigns.

B) Composition
Probably the book belongs to only one author who used several sources. These are of two
types:
a) Official documents: the Annals of the High Priests, and some letters of the Seleucid
kings and the Roman Senate directed to Judas, Jonathan and Simon.
b) a source from the Seleucid kings of Syria.
When writing, the author does not hide his sympathy for the Asmonean dynasty; he also

30
imitates literary forms from old historical books. The book was written around 100 BC.

C) Teachings
In the first book of Maccabees, the Law is the central point of reference. It tells the struggle
between those keeping the Law and its enemies. The Law is not simply a list of religious
prescriptions, but the testimony of the permanent Covenant God made with His people who
have to keep it faithfully, like their more precious treasure.
Simultaneously, 1 Maccabees exalts human and supernatural values: faith gives rise to
heroism, service to the nation is identified with service to God. The invincible weapons are
prayer, fasting and reading the word of God. Divine help is what matters, not mere human
strength.

15.3 The second book of Maccabees

A) Contents
It concentrates on some events already told by 1 st Macc, since shortly before the beginning
of persecutions, around 175 BC, to the victory of Judas Maccabee against Nicanor, in 161 BC.
The summary is as follows:
a) Prelude.
b) Five blocks:
- Under an pious High Priest, the Temple's sanctity is inviolable.
- When the High Priesthood falls into people of Hellenistic tendencies God's wrath visits
Israel and the Temple is desecrated.
- God's wrath shifts to mercy, Judas overcomes the pagans and purifies the Temple.
- Later on, Judas fights against the royal troops and Hellenistic cities to have freedom of
worship recognised.
- Alcimus, a new pretender to the High Priesthood of Hellenistic leanings, gets the king's
support; the general of the royal armies, Nicanor, blasphemes against the temple, but he is
defeated and killed by Judas.

B) Composition
Each one of the blocks is written as a piece of oratory, to move and convince. The book
could be classified in a very Hellenistic form, “pathetical history”. The main intention is to
emphasize the meaning and religious importance of events. This kind of history uses the
normal procedures of oratory: some events are very dramatic, speeches are grandiose,
criticisms against the enemies of Israel are virulent, etc. In spite of these resources, the
historical base of the book is still strong.

C) Teachings
The second book of Maccabees has a religious content even greater than the first. The Law
is no longer mixed with political aims. Religion has an absolute character coming from its
holiness. In this context, 2nd Macc provides important elements of reflection about the sense
and value of human life:
a) The meaning of martyrdom stands out: human life is very important, but is not
absolute. Some values are more important than life: is better to die than to reject those ideals.
b) But martyrdom would be meaningless if death is the end of everything. This book
teaches that there is eternal life beyond death.
c) Death does not break the relationships between men definitively, there is a communion
between the living and the dead, as the living can offer prayers and sacrifices on behalf of the
departed.

15.4 The books of the Maccabees in the light of the New Testament
These books suppose a remarkable progress in the divine Revelation of the Old Testament
in several aspects: the value of the martyrdom, creation of the world from nothing, faith in
life after death and the meaning of prayers for the dead, etc.
There are divine plans for which it is worthwhile to give your own life up. The
configuration with Jesus Christ, died and risen, shows the full value and meaning of human
life.

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 16.0 Didactic histories
16.1. The book of Ruth
The LXX and the Vulgate put it within the historical books. In the Hebrew Bible it is found
among the ketubim (Writings) and is one of the five megillot.

A) Contents
The book tells the story of a man called Elimelech who leaves Bethlehem for Moab in
times of a great famine, together with his wife Naomi and his two children. The children
marry there with two young moabites, Orphah and Rut. When Elimelech and his two
children die and the famine is over in Judah, Naomi decides to return to Bethlehem. Ruth, her
daughter-in-law, wants to go with her, uttering words that are an unforgettable testimony of
fidelity. Naomi receives her as if she were her own daughter. Ruth knows Baoz, a very rich
relative of her late father-in-law Elimelech, who manages to get the right of redemption, go-
el, over her and marries Ruth. Obed is born, he will be Jesse's father, and David's grandfather.
The text emphasizes the importance of ge'ulah, the law of solidarity in the clan: Boaz
rescues the field of Elimelech and takes his son's widow as wife.

B) Composition
In the Jewish and Christian tradition the book was attributed to Samuel. However, the
family customs, abundant arameisms and its place in the Jewish canon point to its being
written after the Babylonian exile.

C) Teachings
The author's main purpose is not to be historical but to write a story with theological
intentionality: to weaken the wall of separation between Gentiles and Jews that post-exile
Judaism was raising in Jerusalem.
It's striking that the mixed marriage between Boaz, a Jew, and Ruth, a foreigner moabite,
is not seen as something bad. Neither Mahlon nor Chilion are condemned because they had
both married foreign women. In this way, salvation is seen with a more universalistic vision.
God does not reject the fidelity of a foreigner to His people, but introduces her in the
Messiah's genealogical tree. The whole book is a testimony of God's providence.

16.2. The book of Esther

We have two versions of very different size: a Hebrew text—brief—and a Greek text that,
besides translating the Hebrew text, it also includes supplements that have also found their
way inside the Christian canon. It was the last book to make it into the Jewish canon.

A) Contents
The action takes place in the third year of king Ahasuerus. Esther is a young Jewess who
Ahasuerus chooses as his wife after repudiating his former wife Vashti. Esther manages to
change the king's mind regarding the decree of extermination of Jews, which becomes a
decree allowing them to defend their lives. The feast of Purim was instituted to celebrate this
event.

B) Composition
Some traits make the book look historical: the distinction between citadel and city, the
impulsive and sensual character of Ahasuerus, royal decrees are irrevocable, etc.
Nevertheless other aspects make the whole story look improbable.
It is surprising, also, how similar the story is to another from Herodotus, and also the third
book of Maccabees.
The book of Esther is, by literary genre, a haggadik midrash. Its date of composition has to
be previous to 114 BC, when the book appears in Egypt.
There possibly were several versions of the story, the Hebrew text being the most recent. It
could have being composed from two texts, one of a liturgical character, centered on Esther,
and a historical one.

C) Teachings
The Hebrew text, though never mentions God explicitly, nevertheless speaks all along of
divine Providence, that takes care of His people, and guarantees success over Jews' enemies.
The conflict between God's people and its enemies arose because, being so peculiar, they

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couldn't oblige demands made by peoples they were living among, if those demands were
irreconcilable with divine demands. The whole book is a call not to let oneself being carried
away by the environment, remaining faithful to God without fear of difficulties.

16.3. The book of Tobit

It is a deuterocanonical book of the Old Testament. Until recently two Greek versions were
known. In Qumran four Aramaic manuscripts and a Hebrew one were found, all in
agreement with the longer version.

A) Contents
Three parts:
a) Presentation of characters:
— Tobit, of Naphtali's tribe, deported to Nineveh: his works of mercy, his many alms, as
well as his mercy to the dead caused the king's wrath. Then his suffering began.
— His relation Raguel looks at the suffering of his daughter Sara, because the seven
husbands she has married had died in the wedding night.
— The double prayer is heard by God who sends the archangel Rafael, under the name of
Azariah, to accompany Tobias to the house of Raguel.
b) Tobias' journey: Tobias is about to be bitten by a fish and Azariah advises him to
capture it, and later on to marry Sarah.
c) Outcome: Azariah shows himself as the angel Raphael and disappears, after giving the
last advice and exhorting them to give thanks. Tobit corresponds with a song of thanksgiving
to God.

B) Composition
The author wants to teach his readers that God never abandons a pious man. Both
externally and internally, Tobit is a wisdom book, revealing moral and religious teachings by
means of a story pleasant to read.
It has some similarities with the Wisdom of Ahikar, book written in Babylonia, that had
great diffusion in the Middle East from the 5 th century BC. Tobit follows the same general
structure of that work and agrees with some of its principles.
The composition, probably done in Aramaic, is thought to be slightly before the
Maccabees time, towards 200 BC.

C) Teachings
The story of Tobit looks like a lesson in theology. It teaches first to fulfill the Law:
pilgrimages to Jerusalem, payment of tithes, eating only allowed foodstuffs, and marriage of
the first daughter with somebody within the tribe.
The book makes an important contribution to angeology. The value of works of mercy is
highly praised, mainly alms and piety for the dead. Also when it is not possible to worship
God in the Temple at least we have to live in His presence. Practices of personal piety and the
fulfillment of one's own duties towards God and neighbor are highly encouraged. The same
applies to virtues that protect and foster family life. The importance of marriage is
emphasized, and the advice Tobit gives to safeguard the sanctity and purity of married life is
very important .

16.4. The book of Judith

Another deuterocanonical of the Old Testament. There are several families of manuscripts
of a Greek text which is the translation of a Semitic original.

A) Contents
The main argument of the book is about God's presence in the midst of his people, who
suffers with and fights for Him, and the triumph of the Jews against their enemies. This line is
developed in two sections:
a) Attack of Holofernes, general of the great king Nebuchadnezzar: to reach Jerusalem
Holofernes has to conquer Betulia first, which he besieges. The Assyrian army cuts the
springs that supply water to the city. The situation becomes desperate.
b) Intervention of Judith, a pious widow, a model of beauty, prudence and strength: Using
her beauty and intelligence she manages to seduce the general. When she remains alone with
him, she takes the sword and beheads him.

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B) Composition
To date the book one cannot use facts narrated there because of its peculiar genre. Typical
expressions of Persian times can be found: to give land and water, the god of the heavens, the
names of Holofernes and Bagoas, etc. Also there are many Greek elements: gerusia—kind of
Greek parliament—of Jerusalem, use of crowns, reference to a deified Nebuchadnezzar, etc.
Nevertheless, geographic descriptions are fantastical, since many names, among them
Betulia, resist identification.
It is not a historical book. Its peculiar literary genre has elements common with midrash
and apocalyptic genre. Cryptography is used, like in apocalypses: Nebuchadnezzar,
prototype of the enemies of the Jews, could be Antiochus IV Epiphanes; Nineveh could be
Antioch (capital of the Seleucid kingdom); Betulia is an unknown place, but the word means
“house of God”; Judith (“the Jewess”) could be the Jewish people personified in a woman.

C) Teachings
The theological key is the prayer of Judith in chapter 9: he who wanted to seduce Israel
carrying her to idolatry, is seduced and overcome; those faithful to God can always count
with God's fidelity to lean upon. The book has a message of hope in the God of Israel, that
leads the history of His people. Judith symbolizes faith whereas Holofernes symbolizes
might. Judith does not have weapons or skill to handle them, but her might is in her faith. She
is the paradigm of confrontation between those who trust in human power and those who
trust in God.

Timeline
3450 BCE: The Near East - The world's first cities appear along the banks of the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers just north of what is now the Persian Gulf. Collectively, these cities make up
the Uruk culture, named after the principal city, Uruk, which is the Biblical Erech. This culture
invents writing and the lunar calendar, uses metals extensively, develops a practice of
medicine, and builds monumental architecture. Even so, no unified government links these
cities, and they remain independent for almost one thousand years.
3200 BCE: The Near East - Archeological evidence indicates that the SUMERIANS are
making use of wheeled transportation.
3100 BCE: The Near East - CUNEIFORM WRITING emerges in MESOPOTAMIA. This
form of writing, involving wedge-shaped characters, is used to record the first epics in world
history, including Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta and the first stories about Gilgamesh.
2700 BCE: The Near East - The Sumerian King, Gilgamesh, rules the city of Uruk, which
has now grown to a population of more than 50,000. Gilgamesh is the subject of many epics,
including the Sumerian "Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Nether World" and the Babylonian
"Epic of Gilgamesh."
2340-2315 BCE: The Near East - Sargon I founds and rules the city-state of AKKAD, after
leaving the city of Kish, where he was an important official. Sargon is the first ruler in history
to maintain a standing army. Even so, his empire lasts less than two hundred years.
2320 BCE: The Near East - Sargon conquers the independent city-states of SUMER and
institutes a central government. But by 2130, Sumer regains its independence from Akkadian
rule, though it does not revert back to independent city-states. At this time, Sumer is ruled
from the important city of Ur.
2100 BCE: The Near East - The Sumerian King List is written, recording all the kings and
dynasties ruling SUMER from the earliest times. According to this list, Eridu is named as the
earliest settlement, a claim that seems to be confirmed by archeological evidence.
2000-1600 BCE: The Near East - The Old Babylonian period begins in MESOPOTAMIA
after the collapse of SUMER, probably due to an increase in the salt content of the soil thereby
making farming difficult. Considerably weakened by poor crops, and therefore a lack of
surplus goods, the Sumerians are conquered by the Amorites, who are situated in BABYLON.
Consequenly, the center of civility shifts to the north. Though they preserve most of the
Sumerian culture, the Amorites introduce their semetic language, an early ancestor to
HEBREW, into the region.
1900 BCE: The Near East - The Epic of Gilgamesh is redacted from Sumerian sources and
written in the semetic language. Thus, though Gilgamesh was Sumerian, his Epic is
Babylonian.
1900-1500 BCE: The Near East - Sometime between these dates a semetic group of nomads
migrate from SUMER to CANAAN and then on to EGYPT. They are led by a caravan trader,
the Patriarch Abraham, who will become the father of the nation of ISRAEL.
1800 BCE: The Near East - The Old Babylonians are employing advanced mathematical

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operations, such as, multiplication, division and square roots. In addition, they are using a
duodecimal system (a system based on 12 and 6) to measure time. We still use their system
for counting minutes and hours.
1763 BCE: The Near East - The Amorite King, Hammurabi, conquers all of SUMER.
Around the same time, he writes his Code of Laws containing 282 rules including the
principles of "an eye for an eye" and "let the buyer beware." It is one of the first codes of law
in world history, predated only by the Laws of Lipit-Ishtar.
1750 BCE: The Near East - Hammurabi dies, but his empire lasts for another one hundred
and fifty years, until 1600, when the Kassites, a non-semetic people, conquer most of
MESOPOTAMIA with the help of light chariot warfare.
1595 BCE: The Near East - The HITTITES, another non-semetic people who speak an
Indo-European language, capture BABYLON and retreat, leaving the city open to Kassite
domination. The Kassites remain in power for about three hundred years, maintaining the
Sumerian/Babylonian culture without offering innovations of their own.
1450-1300 BCE: The Near East - The HITTITE culture reaches its high point, dominating
the territory to the North and East of BABYLON, including Turkey and northern Palestine.
By this time, the Hittite's have constructed a mythology with a state pantheon.
1300-612 BCE: The Near East - The ASSYRIANS, a semetic people, establish an empire
spreading out from the town of Assur in northern MESOPOTAMIA. By 1250, they commit
themselves to conquering the Kassite Empire to the south.
1286 BCE: The Near East - The HITTITES fight off invading EGYPTIANS, thereby
demonstrating the strength of their power. This power is probably rooted in an economic
advantage they have from trading the metals that are abundant in the region of Turkey. Even
so, their empire falls in 1185, to the "Sea People," an invading group coming from the West
whose precise identity is unknown.
1250-1200 BCE: The Near East - The HEBREWS, who migrated from CANAAN to EGYPT
several hundred years earlier, return from Egypt after wandering for several years in the
Sinai desert and begin the conquest of Canaan. This conquest is slow and painful and will
take a hundred years. When the fighting stops, the Hebrews emerge as victors. They parcel
the land of Canaan into tribal territories creating a system of government known as an
amphictyony.
1200-1020 BCE: The Near East - The HEBREWS are ruled by the Judges during a period of
relative stability that will be upset with the Philistine invasion of 1050.
1225 BCE: The Near East - The Assyrian ruler, Tukulti-Ninurta, captures BABYLON and
the region of southern MESOPOTAMIA, but Assyrian control does not last long.
1114-1076 BCE: The Near East - Tiglath-Pileser I rules the ASSYRIANS.
1050 BCE: The Near East - The Philistines invade ISRAEL from the North. Facing the
threat of annihiliation, the HEBREWS institute a governmental reform. The amphictyony
proves insufficient in the face of the new dangers, so the people of Israel ask Samuel, the last
of the judges, to select a king.
1020 BCE: The Near East - Samuel selects Saul to be king of ISRAEL thereby unifying the
tribes of Israel into a nation. Facing many losses against the Philistines, Saul eventually
commits suicide. Around the same time, David, undertaking his own campaign against the
Philistines, proves victorious.
1004 BCE: The Near East - David becomes king of ISRAEL. As such, he begins to build a
centralized government based in Jerusalem, implementing forced labor, a census and a
mechanism for collecting taxes. The First Temple period of Hebrew history begins with the
rule of David.
965 BCE: The Near East - Solomon becomes king of ISRAEL. Intent on completing David's
plan to make Jerusalem stand out among the region's cities and to affirm the religious
commitment of the HEBREWS, Solomon undertakes many expensive building projects,
including the building of the temple in Jerusalem. Facing financial difficulties, Solomon raises
taxes and employs forced labor.
928 BCE: The Near East - Solomon dies. The northerners, unwilling to pay taxes to help
with the financial difficulties of Jerusalem and the national court, separate from the southern
people. Two nations are created, ISRAEL to the north with its capital in Samaria and Judah to
the south with its capital in Jerusalem. Solomon's sons rule the two kingdoms, Jeroboam in
the North and Rehoboam in the South.
900 BCE: The Near East - The ASSYRIANS expand their empire to the west. By 840, they
will have conquered Syria and Turkey, the territory that at one time belonged to the
HITTITES.
810-805 BCE: The Near East - Sammuramat rules ASSYRIA as Queen. She is one of the
very few women to achieve prominance in the ancient world. It is remarkable that the mighty
Assyrians were willing to accept a Queen as ruler.
722 BCE: The Near East - The ASSYRIANS conquer ISRAEL, leaving nothing behind. The
Hebrew kingdom of Judah manages to survive.
705-681 BCE: The Near East - Sennacherib rules the ASSYRIANS and builds a new capital
in Ninevah where he begins to form a library of Sumerian and Babylonian tablets.

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Sennacherib is a powerful ruler who manages to subdue the entire region of western Asia.
689 BCE: The Near East - Sennacherib destroys BABYLON, but his son rebuilds it. By 650,
it has once again become prosperous.
668-627 BCE: The Near East - Ashurbanipal succeeds Sennacherib as ruler of ASSYRIA.
He continues to develop the library and, by the time he has finished, collects more than 22,000
clay tablets. In 648, Ashurbanipal destroys the newly rebuilt city of BABYLON in a fierce
campaign.
614 BCE: The Near East - The BABYLONIANS (particularly, the Chaldeans) with the help
of the Medes, who occupy what is today Iran, begin a campaign to destroy the ASSYRIANS.
In 612 they succeed, and the Assyrian capital of Ninevah is destroyed. Without the Assyrians,
the Chaldeans, a semetic people, rule the entire region thereby issuing in the New Babylonian
period, which lasts until 539.
604-562 BCE: The Near East - Nebuchadnezzar II rules in BABYLON, where he
undertakes several monumental building projects, including the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon. This New Babylonian Revival uses glazed bricks for building thereby creating a
colorful city.
600 BCE: The Near East - The Persian prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) founds the
religion known as Zoroastrianism.
586 BCE: The Near East - Jerusalem falls to the forces of Nebuchadnezzar II. Several
HEBREWS are taken to BABYLON beginning the "Babylonian Captivity." The book of Ezekiel
is written at this time.
539 BCE: The Near East - Cyrus the Persian captures BABYLON after the New Babylonian
leader, Belshazaar, fails to read "the handwriting on the wall." Cyrus founds the Persian
Empire which lasts until 331 BCE, when it is conquered by Alexander the Great. Cyrus
returns some of the exiled HEBREWS to Palestine; others among the Hebrews prefer to stay
in Babylon, where a second Jewish center is established, the first being the one in Jerusalem.
529 BCE: The Near East - Cyrus dies leaving behind him the largest empire to date. His
son, Cambyses, succeeds him and adds to the empire by conquering EGYPT.
521 BCE: The Near East - Darius I ("The Great") succeeds Cambyses as emperor of Persia.
He engages in many large building programs, including a system of roads. In addition, he
institutes the first postal system.
520-516 BCE: The Near East - The HEBREWS rebuild Solomon's Temple which had been
destroyed in the sack of 586, thereby beginning the Second Temple period of Hebrew History.
486-465 BCE: The Near East - Xerxes I is emperor of the Persian Empire.
331 BCE: The Near East - Alexander the Great conquers the Persian Empire. He makes his
way to INDIA and conquers part of it, before he dies in 323.
168 BCE: The Near East - Antiochus Epiphanes rules over ISRAEL and tries to outlaw
Judaism. The HEBREWS resist thereby beginning the Maccabean revolt. The Maccabees are
successful, until internal dissention tears them apart. They appeal to the Roman Pompey in 63
BCE who intervenes, thereby beginning the Roman occupation of Palestine.
66 CE: The Near East - Attempting to deliver themselves from Roman control, the
HEBREWS revolt, but this time they prove unsuccessful. In 70 CE, the Roman Emperor, Titus,
defeats the Hebrews and destroys the temple in Jerusalem. It has never been rebuilt.

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