Finn Sarah 2009

European Languages and Studies (Italian Studies)
History
School of Humanities
University of Western Australia
2009
‘Padre della nazione italiana’: Dante Alighieri and the construction of the Italian
nation, 1800-1945.
Sarah Finn B.A. (Hons.)
This thesis is presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
of the University of Western Australia
This thesis explores the instrumentalisation of Dante Alighieri in the construction of the Italian
nation by various groups of Italians from the Risorgimento to the Fascist period. It analyses
why Dante was chosen for the role of supreme national symbol, and to what purpose. It
elaborates how the poet was used to render more tangible the idea of the Italian nation, which
only a minority of ‘Italians’ shared. Since the creation of the Italian nation state was unpopular,
Dante was used to make it seem a desirable end. He was also made to convey several
abstract ideas regarding the new nation in an attempt to win over to the cause a larger number
of people. This study examines the part he was made to play in encouraging enthusiasm for
the prospect of national unity and independence, and in justifying the political unification of
Italy. After unification he was called upon to promote the vision of a new Italy as a secular
nation state, but also to support a Catholic version of italianità, and to bolster the irredentist
cause. At the end of the nineteenth century and in the early twentieth century he was also
deployed to legitimise Italian imperialism, and to endorse the Fascist conception of the Italian
nation. As I shall demonstrate, there was little agreement about what he was held to represent,
and these various views were propagated at one and the same time. Although these objectives
were frequently contradictory, the groups which pursued them were usually united, despite
themselves, in their estimation of Dante as a vital and effective advocate. In the course of this
analysis it will become clear that much of the poet’s life and works were misappropriated for
party and nation with but little protest from Italian intellectuals. The diverse utilisations of the
poet reveal his importance in the nationalist project of shaping the past according to the needs
and circumstances of the present.
ii
Figure 1. Illustration produced for the 1921 sixth centenary of Dante’s death, by Adolfo De
Carolis.
iii
For my parents
iv
Contents
List of illustrations vi
Introduction 1
1. ‘Padre Dante’: The Risorgimento and the origins of the myth of Dante 11
2. Celebration of the Italian nation: The sixth centenary of Dante’s birth in 1865 62
3. The ‘Ghibelline’ Dante in Liberal Italy 86
4. The irredentist Dante in Liberal Italy 141
5. The battle for the soul of the Italian nation: The sixth centenary of Dante’s 194
death in 1921
6. The Fascist Dante 247
Conclusion 288
Bibliography 291
v
List of illustrations
1. Portrait of Dante by Adolfo De Carolis (from Rassegna d’arte antica e moderna, 9,

September 1921, 295.)
2. Dante’s cenotaph, Church of Santa Croce, Florence, inaugurated 1830 (accessed

http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09.)
3. Portrait of Dante in exile by Domenico Peterlini, c. 1860, Galleria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti,
Florence (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09.)
4. Monument to Dante in Piazza Santa Croce, Florence, erected 1865 (accessed

http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09.)
5. Monument to Dante in Trento, erected 1896 (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org,

22/7/09.)
6. First level of pedestal of monument to Dante in Trento, depicting Minos (accessed

http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09. Image by ‘Jaqen’.)
7. Second level of pedestal of monument to Dante in Trento, depicting Dante, Virgil, and
Sordello (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09. Image by ‘Jaqen’.)
8. Third level of pedestal to monument of Dante in Trento, depicting Beatrice (accessed

http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09. Image by ‘Jaqen’.)
9. Postcard issued by Trento branch of Società Dante Alighieri commemorating 1918 and
Dante’s role in victory.
10. Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09. Image by

Hay Kranen.)
11. Inside Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna (accessed http://commons.wikipedia.org, 22/7/09.)
12. Front page illustration from Avanti!, 2 October 1921.
13. Front page illustration from Avanti!, 3 August 1921.
14. Danteum, view to the Colosseum (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
Architecture of Literature, Princeton, Princeton UP, 1985, 99.)
15. Danteum, front view (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the Architecture of
Literature, Princeton, Princeton UP, 1985, 99.)
16. Danteum, view of courtyard (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
17. Danteum, room of the Inferno (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
18. Danteum, room of the Purgatorio (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
vi
19. Danteum, room of the Paradiso (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
20. Danteum, room of the Impero (from T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the
vii
Introduction
Dante … un altro e più fiero modo di dire Italia.1
Dante Alighieri is, undoubtedly, an enduring feature of the cultural memory of generations
of Italians. His influence is such that the mere mention of a ‘dark wood’ or ‘life’s journey’
recalls the poet and his most celebrated work, the Divina Commedia. This study,
however, seeks to examine the construction of the medieval Florentine poet, exemplified
by the above assertion, as a potent symbol of the Italian nation. From the creation of the
idea of the Italian nation during the Risorgimento, to the Liberal ruling elite’s efforts after
1861 to legitimise the new Italian nation state, and more importantly to ‘make Italians’, to
the rise of a more imperialist conception of nationalism in the early twentieth century and
its most extreme expression under the Fascist regime, Dante was made to play a
significant role in defining, justifying and glorifying the Italian nation. Such an exploration
of the utilisation of Dante in the construction of Italian national identity during the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries aids considerably in an understanding of the
conceptualisation of the Italian nation, of the issues engendered by the establishment of
the Italian nation state, and the evolution of these processes throughout the period in
question.
The various images of Dante revealed by this investigation of his instrumentalisation in
the Italian process of nation-building bear only a fleeting resemblance to what is known of
the poet in his medieval reality. Dante was born in 1265 to a family of modest means and
standing in Florence, at that time the economic centre of Europe, and one of the most
important cities of the Italian peninsula.2 His writings disclosed, however, that he was little
1
Extract from Ettore Janni, In piccioletta barca, Milan, Alpes, 1921, published in ‘Dante’, Popolo d’Italia, 4
Aug 1921, 3.
2
Charles T. Davis, Dante’s Italy and Other Essays, Philadelphia, University of Philadelphia Press 1984, 1.
1
impressed by his city’s prestige and wealth, being instead greatly disturbed by its political
discord and instability, of which he became an unfortunate victim.3 The violent partisan
conflict in Florence and the turbulent political condition of the Italian peninsula in the late
thirteenth century had a decisive influence on Dante’s life and literary endeavours. This
strife suffered by Dante’s patria had its origin in the struggle for power that had been
played out between the Ghibellines, traditionally allied to Frederick II of Sicily, emperor of
the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and the Guelphs, papal loyalists desirous of the creation of a
league of independent Italian cities in northern and central Italy, throughout much of the
thirteenth century. The strength of the Ghibelline movement, however, was essentially
exhausted by the time Dante had joined the political fray in 1295, as the Guelphs had
regained control of Florence in 1267, under the aegis of the papacy, in collaboration with
the Angevins of France led by Charles of Anjou.4
Despite this resolution, Florence continued to be plagued by internal discord, as a result,
primarily, of the schism which had formed within the Guelph movement. Two factions
emerged among elite Florentine families, one known as the Neri, led by the Donati family,
and the other as the Bianchi, led by the Cerchi. Dante was affiliated with the latter
coalition, on the evidence that he held government posts during the years of Bianchi
dominance 1300-1301.5 By the end of 1301, however, the Neri had returned to power,
with the aid of Charles of Valois and Pope Boniface VIII, who had ascended to the papal
throne in 1294, and who distinguished his career by continued attempts to establish papal
control over the Italian states.6 While this change of government was a relatively ordinary
turn of events in the internecine Florentine power play, it was a revolutionary experience
for Dante, who, while on a diplomatic mission to the papal court in Rome in 1302 in an
3
Ibid.
4
John M. Najemy, ‘Dante and Florence’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dante, Cambridge,
Cambridge UP, 1993, 83-84.
5
Ibid., 81.
6
G. Mazzotta, ‘Life of Dante’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dante, Cambridge,
Cambridge UP, 1993, 7.
2
attempt to persuade Boniface VIII to prevent Charles of Valois from entering Tuscany, was
sentenced to death by the vengeful Neri, and remained in exile until his death in 1321.7
Dante’s bitter exile prompted his criticism of the particularism which plagued Florence
and much of the Italian peninsula. Yet despite his ultimately unhappy relationship with the
beleaguered city, which became the model for the corrupt society condemned in his
Inferno, Dante was essentially a Florentine patriot whose devotion to his estranged patria
never waned. Dante’s alienation from his beloved city also fundamentally shaped his
political philosophy, conditioning his advocacy of empire. In short, Dante proposed that to
restore and maintain earthly peace and happiness, the rebirth of a universal empire,
specifically under the supreme jurisdiction of Rome, was essential. It must be noted that
Dante’s imperial ideal became fully formed from 1310 to 1313 when the Holy Roman
Emperor, Henry VII of Luxembourg, made his expedition to the Italian peninsula to claim
his throne. Prior to Henry’s election in 1308, the imperial seat had been vacant since
1250, during which period the Church, especially under the aegis of Pope Boniface VIII,
initiated its own brand of imperialism.8 Dante’s hopes for the restoration of imperial
authority and the curtailing of the Church’s wealth and political power were placed in the
rising fortunes of the emperor Henry VII, until his untimely death in 1313. Accordingly,
Dante’s Monarchia, which most fully elaborates the poet’s theory of empire, can be seen
as an exercise in diplomacy and propaganda promoting Henry VII’s imperial claims in the
Italian peninsula.9
Perhaps the most significant aspect of Dante’s imperial vision for the Italian nationalist
cause was the primacy he accorded Rome as the ‘giardin dello ‘mperio’.10 Dante
contended that God had called Rome to dominion of the world, as capital of Roman and all
Christian peoples, and claimed that the ‘gente latina’ had been endowed with an imperial
7
Ibid., 8.
8
D. Mancusi-Ungaro, Dante and the Empire, New York, P. Lang, 1987, 41.
9
Charles T. Davis, Dante and the Idea of Rome, Oxford, Clarendon, 1957, 144.
10
The reference is to Purgatorio VI: 105.
3
vocation.11 He held that indisputable proof of this divine right to rule was signified by
God’s approval of Roman government, manifested in the birth and death of Christ under
Roman rule.12 Dante’s vision of empire held that the emperor and pope were to have
clearly defined and separate jurisdictions, emulating the roles they had taken in the ancient
Roman empire. The emperor’s function was to provide justice and to guide men to
temporal happiness, while that of the pope and his Church was to imitate the life of Christ,
remaining pure and poor, aiding humankind in achieving its goal of divine salvation.13
Dante composed his Commedia with the intention of convincing his readers that a renewal
of imperial Roman dominion was the solution to the disorder and corruption afflicting the
Italian peninsula.14 In the great poem the poet’s prophecies of a return to imperial glory,
which were the subject of considerable analysis by Italian nationalists, centre on the
enigmatic figure of the Veltro, who, as God’s representative on earth and heir to the
Roman empire, would come to save Italy from the Lupa of avarice:
ché questa bestia, per la qual tu gride,

non lascia altrui passar per la sua via,
ma tanto lo ‘mpedisce che l’uccide;
e ha natura sí malvagia e ria,
che mai non empie la bramosa voglia,
e dopo ‘l pasto ha piú fame che pria.
Molti son li animali a cui s’ammoglia,
e piú saranno ancora, infin che ‘l Veltro
verrà, che la farà morir con doglia.
Questi non ciberà terra nè peltro,
ma sapienza, amore e virtute,
e sua nazion sarà tra feltro e feltro.
Di quella umile Italia fia salute
per cui morí la vergine Cammilla,
Eurialo e Turno e Niso di ferute. (Inferno I: 94-108)
For the purpose of this study, however, the significance of Dante lies not in his historical
existence, but in the mythical image of him first created in the nineteenth century, and the
11
Charles T. Davis, Dante’s Italy and Other Essays, 16-17.
12
Charles T. Davis, ‘Dante, Machiavelli and Rome’, Dante Studies, 106, 1988, 52-53.
13
Charles T. Davis, ‘Dante and the Empire’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dante,
Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1993, 68, 72-73.
14
Charles T. Davis, ‘Dante and Italian Nationalism’, in W. de Sua & G. Rizzo (eds.), A Dante Symposium in
Commemoration of the 700th anniversary of the Poet’s birth (1265-1965), Chapel Hill, University of North
Carolina Press, 1965, 203.
4
ways in which his life and works were manipulated for political ends. The intriguing
identification of the medieval poet as a symbol of the Italian nation was a modern
construct, as was the very idea of the nation. This consideration of Dante as a national
symbol is informed by the contention that nations and nationalism are ideological products
of the modern political world, which emerged in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries in North America and Western Europe. Although nationalist discourse claims
that modern nations are ‘natural’ human communities rooted in antiquity, they are actually
constructed and historically novel. As the sociologist and social anthropologist Ernest
Gellner noted, it is nationalisms that make nations and their states.15 Gellner posited that
the growth of nationalism was conditioned by the new role of linguistic culture in the
modern world. He proposed that in an urban setting, given the absence of village and
tribal structures as sources of collective identity, language and culture became the most
important cohesive factors in society. He further identified the important role assumed by
the intelligentsia as the producers and purveyors of linguistic cultures. These cultural
elites became the instigators of nationalist movements, and essentially used the raw
material of culture to forge their idea of the nation.16 This conception of the nation as the
expression of high culture in the social and political spheres can be readily applied to the
development of nationalism and the idea of the nation in the Italian peninsula in the early
nineteenth century, and is distinctly exemplified by the utilisation of Dante in the process of
constructing the Italian nation.
Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm also emphasised the invented nature of the nation.17
He proposed that nationalist ideologues invented national traditions as part of an attempt
to establish continuity with a suitable historic past.18 His influential concept of ‘invented
traditions’ and their prominent role in the creation of the nation is particularly relevant to
15
Ernest Gellner, Nations and nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1983, 48-49.
16
Ibid., 55.
17
Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction’, to E. Hobsbawm and T Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition,
Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1983, 1.
18
Ibid.
5
the case of Italy, and Dante can indeed be viewed as an important tool in the invented
tradition of Italy’s age-old national history. Hobsbawm also supported the contention that
nations were essentially constructed from above, and proposed the deconstruction of the
nation to its fictional foundations in the narratives of its purveyors, usually the cultural
elite.19 He suggested that the analysis of such national traditions would reveal the needs
and interests of elites who employed these inventions to their advantage. Thus, given that
the concept of the nation is historically, socially, and locally rooted, and often based on the
self-identification of a particular group as ‘the nation’, it is subject to transformation.20 As
this consideration of the myth of Dante will reveal, Italian national identification and what it
was held to imply, altered over time.21
Of particular relevance to this study of the construction of Dante as a symbol of Italian
national identity is Hobsbawm’s caveat that the official ideologies of nationalist movements
and nation states are not indicative of the thoughts and feelings of nationalist supporters
nor citizens.22 The view ‘from below’, that is, the reception of the idea of the nation, and in
this case, of the nationalist representation of Dante, by ordinary persons who are the
objects of nationalist propaganda, can be rather difficult to discern.23 Accordingly, this
analysis attempts to provide only a partial picture of the value of the myth of Dante as a
vehicle for nationalisation, confining its focus to the construction of Dante’s image by a
cultural and political elite, and its propagation among literate Italians.
Also useful to this consideration of Dante and Italian national identity is the apt
characterisation of the nation as an ‘imagined’ political community offered by political
scientist Benedict Anderson.24 Like Gellner, Anderson stressed the important part played
by linguistic culture in the growth of nationalism, arguing that the search for new forms of
19
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality, Cambridge, Cambridge
UP, 1990, 10.
20
Ibid., 7, 10.
21
Ibid., 11.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
24
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism,
London, Verso, 1983, 15.
6
political and social organisation in the modern age was precipitated by the rise of so-called
‘print capitalism’.25 He has asserted that the development of print languages enabled
cultural elites to imagine themselves as part of a cultural community, and thus furnished
the foundation for national consciousness.26 Print capitalism also gave new permanence
to languages which assisted in constructing an image of immutability and antiquity that
was central to the idea of the nation.27 Anderson consequently proposed that the nation,
itself a cultural artefact, could be understood by analysis of the cultural artefacts, such as
novels and newspapers, which provided the technical means for representing the
imagined community of the nation. Such cultural artefacts, ranging from poems, novels,
political treatises and academic studies, to newspaper reports, songs and even
monuments, form the basis of this examination of the representation of Dante as a
metaphor for the Italian nation.
The approach to the study of the nation and national identity proposed by French
historian Pierre Nora, which constitutes yet another elaboration of the postmodernist view
of the nation as a social and cultural construct that needs to be broken down into its
component narratives to reveal its nature and form, is particularly valuable to this
examination of Dante as a national symbol. Nora contended that the social and cultural
memory of a population is formed by symbolic sites, or ‘lieux de mémoire’.28 These
‘realms of memory’ represent the ideas and material reality that structure national
identity.29 In the context of Nora’s endeavour, ‘memory’ is to be understood as the ways in
which a community imagines itself. Nora suggested that such representations of the past,
which are inextricably tied to the social and political exigencies of the present in which they
were defined or constructed, can be scrutinised in order to come to an understanding of
the symbolic whole, that is, of the nation. He further proposed that a ‘realm of memory’
25
Ibid., 40.
26
Ibid., 47.
27
Ibid.
28
Pierre Nora (ed.), Lex lieux de mémoire, 3 vols., Paris, Gallimard, 1984.
29
L. D. Kritzman, ‘Foreword’, in Pierre Nora, (ed.), Realms of Memory; the construction of the French past,
3 vols., trans. A. Goldhammer, New York, Columbia UP, 1996, x.
7
has the capacity for adaptation and reinterpretation; it is, in a sense, a flexible symbol
which can be used by successive generations to represent their particular ideals and to
express their identity. Thus the examination of a lieu de mémoire involves a consideration
of the various layers of meaning that have been applied to it, rather than solely a
contemplation of its original, ‘factual’ function and significance. According to this
approach, Dante can indeed be considered a lieu de mémoire, a constructed symbol
imbued with various meanings over the course of time. Certain historical mechanisms,
human efforts and the passage of time have transformed Dante, medieval Florentine poet,
into a mutable yet enduring symbol of italianità.
This dissertation seeks to examine why Dante became an Italian ‘realm of memory’, to
ascertain exactly what appeal the poet possessed as a figurative tool to express
sentiments of nationalism, and to represent and give substance to the idea of the nation. It
aims to elaborate the ways in which the poet was represented, and how his status as a
symbol of the Italian nation was established and subsequently sustained. It also considers
how his life, works and character were imaginatively reconstructed and enhanced
according to changing political and cultural circumstances. Above all, it explores the
various ways in which he was used to define Italian identity and to debate the vital issues
of Italy’s existence.
In addressing the reasons for and nature of Dante’s role as a recurring image of national-
patriotic discourse, this thesis endeavours to contribute to the growing body of literature
which takes as its subject various aspects of the creation of the Italian nation. It adds its
voice to an Italian historiography which employs a culturalist approach, by which the
scrutiny of the narratives, metaphors and tropes of nationalist discourse is held to be a
means to understanding the developments of Italian nationalism. The engaging work by
Alberto M. Banti on the nation constructed during the Risorgimento, which investigates
how national-patriotic discourse manipulated and modelled itself on existing symbols,
rituals and myths in an attempt to provide an identity for a united Italy, is particularly
8
consonant with this contemplation of the construction of the Dante myth.30 Studies by
other prominent scholars of this field, which explore the use of important symbols, be they
political and cultural figures or monuments, in the formation and discussion of Italy and its
national identity, such as Lucy Riall’s examination of the invention of Garibaldi as the
national hero, Umberto Levra’s study of the nationalist memorialisation of Vittorio
Emanuele II, and Bruno Tobia’s analysis of the Vittoriano monument in Rome, have also
been influential in the conceptualisation of this dissertation.31
The study of Dante’s place in Italian nationalist discourse is thus but one avenue to a
better understanding of the appeal, popularity, successes and weaknesses of Italian
nationalism. Despite the apparent fragility of the political Italian nation, and the pervasive
perception of Italy as a failed nation, the cultural conviction of italianità has been found to
be quite robust. This study aims to demonstrate how, throughout many decades of
struggle over what it meant to be Italian and over who should control and direct the Italian
nation state during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a strong sense of
belonging to the Italian nation was indeed expressed through participation in the nationalist
cult of Dante.
The attempt to ‘make Italians’ began during the Risorgimento and reached its peak
during the years of Fascist rule, and concerns about the nature and strength of Italian
national identity informed much of political and cultural life in Italy throughout this period.
Accordingly, this study of the instrumentalisation of Dante in the construction of Italian
national identity begins with the period of the Risorgimento, when both the idea of the
Italian nation and the myth of Dante were sculpted from high culture by the elites of the
peninsula. It examines the various characterisations of the poet in the Liberal period, from
his elevation as an emblem of a secular Italian nation state, to his appropriation as an icon
30
See Alberto M. Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento. Parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell’Italia unita,
Turin, Einaudi, 2000.
31
See Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: invention of a hero, London, New Haven, Yale UP, 2007; Umberto Levra, Fare
gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, Turin, Comitato di Torino dell’Istituto per la storia del
Risorgimento italiano, 1992; Bruno Tobia, L’Altare della Patria, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1998.
9
of a Catholic Italian tradition which contested the new Liberal ruling elite’s attempts to
establish cultural hegemony in Italy, to his employment as a symbol of the irredentist
cause. The contemplation of the celebrations of the anniversaries of Dante’s birth and
death under the aegis of the Liberal state affords considerable insight into the nature of the
nationalist imagining of Dante. In 1865, commemoration of Dante offered a pretext for
celebrating the political foundation of the Italian nation state, and in 1921, the festivities
were welcomed as an opportunity to rejoice at the supposed confirmation of Italy’s
nationhood in the Great War. A consideration of the utilisation of the poet in the Fascist
project to institute its own version of Italian national identity concludes this survey of the
construction of Dante as a supreme standard bearer of the Italian nationalist cause from its
origins to its exhaustion on the eve of the Second World War.
10
1
‘Padre Dante’: the Risorgimento and the origins of the myth of Dante
Ahi serva Italia, di dolore ostello,

nave sanza nocchiere in gran tempesta,
non donna di provincie, ma bordello!
(Purg. VI: 76-78)
The dynamic and tumultuous decades of the Risorgimento were significant not only for
the ultimate political unification of the Italian peninsula as a nation state in 1860, but also
as the period in which the construction of the idea of the Italian nation became a central
and essential concern for the Italian cultural elite. The creation of Dante as the ‘padre
della nazione italiana’ was also a product of the Risorgimento, and can be seen as an
intrinsic part of the rise of the Italian nation, and as a revelation of some of the
characteristics of the Italian nationalist cause. The image of the poet as the founder of the
Italian language and civilisation lay at the heart of the myth of Dante, and the passionate
belief of many Risorgimento patriots in a Dante who had defended and immortalised the
existence of ‘Italy’ in his verse, conditioned his ascension as a symbol of the Italian nation.
Against the backdrop of this fundamental and static conception of Dante as a symbol of
Italian national unity, there arose varying political interpretations of his thought. The ways
in which the poet’s generally accepted greatness as a national cultural figure lent
legitimacy and rhetorical support to different political causes, such as the calls for an
independent Italian republic, or the project for a confederation of Italian states ruled by the
pope, provide fascinating insight into the functioning of this myth of Dante.
The casting of Dante in the role of founding father of Italian culture and civilisation was
above all a consequence of the Italian cultural elite’s desire to discover the origins and
define the characteristics of an Italian national identity which arose in the early decades of
the nineteenth century. The very search for the precedents of the Italian nation had itself
11
been prompted by the experience of Napoleonic rule, and of the repressive restoration of
the old ruling order, which had encouraged the more patriotic of the educated elite to long
for the ‘resurgence’ of an independent Italy. It is important to highlight the innate
contradiction of such an aspiration, as it reveals much of the impetus behind Dante’s
elevation as a national symbol. Despite general acceptance of the term ‘Risorgimento’ to
describe the period of the growth of Italian nationalism, an Italian nation, in the sense of a
united political, cultural and social entity, had never actually existed to warrant the use of
this term. As Metternich, the mastermind of Austrian repression in the Italian peninsula,
disparagingly noted in 1847, Italy was little more than a ‘geographical expression’. Since
the Middle Ages, the Italian peninsula had been divided into small sovereign states,
constantly in conflict, a situation rendered even more unstable by the presence of the
papacy, which made the peninsula particularly vulnerable to foreign invasion. The most
persistent invaders were imperial France and Spain, seeking to appropriate the spoils of
Europe’s most prosperous and economically advanced area, and to control the papacy, in
hope of employing its support in their expansionist causes.1 By the eighteenth century, the
Austrian Habsburgs controlled much of the north, a Bourbon dynasty from Spain
dominated the South, and the pope ruled the states of central Italy.
And yet the national consciousness to be found among many intellectuals of the Italian
peninsula in the early nineteenth century had not developed without some foundation;
there had existed a rhetorical, literary tradition lamenting the subjection of the peninsula to
foreign domination, to be found above all in the works of Dante, Petrarch and Machiavelli.
Such a poetic, abstract ideal of Italy can be understood, however, as little more than a
literary device used by the author to promote the ascendancy of one existing source of
power, secular or religious, within the peninsula.2 The only sign of the existence of an
‘Italian nation’ was the presence of a high culture and the literary Italian it took as its
1
Roger Absalom, Italy since 1800: A nation in the balance?, London, Longman, 1995, 6.
2
Ibid., 11.
12
medium, based upon Dante’s linguistic precedent, common to the educated elites of the
various regions of the peninsula. Thus an awareness of a ‘cultural italianità’, based on the
literary works of Dante and many others, and the art of Leonardo and Michelangelo, as
well as the use of high Italian, united the elites across their political borders, enabling them
to imagine an ‘Italy’. This vague concept did, however, need to be made more tangible by
the small group of intellectuals who sought to define the nature and identity which a united
Italy might assume in the wider European context, of which the experience of Napoleonic
rule had made them well aware.
To this end, nineteenth century Italian patriots turned to the pre-existing cultural wealth of
the Italian peninsula in order to find the necessary material for forging a suitable idea of
the Italian nation.3 These supporters of the national cause selected certain figures or
episodes of the past and used them, often transforming them, to construct and even create
a history of the Italian nation.4 The authors of what scholar Alberto Banti has referred to as
a ‘canone risorgimentale’ of the idea of Italy produced works which enabled their readers
to ‘discover’ the Italian nation, and which carried a message powerful enough to convince
many to act in the name of national independence, often risking prison, exile, or death.5
As this study will demonstrate, Dante was a recurring figure in the elaborations of the
Italian nation produced by several authors selected by Banti and included in his literary
canon. While these intellectuals may have been divided by their philosophical sensibilities,
ideological positions or political aspirations, they were united in their conception of the
Italian nation and in their instrumentalisation of Dante in fashioning it.6
The nineteenth century search for an Italian identity in which Dante was made to play
such an important role was primarily conditioned by the French invasion of the peninsula
3
Ernest Gellner, Nations and nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1983, 55.
4
Alberto M. Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento. Parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell’Italia unita,
Turin, Einaudi, 2000, 30.
5
Ibid., xi, 30.
6
Ibid., 53.
13
after 1796, which brought with it the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and popular
sovereignty, that had exploded onto the European political and cultural scene in 1789.
The subjection of the Italian peninsula to French and Napoleonic domination from 1796 to
1814 worked to encourage a growth of patriotic and nationalist sentiments among the
educated minority, in two ways. In a positive sense, Napoleon’s invasion shattered the
existing state system, by deposing ruling dynasties, abolishing ecclesiastical and
aristocratic privilege, uniting regions, simplifying internal and external customs barriers,
and establishing uniform administrative, legal and fiscal systems. Conscripted military
service also did much to promote a national consciousness, as soldiers, perhaps for the
first time, came into contact with other ‘Italians’, from the diverse regions of the peninsula,
as well as conscripts from other European states, prompting an awareness of a ‘national’
identity.7 These reforms, joined with Napoleon’s establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in
1805, an amalgam of the regions of Lombardy, Venetia and some of the former papal
states, a nomination which had perhaps the most imaginative influence on a rising national
consciousness, enabled a larger proportion of the upper and middle classes to envisage
Italy as a concrete reality and not just as an abstract ideal. Such innovation and progress
was, however, countered by the ruthless exploitation of the Italian peninsula by the
French. Crippling taxes and well organised conscription in the service of Napoleon’s
imperial war machine took their toll, ultimately provoking resentment and opposition, which
gave even greater impetus to dreams of Italian national independence.8
The final defeat of Napoleon and his imperialist re-mapping of Europe, and the
restoration of the various anciens regimes to the peninsula after the Congress of Vienna in
1815, was a relief to many. But all did not return to its former state. On the one hand,
repression by the Austrian authorities, who took over control of much of the north of the
peninsula, increased, as the Austrian Chancellor Metternich attempted to rid his Italian
7
Alexander Grab, ‘From the French Revolution to Napoleon’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth
Century, Oxford, OUP, 2000, 39.
8
Denis Mack Smith, The making of Italy 1796-1866, London, Macmillan, 1988, 6.
14
territories of the effects of subversive liberalism imported by the French. And on the other,
a new desire to free Italy of foreign domination forever, to forge Italian independence and
unity, had been ignited among the peninsula’s elites. Yet there was little hope for any
immediate political or social revolution, despite genuine discontent felt by educated elites
and illiterate masses alike. Although opposition to the various Restoration regimes and a
desire for independence was universal among the educated minority, who were the main
protagonists of the successive attempted revolutions until 1831, these enlightened patriots
were otherwise divided in their beliefs on what political form an independent Italy would
take. Another obstacle to the development of an effective and widespread campaign for
national independence was that the majority of the non-intellectual inhabitants of the
peninsula looked to their local municipality, or conversely, to the universal faith of the
Church, to define their identity.9 The main cause of popular unrest in the 1830s and 1840s
proved not to be foreign domination, but rather the fact that the territorial re-settlement of
1815, while failing to address historic local and regional rivalries, had actually provoked
new resentments; for example, the annexation of Sicily to Naples in 1816 led to the
introduction of practices that were contrary to the island’s traditions and interests.10 Thus a
fundamental impediment to the success of national aspirations were the very divisions of
the peninsula, and the slowness of the majority of its inhabitants to accept, or even
understand, the concept of ‘Italy’ as a united political and territorial entity.11
The desire for, and construction of, an Italian identity by patriotic intellectuals in the first
half of the nineteenth century was also powerfully encouraged by the cultural
developments sweeping across Europe. The waning ascendancy of classicism, the artistic
and cultural expression of Enlightenment rationality, saw the rise of the more ‘irrational’
9
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past: History, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, in Albert Russell
Ascoli & Krystyna Von Henneberg (eds.), Making and remaking Italy: the cultivation of national identity
around the Risorgimento, Oxford-New York, Berg, 2001, 27.
10
David Laven, ‘The Age of Restoration’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford,
OUP, 2000, 53.
11
Denis Mack Smith, The making of Italy 1796-1866, 2.
15
Romanticism, dominated by German and English philosophers, poets and critics, who
delighted in new conventions of representation, and introduced new ways of looking at the
past, particularly a positive re-evaluation of the Middle Ages.12 The attraction of the Italian
intellectual avant-garde to Romanticism was above all conditioned by the association of
classicism with French political and cultural hegemony, as well as the belief that classicism
was not exactly compatible with progress, as adherence to ancient forms would not
promote cultural independence, nor ultimately, political autonomy.13
The consideration of the relative merits of classicism and Romanticism in artistic
expression also influenced the critical approach to Dante’s works. While the poet and his
Divina Commedia had been much admired and studied in the fourteenth century, in the
following four centuries the dominance of Humanism in academic institutions, and its
enthusiasm for classical antiquity and Latin, had in fact prompted the relegation of Dante
to a position of secondary importance in Italian culture. The contempt of classical criticism
for literary forms which did not conform to accepted models ensured that Dante’s work was
considered to be obscure, grotesque and disharmonious, admirable only for certain
episodes in which his genius had managed to overcome the bad taste of his age.14 The
burgeoning romantic conception of literature and art, however, praised in Dante that which
classicism had condemned; the very beauty of the Divina Commedia, for example, was
held by romantic proponents to lie in its quite unclassical variety and complexity, its mix of
genres, styles and linguistic forms. Its dissimilarity from ancient literature became an
admirable mark of originality rather than literary degradation.15 Particular attention was
12
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past: History, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, 29.
13
Ibid., 32-33.
14
Michele Barbi, Life of Dante, trans. & ed. Paul G. Ruggiers, Berkeley-LA, University of California Press,
1954, 112.
15
Daniele Mattalia ‘Dante Alighieri’, in Walter Binni (ed.), I classici italiani nella storia della critica, vol. 1:
Da Dante a Marino, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1960, 45.
16
given to the Inferno, as it appealed to the romantic taste for the wild, the supernatural, and
for evocative representations of passion, pain, madness and death.16
The romantic revival of interest in Dante’s literary achievement and style thus prepared
the ground for the appropriation of the poet by Italian nationalists as one of the corner
stones of the Italian cultural nation they were striving to construct. Yet it was the romantic
‘rediscovery’ of non-classical history, with its particularly intense interest in the Middle
Ages, which was most decisive in guiding the Italian intellectual elite to shine their light
upon the figure of Dante. The precedent for this new focus in historical studies had been
set by the Enlightenment trend of writing the ‘civil history’ of peoples, societies and
cultures, rather than the traditionally singular study of ruling dynasties and their wars.
Above all, however, the French political and cultural domination of the peninsula, followed
by the continued repression of the Restoration governments, had encouraged the
conquered to seek the origins of the Italian nation through a reappraisal of modern history.
The effort to uncover and elaborate a uniquely ‘Italian’ culture and traditional way of life
was, not surprisingly, considered a fundamental step to achieving independence and
aiding Italy’s resurgence.
The Middle Ages came to the fore as the critical period for the formation of an Italian
identity primarily because it had conditioned the rise of the Italian literary vernacular which
provided the basis for the culture whose ideal threads could be traced down the centuries.
Although the established language of high culture, from its conception in the fourteenth
century until the nineteenth century, had essentially remained within the restricted domain
of the educated elite as the medium for intellectual expression, it was placed at the heart
of the national identity being constructed as it was the only thing the elite of the peninsula
held in common, the only thing that made them ‘Italians’.17 In the broader European
context of romantic interest in national origins, language was also held to be of great
16
Ibid., 56; Favourite episodes of the Inferno were those dealing with Francesca da Rimini, Canto V, and with
Conte Ugolino, Canto XXXIII.
17
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality, Cambridge, Cambridge
UP, 1983, 102-103.
17
significance, as the most tangible and potent of all cultural phenomena, as the repository
of the unique mentality and heritage of a people.18 Hence Dante, whose Commedia had
provided a linguistic standard which had served as the foundation for Italian high culture,
came to be viewed as the ‘founding father’ of the nation.
The Middle Ages also gained considerable significance during the Risorgimento as the
time in which Italy had attained a position of ‘primacy’. New studies of the Middle Ages,
such as the influential Histoire des Républiques italiennes by Genevan historian Jean-
Charles-Léonard Simonde de Sismondi, published in Italy 1808-1818, encouraged Italian
intellectuals to take pride in the heartening appraisal that medieval Italian city-republics
had led the way in the revival of European civilisation, and in the growth of political
liberty.19 The latter point was of considerable importance for patriots struggling to find a
precedent for Italian autonomy; the medieval city-states had at least vigorously defended
their liberty against foreign usurpations, thus providing nineteenth century patriots with an
inspiring example of heroism in the cause of Italian independence.
Another important aspect of romantic culture to influence the reappraisal of Dante and his
promotion as a representative of italianità was its fascination for the individual. This
glorification of individuality was characterised by an interest in the ‘inner self’ and the
creative imagination, and above all by a reverence for spontaneous and natural genius.20
This romantic focus on the individual psyche, coupled with interest in new methods of
historical investigation, also conditioned the growth of the genre of biography, which
ultimately influenced the study of Dante. In the late eighteenth century several editions of
the Divina Commedia included a ‘vita di Dante’, and in the first half of the nineteenth
century, study of the poet broadened to include various biographies, as well as studies on
his minor works, his political and religious thought, allegory in the Commedia, and detailed
18
J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt: Europe 1815-1848, London, Thames & Hudson, 1967, 98.
19
Adrian Lyttleton, ‘Creating a national past: History, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, 42.
20
J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt: Europe 1815-1848, 142.
18
and systematic commentaries of the poem.21 Such considerations prompted the romantic
vision of a Dante who was ‘mistico, segreto, spiritualmente inesplorato e perciò da
scoprirsi’, and ultimately, who embodied the occult force from which derived the national
character.22 Through the efforts of Ugo Foscolo and Giuseppe Mazzini, with some initial
inspiration from Vittorio Alfieri, Dante was almost made flesh in the early nineteenth
century, remarkably similar in character to these patriots who cast him as the hero of their
cause. The poet’s verses and life became symbols of noble austerity, disdain for petty
rivalries, and of suffering for a higher cause. Perhaps most significant was his exile from
Florence in 1302, which was viewed as the initiation, even consecration, of the exile of
nineteenth century patriots who yearned like Dante for their patria to be returned to liberty
and dignity.23
***
The Venetian poet Ugo Foscolo was the first important cultural figure of nineteenth
century Italy to provide an exegesis of Dante’s life and thought with nationalist
implications. Imbued with intense patriotism, Foscolo contributed much to the discovery
and creation of an Italian national identity, and in so doing, laid the foundations of the myth
of Dante as an icon of italianità. Born to a Greek mother on the isle of Zante in the Ionian
Sea in 1778, Foscolo settled in Venice, his father’s patria, in 1792, in order to pursue his
classical education. As a youthful supporter of Jacobin and revolutionary ideas, he fled a
politically repressive Venice in 1797, only to return that same year, as an officer in
Napoleon’s army, to rejoice in the foundation of the Venetian Republic. Foscolo
expressed his unreserved faith in revolutionary principles, liberty, and the rights of man in
his Ode a Buonaparte liberatore (1797), but his exaltation soon turned to bitterness at the
21
Joseph Luzzi, ‘Literary Lion: Alfieri’s Prince, Dante, and the Romantic Self’, Italica, 80 (2), Summer 2003,
176; Daniele Mattalia, ‘Dante Alighieri’, 56.
22
Aldo Vallone, La critica dantesca nell’ottocento, Florence, Olschki, 1958, 19, 16.
23
Corrado Ricci, ‘Il culto e la lettura di Dante’, Figure e fantasmi, Milan, Hoepli, 1931, 157.
19
betrayal of the Treaty of Campoformio (17 October 1797), by which Napoleon ceded
Venice to Austria.24 Foscolo again exiled himself from his Venetian patria, and re-enlisted
in the French army in 1799 to assist in the defence of Italian territory from Austrian and
Russian advances. Despite his disillusionment at the revelation of Napoleon’s despotism,
Foscolo held several prominent positions in the French government of the Republic, and
later, Kingdom of Italy, based on Milan, until Napoleon’s defeat in 1814.25 Yet while
Foscolo participated in the Napoleonic regime’s strategy to gain consensus by assigning
intellectuals important roles in its cultural apparatus, he continued to propagate his anti-
Napoleonic and pro-Italian ideas in literary and historical works.
One such example of the veiling of political aspirations behind the discussion of literary
and cultural ideas can be observed in the inaugural oration, Dell’origine e dell’ufficio della
letteratura, Foscolo gave for the course on eloquence he taught at the University of Pavia
in 1809. In it, Foscolo proposed an ‘office’ for his fellow letterati, that of the divulgation of
the history of ‘Italy’, or rather the history of Italian high culture. This essential task, to be
performed by Italian letterati for the greater good of society, was, it must be noted,
primarily for the benefit of those with the education to understand, relate to, and embrace
their Italian history.26 Foscolo’s highly memorable entreaty of ‘io vi esorto alle storie’ was
predicated on the poet’s belief that a culture obsequious and impotent before political
power was of no concrete use to Italian society, a lamentable situation he had observed
under Napoleon’s regime.27 He proposed this renewal of a didactic literature, with a
particular focus on the biographies of Italy's greatest cultural figures, with its aim of
revealing his idea of the Italian nation to the educated, as a prelude to the revival of Italian
society, and ultimately political independence:
24
L. Salvatorelli, ‘Il pensiero politico del Foscolo’, in Walter Binni (ed.), Foscolo e la critica: storia e
antologia della critica, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1966, 200.
25
Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and society 1796-1896’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century,
Oxford, OUP, 2000, 210.
26
Erminia Irace, Itale glorie, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2003, 130.
27
Ibid., 129-130.
20
O miei concittadini! … Amate palesamente e generosamente le lettere e la
vostra nazione, e potrete alfine conoscervi tra di voi, ed assumerete il
coraggio della concordia … amate la vostra patria, e non contaminerete con
merci straniere la purità e le ricchezze e le grazie natie del nostro idioma.
La verità e le passioni faranno più esaltati, men inetti, e piu` doviziosi i
vostri pensieri. Visitate l’Italia! O amabile terra! O tempio di Venere e delle
Muse!28
This crucial passage of Foscolo’s exhortation reveals to some extent the poet’s conception
of the ‘nation’; it was chiefly founded upon the great cultural figures and the cultural
artefacts they produced in the ‘tempio di Venere e delle Muse’, the Italian peninsula. This
cultural Italian nation was also defined by the Italian literary language, used by Foscolo
and his fellow letterati, which was under threat from the Napoleonic regime’s attempts to
solidify French political and cultural hegemony in its Italian territories. The influence of
Foscolo’s early Jacobin affiliations would also suggest an adherence to the more political
conception of the ‘nation’ as the ‘people’, with whom political sovereignty resided, and as
the patria, the place of rights and duties, liberty, equality and fraternity.29
In the concluding flourish of Foscolo’s speech, the poet’s designation of Dante as the
supreme patriotic emblem for those hoping to establish a political nation state that would
honour, preserve and perpetuate the glory of the cultural Italian nation, is also revealed.
Foscolo encouraged his audience to turn to Dante, not only to discover their national past,
but also to be inspired by ‘Quel fuoco immortale … che animò Dante nelle calamità
dell’esilio’.30 Foscolo called upon his students to be strengthened by the example of the
medieval poet’s patriotism not simply for Florence, but also for an immortal Italy, which he
saw undermined by the foreign usurpations and regional and municipal rivalries of his
time, and whose resurgence he called for in his Divina Commedia. In his final appeal,
‘Prostratevi su’ loro sepolcri, interrogateli come furono grandi e infelici, e come l’amor della
patria, della gloria e del vero accrebbe la costanza del loro cuore, la forza del loro ingegno
28
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Orazioni e lezioni dalla cattedra di Pavia 1809’, in Emilio Santini (ed.), Edizione nazionale
delle opere di Ugo Foscolo: Lezioni, Articoli di critica e di polemica 1809-1811, vol. VII, Florence, Le
Monnier, 1933, 36.
29
Mario Pazzaglia, Lungo l’Ottocento, Modena, Mucchi, 2000, 12-13.
30
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Orazioni e lezioni dalla cattedra di Pavia 1809’, 37.
21
e i loro beneficii verso di noi’31, Foscolo suggested that his students should pursue a
religious interaction with the great Italian figures of the past, such as Dante, Machiavelli,
Tasso and Galileo, in order to be filled with their exemplary spirit of patriotism.
Foscolo’s reference in this speech to the importance of tombs and their role as memorials
to Italy’s past cultural glory, and moreover as an inspiration to patriotism, recalls an
important scene of Foscolo’s 1802 edition of the Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis. Hailed as
Italy’s first modern novel, Ortis took as its theme the protagonist’s struggle to reconcile his
individual desires with the constraints placed upon him by French and Austrian
oppression, and was set in the period following Napoleon’s cession of Venice to Austria in
1797. At the dramatic climax of the novel, the young Venetian patriot, Jacopo, communes
with the spirit of Dante at his tomb in Ravenna:
Sulla tua urna, Padre Dante! … Abbracciandola mi sono prefisso ancor più
nel mio consiglio. M’hai tu veduto? M’hai tu forse, padre, ispirato tanta
fortezza di senno e di cuore, mentr’io genuflesso, con la testa appoggiata a’
tuoi marmi meditava e l’alto animo tuo, e il tuo amore, e l’ingrata tua patria,
e l’esilio, e la povertà, e la tua mente divina?32
Here Foscolo represented Dante as the patron saint, ‘Padre Dante’, of the patriots, who,
like the divine poet, were forced to choose between submission to foreign control and
oppression, or allegiance to their personal principles and its consequence of exile, or in the
case of Jacopo Ortis, death. This evocation of Dante’s strong character and literary
genius is also an early example of Foscolo’s particular concern with the personality of
Dante, which he would elaborate upon in his lessons on Dante’s works during his English
exile.
The theme of exile, first employed by Foscolo in Ortis, was soon to become a reality for
Foscolo with the restoration of Austrian control in the north of the peninsula in 1815. As an
31
Ibid.
32
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis’, in G. Gambarin (ed.), Edizione nazionale delle opere di Ugo
Foscolo:Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis, vol. IV, Florence, Le Monnier, 1970, 265. In the definitive edition of
1817, the passage was altered to offer a more restrained and less evocative homage: ‘Omero, Dante e
Shakespeare, tre maestri di tutti gli ingegni sovraumani, hanno investito la mia immaginazione e infiammato
il mio cuore: ho bagnato di caldissime lacrime i loro versi; e ho adorato le loro ombre divine come se le
vedessi assise su le volte eccelse che sovrastano l’universo a dominare l’eternità’ (Ibid., 361-362.)
22
officer in Napoleon’s army, the Venetian poet found himself in a precarious situation, and
chose to exile himself from the Italian peninsula rather than collaborate with the restored
and increasingly repressive Austrian government. Foscolo’s own retreat into exile from
1816, united with the sacred image of Dante’s exile that he held so dear, prompted him to
mythologise this experience, particularly in his studies on Dante. In Foscolo’s thought,
exile became more than a mere biographical fact; it was rather ‘il nucleo di pena
esistenziale, generatore di forme poetiche e letterarie’.33 Foscolo’s reference to Plutarch’s
De exilio in his Discorso sulla Commedia di Dante of 1825 that ‘Le Muse sono amiche
degli esuli’, attests to this focus on exile as a spiritually and artistically beneficial
experience.34
The greatest contribution to the symbolic significance of exile came, however, from
Foscolo’s own biographical example, as a patriot who died in exile from his patria, and
moreover from Mazzini’s later exaltations of Foscolo’s personal and literary legacy.
Foscolo had centred his intellectual and moral profile on the antagonistic attitude of the
letterato to political and ideological tyranny, and consequently went into exile in order to
remain true to his principles.35 For the generation of Risorgimento patriots who came after
Foscolo, exile, and its most imaginatively evocative emblem, Dante, were potent symbols
of political and cultural resistance to foreign oppression, and many exponents of the
patriotic cause, among them Mazzini, Gioberti and Cattaneo, would defiantly follow the
example of both Foscolo and Dante.
After a brief interlude in Switzerland, Foscolo settled in England, where he made a
considerable contribution to the knowledge of Italian literature in nineteenth century Britain.
In his self-imposed exile, Foscolo turned to literary criticism, primarily as a means of
funding his extravagant lifestyle. Foscolo’s critical studies of Dante from 1818 were also
conditioned by the plight he shared with the medieval poet: as an exile, Foscolo had an
33
Carmen Di Donna Prencipe, ‘L’exul immeritus nell’opera del Foscolo’, Letture Classensi, 27, 1998, 62.
34
Ibid.
35
Erminia Irace, Itale glorie, 132.
23
emphathetic base from which to penetrate the personality and works of Dante. In this last
decade of his life, Foscolo remained true to his belief in the civilising mission of literature,
and promoted Dante’s example, as a poet and as a man, as the ideal guide to the renewal
of Italian literature and society.
The most significant characteristic of Foscolo’s approach to his study of Dante was his
tendency to see in the story of Dante’s medieval life the anticipation of the events of his
own nineteenth century existence.36 Foscolo initiated his career as a dantista with two
articles published in the literary journal the Edinburgh Review in 1818, which offered an
introduction to Dante and his Commedia for English readers. The review articles, which
exalted the genius of the Florentine poet, were the first step in Foscolo’s divulgation of the
Divina Commedia, which he believed would be to the advantage of not only Italy, but also
of all European nations, based on his contention that all European literature had its
beginnings in the age of Dante.37 Foscolo’s observations and explanations of Dante,
imbued with passion and his persuasive eloquence, encouraged English readers and
Italian patriots alike to identify Dante as the symbol of the nineteenth century longing for
the resurrection of Italy.38
For the purposes of the nineteenth century construction of the myth of Dante, the most
significant aspect of Foscolo’s studies of Dante was their romantic concern for ‘Dante-
uomo’. Dante could not be a common man for Foscolo, which is not surprising, given the
role the medieval poet was assigned as the epitome of the Italian cultural tradition.
Foscolo constructed a Dante of austere habits, elevated morality and ethical integrity, a
characterisation which prepared the ground for later elaborations of Dante as the herald of
a new moral and political order.39 The conception of Dante as a hero-poet, a fearlessly
independent writer who had supposedly refused government protection in the name of
36
Aldo Vallone, La critica dantesca nell’ottocento, 72.
37
Alberto Chiari, ‘Dante e il Foscolo’, in G. Galbiati (ed.), Studi su Dante, VI: Dante nel Risorgimento,
Milan, Hoepli, 1941, 131.
38
Ibid., 141-142.
39
24
literature, promoted by the aristocratic Piedmontese poet and dramatist Vittorio Alfieri, had
set a precedent for Foscolo’s romantically inspired elaboration of Dante’s character.
Alfieri’s vision of Dante as a morally uncompromising champion of freedom had developed
from the theory, also held by Foscolo and Mazzini, that writers and poets had an historical
‘mission’ to bring about the regeneration of society and politics. More significant, however,
were the comparisons made between Alfieri, as a patriotic and self-imposed exile who
loved freedom and rejected tyranny, and the medieval Florentine exile.40 Alfieri’s own self-
conscious cultivation of his image as the late eighteeth century version of Dante, a morally
severe and patriotic exile, and its celebration by Risorgimento patriots, helped to revive
Dante, to bring him into the present and provide witness to the inspiring power of his
paternal spirit.
Foscolo’s elevation of Dante to a higher plane of moral fortitude was also encouraged by
the influence of the thought of the eighteenth century Neapolitan philosopher, Giambattista
Vico, on Foscolo’s conception of history. Vico’s theory of corsi and ricorsi in history, that
is, the cyclical rediscovery of ‘lost’ civilisations, suggested to Foscolo that Dante, like
Homer, was a ‘primitive’ poet, the herald of a new age in European civilisation, and the
authority in that age on theology, politics and history.41 Foscolo’s 1823 essay, A Parallel
between Dante and Petrarch, proposed that while Petrarch’s poetics ‘paralize(sic.)
intellectual exertion – entice us into a morbid indulgence of our feelings, and withdraw us
from active life’, Dante, in contrast, ‘Like all primitive poets, is the historian of the manners
of his age, the prophet of his country, and the painter of mankind; and calls into action all
the faculties of our soul to reflect on all the vicissitudes of the world’.42 Foscolo also
reflected on the relative merits of two of Italy’s greatest poets as literary models for the
40
Andrea Ciccarelli, ‘Dante and the culture of Risorgimento: Literary, political or ideological icon?’, in
Albert Russell Ascoli & Krystyna Von Henneberg (eds.), Making and remaking Italy: the cultivation of
national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford-New York, Berg, 2001, 80.
41
Di Donna Prencipe, op. cit., 65; Carolyn Springer, The Marble Wilderness: Ruins and Representation in
Italian Romanticism, 1775-1850, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1987, 124.
42
Ugo Foscolo, ‘A Parallel between Dante and Petrarch (Essays on Petrarch 1823), in Franco Gavazzeni
(ed.), Ugo Foscolo: Opere vol. II, Milan-Naples, Riccardo Ricciardi, 1981, 1782. These essays were first
published in English, and later translated to Italian.
25
nineteenth century rebirth of Italian culture and civilisation. He judged Dante’s style of
poetry to be more suitable to the current age, as it was a poetry of heroics, as opposed to
Petrarch’s poetry of defeat and decadence:
But since the late revolutions have stirred up other passions, and a different
system of education has been established, Petrarch’s followers have rapidly
diminished; and those of Dante have written poems more suited to rouse
the public spirit of Italy. Dante applied his poetry to the vicissitudes of his
own time, when liberty was making her dying struggle against tyranny; and
he descended to the tomb with the last heroes of the middle age. Petrarch
lived amongst those who prepared the inglorious heritage of servitude for
the next fifteen generations.43
Thus Foscolo conceived of Dante’s personality as one of strong and severe passions:
‘The power of despising, which many boast, which very few really possess, and with which
Dante was uncommonly gifted by nature, afforded him the highest delight of which a lofty
mind is susceptible’.44 Foscolo animated Dante with his own spirit of poetry and patriotism,
moulding an image of Dante as ‘valoroso guerriero, ardente cittadino, ed esule
venerando’45, which was, in fact, the ideal portrait Foscolo imagined for himself in his self-
designated mission to promote the renewal of Italian culture and society and of freedom
from foreign tyranny.
Foscolo’s last works on Dante, his Discorso sulla Commedia di Dante, published in 1825,
and his unfinished Commento alla Commedia,46 were undertaken primarily for the benefit
of an Italian readership, whom the Venetian poet hoped would be inspired to patriotic
valour by his revelation of the essence of Dante’s Divina Commedia. In his Discorso,
Foscolo stressed the need to place the Commedia in history, to see it as part of the cycle
of history in Vico’s sense, not to merely illustrate the background to its composition.47 In
so doing, Foscolo established a new type of literary criticism based on historical research,
43
Ibid.., 1786-1787.
44
Ibid., 1796.
45
From ‘La chioma di Berenice (1803)’, in Franco Gavazzeni (ed.), Ugo Foscolo: Opere vol. II, Milan-
Naples, Riccardo Ricciardi, 1981, 1274.
46
Foscolo’s commentary to the Inferno was published in 1827, while Mazzini completed his commentary to
Purgatorio and Paradiso in 1842.
47
26
albeit tempered by a strong personal and autobiographical influence.48 The novelty of
Foscolo’s approach to the critical study of the Commedia lay above all in his great capacity
for a psychological understanding of the characters portrayed by Dante, most certainly
conditioned by his own talent and sensitivity as a poet, and by the historical connections
he made with his own time.49 In the Discorso, Foscolo again extolled Dante’s literary
genius, a gift he believed to be more active in ‘primitive’ poets, because in that state the
poet ‘Operava liberissimo; guardava tutto da sè, e ogni cosa eragli nuova. Le facoltà di
sentire, di osservare, e di immaginare vivevano in lui fortissime ed indivise’.50 Foscolo’s
elevation of the myth of Dante as ‘poeta primitivo’ was influenced by his conception of
poetry as a form that was at its best when characterised by authenticity of feeling.51 In
other words, Dante’s poetry was to be exalted because it expressed the deepest passions
of Foscolo’s heart and soul, and above all embodied the sufferings and hopes of an Italy
fractured and degraded by foreign interference. And just as Foscolo saw the vicissitudes
of his own tumultuous time reflected in the terzine of the Divina Commedia, so did he see,
with the eyes of a patriot far from his beloved homeland, in the character of the Dante he
had rediscovered, or rather created, the ideal man he aspired to be:
Era di anima indomita, d’ardente immaginazione, di longanimità senza

esempio; patì di inique persecuzioni, e dell’impazienza di protratte
speranze; minacciò da profeta.52
Foscolo can also be credited with instigating the development of an image of Dante as
the prophet of the moral and civil renovation of Italy, which was essentially centred on his
interpretation of Dante’s views regarding the Church. This promotion of Dante as a
reformer of Italian religious and civil life was conditioned by Foscolo’s own experiences in
48
Giovanni Da Pozzo, ‘Dante e Fosoclo’, Belfagor, 33, 1978, 668.
49
Ibid.
50
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Discorso sul testo e su le opinioni diverse prevalenti intorno alla storia e alla emendazione
critica della Commedia di Dante’, in G. Da Pozzo (ed.), Edizione nazionale delle opere di Ugo Foscolo, vol.
IX: Studi su Dante I, Florence, Le Monnier, 1979, 185.
51
Giovanni Da Pozzo, ‘Dante e Foscolo’, 672.
52
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Discorso sul testo della Commedia’, 258.
27
nineteenth century Italy and the opinions he formed of the Church’s involvement in the
restoration of Austrian oppression in 1815, which had precipitated his exile from his patria.
Foscolo believed that papal politics had always betrayed the cause of Italian
independence, the events of 1815 only constituting the most recent example; ‘Fu sempre
cura de’ Papi che trono nessuno di principi preponderanti trovasse mai stabile fondamento
in Italia’.53 Foscolo concluded that Dante’s opinions of the Church expressed in the Divina
Commedia mirrored his own, and that Dante had condemned not only the popes he
specifically referred to in the poem, but also the entire papacy:
Il punto che m’è visibile in controversie sì fatte s’aggira in questo – che la

tristizia de’ sacerdoti non può contaminare la santità impartita alla Chiesa
dal suo Fondatore. A Dante pareva altrimenti; nè vedeva alloramai santità
fuorchè nel suo Fondatore; nè credeva che il Sacerdozio e la Chiesa
fossero cose divisibili mai; nè diverse; e a correggerle, bisognava mutarle.
Le iniquità del sacerdozio nelle tre cantiche sono rivelate in guisa che ogni
accusa procede acquistando più sempre autorità ed evidenza maggiore.54
Foscolo’s projection of his own views onto Dante distorted the medieval poet’s intentions
even further, evidenced by his contention in the Discorso that ‘Forse in un altro secolo,
forse anche nel suo, sotto accidenti alquanto diversi […] Dante avrebbe fondato nuova
scuola di religione in Europa; ed ei v’aspirava, non foss’altro in Italia’.55 Such a
characterisation of an heretical Dante who aspired to found a new and popeless
Christianity was, however, misguided and not entirely substantiated by a careful reading of
Dante’s works.56 Despite his innovative attention to the historical context of the
Commedia, Foscolo’s overblown interpretation of Dante’s anti-papal invectives was
prompted by his own bitter resentment at Austrian and papal collaboration, which eclipsed
the subtleties of the Commedia’s reverence for the role of the Church in Italian
civilisation.57
53
Ibid., 366.
54
Ibid., 515-516.
55
Ibid., 245.
56
Peter I. Kaufman, ‘Foscolo, Dante and the Papacy’, History of European Ideas, 12 (2), 1990, 213.
57
Ibid.
28
While Foscolo’s critical studies of Dante provided the foundation for the construction of
the image of the Florentine poet as the prophet of the Italian nation, it was his poem Dei
sepolcri (A Ippolito Pindemonte) of 1807 which offered perhaps the most memorable and
emblematic characterisation of Dante in this guise. The poem essentially established the
myth of Santa Croce as the Italian pantheon, to which Foscolo’s own remains were
ultimately admitted in 1871, and employed the church’s monuments as symbolic ‘props’ to
aid in the discovery of an Italian national identity.58 Its significance lies also in the fact that
it reached a wider readership in the years of the Risorgimento than Foscolo’s literary
criticism of Dante; the poem was widely distributed and sold more copies than historical
novels, and provoked great debate among its readers.59
Foscolo had been moved to compose Dei sepolcri in protest of the extension of the Edict
of Saint Cloud of 1804 to the French controlled Cisalpine Republic, which prohibited burial
within cities for reasons of hygiene, and further required that all tombstones and
inscriptions be uniform in the interest of equality.60 This decree signalled the nadir of
Italy’s humiliation for Foscolo, its political and geographical dismemberment and loss of
identity reflected by the French imposed dispersion of the dead in indistinguishable graves
in communal cemeteries.61
For Foscolo, funeral rites performed at tombs were the means by which the living could
perpetuate the memory of the deceased, and consequently they were of the greatest
importance to the cultural and political survival of a nation.62 As the concrete symbols of
the thoughts and actions of the dead, tombs were an inspiration to the living to emulate the
noble deeds of their ancestors: ‘A egregie cose il forte animo accendono/ L’urne de’ forti’
58
Erminia Irace, Itale glorie, 134: Carolyn Springer, The Marble Wilderness, 117.
59
Carolyn Springer, The Marble Wilderness, 117.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid., 123.
62
Giovanni Carsaniga, ‘Foscolo’, in P. Brand and L. Pertile (eds.), The Cambridge History of Italian
Literature, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1996, 415.
29
(151-152).63 Tombs could also be a means of conveying the national tradition, as they
personalised the history of the great figures of the past, making it accessible to all.64 In
this conception of the role of tombs in civil culture, Foscolo revealed his elitist perspective;
that immortality was conceded only to great men.65 Yet Foscolo’s Dei sepolcri did much to
counter the nineteenth century tradition of the ‘poetry of ruins’ centred on Italy, which saw
in Italy’s great monuments to the past the decay of Italian civilisation and the erosion of its
heroic past.66 Foscolo’s innovation was to represent the tombs of Italy’s great men not as
a sign of absence, as the evidence of glory lost, but as a sign of presence, as the
inspiration to future greatness.67
With its insistence on the importance of tombs as the symbolic memory of a community’s
glorious past, Dei sepolcri is more than a mere expression of Foscolo’s patriotism and
reverence for Italy’s cultural achievement. It represents Foscolo’s construction of the
Italian nation, a nation founded on cultural characteristics. In the poem the church of
Santa Croce in Florence appears as a temple to the memory of Italy’s national tradition,
given that it shelters some of the great men who defined a specifically ‘Italian’ civilisation
based on thought, poetry and art.68 In this context, Foscolo’s nomination of Dei sepolcri as
a carme – a Latinism connoting a ceremonial utterance or prophecy – is significant.69
Thus Santa Croce, as a temple to and sanctified place protecting the ‘itale glorie’ from the
latest French invaders who had robbed Italy of all but its memories, was promoted by
Foscolo to function as a symbol of the cultural heritage of the peninsula which could serve
as the basis for a national identity.70
63
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Dei Sepolcri (1807)’, in F. Pagliai, G. Folena & M. Scotti (eds.), Edizione nazionale delle
opere di Ugo Foscolo, vol. 1: Poesie e carmi, Florence, Le Monnier, 1985, 129; Giovanni Carsaniga,
‘Foscolo’, 416.
64
65
Mario Pazzaglia, Lungo l’Ottocento, 32.
66
67
Ibid.
68
Mario Pazzaglia, Lungo l’Ottocento, 28.
69
Giovanni Carsaniga, ‘Foscolo’, 415.
70
30
Dei sepolcri can therefore be seen as a prelude to the Risorgimento ideology of the
‘primato morale e civile degli italiani’, most famously advocated by Gioberti and Mazzini.71
In his elaboration of this ‘primato’, Foscolo referred to the key figures of Italian culture: for
poetry, Foscolo nominated Dante, Petrarch and Alfieri; for science, Galileo; for art,
Michelangelo; for political thought, Machiavelli; and for warfare, Foscolo nominated,
among others, the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon. This final absence of Italian glory in
matters of war only reinforced the conception of the Italian nation as a primarily cultural
construction.
The intense image of Dante evoked in the lines
E tu prima, Firenze, udivi il carme

Che allegro` l’ira al Ghibellin fuggiasco (173-174)72
was most certainly the founding stone of the myth of Dante as an enemy of the papacy,
generally ascribed to by nationalist democrats who identified the temporal dominion of the
papacy as one of the main obstacles to Italian independence. This renowned homage to
the medieval poet, albeit brief, conjures a wealth of images which were elaborated upon by
Foscolo in his later studies. Firstly, the reference to the great rage Foscolo attributed to
Dante at an Italy rent by local rivalries and foreign usurpations, which became such a
prominent characteristic of Dante in his nineteenth century incarnation. Secondly, the
identification of Dante as a ‘Ghibelline’, despite his historical allegiance to the White
Guelph faction in Florence. In Foscolo’s revisioning of Dante’s life, the Florentine poet had
at heart been a Ghibelline, rather than a papal supporter, as evidenced by his promotion of
a universal Roman empire. And finally, the description of Dante as ‘fuggiasco’, which
highlighted his position as an exile from his beloved patria.
Foscolo in effect nominated Dante’s legacy as the first and perhaps greatest contribution
to the cultural and civil tradition of Italy, and the elaboration of this tradition essentially
71
Mario Pazzaglia, Lungo l’Ottocento., 31.
72
Ugo Foscolo, ‘Dei Sepolcri (1807)’, 130.
31
constituted the search for a national identity. Foscolo’s moulding of Italian national identity
in his Dei sepolcri was indeed an affirmation not just of the excellence, but of the existence
of a cultural precedent that conferred on this Italy-in-formation the dignity of a nation equal
to the other nations of Europe, and deserving of its political independence.73
The proposal and subsequent efforts to erect a monument to Dante in the church of
Santa Croce in Florence can be seen as an indication of the growing patriotic cult of
Dante, and of the particular influence Foscolo’s Dei sepolcri had exerted on Italian patriots.
In 1818 a manifesto was published in Florence affirming that Dante had in fact created a
monument to himself, that was more durable than bronze and marble, when he wrote the
Divina Commedia.74 Despite the endurance of the poet’s literary legacy, the group behind
the manifesto, headed by aristocratic historian Gino Capponi, suggested that a monument
to Dante was needed to express publicly the gratitude of Florentines for the glory Dante
had reflected upon the city for centuries. The monument to Dante, a cenotaph designed
by Florentine Stefano Ricci, was ultimately inaugurated in Santa Croce on 24 March 1830.
Consideration of the funding of the monument provides a good example of a Restoration
government’s stance on Dante. Although most restoration regimes were suspicious of the
attribution of revolutionary and national intentions to Dante, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
presented a special case, given that there had always been a local tradition of revering the
Florentine poet.75 This patriotic custom had led to various attempts by Florentine rulers to
have Dante’s remains returned to his patria from their final resting place in Ravenna, but to
no avail.76 In light of this tradition, it is not surprising the Florentine committee for the
73
Mario Pazzaglia, Lungo l’Ottocento, 31-32.
74
M. Missirini, Delle Memorie di Dante in Firenze e della gratitudine de’ fiorentini verso il divino poeta:
commentario di Melchior Missirini, 2nd edn, Florence, Tip. Calasanziana, 1830, 47.
75
Thies Schulze, ‘Dante nel Risorgimento’, Rassegna storica del Risorgimento, 88, 2001, 99. Schulze has
also published a book on the subject of Dante as a national symbol: Dante Alighieri als nationales Symbol
Italiens (1793-1915), Tübingen, Max Niemeyer, 2005. Unfortunately I did not obtain a copy in time to peruse
it for discussion in this thesis.
76
Graham Smith, The Stone of Dante and later Florentine celebrations of the poet, Florence, Olschki, 2000,
39-41.
32
erection of the monument was offered, and accepted the financial support of the Grand
Duke of Tuscany.77
77
Thies Schulze, ‘Dante nel Risorgimento’, 99.
33
Figure 2. Dante’s cenotaph in the church of Santa Croce, Florence, inaugurated in 1830.
34
This plan for a monument to Dante in Santa Croce provided inspiration for the
Marchigiano poet and philosopher Giacomo Leopardi’s poem, Sopra il monumento di
Dante of 1818. Coupled with the poem All’Italia, Sopra il monumento di Dante attested to
the nationalist and revolutionary sentiments which had burgeoned in the years leading up
to the 1821 revolutions. Both canzoni proclaimed great love for the culture of Italy, and
denounced Napoleon’s tyranny and Italy’s decadence. Leopardi’s admiration for Italy’s
great past led to his disillusionment at its lacklustre present, and he viewed as
symptomatic of Italy’s political degradation its failure to revere a past hero with a fitting
tomb in Santa Croce.78 Dante and the proposed monument in his honour was thus a
pretext for Leopardi’s discussion of Italy’s decadence, as the following lines addressed to
Dante’s spirit demonstrate:
Non udisti gli oltraggi e la nefanda

Voce di libertà che ne schernia
Tra il suon delle catene e de’ flagelli (113-115)79
Although explicitly referring to the French, Leopardi also had in mind the Austrians, but
could not name them due to the constraints of censorship.80 Leopardi’s characterisation
of Dante in the lines
Padre, se non ti sdegni,

Mutato sei da quel che fosti in terra (136-137)81
is in keeping with Foscolo’s construction of Dante as a passionately severe patriot,
saddened by and disdainful of Italy’s decadence and turmoil. The poem’s glorification of
Dante as a paternal spirit whose immortal legacy to Italy and whose patriotic example
could inspire Italians to desire and work towards the future redemption of their degraded
land, also recalled Foscolo’s elevation of the divine poet as a model of patriotic valour in
Dei sepolcri. Similarly, Leopardi’s Sopra il monumento di Dante also culminated in an
78
Raymond Grew, ‘Culture ans society 1796-1896’, 213; Cristina La Porta, ‘History and the poetic vocation
in Sopra il monumento di Dante’, Rivista di Studi Italiani, 16 (2), Dec 1998, 361.
79
Giacomo Leopardi, ‘Sopra il monumento di Dante che si preparava in Firenze’, in Walter Binni (ed.), Tutte
Le Opere, vol. 1, Florence, Sansoni, 1983, 6.
80
P. Williams, An introduction to Leopardi’s Canti, Leicester, Troubador, 1997, 25.
81
Giacomo Leopardi, ‘Sopra il monumento a Dante che si preparava in Firenze’, 6.
35
exhortation to Italians to honour the dead and remember the glory conferred on Italy by
past Italian heroes like Dante.
The interpretation of Dante given by poet and patriot Gabriele Rossetti provided a most
interesting and exaggerated version of Foscolo’s characterisation of Dante as an anti-
papal religious reformer. Rossetti’s politically motivated exegesis of the poet, albeit of little
critical merit, was an example of one of the many ways in which the image of the medieval
poet came to be manipulated. Born in 1783 at Vasto in the Neapolitan kingdom controlled
by the Bourbons, Rossetti was educated at the university of Naples thanks to the
sponsorship of the Marchese of Vasto. When Napoleonic forces conquered Naples in
1806, Rossetti became a joyful supporter of the secular ideals of the French Revolution,
ultimately achieving the position of secretary of the department of public instruction and
fine arts, while he also secretly aspired to become the official poet of the revolution in
Naples.82 With the restoration of King Ferdinand as the ruler of the new Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, however, Rossetti, a freemason and carbonaro known for his anti-monarchist
ideas, was transformed into an enemy of the state and fled Naples for Malta in 1821.
When in 1824 Rossetti was forced to leave Malta, he travelled to England where he
occupied himself with teaching Italian and with study of the Divina Commedia. On his
voyage to England, Rossetti had the bittersweet pleasure of glimpsing the land of his
patria one last time while confined to his ship in the bay of Naples. This experience
provided the young poet of romantic sensibilities with the inspiration for his career as a
dantista, albeit one of minor importance. Rossetti claimed that the sight of his homeland
from which he had been wrenched had provoked a vision in which Dante mysteriously
appeared to him. The Florentine poet revealed to the young Rossetti his destiny: he had
82
B. & J. Dobbs, Dante Gabriel Rossetti: An Alien Victorian, London, Macdonald & Jane’s, 1977, 4.
36
been chosen by Dante to explain to the modern world the true meaning of the
Commedia.83
As a consequence of this mystical enlightenment, Rossetti discovered that Dante’s poem
was very much a reflection of the events of his own time, and of his own opinions on
republicanism, freedom and papal conspiracies.84 Rossetti presented his dubious visions
in his La Divina Commedia di Dante Alighieri con commento analitico, published 1826-
1827, and in the treatise Sullo spirito antipapale che produsse la riforma e sulla segreta
influenza ch’esercitò nella letteratura d’Europa, e specialmente d’Italia of 1832, both of
which had little critical or popular success. In the latter work, Rossetti opined that
Nel Canto XVI, Dante mostra estesamente che il mondo era divenuto sì
corrotto, quale allor vedevasi, per colpa di Roma papale. […] Ben puoi
vedere che la mala condotta di Roma è quella che ha reso il mondo un
campo di misfatti e di miserie, e non già natura che sia per sè corrotta. – Da
ciò è chiaro che l’inclinar degli uomini a seguir l’esempio di Roma era da lui
riguardato come origine del pervertimento sociale.85
Despite his claims to being Dante’s nineteenth century spokesman, Rossetti’s
interpretation of the Commedia was clearly prompted by his resentment at the part the
pope had played in his unfortunate exile by supporting Austrian intervention.86 The
unhappily exiled poet thus regarded himself as a victim of papal diplomacy, like Dante, and
read into the medieval poet’s work his own bitter castigation of the papacy.
Rossetti also believed that the allegory of the Commedia provided irrefutable evidence to
support his political interpretation of Dante as an anti-papal prophet of evangelical reform.
Rossetti subscribed to the belief, common to many dantisti of nineteenth century romantic
culture, that the revelation of the mysterious secrets of the Commedia would have
83
Ibid., 5.
84
Ibid., 6.
85
Gabriele Rossetti, Sullo spirito antipapale che produsse la Riforma, e sulla segreta influenza ch’esercitò
nella letteratura d’Europa, e specialmente l’Italia, come risulta da molti suoi classici, massime da Dante,
Petrarca, Boccaccio. Disquisizioni di Gabriele Rossetti, prof. di lingua e letteratura italiana nel collegio del
Re in Londra, London, Gabriele Rossetti, 1832, 257.
86
Peter I. Kaufman, ‘Foscolo, Dante and the Papacy’, 211.
37
important consequences.87 Rossetti’s bizarre interpretations of the Commedia’s allegory
were compounded by his tendency to embrace the literal significance of Dante’s words.88
The Neapolitan exile argued that Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and Chaucer, among others,
were all members of an underground anti-papal sect who expressed their opposition to the
pope in obscure allegories in their work.89 Such a perspective on Dante’s anti-papal
inclinations was verified for Rossetti by his conclusions about the apparent meaning of
Dante’s Veltro. Rossetti took his lead from the fifteenth century commentary of the
Commedia by the Florentine Cristoforo Landino, who, on the basis of astrological
calculations, had prophesied a change of religion occurring in 1483. Rossetti proposed
that since the Protestant reformer Martin Luther had been born in that year, he should be
identified as the Veltro, finding additional support for his theory in the fact that ‘Lutero’ is an
anagram of ‘Veltro’.90 This imaginative line of reasoning was confirmed for Rossetti by his
understanding of Beatrice’s reference to the saviour who would come as ‘un cinquecento
dieci e cinque’(Purg. XXXIII: 43), which he believed signified the year 1515, when Luther’s
reform had been at its peak.91
***
There is no doubt that Giuseppe Mazzini made the greatest contribution to the
construction of Dante as a national symbol during the Risorgimento, just as it can be
argued that he did more than any other political figure to encourage fellow patriots to bring
the Italian nation state into existence.92 His romantically inspired illustration and
explanation of the life, personality and political philosophy of Dante, founded upon the
precedent set by Foscolo, solidified the medieval poet’s image as the greatest
87
Pompeo Giannantonio, ‘Le esegesi dantesche del Foscolo e del Mazzini’, Convivium, 37, 1969, 556-557.
88
Ibid.
89
Peter I. Kaufman, ‘Foscolo, Dante and the Papacy’, 211.
90
Gabriele Rossetti, Sullo spirito antipapale che produsse la Riforma, e sulla segreta influenza ch’esercitò
nella letteratura d’Europa, e specialmente l’Italia, 402.
91
Pompeo Giannantonio, ‘Le esegesi dantesche del Foscolo e del Mazzini’, 562.
92
Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini, New Haven – London, Yale UP, 1994, 2.
38
representative of italianità. Mazzini also offered the most significant political interpretation
of the poet as a supporter of the concept of a nation state based upon popular sovereignty,
an image that would be, for the most part, institutionalised by the Italian state after 1860.
Mazzini had not, however, been the first to appropriate Dante as an icon for republican
ideals. In 1506 a Florentine piagnone Girolamo Benivieni composed the Cantico in laude
di Dante, ostensibly in tribute to Dante. The poem, employing Dante’s terza rima was,
however, a pretext for Benivieni’s promotion of his political ideals. In it, Benivieni had
Dante praise the piagnone vision for Florence’s civic development, essentially making the
poet a spokesman for the piagnoni, who were the supporters of Savonarola’s programme
of moral austerity and republican politics in Florence, which gained prominence at the turn
of the sixteenth century.93 Benivieni presented the civic vision of the piagnoni in his poem
as a prophecy from the spirit of Dante, thus bolstering his controversial ideological position
with Dante’s authoritative cultural support.94
The poet Vincenzo Monti had also promoted Dante as a supporter of republican ideals.
Although Monti had been credited with reviving Dante as a stylistic model in his Basvilliana
of 1793, his contributions to the exaltation of Dante as a national cultural figure are
generally dismissed given the ephemeral nature of his patriotic interests.95 Nevertheless,
Monti’s employment of Dante as an icon of republican virtues and harsh critic of the power
of the Church during a revolutionary republican celebration in Ravenna on 3 January 1798,
provides further evidence of the great attraction Dante possessed as a malleable political
icon. The event began with a procession to the tomb of Dante, in which a copy of the
Divina Commedia was carried aloft crowned in laurel, and culminated in a speech given by
Monti in which he proclaimed Dante a ‘fiero e virtuoso repubblicano che fulminò colla
93
Sherry Roush, ‘Dante as Piagnone Prophet: Girolamo Benivieni’s “Cantico in laude di Dante” (1506)’,
Renaissance Quarterly, LV, no. 1, 2002, 49.
94
Ibid., 49-50.
95
Andrea Ciccarelli, ‘Dante and the culture of Risorgimento’, 978.
39
penna i tiranni della sua patria e gli avari carnefici d’Italia tutta’, and who ‘rivelò i delitti …
dei Minotauri del Vaticano’.96
The festivities in Ravenna were just one version of the various celebrations the French
revolutionary forces instigated in the new Cisalpine Republic, for which Monti was a
delegate for the Romagna. In Mantova, Virgil was honoured, and Ferrara and Reggio
commemorated Ariosto.97 In these ceremonies, trees of liberty were erected in the main
piazze, and for the first time, the people were called to celebrate their great literary figures
as the representatives of the new national and civic religion.98 Although such revolutionary
republican celebrations were suppressed with the institution of Napoleonic rule, their
considerable significance lies in the fact that they initiated the lay and national celebrative
tradition in Italy, of which Dante was to become such a prominent object with the
foundation of the Italian nation state.99
Such attempts to utilise the Florentine poet to further a political position pale, however, in
comparison to the monumental Dante created by Mazzini as Italy’s national prophet. In
addition to his employment of Dante to further his political project, and as part of the more
general romantically-inspired endeavour to trace the origins of the Italian nation, Mazzini
proffered a comprehensive exegesis of the poet’s personality and works.
Giuseppe Mazzini was born in 1805, and educated in law in Genoa, a city whose strong
republican tradition conditioned much resentment at its annexation to the Kingdom of
Piedmont-Sardinia in 1815. Mazzini began his career of subversive political activism in
1829 when he joined the Carboneria, an underground movement dedicated to
undermining the Restoration regimes throughout Italy. Mazzini’s affiliation with the
Carboneria was, however, brief, as his disillusionment with the group’s secrecy, ritual, and
reluctance to define clear ideological objectives was compounded by his denunciation to
96
Michele Barbi, Life of Dante., 113; Paolo Bellezza, Curiosità dantesche, Milan, Hoepli, 1913, 104.
97
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, Rivista Storica Italiana, 78 (3), 1966, 554.
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid.
40
the authorities by a fellow carbonaro in 1830.100 Although acquitted at trial for a lack of
evidence, Mazzini chose to exile himself from the Italian peninsula in the hope that he
could pursue his revolutionary aims with more success.101 In 1831 Mazzini established the
political sect Giovine Italia with fellow exiles in Marseilles, which he envisaged as an
apostolate, urging its followers to a religiously conceived life of political conspiracy and
self-sacrifice.102 Mazzini’s Giovine Italia, which devoted its energies to the political
education of the inhabitants of the peninsula and the organisation of popular insurrections,
is credited with creating the structure of the first modern political party in Italy.103 Although
the majority of Giovine Italia’s revolutionary conspiracies were unsuccessful, the constant
pressure for change exerted by Mazzini and his followers with their tireless propaganda
and insurrectionary activity was highly effective in the long term.104 Setting the vision of a
unitary and republican Italian state at the heart of his ideology, Mazzini remained ever
faithful to his belief that his century marked the dawn of a new age in which the word of
God would be realised in the universal religion of Humanity, within which the resurgent
Italian nation would take on the divinely ordained role of moral and political leadership.105
Before devoting himself to a lifelong mission as nationalist propagandist and
revolutionary, Mazzini had pursued a career as a critic and historian of literature. In the
period 1828-1830, the publication of twenty of Mazzini’s essays of literary criticism earned
him considerable respect among the Italian intellectual elite.106 Mazzini had the propensity
for viewing literature through the filter of his own political faith and aspirations, and the
controversial literary debate of his day prompted the young revolutionary to examine the
100
Bruce Haddock, ‘State, nation and Risorgimento’, in G. Bedani & B. Haddock (eds.), The politics of
Italian national identity, Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 2000, 34.
101
Bruce Haddock, ‘State and nation in Mazzini’s Political Thought’, History of Political Thought, 20(2),
Summer 1999, 316.
102
Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini, 4-5..
103
Bruce Haddock, ‘State, nation and Risorgimento’, 34; Stuart J. Woolf, A History of Italy 1700-1860: the
social constraints of political change, London-New York, Routledge, 1979, 309.
104
Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini, 2.
105
Bruce Haddock, ‘State, nation and Risorgimento’, 33; Mario Sansone, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, Cultura e
Scuola, 45-46, 1973, 46.
106
Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini, 3.
41
function of literature in its political and social context.107 He concluded, like Foscolo, that
literature should have an educative role, and that writers had a moral, rather than
aesthetic, responsibility in the practice of their art.108 Mazzini also found that the medium
of literary criticism provided him with a convenient forum for expressing his subversive
political ideas given the restrictions placed on political debate by the Restoration
regimes.109
Mazzini first directed his attention to Dante with the essay Dell’amor patrio di Dante
written in 1826, and sent to the Florentine cultural journal Antologia in 1827, which did not,
however, publish it, perhaps for fear of the censorship its subversive political arguments
may have provoked.110 This polemical work was occasioned by the reaction to a recent
article by Giulio Perticari, published in Antologia, whose exaltation of Dante’s patriotism
came under fire from those critics who conversely perceived the Florentine poet to be
politically capricious and a treacherous promoter of German imperial authority in Italy.
Mazzini’s defence of Dante was predicated upon the romantic conception of art, and
particularly literature, as a ministry useful to society. In expounding the purity of Dante’s
patriotism, Mazzini explained the patriotic ‘office’ that he believed had been assigned to
poets since ancient times:
Ne’ bei secoli della Grecia, i poeti non immemori della loro sublime
destinazione, consacravano il loro genio all’utile della patria … Così
santissimo uffizio affidava la patria ai poeti, l’educazione della gioventù al
rispetto delle leggi religiose e civili, e all’amore della libertà.111
In the nineteenth century, however, Mazzini was at a loss to discover any poet whose work
fulfilled his concept of poetic art, given the corruption of customs which had ‘inchinata la
107
Bruce Haddock, ‘State and nation in Mazzini’s political thought’, 316.
108
Mario Sansone, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, 46.
109
Bruce Haddock, ‘State and nation in Mazzini’s political thought’, 317.
110
Salvatore Battaglia, ‘L’idea di Dante nel pensiero di G. Mazzini’, Filologia e letteratura, 12, 1966, 113;
Dell’amor patrio di Dante was finally published in 1837, in the Piedmontese literary journal Subalpino, at the
initiative of the patriot Niccolò Tommaseo.
111
Giuseppe Mazzini, ‘Dell’amor patrio di Dante’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol. 1, Lugano,
Tip. della Svizzera italiana, 1847, 150.
42
mente degli uomini alla servitù’, making them conformist and obsequious to power.112
Dante, on the other hand, was possessed of an ‘anima di fuoco’ which, tormented by ‘un
prepotente desìo di far migliori i [suoi] fratelli, [manda] una voce possente e severa come
di Profeta, che gridi rampogna alle genti’.113 His Commedia ideally expressed the moral
conscience and religious intuition of universal harmony that Mazzini considered to be
necessary to the renewal of society.114
Mazzini’s understanding of the special mission of the poet, and of the particular function
of ‘genius’, romantically conceived, was essential to validating the interpretation he made
of Dante’s supposedly national aspirations for Italy. The poetic genius, thanks to his
superior qualities and intuition, was seen as a link between God and humanity, the
interpreter and revealer of providential truth.115 An illustration of Mazzini’s concept is to be
found in his exhortatory essay Ai poeti del secolo XIX (1832), in which his view of the
poet’s special role became inextricably tied to his central and lifelong belief in the
nineteenth century advent of a new age in history, the age of the laity:
L’avvenire è l’UMANITÀ –
Il mondo individuale – il mondo del medio evo è consunto. Il mondo
sociale, l’era moderna è al suo primo sviluppo – E la coscienza di questo
mondo occupa il Genio.116
The poetry produced by such a genius, a ‘fratello dell’aquila’ and ‘prediletto della natura’,
was the fundamental guide to the next cycle of history; it was ‘vita, moto, foco d’azione,
stella che illumina il cammino dell’avvenire, colonna di luce che passeggia davanti a’
popoli’.117 This image of the ‘poeta vate e profeta’, which provided the foundation for
Mazzini’s interpretation and promotion of Dante as a national precedent, had its origins in
the thought of Boccaccio. In Boccaccio’s view, Dante had been equal to Homer, as an
112
Ibid.
113
Ibid., 158.
114
Alfredo Galletti, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, in Giovanni Galbiati(ed.), Studi su Dante VI: Dante nel Risorgimento,
Milan, Hoepli, 1941, 36.
115
116
G. Mazzini, ‘Ai poeti del secolo XIX’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol. 2, Lugano, Tip. della
Svizzera italiana, 1847, 111.
117
Ibid., 121.
43
almost supernatural being who acted not just as a poet, but also theologian, social
commentator, historian, and seer of the future course of his society.118
In order to justify the role he had attributed to Dante as the greatest Italian patriot and a
veritable angel of God, Mazzini took it upon himself to explain away the accusations of the
medieval poet’s nineteenth century detractors in his essay. Against the charges of being a
supporter of the German imperial cause in Italy and guilty of ‘intollerante, e ostinata
fierezza, e d’ira eccessiva contro Fiorenza’119, Mazzini defended the ‘affetto d’un padre’ for
Florence and Italy that one could discern in his works:
Le voci – patria, natio loco, mia terra – appaiono tratto tratto per farti
risovvenire, che il poeta ama Fiorenza collo stesso ardore, con cui flagella i
lupi che le dan guerra’120
In support of these claims, Mazzini stressed the importance of judging Dante’s personality
and ideas in historical context, in order to understand fully the divine poet’s motives and
the nature of his point of view:
Acerbissime dunque furono, nol neghiamo, le querele dell’Allighieri; ma tali

quali esigevano i tempi, i costumi, le circostanze dell’età sua; tali
specialmente, quali l’affetto patrio ben concepito impose a tutti gli uomini,
che per genio e virtù si sollevarono al disopra degli altri.121
Thus, in the context of his times, the perception of Dante’s immoderate rage and bitterness
against his Florentine patria actually became for Mazzini a characteristic of the poet’s
transcendent patriotism.
In this preliminary essay Mazzini touched upon the nationalist interpretation of Dante’s
thought that he would later elucidate in the essays, Dante and On the minor works of
Dante, which he composed while preparing Foscolo’s unfinished Commento alla
Commedia di Dante for posthumous publication during his English exile from 1837.
Mazzini essentially read into the fourteenth century poet’s words the national sentiment
118
Salvatore Battaglia, ‘L’idea di Dante nel pensiero di G. Mazzini’, 122.
119
G. Mazzini, Ai poeti del secolo XIX’, 151.
120
Ibid., 162.
121
Ibid., 162-163.
44
that had only matured during the nineteenth century. The political treatise Monarchia
suggested to Mazzini that Dante ‘mirò a congiungere in un sol corpo l’Italia piena di
divisioni, e sottrarla al servaggio, che allora minacciavala più che mai’.122 Dante’s
incomplete treatise De vulgari eloquentia, which dealt with the construction of a literary
vernacular which could replace Latin as the medium of communication among the
educated of the Italian peninsula, represented for Mazzini a call for unity; it demonstrated
that ‘la vera favella italiana non essere Tosca, Lombarda, o d’altra Provincia; ma una sola,
e di tutta la terra – Ch’ Appennin parte, e ‘l mar circonda, e l’alpe’.123
Mazzini concludes this essay, with a rhetorical flourish reminiscent of Foscolo’s style,
with an exhortation to Italians to study Dante and follow his patriotic example:
O Italiani! – non obbliate giammai, che il primo passo a produrre uomini

grandi sta nello onorare i già spenti.
… studiate Dante; da quelle pagine profondamente energiche, succhiate
quello sdegno magnanimo, onde l’esule illustre nudriva l’anima; chè l’ira
contro i vizi e le corruttele è virtù. – Apprendete da lui, come si serva alla
terra natia, finchè l’oprare non è vietato; come si viva nella sciagura. – La
forza delle cose molto ci ha tolto; ma nessuno può torci i nostri grandi.124
Mazzini’s emphatic style confers upon his words the power of a proclamation or manifesto,
encouraging his readership to resist the foreign domination and repression of the
Restoration regimes by using Dante’s example as inspiration, as well as justification of the
Italian nation’s existence and right to independence.
In 1841 Mazzini published his second essay on the divine poet, entitled Dante, in the
journal L’Apostolato popolare, which he had founded in London that same year for the
benefit of Italian workers to whom he offered lessons in a modest night school.125
Containing many of the same themes expressed in his Dell’amor patrio di Dante, and the
later, more extensive On the minor works of Dante, the essay is significant for the example
122
Ibid., 164.
123
Ibid., 165.
124
Ibid., 170.
125
Alfredo Galletti, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, 47.
45
of bold propaganda with which Mazzini introduced his exposition of Dante’s greatness.
Mazzini presented an image of an Italy to his fellow exiles in England as a country awash
with patriotic reverence for the Florentine poet:
In ogni città d’Italia, il primo nome che vi s’affaccia allo sguardo, appena
v’arrestate davanti all’invetriata d’un libraio, il primo ritratto che v’affascina
l’occhio a ogni qual volta voi guardate per entro a una bottega di stampe, è
quello di Dante.126
This rather doubtful scenario is presented by Mazzini to be the consequence of Dante
being appreciated as the greatest of Italians
perchè amò sovra tutti la Patria, e l’adorò destinata a cose più grandi che
non spettano a tutti gli altri paesi. Nessuno sa che infelicissimo, ramingo,
mendico, Dante conservò intatto fino all’ultimo giorno il pensiero che
dominò la sua vita e morì confortato, cinque secoli addietro, nella credenza
che l’Italia sarebbe un giorno Nazione e direttrice una terza volta
dell’incivilimento Europeo.127
This brief passage reveals the development of Mazzini’s thought; Dante had become not
just a spokesman for the cause of Italian unity and independence, but also for Mazzini’s
particular belief in the providential role that Italy would assume as the leading nation of
Europe.
Dante’s concern for an Italian literary vernacular had also taken on a more serious
charge of national consciousness in Mazzini’s more mature vision of the poet’s thought
and achievements. Mazzini hailed Dante as ‘il Padre della nostra Lingua … una Lingua
comune che rappresenterà un giorno fra tutti noi l’Unità Nazionale, e la rappresentò in tutti
questi secoli di divisioni in faccia alla nazioni straniere’.128
Mazzini also gave a description of Dante’s principles, which appears rather as the ideal
self-portrait of the author himself:
… intendendo meglio d’ogni altro la missione dell’uomo Italiano, riunì

teorica e pratica, potenza e virtù: - Pensiero ed Azione. Scrisse per la
126
G. Mazzini, ‘Dante’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol. 1, Lugano, Tip. della Svizzera italiana,
1847, 125.
127
Ibid., 125-126.
128
Ibid., 126.
46
Patria, congiurò per la Patria: trattò la penna e la spada. … mai tradì la
riverenza alla Patria, la dignità dell’anima, la credenza ne’ suoi principii. 129
Again, seemingly more applicable to the Genovese exile than the medieval poet are the
assertions that ‘l’Unità Italiana era il pensiero predominante nell’anima di Dante’, and ‘La
Patria era per lui una Religione’.130
Mazzini’s vision of Dante as a national prophet reached its apotheosis with his 1844
essay On the minor works of Dante, first published in the Foreign Quarterly Review. This
work reiterated much of what Mazzini had already expounded in his previous studies, yet
further confused his own belief in the destiny of the Italian nation with the myth of Dante as
an Italian nationalist before his time. Quite ironically Mazzini stated at the beginning of this
essay, ‘After four or five centuries of accumulated labour upon this man, one might fancy
that he was born yesterday’.131 Dante as he was conceived by Mazzini was indeed a
product of the Risorgimento, and of the romantic culture which flourished in the nineteenth
century.
The empathy Mazzini felt for Dante, as a fellow exile from a beloved patria, can perhaps
go some way to offer a better understanding of Mazzini’s misappropriations of Dante’s
thought. Both had suffered ‘the Hell of Exile – that lingering, bitter, agonising death which
none can know but the exile himself – that consumption of the soul, which has only one
hope to console it’.132 Mazzini evidently felt a great psychological and moral affinity with
the personality of Dante as he perceived it, characterising the poet with such descriptions
as ‘He who bore within himself the soul of Italy was misunderstood by the whole nation;
but he did not yield; he wrestled nobly against the external world, and ended by
129
Ibid., 127.
130
Ibid., 131, 132.
131
G. Mazzini, ‘On the minor works of Dante’, in William Clarke (ed.), Essays: selected from the writings,
literary, political and religious, of Joseph Mazzini, London, Walter Scott Publishing, n.d., 177.
132
Ibid., 215.
47
conquering it’.133 Such words could easily have been attached to Mazzini by his own
worshippers following his death in 1872, shortly after his ideal of unity had been nominally
achieved.
In keeping with his particular attention to ‘Dante-uomo’, whom he felt to reflect his own
interior world, Mazzini devoted many lines of his essay to refuting the slights to Dante’s
character perpetrated above all by writers of ‘Guelphic prejudices’. Such writers, who
characterised Dante as ‘incomplete, inconsequent, weak, unstable, and irascible’134,
claimed that ‘Dante forsook the party of his ancestors, the party of the people and of Italian
independence, for that of foreign domination’.135 Mazzini very simply explained what he
saw as the reality behind Dante’s perceived political inconstancy, and his apparently
treacherous promotion of the German emperor:
Dante, who in early life had been a Guelph, then became a Ghibelline; that
is to say, he was always on the side of the people, the element of Italian
futurity.
But the people were at that time unable to constitute the ideal Dante sought
to realise; as yet they only represented a corporation, a fraction; the Nation,
which Dante dreamed of, was as yet unknown. In looking, therefore, for a
centre or link of Unity, Dante found himself compelled to choose, not
between Germans, French, or Italians, but between the Germans and the
French only.136
Yet such a seemingly anti-patriotic choice on Dante’s part was rectified by Mazzini with his
interpretation of Dante’s intentions as being ‘to make Germany always subaltern to cancel
her initiative, and subject her to the destinies of Italy’.137
Mazzini further dismissed the debates on Dante’s political affiliation with a definitive
statement negating any partisanship on the poet’s behalf, attributing to him much broader
loyalties: ‘Dante was neither a Catholic, a Guelph, nor a Ghibelline; he was a Christian and
an Italian’.138 In Mazzini’s view, Dante was faithful above all to the religion of Humanity,
133
Ibid., 216.
134
Ibid., 191.
135
Ibid., 200-201.
136
Ibid., 210.
137
Ibid.
138
Ibid., 182.
48
and also to the religion of the patria, but had rejected Catholicism, a form of Christianity
theocratically defined, in favour of a more primitive form of Christianity.139
Mazzini went on to suggest a religious interaction should be had with the spirit and the
words of the divine poet, the high priest of the religion of the patria which nineteenth
century patriots had also embraced. He proposed that patriots should not just study
Dante’s biography, but commune with his spirit through the medium of his works, by which
they would discover that ‘… the true life of Dante, does not lie in the series of the material
facts of his existence. The life of Dante consists in the sufferings and aspirations of his
soul; in its dominant impulses; in the ceaseless development of the idea which was at
once his guide, inspiration, and consolation; in his belief as a man and as an Italian’.140
Dante’s genius, functioning as a conduit to the will of God, further endorsed the faith
Mazzini and his fellow patriots had in the Italian nation and its inevitable resurgence:
The thought that burned within the soul of Dante is the same that ferments
in the bosom of our own epoch. Every instinct within us points to this truth.
It is for this that we gather with new earnestness around his image, as if to
place our wavering belief beneath the protection of the vast wings of his
genius.141
Most significant in this piece is Mazzini’s elaboration of why Dante was to be identified with
the Italian nation, and revered as its prophet. Also notable is one of Mazzini’s passages
which gives a full explanation of his own thought projected onto Dante; that the aim
towards which Dante directed his energy had been ‘strange to say, … either neglected or
misunderstood by all whom busy themselves about Dante’.142 This aim was of course ‘the
national Aim – the same desire that vibrates instinctively in the hearts of twenty-five
millions of men between the Alps and the sea; and it is the secret of the immense
influence exercised by the name of Dante over the Italians. This idea, and the almost
139
140
G. Mazzini, ‘On the minor works of Dante’, 193.
141
Ibid., 181.
142
Ibid., 200.
49
superhuman constancy with which he laboured towards its triumph, render Dante the most
perfect incarnation of the life of his Nation’.143
Thus Mazzini claimed to have been able to intuit the Florentine poet’s desire to see Italy
politically and morally united, unlike some other nineteenth century intellectuals, who were
unable to recognise the true driving force of Dante’s life. The poet, guided by Providence,
had designated Rome as not just the head of a reformed Italy, but also as the head of a
free and united Humanity. Through his study of the Convivio and the Monarchia, Mazzini
claimed to have identified Dante’s philosophy or rather, his faith:
Humanity is one. God has made nothing in vain, and since there exists a
collective Being, a multitude of men, there exists one aim for them all – one
work to be accomplished by them all. […]
Mankind must be one, even as God is one: - one in organisation, as it is
already one in its principle. Unity is taught by the manifest design of God in
the external world, and by the necessity of an aim. Unity requires
something by which it may be represented; hence the necessity of an unity
of government.144
Dante called this unity ‘“the universal Religion of human nature”: in other words, empire –
IMPERIUM’.145 Dante’s nomination of the seat of this universal empire had not been
based on analysis, but on his belief. Mazzini highlighted this point as evidence of Dante’s
prophetic role, of his function as an instrument of providential will. Thus ‘God chose Rome
as the Interpreter of his design among the Nations’146 because ‘There never was, and
there never will be a people endowed with such capacity to acquire command, with more
vigour to maintain it, and more gentleness in its exercise, than the Italian nation’.147
Mazzini thus found the reflection of his own design for the political and moral renewal of
the world in what he saw as Dante’s prophetic vision. The central idea of Mazzini’s
thought was the myth of a new ‘Third Rome of the people’, as the only legitimate
successor to Rome of the Caesars and Rome of the papacy. This vision of the Third
143
Ibid.
144
Ibid., 205.
145
Ibid., 206.
146
Ibid., 206-207.
147
Ibid., 206.
50
Rome was for Mazzini the ideal matrix of universal unity, capable of inspiring the
reconciliation of divergent and antagonistic faiths, and a cultural, spiritual and moral myth
which would inspire Italians, as well as all peoples, to pursue self-regeneration.148
Traditionally viewed as the main obstacle to unity by lay Risorgimento intellectuals, Rome
became not just the symbol of Italian unity and independence, but also an emblem of the
overthrow of the anciens regimes in Europe.149
Within Mazzini’s conception of the religion of Humanity, every nation had its own mission
for the good of Humanity, and the Italian nation was to take on the privileged role of moral
government of the universal collective. Thus Mazzini conceived of the nation as ‘the
second collective existence, less vast, but … not less sacred than humanity … [it is] the
sign of our portion of labour in the common work, the workshop in which God has placed
the instruments of labour to fulfil the mission most within our reach; it is … the symbol of a
thought, of a special vocation to be followed indicated by the tradition of the race, by the
affinity of tendencies, by the unity of language, by the character of localities’.150 In a later
work, Dei doveri dell’uomo (1860), Mazzini further refined his definition of the ‘nation’, or
the seemingly interchangeable term, ‘patria’:
La Patria non è un territorio; il territorio non ne è che la base. La Patria è

l’idea che sorge su quello; è il pensiero d’amore, il senso di comunione che
stringe in uno tutti i figli di quel territorio.151
The idea of the nation which Mazzini promoted, and with which he so closely identified
Dante, was therefore primarily a spiritual concept; traditions, customs, language and
geography were but the markers of the existence of the Italian nation. The spiritual nature
of the Italian nation in Mazzini’s philosophy is affirmed by his assertion that the aims of
national unity and of the dominion of Rome over the universal collective of free and equal
nations, prophesied by Dante in the fourteenth century, were ‘fermenting, more or less
148
A. William Salomone, ‘Prophet in the Waste Land: Mazzini as cultural critic’, Italian Quarterly, 36(139-
140), 1999, 31.
149
Stuart Woolf, A History of Italy 1700-1860, 313.
150
G. Mazzini, ‘On the genius and tendencies of the writings of Thomas Carlyle’, 125.
151
G. Mazzini, Dei doveri dell’uomo: Fede e avvenire, Milan, Mursia, 1972, 65.
51
boldly developed, among the youth of Italy’, who were able to understand Dante ‘better
than the men who wrote about him’.152 Having emerged from centuries of corruption and
servitude, both Dante and nineteenth century Italian patriots shared the same faith: that of
the moral and political regeneration of their beloved patria through the unity and
independence of the resurgent Italian nation.
The establishment of the literary group l’Apostolato dantesco at Ascoli Piceno in the
Marche in 1855 reveals the influence the growing patriotic and nationalist cult of Dante,
and the particular influence of Mazzini’s conception of the poet, had exerted on patriotic
youth. Led by the Marchigiano Nicola Gaetani Tamburini, a revolutionary often
incarcerated by the papal authorities, who had participated in the Roman Republic of
1848-49, the Apostolato dantesco was predominantly made up of members from the
Marche and Abruzzo, but also attracted followers in the Romagna and Umbria.153
Tamburini’s correspondence and scholarly writings reveal he had studied Dante and his
Commedia in some depth, and that he was also familiar with Mazzini’s passionate
appraisals of the poet, sharing the Genovese exile’s religious fervour in believing that ‘La
Patria si è incarnata in Dante’.154 In their efforts to take action against the temporal power
of the pope, the Apostolato dantesco was certainly imbued with a Mazzinian spirit, its
members believing themselves the heirs of illustrious Italians like Dante, and the
protagonists of the resurgence of the Italian nation.155 While conscious of forming part of a
more extensive revolutionary movement striving for independence and unity in the Italian
peninsula, the Apostolato dantesco, masking its political intentions behind its definition as
a ‘Società Scientifica Letteraria’, dedicated its energies to spreading national ideas in the
152
G. Mazzini, ‘On the minor works of Dante’, 214.
153
Bruno Ficcadenti, ‘L’ “Apostolato dantesco”’, Rassegna storica del Risorgimento, 74(4), 1987, 472, 445.
154
Ibid., 448, 452; cited is the motto with which Tamburini began one of his essays, entitled ‘L’Angelo del
Canto XXVII nel Purgatorio di Dante’ (Ibid., 452).
155
Ibid., 447.
52
name of Dante in their region.156 As the society’s statutes explicitly stated, ‘… Questa
Società Scientifica Letteraria ebbe per fine d’erezione una educazione veramente politica
onde dimostrare col fatto a chiunque che una vera educazione è quella sola che può
condurre allo scopo, cui anela la generale intenzione italiana, che è quella di rendersi
libera, e di mantenersi senza ostacoli in una perenne libertà’.157
The influence of the characterisation of Dante and his Divina Commedia as symbols of
the Italian nation to be revered and studied for inspiration in heroic defiance of foreign rule
is also evidenced by accounts that some patriotic Italian revolutionaries carried a copy of
the great poem with them at all times, even to battle during the wars of independence.
The poet Ippolito Nievo apparently ‘aveva sempre seco, dovunque andasse, qualunque
abito portasse, un piccolo Dante, nel quale “pescava” come in un mare’.158 Also in
possession of a portable copy of the Commedia, or ‘Dantino’, was the literary critic and
garibaldino Giacomo Battaglia, who perished near Nievo on the battlefield of San Fermo
on 27 May 1859, ‘col capo rotto da una palla austriaca e reclinato sul Dantino, che al pari
del Nievo egli soleva portare con sè’.159 It would seem these soldier poets armed
themselves for battle with literature, and found Dante’s word an inspirational and even
sanctifying presence as they risked their lives for the Italian nation. For these
Risorgimento patriots Dante was a fellow revolutionary in word and in spirit.
***
The treatment given Dante by the aristocratic moderate politician and historian Cesare
Balbo provides further evidence of the romantic conception of the divine poet which came
to dominate the Risorgimento. Balbo’s idealised interpretation of the Florentine poet’s life
156
Ibid., 448, 451.
157
Ibid., 472.
158
Dino Mantovani, Il poeta soldato: Ippolito Nievo, 1831-1861, da documenti inediti, Milan, Treves, 1900,
91.
159
Ibid., 155.
53
and works also made Dante a supporter of the neo-Guelph vision of Italian unity and
independence. Like those of his republican foe Mazzini, Balbo’s writings exhibited great
reverence for Dante as ‘il più italiano fra gl’Italiani’, and as a symbol of the Italian nation
desirous of its independence.160 Balbo’s introduction to his Vita di Dante of 1839, credited
with being the most significant nineteenth century biography of the poet, highlighted the
central characteristics of the Dante constructed under the influence of romantic culture; the
poet’s moral fortitude, his strong passions, and his status as a wandering exile:
Dante è gran parte della storia d’Italia; quella storia a cui ho dedicati
i miei studi, che ho tentata in più guise, ma che non ispero guari di
potere compiere oramai. Quindi è che non avendo potuto o saputo
ritrarre la vita di tutta la nazione italiana, tento ritrarre quella almeno
dell’Italiano che più di niun altro raccolse in sè l’ingegno, le virtù, i
vizi, le fortune della patria. Egli un tempo uomo d’azioni e di lettere,
come furono i migliori nostri; egli uomo di parte, egli esule, ramingo,
povero, traente dall’avversità nuove forze e nuova gloria; egli portato
dalle ardenti passioni meridionali fuori di quella moderazione che
era nella sua altissima mente… Dante, il primo grande scrittore della
prima lingua moderna, il quale aprì così all’Europa tutta quella
carriera di lettere e civiltà che ella corse d’allora in poi’161
Despite his promotion of Dante as the embodiment of the Italian nation, Balbo rejected
the anachronistic application of Dante’s political ideas to Italy’s contemporary situation and
debates over the nation’s political organisation:
Ma lasciamo le idee, i disegni, le speranze troppo antiche: il

principe di Machiavelli, il papa de’ Guelfi, l’imperator de’
Ghibellini, e la monarchia di Dante. Tutti questi furono poco
più che sogni a’ loro tempi, ed or sono sogni antiquati.
Volendo fermarci a sogni, parliamo di quelli de’ nostri dì.
Non risaliamo oltre al 1814…162
While recognising the precedent Napoleon’s Kingdom of Italy had set for the dream of a
unitary state, Balbo held that the heterogeneous nature of the peninsula necessitated a
confederation of states:
Le confederazioni sono l’ordinamento più conforme alla

natura e della storia d’Italia. L’Italia, come avverte molto
bene il Gioberti, raccoglie da settentrione a mezzodì
160
Cesare Balbo, Vita di Dante, Turin, Dall’unione tipografico-editrice torinese, 1857, 3.
161
Ibid., 3-4.
162
Cesare Balbo, Delle speranze d’Italia, 2nd edition, Capolago, Cantone Ticino, n.p., 1844, 16.
54
provincie e popoli quasi così diversi tra sè, come sono i
popoli più settentrionali e più meridionali d’Europa; ondeché
fu e sarà sempre necessario un governo distinto per
ciascuna di tutte o quasi tutte queste provincie.163
Balbo believed, like Gioberti, to whom he had dedicated his Delle speranze d’Italia of
1844, that presidency of the postulated confederation of Italian states should reside with
the pope. Balbo did not fail to enlist Dante’s eminence to bolster his promotion of this neo-
Guelph dream, proposing that Dante, as an affiliate of the White Guelphs in Florence, had
supported the party’s traditional policy of conciliation which would have, in practice, always
led him to reject any radical tendency.164 Thus Balbo, while unable to find any explicit
support for a neo-Guelph confederation in Dante’s works, managed to at least find an
interpretation of the poet which negated any neo-Ghibelline claim that Dante had hoped for
a unitary Italian state, a concept that diverged so radically from Italian historical precedent.
He was therefore critical of Dante’s political propositions, suggesting the poet was almost
treacherous in his political error, ‘che fu di lasciare la propria parte buona e nazionale
perchè si guastava in esagerata, straniera e sciocca, di rivolgersi per ira alla parte
contraria ed essenzialmente straniera’.165 Such a criticism of Dante’s proposition that a
German emperor rule Italy in the name of the Holy Roman Empire can perhaps best be
viewed as a result of Balbo’s own primary concern, in considerations of possible unity, that
Italy be free from foreign occupation and interference.166 It was perhaps also a reaction to
the pervasive neo-Ghibelline interpretation of Dante, which saw the poet as a supporter of
national unification of Italy with a new political order which would see the pope stripped of
his temporal powers.
The Piedemontese priest and politician Vincenzo Gioberti, like Balbo, also applied his
own interpretation of history to Dante’s political thought in order to render the poet a
163
Ibid., 36.
164
Thies Schulze, ‘Dante nel Risorgimento’, 98.
165
Cesare Balbo, ‘Sommario della Storia d’Italia: libro 6’ (1846), in Maria Fubini Leuzzi (ed.), Storia d’Italia
e altri scritti editi e inediti di Cesare Balbo, Turin, Dall’unione tipografico-editrice torinese, 1984, 574.
166
Denis Mack Smith, The making of Italy, 85.
55
supporter of his neo-Guelph design for Italian independence. After his arrest and
imprisonment on suspicion of conspiracy with Mazzini’s Giovine Italia, Gioberti exiled
himself from Piedmont in 1833, ultimately settling in Belgium where he composed his
idealisation of Catholicism and Italian history, Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani,
published in 1843. The sale of 1500 copies of the Primato was rapidly followed by
reprints, a fact which attests to its great appeal among educated Italians.167 For moderate
liberals, the Primato furnished a political programme around which a party was loosely
formed, thus providing a concrete alternative to Mazzinian and democratic proposals for
Italy’s unification.168 The popularity of Gioberti’s Primato was in large part conditioned by
the hopes placed in the seemingly progressive Pope Pius IX at his election in 1846. Yet
after the fall of the Roman Republic in 1849 and Pius IX’s triumphant return to Rome in
1850, which saw him institute even sterner repressive control over his temporal dominion,
Gioberti’s neo-Guelph dream for the resolution of Italy’s political problems became
obsolete.
Despite its short-lived prevalence in Risorgimento debates about the form a united Italian
state would assume, Gioberti’s Primato retains its significance as evidence of an important
phase in the development of the Italian nationalist movement. The central theme of the
Primato propounded that Italy was
la nazione autonoma ed autorevole per eccellenza, perchè

diede a tutte le nazioni colte dell’età moderna i germi del
loro incivilmento, e, non ostante la sua declinazione, li serba
vivi e incorrotti, dove che essi sono guasti più o meno e
alterati presso tutte le altre genti: onde da lei sola il genere
umano può ricevere a compimento i benefizi civili. Il che
torna a dire che l’Italia, essendo creatrice, conservatrice e
redentrice della civiltà europea, destinata ad occupar tutto il
mondo e a diventare universale, si può meritamente salutare
col titolo di nazione madre del genere umano. Nel che
risiede quel primato morale e civile, che la Providenza le ha
assegnato, e ch’io mi propongo di giustificare col presente
discorso.169
167
168
Stuart J. Woolf, A History of Italy 1700-1860, 338.
169
Vincenzo Gioberti, Del Primato morale e civile degli Italiani, 2nd ed., Brussels, Meline, Cans & Co., 1845,
12-13. Gioberti’s italics.
56
For Gioberti, the existence of the Italian nation, of ‘una stirpe italiana congiunta di sangue,
di religione, di lingua scritta ed illustre’, was not in doubt.170 What Gioberti found to be
suspect, however, was any claim that Italian unity could be based on popular sovereignty,
or that it could take the form of a unitary state, given that the peninsula was ‘divisa di
governi, di leggi, d’instituti (sic.), di favella popolare, di costumi, di affetti, di
consuetudini’.171 Above all, Gioberti concluded that ‘l’unità centrale d’Italia, essendo
combattuta dal fatto, cioè da tutta la storia, non è conforme all’indole nativa del nostro
paese’.172
Instead, Gioberti proposed that the Italian peninsula could be freed from foreign
domination through the creation of a confederation of Italian states under its natural leader,
the pope, and aided by the military might of Piedmont. In Gioberti’s reading of history, the
pontiff’s right to rule was inalienable to his nature, it was a ‘diritto antico’:
Che il Papa sia naturalmente e debba essere effettivamente

il capo civile d'Italia, è una verità provata dalla natura delle
cose, confermata dalla storia di molti secoli, riconosciuta
altre volte dai popoli e dai principi nostrali, e solo messa in
dubbio, da che gli uni e gli altri bevvero ad estere fonti e ne
derivano il veleno nella loro patria.173
Most notable is the way Gioberti manipulated Italian history in order to make Dante a
prophet of the neo-Guelph confederation of states under the presidency of the pope:
… Ma quando Dante scriveva, la società fondata da Romolo

era morta da molti secoli, e avea dato luogo a una società
diversa, stabilito da Pietro; e quella parte dell’antico giure,
ch’era sopravvissuta alla tempesta dei barbari, e al vile
abbandono che fecero d’Italia gl’imperatori orientali, si era a
poco a poco trasfusa nel Papa e nel clero latino. Onde il
solo successore sincero e legittimo di Cesare che allora
vivesse era il Pontefice, creatore del nuovo imperio e unico
legatario dei prischi Quiriti…
Cominciata con Dante la civiltà secolare d’Italia e propagata
in appresso per tutta Europa, fu chiusa l’era prettamente
170
Ibid., 50.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid., 58
173
Ibid., 56.
57
sacerdotale, e il romano pontefice, deposti i fasci della
dittatura, assunse la pacifica verbena di arbitro e
conciliatore.174
Gioberti believed Dante’s defence of the rights of the Roman emperor had been
erroneous, given that imperial civilisation had been superseded by the order established
by the popes. In Gioberti’s revisioning of history, the divine right of the Roman emperor to
rule had been passed to the pope, making Dante’s support of imperial authority in Italy
anachronistic. Thus for Gioberti, Dante had really been promoting the absolute jurisdiction
of the pope.
There was a fundamental difference between the ways Mazzini and Gioberti utilised
Dante to support Italian national unity and independence. But these politically divergent
ideologues were united in their attribution to Dante of a promotion of Italian primacy. In
keeping with the established vision of Dante created by Italian romantic culture, Gioberti
presented the poet as an important contributing factor to, and thus prominent
representative of, Italy’s moral and civil primacy. He held that the poet had been the
prophet of the new secularised order of Europe, the ‘fondatore della civiltà laicale e
cattolica dell’età moderna’.175 He ‘secolareggiò la scienza ieratica, facendola uscire dai
conventi, dai seminari, e dalle sacre scuole… gittando nelle Cantiche e nelle altre sue
opere i semi della moderna scienza ideale, e della natural filosofia’.176 Gioberti believed
that Dante had also founded the modern cultural supremacy of Italy, given that
La Divina Commedia è quasi la Genesi universale delle

lettere e arti cristiane, in quanto tutti i germi tipici dell’estetica
moderna, vi si trovano racchiusi e inizialmente esplicati. […]
Il merito sovrano di Dante è di essere stato il primo a
cogliere le potenziali bellezze della parola evangelica e ad
improntarle in una nuova lingua; onde il suo poema è
veramente la Bibbia umana del nuovo incivilmento, essendo
per ragion di tempo e di pregio il primo riverbero della
divina.177
174
Ibid., 158.
175
Ibid., 157.
176
Ibid., 292.
177
Ibid., 378.
58
Like his fellow intellectuals in search of precedents for Italian national unity, Gioberti also
affirmed Dante’s promotion as the father of the Italian language:
Se la nostra lingua da un lato è il riverbero della parola

cattolica e sacerdotale, ella è dall’altro lato lo specchio fedele
dello stato morale e civile d’Italia… Culta già prima di Dante,
venne alzata a sublime perfezion da lui.178
Consequently, Gioberti held that ‘L’universalità della Divina Commedia, [era] emblema di
quella d’Italia’.179
Whether utilised as an advocate of anti-papal politics and religious reform, an emblem of
revolutionary activity, a promoter of an Italian unitary state, or a supporter of the temporal
rule of the pope, the Dante Alighieri constructed during the Risorgimento always remained
the supreme icon of italianità among intellectuals. The pioneering critical studies of
Foscolo, Mazzini’s nationalist propaganda, and the revisioning of history ventured by neo-
Guelph enthusiasts Gioberti and Balbo, constituted the most important contributions to the
nineteenth century rebirth of Dante in the guise of the greatest Italian patriot whose
providential mission in life it had been to assert Italy’s cultural primacy and promote her
independence and unity. Such defenders of the Italian nationalist cause saw Dante as an
‘anima di fuoco’, as the ideal image of the patriots they aspired to be. Attributing to Dante
a romantically conceived character of inspirational moral fortitude, transcendent genius,
and passionate rage at his patria’s misfortunes, these champions of Italian independence
above all identified with the medieval poet as a fellow protagonist of a dynamic age.
Taken out of historical context, Dante became myth, and in effect came to function as an
intellectual meeting place for the discussion and expression of the events and ideals of the
variegated Italian national movement. The Risorgimento cult of Dante culminated with the
1865 celebrations of the poet’s birth in Florence, and the monument to the patriotic exile,
178
Ibid., 414-415.
179
Ibid., 379.
59
inaugurated during the ceremony, provided a wonderfully fitting emblem of the Dante
constructed during the Risorgimento. Dante was portrayed as the angry patriot, greatly
saddened by Italy’s disorders, and the original inscription to the monument, first planned
during the 1850s, was to read
Ahi serva Italia, di dolore ostello,

nave sanza nocchiere in gran tempesta,
non donna di provincie, ma bordello!
(Purg. VI: 76-78)
Yet with the unification of Italy in 1860, such a reference to Italy’s disunity and decadence
became inappropriate, and it was duly replaced with the more positive invocation, ‘A Dante
Alighieri, l’Italia’, a reverent expression of gratitude to the poet for the acquisition of
nationhood. This alteration reflected the future course of the myth of Dante, as he was
transformed from an icon of protest against the political establishment, into a symbol of the
Italian nation state and its ruling elite.
60
Figure 3. Portrait of Dante in exile, by Domenico Peterlini, c.1860.
61
2
Celebration of the Italian nation: the sixth centenary of Dante’s birth in

1865
Non mai l’immagine d’Italia fu vista così bella e gloriosa in

alcun’altra pubblica festività, come in questa, che oggi
celebriamo; perocchè nel solo Alighieri essa apparisce tutta
quanta: vi apparisce nella sua indipendenza al di fuori, nella
sua unità al di dentro, nell’animosa protesta contro il
temporale dominio della Chiesa, nell’altezza del pensiero
italiano, nel vincolo della comune favella, nel miracolo di una
poesia nuova e stupenda, nella gloria finalmente del primato
italiano su tutte le genti civili.1
The sixth centenary festivities in honour of Dante’s birth in 1865 presented the occasion
for a public affirmation of the myth of the poet as the founding father of the Italian nation
which was constructed and gained its rhetorical strength during the Risorgimento. The
celebrations were not only a commemoration of Italy’s greatest poet and his exemplary
patriotism, but also offered a timely opportunity to rejoice at the recent achievement of
unification so longed for by Risorgimento patriots, who had elected Dante as a symbol of
their hopes for national independence. As the above passage from press commentary of
the occasion indicates, Dante was hailed as a symbol of the Italian nation, and his image
was remarkably capable of embodying the ideals of supporters of the Liberal nation state,
held as it was to represent Italy’s liberation from foreign rule, its political unity, and its
opposition to the papacy’s temporal power.
The central celebrations held in Florence, only just made capital of the new Italian nation
state, were played out at a time when the exuberance felt in the wake of the amazing
events of 1859-60 was on the wane. The political unification of Italy had not fulfilled the
great hopes aroused by the Risorgimento, and the sobering reality of the emergent
weaknesses of the new nation state and its society was beginning to disillusion those who
had grown up amid the fervour of heroic sacrifice for the national cause. The solemn
1
La Nazione, 14 May 1865, 1.
62
celebration in honour of Dante can thus be seen as an occasion which bolstered the image
of the nation state at a time when its very existence seemed precarious. In the face of
widespread disaffection in the South, concern from moderate conservatives and radical
democrats alike at Cavour’s devious methods in gaining Italian independence and
annexing provinces, and not least, the fierce opposition of the Church, the legitimacy of the
new regime was seriously threatened. In an attempt to compensate for the fact that
national unity had not been the outcome of a glorious revolution, a myth of the
Risorgimento as a purely heroic and inevitable phase of Italian history was needed. The
commemoration provides evidence of how the unification of Italy, in effect the result of deft
political manouvres, was rapidly recast as the inevitable triumph of the struggles of Italian
nationalists who modelled themselves on the patriotic intransigence so poignantly
exemplified by Dante.
The great significance of this moment lay above all in the fact that it was the first time that
all those who had yearned for unity were able to come together, in the name of Dante, to
celebrate nationhood. As the eminent Florentine dantista G. B. Giuliani proclaimed in his
speech during the ceremony for the unveiling of the monument to Dante in Piazza Santa
Croce,
pronti e affannati gl’Italiani convengono da ogni parte a questa nazionale

solennità, quasi che le disgregate famiglie si raccolgano per celebrare il
Natale dell’antico lor Padre, e per fortificarsi nella comunanza di un
generoso affetto conforme alle novità della vita […] Ogni popolo nostro,
ogni nobile Consorzio qui pei suoi Eletti dispiega alteramente il proprio
Vessillo, tinto del sangue sacrificato all’indipendenza della nazione; e
gareggiano tutti di poterlo nel nome di Dante inchinare dinanzi all’italico
Vessillo, in cui biancheggia la Croce, segnacolo della libertà e redenzione
de’ popoli. L’Italia appar già grande, della grandezza del sentimento che sì
la verifica; e nell’umiliarsi a Dante, esalta sè stessa.2
As this rhetoric suggested, through Dante, the nation not only became more imaginable,
but also more concrete, giving new Italians, at least those who believed themselves to be
Italian, a reason to display their unity.
2
‘Cronaca Fiorentina’, La Nazione, 16 May 1865, 2.
63
The centenary festivities had not, however, originally been planned as an occasion for
national participation, but rather as Florence’s own homage to one of its greatest sons.
The municipal authorities of Florence who orchestrated the event had conceived of the
commemoration in 1859, and saw it as an opportunity to declare publicly the city’s long-
lived patriotism, exalt its prestigious cultural history, and through its commemoration of
Dante ‘provare che non venne meno al suo gran compito nella famiglia italiana, e mostrare
al mondo che con Dante furono fecondati in lei tutti i semi dell’odierna civiltà’.3 This
concern expressed by the Florentine centenary committee to demonstrate Florence’s
worth as a civilised city reflects one of the themes often referred to during the celebrations:
that ‘prima prova di civiltà è l’onorare la memoria di quegli uomini che l’ingegno e la vita
consacrarono in testimonio del vero ed in servizio della patria’.4 With its homage to Dante,
Florence would prove itself worthy of membership in the modern Italian nation state, and
more broadly, demonstrate that Italy deserved a place among the great European nations.
Yet as the preparations for the centenary progressed in Florence, the developments of
which were reported in the Giornale del centenario di Dante Alighieri, first issued in early
1864, many other cities began to plan for participation in the Florentine festivities. In cities
still under Austrian control, irredentist groups also prepared for their own commemoration
of the poet. In the minds of those educated Italians already familiar with the myth of Dante
as a national symbol, it was clear that Dante should be the object of a national, and not
just local celebration, because, as one academic wrote to the Giornale del centenario,
‘Dante appartiene alla nazione tutta; e tutta quindi … deve prender parte alla doverosa
dimostrazione. Non però divisa in tanti piccoli centri, come pare si venga preparando, il
che richiamerebbe quasi la dolorosa reminiscenza dell’età dei Comuni; bensì unita e
concorde in un grande e dignitoso insieme. È quindi per ciò che noi vorremmo invitati i
3
‘La proposta Deliberazione della festa del Centenario di Dante Alighieri’, Giornale del centenario di Dante
Alighieri, no. 1, 10 Feb 1864, 3.
4
Ibid., 2.
64
Municipi tutti d’Italia ed il Governo stesso a concorrervi efficacemente, e cementare così
sempre più la fusione delle provincie in quel nome santissimo’.5
Consideration of this gradual growth of interest in the centenary from many cities of the
peninsula, communicated in the nationally subscribed Giornale del centenario, reveals that
the protagonists of the celebration were the cultural and new ruling elite from various
municipalities. The festivities were not part of a programme of national education pursued
by the moderate Liberal State, which, in the years of its infancy, was most interested in
establishing its institutional foundations, and little concerned with broadening its basis of
consensus.6 The national celebration sponsored by the state was instead the festa dello
Statuto, a Piedmontese holiday that had merely been extended to the new Kingdom of
Italy. As a commemoration which had first started to honour King Carlo Alberto’s
concession of a constitution to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1848, the new state’s
promotion of the festa dello Statuto as the central event of the national calendar in Italy
clearly represented the fact that Italian unification had not been an act of popular
revolution, but was the result of the annexation of most parts of the peninsula to
Piedmont.7 Given that the 1865 centenary celebration of Dante was not prompted nor
promoted by the new state, it thus could be characterised as an event which was
organised ‘from below’.8 State authorities were participants in the event, but the lead was
taken by the cities, whose cultural elite, many of them committed patriots of the
Risorgimento, wished to celebrate the long awaited national independence and unity of
which they had been the principal proponents. The celebrations were indeed a display of
faith in the nation by those ‘cittadini più illustri e benemeriti delle varie provincie d’Italia’
who, united by their reverence for Dante, were conscious of belonging to the Italian nation,
and who hoped to demonstrate that ‘l’Italia, se non ha compiuto ancora la materiale unità,
5
Giornale del centenario., no.3, 29 Feb 1864, 19.
6
Ilaria Porciani, La festa della nazione: Rappresentazione dello Stato e spazi sociali nell’Italia unita,
Bologna, Il Mulino, 1997, 31.
7
Erminia Irace, Itale glorie, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2003, 155.
8
Ibid., 154.
65
ha già durabilmente fondato l’unità degli animi e dei voleri, dei propositi e delle
aspirazioni’.9
The sixth centenary celebrations in Florence took place over three days, from 14 to 16
May, and included the inauguration of the monument to Dante erected in Piazza Santa
Croce, exhibitions, and several literary, musical and equestrian events. The form this
celebration took reflected the city’s own tradition, and commemorated, especially with its
equestrian tournaments, its medieval and Renaissance past.10 The central ceremony
honouring Dante took place on 14 May, the date generally held to be that of the poet’s
birth, and was initiated by a grand procession, in which ‘Più di settecento bandiere
sventolavano … e si toccavano l’una coll’altra confondendosi e simboleggiando così la
grande famiglia italica unita’.11 This great cortège symbolising Italian unity made its way
from Piazza Santo Spirito, through the centre of Florence past the Duomo, to Piazza Santa
Croce. The city was ‘imbandierata… alle case ove nacquero, vissero, ovvero operarono i
più famosi cittadini, [era] posto il loro nome, ornato con trofei, lauri e fiori’.12 This reminder
and veneration of Florence’s illustrious history was matched by the decorative glorification
of the new ‘national’ Italian history, with the route of the parade being lined with ‘colonne,
statue e trofei, in memoria dei più illustri fatti della storia italiana e degli uomini più celebri
nelle lettere, nelle scienze, nelle arti e nelle virtù civili e militari’.13 Towards nine in the
morning, a cannon sounded from the Fortezza di San Giovanni Battista, to signal the
initiation of proceedings, and the great mass of participants were on their way with flags
flying and drums sounding. The festive cavalcade was headed by the Italian and foreign
press, followed by the envoys of the Italian provinces in alphabetical order, the
representatives of institutes and colleges from all of Italy, foreign dignitaries, the
committees for the sixth centenary festivities and for the monument to Dante, officials for
9
‘Centenario di Dante’, La Perseveranza (Milan), 21 May 1865, 1-2.
10
Illaria Porciani, La festa della nazione: Rappresentazione dello Stato e spazi sociali nell’Italia unita, 124.
11
‘Cronaca fiorentina: Centenario di Dante’, La Nazione, 15 May 1865, 3.
12
‘Programma delle feste’, in Per il Sesto Centenario di Dante(MDCCCLXV):Ricordo al Popolo, Florence,
Tip. di A. Bettini, 1865, 5.
13
Ibid.
66
the municipalities of Florence and of Ravenna, the descendant of Dante, Count Sarego
Alighieri, and finally the Guardia Nazionale of the province. Also admitted to the parade
was any member of the public who was ‘decentemente vestito’, which perhaps could be
read as code for ‘middle class’.14 By eleven in the morning the procession had reached
Piazza Santa Croce, followed shortly by the arrival of King Vittorio Emanuele II, to great
applause, and the prime minister, General Alfonso La Marmora.15
The piazza, which had been converted into an amphitheatre with a capacity for 2000
people for the official unveiling of the national monument to Dante, was ‘riccamente
addobbata con festoni di lauri e fiori intrecciati a trofei con pitture decorative, i cui soggetti
appartengano alla vita di Dante, e con epigrafi analoghe’.16 At its four corners were also
hung the standards of Florence, Rome, Venice and Ravenna, as an homage to the cities
Dante had graced with his birth, residence, and death, and as a great emblematic
reminder that Rome and Venice were yet to be gained to fulfil the geographical conception
of Italian unity attributed to Dante by Italian nationalists. The church of Santa Croce, the
repository of ‘Itale glorie’, and a potent monument to Italy’s long-lived cultural history,
added its symbolic presence to the ceremony, which Florence’s daily La Nazione did not
fail to note in its report on the great day: ‘Il tempio santuario delle glorie nostre era là a
mostrare che se in tempi di tirannide l’Italia fu sepolcro, fu, com’ebbe a dire un illustre
straniero, sepolcro da cui spuntava l’aurora: in faccia ad esso le rappresentanze d’ogni
parte della penisola contrapponevano al passato il presente: là la gloria che rompe audace
la servitù; qui la libertà che corona la gloria’.17
Before the inauguration of the monument, which was the culmination of the event, the
official party and participants in the procession enjoyed the performance of Rossini’s
symphony from Assedio di Corinto, as well as a grand chorus executed by five hundred
14
‘Cronaca fiorentina’, La Nazione, 12 May 1865, 2-3.
15
‘Centenario di Dante’, La Perseveranza, 17 May 1865, 1-2.
16
‘Programma delle feste’, in Per il sesto centenario di Dante (MDCCCLXV):Ricordo al Popolo, 5.
17
67
singers, which apparently did not live up to expectations.18 This musical homage prepared
the crowd for the portentous and inspiring speeches of the Gonfaloniere of Florence,
Count Gugliemo de Cambray Digny, who was president of the Provincial Council,
president of the committee for the celebrations, as well as a senator of the realm, and also
of Prof. Giambattista Giuliani, who held the chair of Dante studies at the Istituto di Studi
Superiori of Florence.
On the previous day, the ‘Esposizione dantesca’ had been officially opened in the
presence of the king and of state, military, provincial and foreign officials, as well as those
who were able to purchase the 1 Lira ticket to view the exhibit, at the Palazzo del Podestà
(the Bargello).19 This national exhibition, accompanied by an ‘Esposizione medievale’
situated on the floor above, displayed codici and rare editions of Dante’s works, as well as
all kinds of documentation pertaining to the poet’s life and works, which had been sent
from the most important public and private galleries and libraries from all parts of Italy.
Following the unveiling of the monument to Dante on 14 May, a ‘festa popolare’ at the
Cascine took place, at which the king made an appearance. The central event was a
‘torneo’ performed by the equestrian company Guillaume, in which the players
commemorated the peace concluded between the Guelphs and Ghibellines in 1304.20
The report from La Nazione rather evasively summed up the display with the comment,
‘non soddisfecero completamente l’aspettazione generale’.21 The evening saw an
apparently rather breath-taking illumination of the city and the Arno, with bands playing at
various strategic points, and with a chorus of hundreds singing an endless array of songs
18
B. M. Antolini, ‘La musica nelle celebrazioni del sesto centenario dantesco’, in Guido Salvetti (ed.), Il mito
di Dante nella musica della nuova Italia, 1861-1914, Milan, Guerini studio, 1994, 36.
19
3800 tickets in total were purchased for the two exhibitions (‘Cronaca fiorentina’, La Nazione, 16 May
1865, 2.)
20
Henry Clark Barlow, The Sixth Centenary Festivals of Dante Alighieri in Florence and at Ravenna. By a
Representative, London -Edinburgh, Williams & Norgate, Florence-Turin, Loescher, 1866, 38.
21
‘Cronaca fiorentina’, La Nazione, 15 May 1865, 3.
68
about Dante, with such titles as ‘Dante’, ‘A Dante’, ‘Pel monumento a Dante’, ‘A Dante per
l’unità d’Italia’, ‘Laudi a Dante’, and others of a similar theme, in Piazza Santa Croce.22
On the morning of 15 May an ‘Accademia letterario-musicale’ took place, at which poems
were read, and a chorus of students from the Reale Scuola Superiore Normale of Florence
sang the pieces ‘A Beatrice’, and ‘Il ritorno di Dante in Firenze’.23 The musical and literary
side of this gathering, however, apparently made little lasting impression, as a nationalistic
speech given by Count Foucher de Gareil on behalf of France, and a reading of a

24
patriotically themed letter from Victor Hugo, rather stole the show. That afternoon there
was a very well attended ‘Corse dei Cavalli’ held at the Cascine, at which the king was
also a spectator. In the evening there was an ‘Accademia musicale’, the most well
received aspect of which was the performance of the concert symphony, Dante, composed
by Giovanni Pacini, which was also transposed for bands and played generally in Florence
during the celebrations.25
The final day of the festivities was marked by a ceremony held in Piazza Santa Croce for
the distribution of grants to workers’ associations and mutual aid societies, as well as for
the awarding of medals, bearing Dante’s image, to the winners of an essay competition for
university students of all faculties which had been held in commemoration of the
centenary.26 There was also a gathering of some of Italy’s greatest academic figures, the
historian Marquis Gino Capponi, the director of the University of Pisa senator Silvestro
Centofanti, Prof. Atto Vannucci of the Istituto di Studi Superiori di Firenze, philosopher
Terenzio Mamiani, and the minister for education, Baron Natoli, at a special assembly of
the Accademia della Crusca. The celebrations came to a close that evening with an
22
The rest of the songs were ‘Il veltro’, ‘Preghiera a Dante’, ‘Il centenario di Dante’, and ‘Il genio di Dante’;
from Sesto Centenario di Dante: inno, cori e cantata in onore di Dante Alighieri eseguiti nei giorni 14, 15, e
16 maggio in Firenze, Florence, tip. Cellini, 1865, 5-16.
23
Ibid., 17-19.
24
25
B. M. Antolini, ‘La musica nelle celebrazioni del sesto centenario dantesco’, 39.
26
Ministero di Pubblica Istruzione: monumenti e onoranze, 1860-1894, busta 5, Archivio dello Stato, Rome.
69
‘Accademia di quadri viventi e declamazione dantesca’ at the Teatro Pagliano, with the
king again present.
At an academic level, the heralding of the sixth centenary of Dante’s birth was
impressive. Literary tributes to the poet abounded, as befitting remembrance of a figure
who was held to have initiated and glorified the Italian cultural tradition. In the months
leading up to the May festivities, La Nazione’s coverage of the preparations included
reviews of works recently published, and the Guida Officiale for the celebration provided
comprehensive lists of all the commentaries, studies, poetic and artistic commemorations
of Dante, and indicated where they could be purchased in Florence.27 One of the most
prestigious offerings, Dante e il suo secolo, was a collaborative work of authors from all
parts of Italy, ‘come occorreva a fare opera veramente italiana’, and which was intended to
demonstrate the unity of Italy ‘che è in Lui esemplata, e che vorrà sempre specchiarsi in
Lui, a ricomporre le sue membra e pigliarne abito degno: l’Italia che tutti riunisce nel suo
splendido nome’.28 The impressive volume included studies from Gino Capponi, Terenzio
Mamiani, Niccolò Tommaseo and Giosuè Carducci, and copies of it were presented to
Vittorio Emanuele II, Garibaldi, the Emperor of France, the King of Portugal, and the cities
of Florence and Ravenna. Also of note was the immense number of poetic exaltations of
Dante and his centenary, as evidenced by Carlo Del Balzo’s compilation of Poesie di mille
autori intorno a Dante Alighieri, volumes 12 to 15 of which were devoted to production for
1865 alone.29
The profuse literary output for 1865, and the nature of the festivities in Florence, were
indicative of the fact that the myth of Dante was the product of the realm of Italian high
culture. It also evidenced the elevated social position of those Italians who hailed Dante as
the symbol of their national identity. Given that at the time of unification, only 2.5% of the
27
‘Opere ed illustrazioni dantesche presso i principali librai di Firenze’, Guida officiale per le feste del
centenario di Dante Alighieri, Florence, Cellini, 1865, 48-58.
28
Dante e il suo secolo XIV Maggio MDCCCLXV, Florence, Cellini, 1865, XIV.
29
Carlo Del Balzo (ed.), Poesie di mille autori intorno a Dante Alighieri, raccolte ed ordinate
cronologicamente con note storiche, bibliografiche e biografiche da Carlo Del Balzo, 15 vols., Rome,
Forzani & Co., Tip. del Senato Editori, 1889-1909; vols. XII to XV were published 1906-1909.
70
population spoke Italian, the number of new Italian citizens who were able to access the
preponderantly literary proceedings of 1865 was miniscule.30
There was, however, an attempt made by the centenary committee to encourage the
participation of a greater proportion of citizens in the celebration. In conjunction with the
Giornale del centenario, Letture domenicali del Popolo Italiano were issued from early
1864, which aimed to familiarise the ‘popolo’ with Dante, and to ensure that they would
comprehend the 1865 celebrations as an ‘opera di vero patriottismo che deve aggiungere
una gran pagina nella storia gloriosa d’Italia’.31 The publication included continuing
instalments of the history of Dante’s life and times, an explanation of the Divina
Commedia, and a ‘Catechismo Dantesco o massime morali della Divina Commedia
spiegate alla buona’, which treated the Commedia as a ‘parlante incarnazione sociale’ of
the Gospels.32 Yet the ‘popolo’, for whom these lessons were intended, could obviously
only have been those comparatively few citizens who had been instructed to read Italian.
The term ‘popolo’ can therefore be understood to refer restrictively to the ‘classe media-
colta’, the ‘public’ which was to receive the new national culture and identity being created
by the Italian ruling elite.33
Another publication with a similarly didactic purpose, the Ricordo al popolo, was issued in
Florence with an early programme of the festivities in 1865, and was commissioned by the
editors of the pamphlet who defined themselves as ‘operai tipografi’. In their preface, the
editors stated that their intention was that the work not be written for ‘i dotti’, but rather for
other workers like themselves, who loved ‘Dante e Firenze e l’Italia almeno quanto i
dotti’.34 This bid to define Dante and Italy not just as the province of the educated elite
included an intriguing piece written by Niccolò Tommaseo which attempted to find an
affinity between Dante and workers. The patriotic author claimed that Dante ‘fu … nella
30
N. Doumanis, Italy, London, Arnold, 2001, 86.
31
La festa di Dante: letture domenicali del popolo italiano pubblicate per cura del ‘Giornale del centenario’,
no. 1, 1 May 1864, 1.
32
Ibid., 11.
33
Alberto Asor Rosa, Sintesi di storia della letteratura italiana, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1972, 302.
34
Per il Sesto Centenario di Dante (MDCCCLXV): Ricordo al Popolo, Florence, Tip. di A. Bettini, 1865, 3.
71
sua condizione operaio; come Gesù Cristo intitola operai tutti gli uomini che per la verità
s’affaticano’, and assured his reading public that ‘Se in alcuni luoghi del suo poema egli
pare troppo gentiluomo, e sdegnoso della povera plebe; convien ricordarsi che più
sdegnoso ancora e’ si mostra contro i potenti e i principi indegni’.35
Consideration of such attempts to popularise Dante leads to the question of how the poet
was predominantly imagined and portrayed during the festivities in honour of his birth.
What qualities were attributed to Dante that were held to define an Italian national identity?
Foremost was the representation of Dante as the nation’s first patriotic exile and thus the
supreme exemplar of patriotism. Given that the recent political unification of the peninsula
had had little time to discourage the primacy of municipal identities, it was necessary to
affirm Dante as an Italian rather than Florentine patriot, and thus encourage new Italians to
direct their loyalty to the new nation state. This concern was addressed by the authors of
the aforementioned Letture domenicali who, in educating new Italians about what it meant
to be Italian, did not want there to be any confusion among their less erudite readers as to
which patria Dante had been so devoted:
La patria però non è la città, la provincia ove si nasce; la patria è tutto il

suolo abitato dai nostri fratelli, il cui confine è tracciato dal dito di Dio. La
nostra patria è l’Italia; tutti i suoi popoli hanno comune la lingua, le
tradizioni, le costumanze, la religione, la gloria.36
This essay also exhibited an attempt to invent Italy as a territory common to all, with
shared traditions, religion, customs and language. This representation of an imagined
Italian community of course at this stage did not correspond to the reality of the many
different customs, languages, traditions and experiences of rule dividing the inhabitants of
the peninsula.
Equally as important in characterising what Dante represented as a symbol of italianità
was his elevation as the father of the Italian language. In his speech for the inauguration
35
Niccolò Tommaseo, ‘Al Popolo’, Per il Sesto Centenario di Dante (MDCCCLXV): Ricordo al Popolo, 10.
36
‘Virtù di Dante proposte ad esempio del popolo: Amor di Patria’, La festa di Dante: letture domenicali del
popolo italiano pubblicate per cura del ‘Giornale del centenario’, no. 31, 27 Nov 1864, 124.
72
of the monument, Giuliani stressed this element of the poet’s significance with his
declaration that Dante had raised ‘l’idioma natio ad insuperabile grandezza, e colla
dominatrice potenza dell’arte e delle divine melodie lo impone per vincolo di fraternità a
tutte le genti del bel Paese’.37 The attribution to Dante of a fundamental role in the
creation of the Italian language, which would be the most enduring aspect of his image as
a national symbol, reflected the strongly linguistic nature of Italian national identification.
Dante, as one of the first cultural figures to use the Italian literary vernacular which formed
the basis of the national idiom, provided essential confirmation of the nineteenth century
belief that a people could be defined as a nation if it was represented by a cultural elite
which possessed a literary vernacular.38
The celebrations also focused upon the image of Dante as ‘il profeta dell’Italia presente, il
fondatore dell’unità nazionale’, a representation which suggested Italy possessed a long-
lived national history.39 In the elite’s revisioning of Italy’s past, in its creation of a national
narrative which justified unification, the poet’s works had proved extremely useful,
providing evidence that the ‘national idea’, or the concept of ‘Italy’, had existed for
centuries. Dante’s invectives against Italy’s internal conflicts and its political domination by
foreign powers and the Church, coupled with his hopeful prophecies for Italy’s future
redemption, immortalised in his Commedia, furnished the cultural elite with a more positive
perspective from which to view the inconvenient realities of Italy’s past, and from which
national unification could be deemed inevitable.
Perhaps of greatest emotive and unifying significance for those gathered at the festivities,
was Dante’s crowning literary achievement, his Commedia, which established Italy’s
cultural tradition, and which embodied ‘lo spirito della Nazione’.40 The reference made to
various cities and provinces in the Commedia gave their inhabitants a link to Dante, and
37
Giuliani’s speech, ‘Cronaca fiorentina’, La Nazione, 16 May 1865, 2.
38
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality, Cambridge, Cambridge
UP, 1990, 37.
39
40
73
thus to the Italian nation he symbolised. The workers’ association of Novara present at the
festivities, for example, felt that they belonged ‘in singolar modo alla festa centenaria del
sommo … Poeta, imperocchè dagli operai di Novara uscì una delle più venerate figure che
illuminano la Divina Commedia, uscì Pietro Lombardo, il celebre maestro delle sentenze,
figlio d’una lavandaia di Lumellogno’.41 Thus for cities mentioned by the poet, the
Commedia offered a guarantee of national identity, enabling them to celebrate their own
history in the memory of Dante, and qualifying them, by association, as always having
been Italian.42
The ceremonial celebrations of Dante can be seen as the public rites of an emergent
secular religion of which the poet was to be the first, if not the greatest, patron saint. In
this sense, the commemoration of Dante was a profession of faith in the existence and
glorious destiny of the Italian nation, as exemplified by the culmination of Giuliani’s
speech: ‘Salve, o immortale Alighieri; ecco la Nazione che da Te riconosce vita e vigore
perenne, in Te oggi si regenera e s’avvalora per giungere assennata al termine fisso’.43
The procession to the site of the monument to Dante in Piazza Santa Croce was the first
national pilgrimage to worship at the sacred heart of the patria. And Dante’s Divina
Commedia, often referred to as the ‘poema sacro’, indeed became, in the words of one
patriotic academic, ‘la bibbia della nazione italiana … che rivela all’Italia l’altissima legge
onde la Provvidenza ad alti e novelli destini l’ha richiamata’.44 This creation of a religione
della patria was a way in which an aura of sacred legitimisation could be projected onto
the new Italian nation state, which was necessary to bolster its fragile identity and
challenge the hegemony of the Church, which was at this stage united Italy’s greatest
enemy.
41
42
Erminia Irace, Itale glorie, 155-156.
43
44
‘Studi danteschi: Lezioni intorno alle condizioni morali e politiche d’Italia, in relazione alle dottrine di
Dante, dette al pubblico dal Prof. T. Zauli Sajano, nel R. Istituto tecnico di Forlì’, Giornale del centenario,
no. 3, 29 Feb 1864, 21.
74
An intriguing development at the tomb of Dante in Ravenna just after the festivities in
Florence helped to confirm this conception of Dante as a patron saint of the new Italian
nation state. When in May 1865 an engineer set about doing some repairs on Dante’s
temple which stood adjacent to a Franciscan church, he discovered in the wall a wooden
box containing human bones. Inside the box was a note which read ‘Dantis ossa.
Denuper revisa die 3 Junij 1677’.45 It was assumed that because over the centuries since
Dante’s death Florence had made several requests to have the remains of Dante moved
to his native city, the Franciscan monks who had sheltered Dante in his last days, and who
had watched over his tomb, had secretly removed the bones from their urn and hidden
them in the wall of the convent.46 In the wake of this ‘veramente Nazionale e gloriosa
avventura’ which was reported in the national press with some excitement, a purportedly
scientific examination of the bones was undertaken by a special state commission, in
keeping with the positivist spirit of the time, in order to verify that the bones indeed
belonged to Dante.47 This ‘rediscovery’ of Dante’s remains, their verification and return to
the poet’s temple, was a way for the new Liberal order to ceremoniously demonstrate that
Dante indeed belonged to the Italian nation state. The development enabled Dante’s
worshippers to affirm his sanctifying presence in the new Italy, and given that his bones
had been reclaimed from the protection of the vicars of the Church, a means of
symbolically displaying that Italy had been, for the most part, freed from the temporal rule
of the pope.
The central focus of this secular religion was the monument to Dante, which, in
conjunction with the ‘Tempio dell’Itale Glorie’, conferred on Piazza Santa Croce, hitherto
part of a Catholic iconography, a lay sacredness.48 The almost 6 metres tall sculpture of
the poet was a tangible and enduring representation of Dante as father of the Italian
45
Romolo Conti, Della scoperta delle ossa di Dante: relazione con documenti per cura del Municipio di
Ravenna, Ravenna, Tip. di G. Angeletti, 1870, 18.
46
Ibid., 25.
47
Ibid., 19.
48
75
nation. It was the apotheosis of the Dante created during the Risorgimento, and provided
a visible reference to nationhood given the poet’s characterisation as the father of the
Italian nation.49 The statue had originally been commissioned in 1856 by the city of
Ravenna, but its execution was blocked by papal authorities.50 It was then offered to
Florence, where a committee was formed to continue the project and and collect
subscriptions to fund it. In January 1862, a manifesto was published in newspapers
throughout the Kingdom calling for contributions. The widespread response to the appeal,
from academies, city councils, and many great figures from all parts of Italy, ensured that
the statue of Dante became a truly national monument.51
The fact that in the course of the project, the monument’s sculptor, the Ravennate Enrico
Pazzi, was encouraged to revise his representation of Dante, demonstrates how the image
of Dante changed according to Italy’s altered fortunes. Pazzi’s original conception of the
statue in 1857, influenced by his own experience of papal rule, was ‘un Dante
rampognante all’Italia le discordie intestine che avevano bruttata di fango la sua corona di
torri’.52 This image of Dante was meant to portray the poet as he delivered his great
invective in Canto VI of Purgatorio:
Ahi serva Italia di dolore ostello,

Nave sanza nocchiere in gran tempesta,
Non donna di provincie, ma bordello. ( Purg. VI: 76-78)
Some commentators felt such a fierce Dante was too harsh, his bitter reproachfulness not
reflective of the recent triumph of unity. Pazzi consequently made subtle yet significant
alterations, so that the effigy of Dante embodied the most important aspects of his myth:
his crowning laurel wreath indicates his poetic genius; the Roman Eagle at his foot, his
49
N. Doumanis, Italy, 97.
50
Bruno Tobia, ‘Una cultura per la nuova Italia’, in G. Sabbatucci & V. Vidotto (eds.), Storia d’Italia II: Il
nuovo stato e la società civile, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1995, 508.
51
‘Cronaca fiorentina’, La Nazione, 16 May 1865, 2; Irace, op. cit., 152. the list of subscribers to the
monument read like a veritable who’s who of the Italian ruling elite: Aleardi, Capponi, Le Monnier, Ricasoli,
Vieusseux, d’Azeglio, Minghetti, Rattazzi, Sella, Manzoni, Verdi, Villari, Carducci. (Bruno Tobia, ‘Una
cultura per la nuova Italia’ , 508.)
52
‘Appendice: Sulla statua di Dante Alighieri scolpita da Enrico Pazzi di Ravenna’, La Nazione, 19 May
1865, 1.
76
desire to ‘rialzare il caduto Impero Romano e ristabilirlo in Italia’53; his right hand grasping
the Divina Commedia, his immortality; and his ‘nobilmente sdegnoso’ expression, the
emotion ‘d’un padre che richiama il figlio al sentimento dell’onore dimenticato un istante; è
un grido d’allarme per isvegliare i dormenti, affinchè acquistino coscienza di sè
medesimi’.54
The inscription for the monument, originally planned to be the terzina beginning ‘Ahi
serva Italia’, became ‘A Dante Alighieri l’Italia MDCCCLXV’, and thus expressed gratitude
to Dante for the acquisition of national unity, rather than despair at Italy’s disunity and
decadence. The monument, like the centenary celebrations, honoured Dante as a patriot,
and for his political prophecies, rather than as a poet (the statues inside Santa Croce and
outside the Uffizi were, in contrast, commemorations of his literary achievements). The
marble rendering of Dante as a disdainful patriot, a reminder of Italy’s heroic
achievements, can also be seen as a tribute to Risorgimento patriots who, like Dante, and
in total commitment to the cause of national independence and unity, went into exile.55
As an occasion which evidenced the utilisation of Dante in the construction of a myth of
national unification, it is significant that there was minimal reference to Italy’s new ruling
monarchy in official proceedings. Although the king was present, he was essentially an
honoured spectator at this celebration of Dante and the idea of the Italian nation, and not
the subject of veneration. One episode in the proceedings did reveal, however, a
moderate appropriation of Dante. It seemed that at least for some members of the
Florentine municipal council who had organised the event, the homage to Dante as a
national symbol was an opportunity to celebrate the monarchical solution to Italian unity.
At the opening of the ‘Mostra Dantesca’ the mayor of Florence Count Cambray Digny
presented Vittorio Emanuele II with a magnificently decorated sword in remembrance of
the centenary. One side of the sword was engraved with the words ‘Dante al primo re
53
Ibid.
54
‘Appendice: La statua di Dante’, La Perseveranza, 13 July, 1865, 2.
55
77
d’Italia’, and the other with a terzina from the Commedia which referred to Dante’s
prophecy of the Veltro.56 While the 1865 centenary festivities predominantly celebrated
the image of Dante and the concept of the Italian nation to which radical republican
Mazzini had made the greatest contribution, it was not surprising that Dante was also
easily moulded into a prophet of monarchical Italy. This gift to Vittorio Emanuele II
symbolically hailed him as the incarnation of the allegorical Veltro who would remedy
Italy’s ills, and thus suggested that it was the king who had fulfilled Dante’s prophecy of
Italian unity.
The appearance by Vittorio Emanuele II at the inauguration of the monument to Dante
also briefly intimated how in the early decades of unity under a moderate Liberal regime,
the memory of the Risorgimento was revised to place the Savoy dynasty at the centre of
the struggle for unity and cast the king, the ‘Re galantuomo’, as a national symbol.57
When the king congratulated Giuliani on his speech after the unveiling of the monument in
the principal ceremony of the anniversary, the orator had reportedly declared that he was
filled with admiration for all that the king had done for the national cause. The king had
responded dutifully, ‘Ho fatto quello che ho potuto e sono pronto a fare il resto’.58 The
exchange concluded with Giuliani’s exclamation of ‘Maestà, Dio benedica la sua spada!’,
to which the king had replied ‘L’ho impegnata per la causa della giustizia e per la causa
d’Italia’.59 This was an early intimation of the casting of Vittorio Emanuele II as one of the
founding fathers of Italian unity, despite the fact that he had held a lukewarm attitude
towards the unification of the peninsula.60 In this project pursued by moderate historians,
a national history and identity were constructed favouring the ideals of the monarchical
56
57
Umberto Levra, Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, Turni, Comitato di Torino
dell’Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1992, vii.
58
59
Ibid.
60
Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1997, 28.
78
moderate ‘winners’ of the unification process, and shrouding the contribution of left wing
democrats and republicans.61
While the Florentine festivities in honour of Dante provided the pretext for the celebration
of the recent creation of the Italian nation state, they also presented the opportunity for
reminding its spectators that Italy’s Risorgimento was still unfinished. The stress placed
upon the image of Dante as the prophet of national unity gave its proponents the perfect
rhetorical means with which to affirm their resolve to persevere until ‘l’Italia sia tutta
degl’italiani, e cessi l’onta di ogni straniera dominazione, e lo Stato si sciolga dalla
tirannide teocratica’.62 The strategic placement of the standards of Venice and Rome in
Piazza Santa Croce during the central ceremony was symbolic reference to the belief that
the territories still under Austrian and papal control were vital to the political and spiritual
unity of the Italian nation. Indeed, the very idea of Italy was founded on the conception of
the Italian nation as a historical and geographical entity, which Dante so usefully
immortalised in his Commedia. Dante’s greatest work therefore provided a ready source
of legitimisation for Italian national territorial claims, and a means of defining as ‘Italian’
any city or province mentioned in its lines.
Accordingly, the 1865 centenary took on great political significance in cities under
Austrian government whose elite felt they belonged culturally and historically to the Italian
nation. Prohibited by the Austrian authorities from officially participating in the Florentine
festivities, many cities of the Veneto, as well as Trento and Trieste, carried out their own
celebration of Dante, and through their commemoration of the poet, exhibited their spiritual
unity with the Italian nation. The celebrations of Dante in these irredentist cities were
predominantly literary events, organised by cultural societies, such as the Ateneo in the
Veneto, which was the only literary body independent of the Austrian authorities, who
feared patriotic demonstrations in the name of Dante.63 Also common to many
61
Ibid., 60.
62
63
‘Corrispondenze’, La Nazione, 16 May 1865, 1.
79
celebrations was the inauguration of a statue or bust of the poet, symbolising the desire for
political unity with the Italian nation. Monuments were inaugurated in Treviso, Vicenza,
Udine, Belluno, Bassano, Rovigo, Verona, Venice and Mantova, Trento and Trieste. The
erection of these monuments was a way to affirm the belonging of the city to the nation,
through its connection with Dante, as was the widespread subscription in Austrian-
controlled territory to the monument to Dante inaugurated in Florence. In Treviso, for
example, the monument to Dante was placed ‘nel luogo dove il Cagnano e il Sile, celebrati
da Dante, si uniscono insieme’, and its unveiling was followed by a gathering of the Ateneo
which remembered Treviso’s historical relationship with Dante and Florence.64
The importance of gaining territory still under Austrian control was surpassed, however,
by the desire to redeem Rome from papal possession. Rome was essentially of greater
significance to the completion of national unity as its glorious history was one the most
persuasive precedents for the existence of an Italian nation. The display of the flag of
Rome in Piazza Santa Croce, as an emblem of the eternal city’s spiritual, if not practical,
belonging to the Italian nation, and the frequent oratorical allusions to the inevitability of
the fufilment of Italy’s Risorgimento, were powerful, yet fairly diplomatic, references to the
Roman question.
The bitter polemics over Rome and the separation of Church and state were, however,
passionately discussed in the press. La Nazione’s front page article of 14 May stressed
above all the political import of the centenary celebrations, claiming that Dante had
believed the greatest obstacle to the unity and prosperity of Italy was ‘il dominio temporale
dei Papi, e le corrutele e gli scandalosi esempi che da Roma si derivavano nell’Italia
guastandone il costume, la libertà e la religione’.65 Echoing the interpretations of Dante
and his works established by Foscolo and Mazzini, the article insisted that Dante
‘combattè come cristiano e italiano contro la dominazione papale’, and that he had desired
64
‘Centenario di Dante’, La Nazione, 13 May 1865, 2.
65
80
‘la riforma, non della religione, ma del chiericato… il ritorno alla chiesa primitiva… alla
Chiesa di Gesù Cristo’.66
The official Vatican daily Osservatore Romano responded to this report with scathing
vehemence: ‘Se poi l’immagine d’Italia, che la Nazione travede nell’Alighieri, è l’immagine
dell’Italia moderna, diremo che male fu scelto lo specchio, specialmente per ravvisarvi
l’altezza del pensiero italiano, lo spettacolo d’una poesia nuova e stupenda, e il primato su
tutte le genti civili’.67 It also disparaged the Florentine celebration as an inappropriate
tribute to the poet, with its ‘baccanali carnascialeschi, con suoni, canti e scenici spettacoli,
con scorrerie di cavalli e cavalieri, con pranzi e cene Luculliane, finalmente con baldorie
politiche’.68 Just a year after Pius IX had issued his Syllabus of Errors, and at a time when
the Liberal government was preparing to confiscate ecclesiastical assets, tensions were
high between Church and state, and between conservative Catholic thought and secular
ideology. Dante was consequently instrumentalised in the struggle between Liberal and
Church parties for hegemony of Italian public opinion and culture, and in the contest to
define what it meant to be Italian. The Osservatore Romano, for example, did not hesitate
to point out that the portrayal of Dante in the celebrations as a modern day revolutionary,
lowering him ‘al misero livello d’un Garibaldi e d’un Mazzini’, was anachronistic, and
betrayed the true image of Dante as patriot, illustrious poet and philosopher, and creator of
the Italian language.69 It was quick to counter this characterisation of Dante as a
representative of the Liberal nation with its own version of Dante. This Catholic Dante
‘pose il sommo bene della società nella religione, mantenne le sacre ragioni della Chiesa,
ne adorò profondamente l’augusto Capo, e fu grande e degno rappresentante d’una
nazione cattolica’.70
66
Ibid.
67
‘Di quale Italia va qui fantasticando la Nazione?’, Osservatore Romano, 18 May 1865, 1.
68
‘Rassegna politica’, Osservatore Romano, 20 May 1865, 1.
69
‘Il sesto centenario di Dante’, Osservatore Romano, 16 May 1865, 1; ‘L’Alighieri e l’odierna rivoluzione
italiana’, Osservatore Romano, 18 May 1865, 1.
70
‘Dottrine religiose e politiche di Dante secondo Cesare Cantù’, Osservatore Romano, 15 July 1865.
81
A Catholic tribute to Dante in honour of the sixth centenary was also mounted to counter
that of the Liberal elite held in Florence. With papal support, the Galleria Dantesca,
organised by entrepreneur Romualdo Gentilucci, was relaunched in Rome. First opened
to public exhibition in Rome, Florence and London in 1860, the Galleria Dantesca was a
collection of 27 large paintings of the allegedly most interesting episodes of the
Commedia. The Osservatore Romano published on 23 May 1865 a call for subscriptions
to an anonymous society that would promote the permanent exhibition of this celebration
of Dante as ‘poeta cattolico’ in Palazzo Poli at the Fontana di Trevi, which was finally
inaugurated on 26 Feb 1866.71
The centenary was also not without a Catholic literary homage to Dante, which
endeavoured to refute the many works of ‘quello spirito irreligioso che da gran tempo si
travaglia intorno a Dante per farlo suo duce e suo maestro’.72 The Omaggio a Dante
Alighieri offerto dai Cattolici italiani, an extensive collection of prose and poetry, revered
Dante as the ‘padre delle nostre lettere, di cittadino amore agl’Italiani, di filiale omaggio al
Papato supremo inspiratore e custode del genio e d’ogni gloria italiana’.73 It was a work
that aimed to attest to the long-lived tradition of Catholic erudition in the study of Dante
and, above all, to constitute ‘un atto di presenza che fanno i Cattolici alla festa secolare del
natale di Dante … un diritto che il Cattolicismo esercita nell’ossequio del poeta che
eminentemente è suo; è una cattolica protesta contro il culto dei profanatori’.74
The Jesuit authors of the journal Civiltà Cattolica, in their report on this publication,
elaborated upon the value of this work. It was both a celebration of the true signficance of
poet as an emblem of medieval Christianity, and a defence of Dante against the abuse of
his name perpetrated by the new Liberal rulers of Italy, who used him to support their
usurpation of the pope’s power:
71
‘Fatti diversi’, Osservatore Romano, 23 May 1865; B. M. Antolini, ‘La musica nelle celebrazioni del sesto
centenario dantesco’ , 45.
72
‘Ai Lettori’, Omaggio a Dante Alighieri offerto dai Cattolici italiani nel maggio 1865, sesto centenario
dalla sua nascita, Roma, tip.Monaldi, 1865, I.
73
Ibid., III.
74
Ibid., II-III.
82
le feste, che per questa occasione gli veniva apparecchiando la fazione,
che ora signoreggia l’Italia, non tanto erano indirizzate a magnificare la sua
gloria, quanto a distruggere quasi il suo Poema, facendolo comparire opera
politica, e lui calunniando di avere in esso somministrato il concetto di
questo che dicono regno d’Italia, unificato sotto un solo principe, sbarazzato
in parte e prossimo ad essere sbarazzato del tutto del dominio temporale
de’ Papi. Or ecco il povero Dante diventato un liberalastro del secolo XIX,
istauratore dell’ordine morale alla foggia moderna, inimico de’ Papi,
persecutore della Chiesa!75
The venom of their assault upon the new rulers of Italy and their treatment of Dante was
indicative of the tenor of the antagonistic discourse that would characterise relations
between Catholic opposition to the new Italian state and secularists for decades to come.
Such appropriations of Dante on the occasion of the sixth centenary of his birth indicate
how the poet was utilised, by Liberal and Catholic elites alike, to represent and define
different facets of Italian national identity as it developed under the new political regime.
The employment of Dante during the festivities as a rhetorical device to denounce the
temporal power of the papacy, and to promote the completion of national territory,
revealed two prevalent utilisations of Dante which would become characteristic of the
poet’s image under the Liberal regime. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the
Florentine commemoration of Dante was the fact that it was largely the result of
collaboration between patriotic elites from many cities of the new nation state, and even
irredentist regions. The occasion indicated that at least some new Italians, predominantly
those who belonged to the educated elite, were united in welcoming the political creation
of Italy, and thus intimated that Dante had become a metaphor for the Italian nation for an
audience which extended beyond a select group of nationalist letterati. The celebrations
emphasised, above all, that to love and honour Dante was to be Italian. As one press
75
‘Rivista della stampa italiana: Omaggio a Dante Alighieri, offerto dai Cattolici italiani nel Maggio 1865,
sesto Centenario dalla sua nascita’, Civiltà Cattolica, vol. 2, series 6, 1865, 717.
83
summary of the event adamantly declared, ‘Quegli che … assistè alle solenni onoranze
dell’Alighieri senza sentirsi il cuore commosso … non ha cuore veramente italiano’.76
76
84
Figure 4. Monument to Dante in Piazza Santa Croce, Florence, erected 1865.
85
3
The ‘Ghibelline’ Dante in Liberal Italy
The image of Dante as ‘padre della nazione italiana’ and his promotion as an icon of
italianità did not disappear from Italian nationalist discourse when the hopes for
independence and unity nurtured during the Risorgimento were realised with the creation
of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Dante continued to be portrayed as symbol of the Italian
nation, and was employed in the Liberal regime’s attempts to ‘make Italians’. A prominent
feature of the utilisation of Dante in this cause was his appropriation by certain sections of
the Liberal elite as a rhetorical weapon in one of the most important battles of the new
state in the late nineteenth century, the contest between the secular nation state and the
Catholic Church for cultural hegemony in Italy. The myth of Dante as a symbol of the
Italian nation became caught up in the currents of secularism and anticlericalism that
conditioned political life for several decades, which cast the medieval poet as the ‘ghibellin
fuggiasco’ first conceived of by Foscolo. Liberal publicists of a lay culture and the more
extreme anticlericals were not alone in turning to Dante for rhetorical support and even
historical justification for their cause. Catholic scholars also employed the medieval poet
to defend the Church’s claim to temporal power and to promote its significant authority in
Italian society.
Despite the immense achievement of the political foundation of the Italian state, the new
ruling elite of Liberal Italy was faced with the even more arduous task of encouraging
moral unity within the territorially united state. Fundamental to the construction of a
modern nation state, worthy of taking its place among the leading European powers, was
the creation of an Italian national identity, and most importantly, the inculcation of a sense
of national belonging in the various peoples newly united under the rule of the Kingdom of
86
Italy. Through these processes the Italian governing class needed to earn legitimacy for
its reign, and thus it was essential that the Italian identity it crafted gain cultural hegemony.
The most plausible narrative lines for this national identity were those which drew upon the
continuity of Italian high culture, of which Dante was an essential figure, especially given a
lack of traditions capable of unifying citizens from diverse regions and experiences of
political rule. It was also necessary to construct a national identity and tradition that did
not directly conflict with the loyalty the majority of new Italians had for the Catholic Church.
Indeed, chief among the threats to the state’s legitimacy in Italy’s early decades of life was
the dominant hold the Church had over Italian society and its continued opposition to the
new Liberal establishment.
In the new Italian state the task of fashioning a national culture and narrative which would
form the basis of an Italian identity was pursued above all by intellectuals who had
participated in, or grown up during, the Risorgimento. Regardless of their political
formation or ideological position, many intellectuals, committed to the survival of the nation
state, worked to give content and resonance to the idea of the nation through their
contribution to the construction of a tradition of Italian culture. In order to legitimate the
existence of the secular Liberal state, this tradition had to be non-Catholic, providing
evidence that throughout the centuries the free thought of secular Italian culture had not
been subordinated to the authority of the Church.1 In positing this view of history, these
intellectuals acted politically, representing the events and figures of the past in such a way
that they seemed to have prepared for the present, and the future, of the Italian nation
state.2
Intellectuals and their works were thus a crucial element of the project of the new Liberal
ruling order to ‘make Italians’, to encourage their adhesion to the Italian nation state, and
1
Alberto Asor Rosa, La cultura, in Storia d’Italia, 4, Dall’unità a oggi, vol. 2, Turin, Einaudi, 1975, 844.
2
Umberto Levra, Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, Turin, Comitato di Torino
dell’Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1992, vi.
87
to establish cultural hegemony.3 It is important to note, however, that the Liberal elite,
particularly under the leadership of the Destra storica, was pursuing a ‘nationalisation of
the middle classes’, rather than of the masses.4 Intellectuals were developing and
propounding their nationalist discourse primarily for those who had access to a high level
of culture. At least in the early decades of the life of the new kingdom, the audience for
this project of promoting an Italian identity based on a tradition of high culture represented
only a narrow section of society, especially given that in 1861 75% of the national
population was held to be illiterate.5 Thus the new government of Italy and its intellectual
elite gave most of its attention to the formation of a national, bourgeois ruling class, a
focus which was reflected by the fact that the main concern of successive governments
was secondary, not primary education.6
In this examination of the utilisation of Dante in the construction of a national identity in
the Liberal period, particular consideration will be paid to three great exponents of Italian
lay culture, Francesco De Sanctis, Pasquale Villari and Giosuè Carducci. These cultural
and political luminaries of nineteenth century Italy worked to publicise ideas of modern
secularism and national unity, and produced literary, historical and poetic works that were
fundamental to the construction of an Italian national cultural tradition. Their works
became part of the canon of Italian high culture – the formal, humanistic, rhetorical culture
which became the official culture of Liberal Italy – and remained at the heart of Italian
secondary and tertiary education well beyond the turn of the century.7 The contribution
these figures made to the cultural foundations of Italian national identity was enduring, and
they also participated in, and exerted influence over, the political life of the Liberal state.
Thus a study of their authoritative treatments of Dante is of substantial assistance in
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid., 49.
5
Alberto Asor Rosa, La cultura, 840.
6
S. Soldani & G. Turi, ‘Introduzione’, to S. Soldani & G. Turi, (eds.), Fare gli italiani:scuola e cultura
nell’Italia contemporanea: I, la nascita dello stato nazionale, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1993, 27.
7
Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and society, 1796-1896’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century,
Oxford-New York, OUP, 2000, 225.
88
achieving an understanding of the role the Florentine poet was made to play in the high
culture of the Liberal regime. While De Sanctis and Villari also applied their energies to
remedying the grave social problems of the new kingdom, the focus of this analysis is the
way these intellectuals tackled the issue of constructing a national identity for the new
Italy, and their utilisation of Dante in so doing. Such a project was by necessity
undertaken in the realm of high culture. And indeed the efforts of these figures to ‘make
Italians’ through their construction of an Italian national culture was founded on the
nineteenth century idea of the predominance of politics over social issues, which
encouraged them to believe that the lack of cohesion in Italian society was primarily due to
the absence of a national identity.8 Their work was thus conditioned by the belief that Italy
had to mean something as an idea if the division between ‘legal Italy’ and ‘real Italy’ was to
be overcome.9
The efforts of these great cultural figures were therefore directed towards promoting an
ideal vision of Italy, an undertaking which they believed to be fundamental in the early
years of the nascent state, if it were indeed going to succeed in achieving the aim of
becoming a great European power. This aspiration was, however, severely challenged by
the reality of the pressing social and economic problems facing the population. Little was
done immediately to ameliorate the poor social conditions, because to acknowledge Italy’s
serious backwardness would have tarnished the dream of making Italy a powerful nation
state. Intellectuals who had participated in the Risorgimento made the greatest
contribution to conferring on the concept of the Italian nation state a strongly idealised
character, and they were also the figures most likely to declare the inadequacy of the new
state.10 Their work was imbued with the belief, born during the Risorgimento, that with
unification Italy would achieve national greatness, that it would regain the glorious position
8
Umberto Levra, Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, 50.
9
Christopher Duggan, ‘Francesco Crispi, “political education” and the problem of Italian national
consciousness, 1860-1896’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 2(2), 1997, 145.
10
Alberto Asor Rosa, La cultura, 823.
89
in the world that it had held under the Roman empire, in the Middle Ages and in the
Renaissance.11
The practical challenges the new ruling elite faced in their efforts to construct a modern
nation state worthy of participation in the concert of great European nations were
considerable. Fundamental to this transformation was the rapid industrialisation of a
predominantly agricultural society. An equally important aim of the new Italian state was to
achieve the political consolidation and the administrative integration of its many new and
unfamiliar territories, the institution of which still did little to breach the deeply embedded
divisions within the state, above all between city and country, and the North and South of
the peninsula. The disparity between the development of northern regions and those of
the south and the islands would be the most obdurate of problems for the Liberal state,
one reflected in the lopsided improvement of literacy rates over the decades after
unification. In 1865 the illiterates of Lombardy constituted around 53% of the population,
while throughout the South they numbered upwards of 80%.12 By 1905 Lombardy had
confined the rate to 21%, whereas in the southern regions, it still ranged above 70%.13 For
all classes, urban centres were the central arenas of social and cultural development, and
the cultural and economic gap separating the small and predominantly urban ruling class
from the mass of impoverished, illiterate peasants was enormous.14 During Italy’s first
decade of life, government control over the new kingdom was tenuous, as it battled
economic depression, widespread poverty and social disorder, especially brigandage in
the South. In 1866, a week long rebellion in Sicily resulted in the military occupation of
Palermo and its subjection to martial law.15 The problems of poverty and violence were
11
Christopher Duggan, ‘Francesco Crispi, “political education” and the problem of Italian national
consciousness, 1860-1896’, 145.
12
John A. Davis, ‘Economy, society, and the state’, in John A. Davis(ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century,
13
Ibid.
14
Ibid.; Christopher Duggan, ‘Politics in the era of Depretis and Crispi 1870-96’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy
in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford-New York, OUP, 2000, 157.
15
Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: invention of a hero, London, New Haven, Yale UP, 2007, 348.
90
most acute in the South, and the gravity of the ‘social question’ became increasingly
recognised from the 1870s onwards.16
Despite the power of Risorgimento dreams for Italy, the new ruling elite struggled to
make the vision of an Italian nation equal in stature to that of the other European nation
states into a reality. The moderate, monarchical, and conservative leaders of the Right, in
power until 1876, experienced humiliation after humiliation in foreign policy, beginning with
Garibaldi’s ill-fated expedition of 1862 to conquer Rome, which ended with his interception
by Italian troops at Aspromonte in Calabria, and with a public outcry at the government’s
disrespectful shooting of Italy’s greatest hero.17 The 1866 war against Austria, which
resulted in the annexation of the Veneto to the kingdom of Italy, was not the glorious
campaign of a powerful state. It was instead a national disaster which saw the crushing
defeats of the Italian army at Custoza, and the Italian navy off the island of Lissa. This
humiliation was exacerbated by the fact that Italy’s ally, Prussia, made a separate peace
treaty with Austria, and that Austria actually ceded the Veneto to France, which only then
handed the prized territory to Italy, with little enthusiasm from the Italian public.18
1867 saw an even more disastrous episode for the government, when the indefatigable
Garibaldi again led volunteers to seize the eternal city, only to be turned back at Mentana
by papal troops, aided by the forces of Napoleon III. The skirmish reflected unfavourably
upon the king, and suggested to his subjects and international observers that the new Italy
was a weak power and an unreliable ally.19 The ultimate addition of Rome to united Italy
after September 1870 was not the heroic inauguration of the Third Rome ‘of the people’
and of ‘national principle’ envisioned by Mazzini: it had been achieved without popular
uprising or great military feat, and only due to the fact that the pope’s protector, France,
was distracted by its war against Prussia.20 In the wake of 1870, confidence in the new
16
Christopher Duggan, ‘Politics in the era of Depretis and Crispi 1870-96’, 158.
17
18
Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: invention of a hero, 347.
19
Ibid., 350-351.
20
91
liberal political order, and the idea of the Italian nation, which had been the holy grail of
Risorgimento patriots, began to wane, as the immensity of Italy’s social problems came to
the fore, and the economy deflated.
The 1880s saw the ascendancy in politics of the Sinistra storica, and with the lacklustre
Umberto I upon the throne, unable to match his father’s appeal as a symbol of national
unity, the monarchy experienced a decline in its popularity and political influence.21 The
Left dominated a more powerful parliament under Umberto I, and its practice of
trasformismo, whereby principles and programmes were sacrificed for the sake of
expediency, encouraged the view of parliamentary politics as corrupt among the cultural
elite. The last two decades of the nineteenth century was also a period when the critical
social divisions in Italy, of class, region and religion, became alarmingly apparent.22 From
1882 onwards violent strikes in the Po valley were common, working class movements
continued to grow, and the revolutionary Left finally established a political party in 1892.
From 1890 to the Great War, 11 million Italians emigrated in search of a more prosperous
life, above all from the impoverished South, a trend which further impeded the ruling elite’s
dream of making Italy a great nation.23
Such social instability had repercussions in the cultural realm, encouraging intellectuals
and politicians of the Left to abandon some of their Risorgimento idealism in favour of
greater social conservatism, and to accept the monarchical institution as they turned their
focus upon the fundamental problem of the conservation and development of the state.24
Although by the 1890s the culture of Italy’s Liberal elite had managed to achieve a
measure of hegemony, the consensus upon which it depended began to disintegrate. The
considerable discontent experienced by ever greater sections of Italian society was
difficult to ignore, and the ever more dramatic gap between ‘legal’ and ‘real’ Italy did not
21
Ibid., 165; Richard Drake, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, 1878-1900,
Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1980, xviii.
22
Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and society, 1796-1896’, 231.
23
John A. Davis, ‘Economy, society, and the state’, 239.
24
Alberto Asor Rosa, Sintesi di storia della letteratura italiana, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1975, 367.
92
assist in the inculcation of a strong sense of national identity in Italian citizens.25 The crisis
of the Liberal state culminated in the 1890s, with the near failure of the entire banking
system in 1890, and the great rural unrest in Sicily in 1893, which had resulted from the
new tariffs and trade war with France of 1887-1889, and the collapse of a huge speculative
boom in urban development that had grown in the 1880s.26
Liberal Italy did not fare much better in the international sphere, with the failure of yet
another of Italy’s military endeavours after the humiliating defeat at Adowa in Ethiopia in
March 1896, which led to the collapse of Crispi’s government. Crispi’s retreat from politics
marked the end of the phase of Italian history characterised by the attempt to insert Italy
into the concert of European powers, without having first resolved its big social problems,
those created and exacerbated by the attempts to form a modern industrial nation state.27
The greatest threat to the survival of the new Italian nation state was the well-established
Catholic opposition which continued to challenge the cultural consensus of the Liberal
state. Like other European states in the nineteenth century, Italy experienced a period of
heightened political and cultural conflict over the issue of religious allegiances in a modern
nation state.28 Yet given the residence of the papacy in the peninsula, the struggle
between the state and the Catholic Church in Italy was unique.29 From the 1850s the
papacy had adopted an increasingly intransigent approach to all forms of political change,
and had declared itself the enemy of the national movement.30 The continued hostility of
the pope to the new Italy made the consolidation of rule even more difficult, as it was an
impediment to gaining the allegiance of Italians, and to winning recognition from foreign
governments.31 Pope Pius IX refused to recognise the legitimacy of the new state,
25
26
John A. Davis, ‘Economy, society, and the state’, 252.
27
Alberto Asor Rosa, Sintesi di storia della letteratura italiana, 366.
28
Martin Papenheim, ‘Roma o morte: culture wars in Italy’, trans. by C. Clark, in C. Clark & W. Kaiser
(eds.), Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth –Century Europe, Cambridge, CUP, 2003, 202.
29
Ibid.
30
David I. Kertzer, ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century,
31
Ibid., 191.
93
instructed Catholics to refuse it their loyalty, and appealed to Catholic powers to assist the
Church in restoring its lost temporal power.32 Consequently, the main concern of Italian
foreign policy after 1870 was the papacy, with the government in anxious expectation that
Catholic nations would intervene to restore Rome to the pope.33 Under Cavour and his
followers on the Right, the state had pursued a policy of ‘a free Church in a free state’,
hoping to gain the Church’s blessing for the new Italy.34 Despite such efforts, Pius IX was
unrelenting in his hostility, issuing the encyclical Quanta cura and the Syllabus of Errors in
1864, in which he listed the principal errors of the day, and proclaimed his resistance to
the state sponsored doctrines of the abolition of the temporal power of the Church, the
separation of Church and state, progress, liberalism, and to modern civilisation in
general.35
By 1867 the Italian state had come to realise that accord with the Church was impossible,
and instead began to work to reduce the Church’s power. Ecclesiastical estates were
sold, monasteries and convents closed, the clergy was made eligible for military
conscription, civil marriage was introduced, and most importantly, the Church’s traditional
hold over education was tackled, with the establishment of public elementary schools in
every town.36 In 1868 the pope issued his non expedit, instructing loyal Catholics not to
participate in Italian political life, and in this way the pope wielded his considerable power
to influence the majority of eligible voters in the new state.37 Soon after having announced
the doctrine of papal infallibility at the first Vatican council in 1870, Pius IX witnessed the
breach of the Porta Pia on 20 September, and subsequently declared himself a prisoner of
the Vatican, and continued to maintain that the state had usurped his power. In 1871 the
relations between Church and state were slightly improved by the institution of the Law of
Guarantees, by which the pope was given the status of an independent sovereign power,
32
Ibid., 192.
33
Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1995, London-New York, Longman, 46.
34
David I. Kertzer, ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, 192.
35
Ibid., 191.
36
Ibid., 194.
37
94
received compensation for his territorial loss with an endowment from the state, and by
which the Church was free to make its own appointments as an autonomous, separate
institution.38 For the state, education appeared to be the only effective weapon against the
influence the Church had over the masses. To this end, under the predominantly
anticlerical Left, parliament passed the Coppino law in 1877, the first major piece of
reforming legislation introduced in the new state, by which elementary education was to be
free and compulsory and religion to be dropped from the curriculum.39
The Church also extended its crusade against the state to the cultural sphere. In the mid
nineteenth century the Church pioneered the publication of newspapers with a national
audience, revealing that despite the pope’s protestations against the evils of modernity
with his Syllabus, the Church was willing to use unprecedented forms of communication in
its struggle to defeat the Liberal state on spiritual terrain. In 1850 the Jesuit journal Civiltà
Cattolica was established and became the unofficial mouthpiece of the pope.40 Civiltà
Cattolica became the most authoritative source of Church opinion, and the early decades
of its life were dedicated to the battle against liberalism.41 In 1861 the Osservatore
Romano was founded, and it came to be seen as the official newspaper of the Vatican.42
In its battle against the power of the liberal state, the Catholic opposition was also active in
other ways, with the formation of the first lay organisation in 1865, the establishment of the
first national Catholic association in 1867, the Società della Gioventù Cattolica Italiana,
and in 1874 the most influential lay group was created, the Opera dei Congressi e dei
Comitati Cattolici.43
In the last decade of the nineteenth century the most profound challenge to the Liberal
state still came from the Church. Pius IX’s successor after his death in 1878, Leo XIII,
38
David I. Kertzer, ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, 196; Martin Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1995, 83.
39
David I. Kertzer, ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, 194; Federico Chabod, Italian Foreign Policy: the
statecraft of the founders, trans. by William McCuaig, Princeton, Princeton UP, 1996, 220.
40
David I. Kertzer, ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, 197.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid., 197-198.
95
discovered an effective way of gaining the allegiance of Italian Catholics by taking an
active interest in the plight of the lower classes.44 In 1891 the pope issued an encyclical
on the ‘social question’ entitled Rerum Novarum, which condemned existing capitalist
society and ordered Catholics to transform it. The pope also proclaimed that employers
should pay a just wage, and that social and welfare services should be offered in order to
alleviate the suffering caused by liberal economic policies.45 With this version of ‘papal
socialism’, the Church was in effect placing itself in competition with the new socialist
movements for the loyalty of the lower classes.46 The underlying aim of these measures to
mobilise Catholic opinion in support of the Church remained, however, the reacquisition of
the papal state.47
In 1897 and 1898 the state attacked the growing cultural and social influence of the
Church when it dissolved Catholic associations, including its educational and economic
endeavours, and banned the publication of Catholic journals.48 This persecution ultimately
led the Church and its faithful to see the prudence of conciliation with the state, especially
given the rising socialist threat to the hegemonic aims of both the state and the Church,
and the traditional Catholic intransigence to Liberal Italy gradually abated.49 From the
early 1900s the government could begin to depend on tacit Catholic support, and the non
expedit was gradually abandoned from 1904 to 1909.50 In 1911 the war in Libya was
welcomed by Catholics as an opportunity to demonstrate their patriotism, and in 1913 the
Gentiloni Pact saw the partial ‘absorption’ of Catholics into the parliamentary system, an
indication that the Church’s influence in Italian society had become somewhat more
acceptable than it had been in the early decades of Italian independence and unity.51
44
45
Martin Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1995, 106; N. Doumanis, Italy, 111-112.
46
47
Martin Papenheim, ‘Roma o morte: culture wars in Italy’, 203.
48
Martin Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1995, 108.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid., 159.
96
The initial and inevitable difficulties of a practical nature and the serious opposition of the
Church, faced by the ruling elite as they endeavoured to construct the Italian nation state,
presented them with a sobering reality. The contrast between the poetic Risorgimento
vision of national unity, and the prosaic nature of contemporary Italy, prompted the growth
of a sense of moral disappointment with nationhood. According to the Risorgimento
dream of the Italian nation propagated by nationalist letterati, national unification was
meant to remedy the ailments of Italy, not multiply them. By the 1880s a nostalgia for the
heroic age of the early nineteenth century and contempt for the present had become a
rhetorical convention among Liberal intellectuals with political interests, and the view of
Italy as a weak and failed nation was enduring.52 This culture of recrimination, which was
often justified by an ideal of a determined course of ‘national society’, was ultimately the
result of incomprehension of the problems unleashed by unification.53 By the late 1870s
the climate of social and political instability that enveloped Italy, the intractability of regional
differences, and the disparity between the North and South, seemed evidence that
unification had not been achieved. Consequently, the legitimacy of the Liberal ruling class
which had emerged from the Risorgimento was undermined by its inability to solve Italy’s
problems.54
The disillusionment at the unfulfilled dreams of the Risorgimento was exacerbated by the
corruption of parliament, particularly under the leadership of the Left. Condemnation of the
official political world became common among the cultural elite, who scorned the loss of
Risorgimento heroism to the practice of indifference, compromise and corruption.55 Many
intellectuals concluded that, on the whole, unity had done little to change Italy’s system of
government and power structures. Rather there was significant continuity between the
52
Richard Drake, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, xiv.
53
Alberto Asor Rosa, La Cultura, 833.
54
55
97
oppressed and divided Italy of the early nineteenth century, and corrupt Italy of the late
nineteenth century, where liberalism merely functioned as a mask for authoritarianism.56
The most prominent feature of the culture of disappointment occasioned by the contrast
between the Risorgimento idea of national unity and the reality of the Italian state was the
‘Roman question’. Until 1870 the polemics about Rome had centred upon the exclusion of
the eternal city from the newly united nation, and after the seizure of the city from papal
control in September 1870, upon its continued subjection to Church influence. The
nation’s capital also inevitably came to be associated with the universal corruption of the
political world. One popular theme in this culture of deprecatio temporum was that Italy
had been given a ‘Byzantium for Rome’, whereby ‘Byzantium’ stood for a decadent,
effeminate past of corruption and decline, and ‘Rome’ was a symbol of a glorious, virile
past of Latin strength and conquest.57 Where, many intellectuals lamented, was the new,
glorious ‘Terza Roma del Popolo’ Mazzini had prophesied, destined to succeed the Rome
of the Caesars and the Rome of the Popes? Just as Mazzini had contributed much to the
construction of the idea of the Italian nation, so he exerted a considerable influence on the
idea of Rome in nineteenth century Italy. Garibaldi, known for his cry of ‘Roma o morte’,
had also contributed to the development of this myth of Rome.58 The heroic defence that
he and fellow patriots from all regions of Italy had undertaken of the Roman Republic of
1848-49, had placed Rome at the heart of the Risorgimento, and Garibaldi’s later failed
attempts to seize the city from papal control, despite government opposition, further
enhanced the idea of Rome as indispensable to the Italian nation. The idea of Rome had
always been universal in scope, but in the Italian nation state, the resurgent Rome
belonged not to the people, but to the elite.59 This myth of Rome effectively became a
56
Ibid., 835.
57
Richard Drake, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, xiii.
58
Federico Chabod, Italian Foreign Policy: the statecraft of the founders , 172.
59
R. J. B. Bosworth, Italy, the Least of the Great Powers:Italian foreign policy before the First World War,
London-New York, Cambridge UP, 1979, 8.
98
burden for the Liberal state as it strove, and failed, to create its own universal mission, to
institute the ‘Terza Italia’.
***
In their efforts to solve the many problems of Liberal Italy, in particular that of Italy’s
‘moral’ unification, some intellectuals called upon the figure of Dante. One such figure was
the Neapolitan academic, literary critic and politician Francesco De Sanctis, whose
treatment of Dante was fundamental to the construction of the myth of the poet as a
national symbol of a secular Italian nation. His Storia della letteratura italiana made an
essential contribution to the construction of a narrative that furnished the basis for an
Italian national identity, and strove to present the unification of Italy as an inevitable stage
in the nation’s long-lived history. In his highly regarded history De Sanctis characterised
Dante as the ideal representative of an Italian national character against whom all other
cultural figures were to be measured. While research on Dante and Italian literature was
broadened in subsequent decades, the enduring significance of De Sanctis’s history was
that his utilisation of Dante as the yardstick of all Italian literature was not questioned, and
thus De Sanctis was most influential in the attribution of primary importance to Dante in
Italian national culture.60 De Sanctis was also not immune to indulging in a politicised
reading of the poet as a proponent of a secular Italian state, which was common in the
years after unification.
De Sanctis’s political experiences before and after unification, and his decidedly romantic
cultural formation, conditioned the development of the ethical and political character which
imbued all his cultural activity. Born in Avellino in 1817, De Sanctis studied and later
taught at the University of Naples, where he was most influenced by the writings of
Sismondi, Gioberti, Foscolo, German idealist philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, and later, by the
60
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, Rivista storica italiana, 78(3), 1966, 568-69.
99
fervently nationalist thought of Mazzini.61 De Sanctis first became politically active with his
adherence to the association Unità Italiana led by fellow Neapolitan patriot Luigi
Settembrini. His participation in the failed uprising against Bourbon rule in 1848 led to his
arrest in 1850 and to a 3 year imprisonment as a suspected Mazzinian. As a political
emigré from 1854 onwards, first in Turin and then in Zurich, De Sanctis taught Italian
literature and further refined his studies of Dante and his idea of the poet’s central role in
an organic and coherent history of Italian literature. De Sanctis returned to Italy after
Garibaldi’s conquest of Naples in 1860, and became the first minister for education under
Cavour, and then under Bettino Ricasoli. A member of parliament from 1862 to 1867, De
Sanctis later returned to the post of minister for education in 1878, and from 1879 to 1881.
As one of the principal exponents of the Hegelian School of Naples, which strove to give
philosophical justification to the Italian nation state and to establish a national culture, De
Sanctis became one of the first intellectuals to maintain that the renewal of Italian
institutions could be achieved only by first reforming the consciousness and morality of
new Italian citizens.62 One of his many articles published in the newspaper Il Diritto in
1877 attests to this belief in the need to achieve the moral regeneration of Italians through
the creation of a national culture:
All’Italia è necessaria … una coltura seria e propria, che diventi suo

patrimonio nazionale e faccia la sua educazione politica.
La coltura illumina l’avvenire e fissa il significato di certe idee direttive, e
crea la fede in quelle, e l’ardire a recarle ad effetto. Onde nasce la
restaurazione della forza morale e del carattere nazionale.63
De Sanctis’s plans to reform the education system, from universities down to elementary
schools, reflected his concerns that education would redeem the Italian nation after three
centuries of decadence.64
61
Sergio Landucci, Cultura e ideologia in Francesco De Sanctis, Milan, Feltrinelli, 1964, 48, 59.
62
Alberto Asor Rosa, La Cultura, 851, 854.
63
Francesco De Sanctis, ‘La monarchia nazionale’, Scritti politici di Francesco De Sanctis raccolti da
Giuseppe Ferrarelli, 2nd edn, Naples, Antonio Murano, 1890, 75. This article was first published 5 July 1877
in the newspaper Il Diritto.
100
Two articles written by De Sanctis in 1865, ostensibly to comment upon the celebrations
of the sixth centenary of Dante’s birth, indicated his commitment to the promotion of a
national identity, and were clearly an act of political propaganda for the new liberal Italy.
They affirmed the already widely held understanding of Dante as the prophet of national
unification conceived by Risorgimento patriots. They also propounded a ‘neo-Ghibelline’
interpretation of Dante’s political ideas, by arguing that the medieval poet had envisioned
the future establishment of a secular Italian state, and the end to papal claims to temporal
power. These articles took quite a different tone from his serious academic treatments of
the poet’s thought, which he would later synthesise in his Storia della letteratura italiana.
The simplicity of his analysis suggests that De Sanctis was addressing a more popular
audience, and was concerned primarily with the promotion of the new Italian nation state.
The exultant spirit of the articles also reflected the triumphant, hopeful mentality shared by
many intellectuals in the first five years following unification. In 1865, before the inglorious
national episodes of 1866 and 1867, the events of 1861 still seemed a great feat of the
new Italian nation, and held the promise of the future achievement of the ultimate and
crowning aim of the Risorgimento, the seizure of Rome from the Church.
In an article entitled ‘Onorate l’Altissimo Poeta!’, published in Neapolitan newspaper
L’Italia in 1865, De Sanctis declared that Dante needed to be celebrated because he was
a great poet, and because he was ‘il fondatore e l’unificatore della … lingua’.65 Yet the
focus of De Sanctis’s argument in this piece was that Dante should to be revered as the
inspiration and guiding spirit of the unification of Italy: ‘Dante è stata la nostra stella
nell’avversità; Dante è l’Eroe del nostro risorgimento; tutti gl’italiani dicono: il pensiero di
Dante è attuato’.66 The political import of this essay resides in De Sanctis’s claim that
Dante had ascribed to ‘il Pensiero Ghibellino’. He refuted the criticism by foreign
64
Denis Mack Smith, ‘Francesco De Sanctis: the politics of a literary critic’, in John A. Davis & Paul
Ginsborg (eds.), Society and Politics in the age of the Risorgimento, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1991, 269.
65
F. De Sanctis, ‘Onorate L’Altissimo Poeta!’, Scritti politici, 30. This article was first published 20 May
1865 in the newspaper L’Italia of Naples.
66
Ibid., 27.
101
commentators of the sixth centenary celebrations in Florence that the so called ‘Ghibelline’
political thought of Dante was ‘il sogno del passato… una sintesi confusa di ciò che fu, non
la base di ciò che sarà’.67 He instead affirmed that this interpretation of Dante’s thought
which held it to support the separation of Church and state continued to have relevance in
contemporary Italy: ‘In questo Pensiero generalizzato e idealizzato ci è il Passato, ma ci è
ancora l’Avvenire’.68
In a following article entitled ‘Il Pensiero di Dante’, De Sanctis expounded his
interpretation of Dante’s political philosophy and its significance for the new Italian nation
state. With this exegesis he clearly intended to promote and publicise the idea of a
modern, united, and above all secular Italian nation in the name of Dante. De Sanctis
identified two central political concepts in the thought of Dante, the institution of which he
presented as a long held aim of ‘Italians’:
Così le due idee più care agl’italiani, che furono l’obietto di sforzi secolari
dalla parte loro per recarle ad atto, sono per essi il Pensiero di Dante, tutto
quel Pensiero: Unità italiana costituita sulla doppia base dell’emancipazione
dallo straniero e la emancipazione dal clero.69
De Sanctis proposed that the fundamental tenet of Dante’s thought was the ‘abolizione
del potere temporale, indipendenza piena del Papato nell’ordine spirituale’.70 It is
significant that he made sure to point out that this idea was not just ‘un incidente nello
sviluppo del Pensiero dantesco’, but in fact ‘come il Protagonista, la condizione sine qua
non, la base del suo edificio’.71 In 1865 the unification of the Italian peninsula had been
achieved, but the complete abolition of the pope’s temporal power had not been effected,
given his continued possession of Rome. The Church was still perceived as a serious
threat to Italian unity and to the hegemony of the secular, liberal state. By giving the
67
Ibid., 29.
68
Ibid., 31.
69
F. De Sanctis, ‘Il pensiero di Dante’, 35-36.
70
Ibid., 32.
71
Ibid., 33.
102
concept of the separation of Church and state primacy in this popular exposition of Dante’s
thought, De Sanctis gained considerable rhetorical power for his message.
De Sanctis also presented Dante’s conception of the separation of Church and state as a
prophecy for the future of Europe, not just Italy. He thus implied that the rise of secular
nation states, and the retreat of the Church to the domination of a purely spiritual realm,
was inevitable: ‘era il punto di partenza e la meta di una rivoluzione non solo italiana, ma
europea. La meta è: affrancamento del Laicato; la storia d’Europa è tutto un conato
gigantesco verso questa meta’.72 He explained that in Germany, Dante’s vision of the
abolition of the temporal power of the Church had been achieved with ‘una rivoluzione
radicale, con lo scisma, con la negazione del Papato’.73 He proposed that the newly
created Italy, however, would conform more closely to the poet’s vision, because it would
conserve ‘il Papato nella pienezza della sua Sovranità spirituale, ma risecandone ogni
temporalità, come ad esso estranea e dannosa’.74 This qualification of the particular
application of what De Sanctis held to be Dante’s prophecy of the rise of the secular state
in Italy reflected his ambivalence regarding the role of religion in Italian society. Although
he was one of the great champions of a liberal, lay state and culture in united Italy, De
Sanctis did not, in fact, favour the abolition of religious education in schools. He was
concerned that for the majority of new Italian citizens who were devoutly Catholic, such a
suppression would leave a void that rationalism and science would not be able to fill.75 As
his interpretation of Dante’s thought suggested, De Sanctis believed that the Church
should maintain its role as a spiritual guide to Italians if the new Italian state were to have
any success in effecting a moral regeneration of Italian society. Despite his commitment
to the idea of a secular state, De Sanctis seemed to doubt that a lay religion would be able
to resonate with the Italian population and help to effect a renewal of character.
72
Ibid.
73
Ibid., 34.
74
Ibid.
75
Guido Verucci, L’Italia laica prima e dopo l’unità 1848-1876: anticlericalismo, libero pensiero e ateismo
nella società italiana, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 1981, 148.
103
The other fundamental tenet of Dante’s political thought according to De Sanctis was
‘l’unificazione delle genti italiane’.76 De Sanctis devoted only one paragraph to explaining
this concept, because unlike the complete eradication of the pope’s temporal power, the
political unity of Italy had been recently instituted, prompting him to propagandise it with
only a brief explanation:
Municipii liberi ed autonomi significava per Dante: anarchia e debolezza; e

mentre i più de’ suoi contemporanei vedevano questo o quel municipio, egli
abbracciò nel grande animo tutta l’Italia, e flagellò con indignazione
immortale le divisioni municipali, fino in quelle differenze che pur sono
naturali; le differenze dei dialetti.77
De Sanctis concluded his politically educative article with a vision of a future progressive,
secular and united Europe inspired by the thought of Dante:
L’ideale di Dante oltrepassa l’Italia. E se un giorno, unificate le razze,

affrancato il laicato, avremo quella federazione europea che è nell’animo
de’ più nobili pensatori moderni, e che è la conclusione e la corona del
Pensiero di Dante; la festa del suo nuovo centenario non sarà solo festa
italiana, sarà festa europea. E forse allora prenderanno parte alla festa non
solo i dotti e gli eruditi di Vienna e Berlino, ma tutte le popolazioni europee
affrancate e affratellate.78
De Sanctis would not be the only Italian thinker to so fantasise about the international
possibilities of an interpretation of the Florentine poet’s thought. This conception of
Dante’s calls for a return to empire echoed Mazzini’s utilisation of Dante in his promotion
of a vision of universal peace and co-operation. It is of course quite in contrast to the
interpretation of Dante’s hopes for the renewal of a Roman empire that would be the
predominant trend at the time of the 1921 centenary celebration of the poet, to which De
Sanctis referred. De Sanctis’s hopes for the blossoming of a ‘European federation’ of
secular states, in keeping with his reading of Dante’s vision, would be supplanted by an
ultranationalistic analysis of Dante, favoured by some commentators of the early twentieth
century, which justified Italian expansionist and imperial ambitions.
76
Ibid., 35.
77
Ibid., 35.
78
Ibid., 36.
104
De Sanctis’s Storia della letteratura italiana, first published in 1870-71, can be seen as an
important attempt to effect a moral revolution among new Italians by educating them in the
history of an Italian national culture and by providing them with a clear indication, above all
exemplified in the figure of Dante, of what it meant to be Italian. Published after the
philological and scientific reaction to the influence of romanticism had begun, it
consequently attracted little attention for several decades. After the turn of the century
however, it gained considerable recognition and gave birth to a new cultural trend of
idealism that discarded the academic judgements that measured literature by fixed rules
and models, which had been encouraged in the late nineteenth century by the rise of
positivism.79 One of the most notable works of romantic and idealistic literary history which
has remained valid for successive generations of scholars, the Storia della letteratura
italiana identified the development of Italian literature with the civil and ethical life of the
Italian nation through the centuries, and presented Italian literature as the voice of the
Italian people evolving towards national consciousness and freedom.80 As Pasquale Villari
contended, the monumental history was clearly a reflection of the critic’s romantic
conception of literature as ‘la personificazione vivente dello spirito stesso della nazione’,
by which he believed that ‘a far progredire, a liberare l’una era necessario far progredire,
liberare l’altra’.81 Indeed, as De Sanctis stated in his appraisal of the Renaissance in Italy,
‘La letteratura non poteva risorgere che con la risurrezione della coscienza nazionale’.82
This examination of the strengths and weaknesses of Italian literature as the manifestation
of the state of national awareness was most decidedly a reconstruction of the past that
responded to the need in a recently unified Italy for a national history to establish its
identity.
79
Benedetto Croce, ‘Introduction’, to F. De Sanctis, History of Italian Literature, trans. by Joan Redfern, vol.
1, London, OUP, 1930, v-vi.
80
Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and society, 1796-1896’, 225; Andrea Ciccarelli, ‘Dante and Italian culture from
the Risorgimento to World War I’, Dante Studies, 119, 2001, 135.
81
Pasquale Villari, ‘Francesco De Sanctis e la critica’, Nuova Antologia, 73, Feb 1884, 398.
82
F. De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, vol. 2, Bari, Laterza, 1964, 217.
105
De Sanctis’s representation of Dante in the Storia della letteratura italiana echoed his
interpretation of the poet in his 1865 essays as the prophet of Italian national unification,
but in a much more subtle manner. He less explicitly proposed that Dante’s thought
contained a vision of the future Italian nation with his claim that the poet’s Divina
Commedia was a ‘bibbia nazionale’ which contained ‘nel suo grembo ancora involute tutta
la materia e tutte le forme poetiche, il germe di ogni sviluppo ulteriore’.83 He appraised
Dante’s Monarchia as a revelation of ‘tutto l’avvenire: ci era l’affrancamento del laicato e
l’avviamento a più larghe unità … qui al di là del comune vedi la nazione, e al di là della
nazione l’umanità, la confederazione delle nazioni. Era un’utopia che segnava la via della
storia’.84 This statement confirmed that in the work of Dante the concept of the secular
state was to be found, providing historical justification for the rise of the modern nation
state. Despite this reading which cast Dante as precursor of secularism, De Sanctis
claimed to disdain the politicisation of the poet. Indeed, he even criticised the partisan
employment of Dante so common to studies of the poet’s works in the early nineteenth
century: ‘Dante è divenuto un nome che spaventa, irto di sillogismi e soprasensi, e spesso
sei ridotto a domandarti: - Qual è il vero Dante? – Poiché ciascun comentatore ha il suo,
ciascuno gli appicca le opinioni e passioni sue, e lo fa cantare a suo modo; e chi ne fa un
apostolo di libertà, di umanità, di nazionalità, chi un precursore di Lutero, chi un santo
padre. Cercano Dante dove non è’.85
De Sanctis did not hesitate to reveal the image of the ‘true Dante’. In his interpretation,
the Florentine poet was the greatest model of a poet, and the exemplar of the Italian
national spirit. Having studied Dante and his works for over 30 years, De Sanctis’s idea
for a comprehensive literary history was indeed born with Dante as its founding
83
F. De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana , vol. 1, Bari, Laterza, 1964,173.
84
Ibid., 136-137.
85
Ibid., 164-165.
106
personality, and with the constant reference point of the Divina Commedia in mind.86 For
De Sanctis, Italian literature had reached its greatest manifestation with Dante, who was
the first to achieve in his Divina Commedia the perfect relationship between imaginative
inspiration and a fervid moral life.87 De Sanctis’s idealistic aesthetics did much to condition
his particular conception of Dante’s poetry as the highest form of art. This innovative
philosophy held that literature is a form of the complex life of the spirit; it also viewed true
artistic expression as the product of a powerful imaginative faculty transforming an idea
into a form that makes abstract thought into concrete representation.88 Of greatest
significance to De Sanctis’s study of Dante and his place in Italian culture, however, was
his life-long commitment to the romantic mentality shared by both Mazzini and Gioberti
that art is only successful if it is ideally, ethically, and politically useful.89
Accordingly Dante’s Divina Commedia was ‘il mondo universale del medio evo realizzato
dall’arte’90, a work which included ‘Il concetto della nuova civiltà … tutto lo scibile, tutta la
coltura e tutta la storia’.91 This work, imbued with an ethical and civic spirit, was created by
a poet who was ‘consapevole della sua elevatezza morale e della sua potenza
intellettuale, gli stanno innanzi, acuti stimoli all’opera, la patria, la posterità, l’adempimento
di quella sacra missione che Dio affida all’ingegno … ci è là dentro nella sua sincerità tutto
l’uomo’.92 It was this ‘sincerity’ and ‘consciousness’ of moral and social responsibility,
identified in Dante, that represented De Sanctis’s conception of the national and
indigenous spirit that he wished to see renewed in the Italian nation state.
After Dante, however, came a long phase of decadence in the history of Italian literature
and a decline in the moral and national consciousness, initiated when Petrarch invented
86
Aldo Vallone, ‘L’interpretazione dantesca di Francesco De Sanctis’, Cultura e Scuola, 22(86), 1983, 50.
The chapters on Dante in the Storia della letteratura italiana were essentially a synthesis of his teachings on
the Florentine poet from his first Neapolitan lessons 1839-1848 and his Torinese lessons 1854-1855.
87
88
Ibid..
89
90
F. De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, vol. 1, 175.
91
Ibid., 243.
92
Ibid.
107
the figure of the ‘artist’ or ‘man of letters’, and removed ethical considerations from the act
of writing. Other writers who followed Petrarch’s example produced works that, while
splendid, perpetuated the tradition of literature which did not take its impetus from moral
values and a sense of civil responsibility.93
The writer who manifested the greatest divergence from the morally committed tradition
of art epitomised by Dante was Renaissance politician and historian Francesco
Guicciardini. De Sanctis deplored the Florentine writer’s ethos of ‘Pensa come vuoi, ma
fa’ come ti torna. La regola della vita è “l’interesse proprio”, “il tuo particulare”’, and
characterised him as a man who ‘non [credeva] alla virtù, alla generosità, al patriottismo, al
sacrificio, al disinteresse’.94 Guicciardini and authors of his mentality hastened the
corruption of Italy, and their self-serving approach to life and literature ensured that in the
Italy of their time ‘la coscienza era vuota e mancava ogni degno scopo della vita’.95 De
Sanctis held the predominance of men like this ‘uomo del Guicciardini’ to be not only the
cause of Italy’s decadence in the past, but also the main obstacle to national regeneration
and greatness in the new kingdom of Italy. His essay entitled ‘L’uomo del Guicciardini’
published in Nuova Antologia in 1869 made this opinion very clear:
Non c’è spettacolo più miserevole di tanta impotenza e fiacchezza in tanta

saviezza [dell’uomo del Guicciardini].
La razza italiana non è ancora sanata da questa fiacchezza morale, e non è
ancora scomparso dalla sua fronte quel marchio che ci ha impresso la
storia di doppiezza e di simulazione. L’uomo del Guicciardini “vivit, imo in
Senatum venit”, e lo incontri ad ogni passo. E quest’uomo fatale
c’impedisce la via, se non abbiamo la forza di ucciderlo nella nostra
coscienza.96
The intellectual’s great belief that the fulfilment of Risorgimento hopes for unity would have
made Italy strong, glorious and imbued with a national spirit, was disappointed by the
reality of the nascent state’s many problems, and lack of national consciousness among its
93
94
F. De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, vol. 2, 105, 106.
95
Ibid., 106.
96
F. De Sanctis, ‘L’uomo del Guicciardini’, Saggi critici, vol. 3, edited by Luigi Russo, Bari, Laterza, 1963,
23. This essay was first published in October 1869 in Nuova Antologia.
108
citizens. A disillusioned De Sanctis came to believe that Italy’s ineffective political system,
burdened by an overabundance of professional politicians who more closely ressembled
his ‘uomo del Guicciardini’ than his idealised Dante, a model for ethical and civil
responsibility, was one of the main obstacles to its progress as a nation.
Another significant aspect of the Storia della letteratura italiana in a consideration of De
Sanctis’s promotion of Dante as the great exemplar of Italian national identity was the way
it made direct comparisons between the medieval poet and his Risorgimento counterparts.
Like Dante, poets such as Giuseppe Parini, Alfieri and Foscolo were praised for the
politically and socially committed nature of their art, which marked a renewal of Italian
culture and a raising of national consciousness in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. The context for Parini’s poetry was ‘morale e politica: … la libertà,
l’uguaglianza, la patria, la dignità, cioè la corrispondenza tra il pensiero e l’azione … [era]
la forma di Dante…’.97 Alfieri lived in spirit with Dante as ‘l’uomo nuovo che si pone in atto
di sfida in mezzo a’ contemporanei’, and who ‘volle essere redentore d’Italia’.98 Foscolo
was also formed in the school of Dante, and De Sanctis hailed him as ‘il patriota, il
liber’uomo … L’uomo nuovo [che] s’integra’, whose great nationalist ode Dei sepolcri was
the ‘prima voce lirica della nuova letteratura, l’affermazione della coscienza rifatta’.99
Such characterisations of patriotic literary figures of the Risorgimento as the inheritors of
Dante’s mission to keep alive a national sentiment suggested that it was also possible to
draw parallels between Dante and the actual protagonists of the struggle for national
independence. In the post-unification project to create a pantheon of Risorgimento
heroes, it seemed only natural that Dante, as the father of Italian civilisation, should take
his place alongside the fathers of the Italian nation’s rebirth.100 De Sanctis’s portrayal of
Risorgimento figures, and their affinity with Dante, can be seen as a preliminary
contribution to the myth of the Risorgimento which would be developed particularly under
97
Ibid., 368.
98
Ibid., 370, 372.
99
Ibid., 384, 390, 388.
100
Andrea Ciccarelli, ‘Dante and Italian culture from the Risorgimento to World War I’, 137.
109
the aegis of a Left dominated government in the last two decades of the nineteenth
century. In this period, when the reality of an Italy fraught with social divisions could no
longer be ignored, a unitary vision of the Risorgimento was constructed by the state and its
ruling elite with the objective of mobilising the population around liberal values, and giving
legitimacy to the government.101
***
A study of the treatment of Dante by historian Pasquale Villari also reveals much about
the creation of an image of Dante as an icon of the secular Italian nation and its state.
Villari was an exemplary proponent of the culture of Liberal Italy, which was essentially
bourgeois, secular, moralistic and committed to the idea of progress.102 His extensive
studies contributed to the construction of a narrative of Italian history which served the
national interest, an undertaking which he held to be his patriotic duty. The approach
Villari took to his study of Dante, which placed at its core the promotion of Dante as a
sacred symbol of italianità, was also characteristic of the attitude intellectuals had toward
the study of Dante in the late nineteenth century. This new trend, influenced by the
burgeoning enthusiasm for positivism and the historical method, generally eschewed
reducing the interpretation of Dante’s works to a pretext for indulging in partisan polemics,
which had been common until the conquest of Rome. However, the image of Dante as an
exemplary Italian, a romantically inspired theme that had been welded to the very concept
of the Italian nation during the Risorgimento, was not cast off, but instead remained a
common feature of the study of Dante.103
Pasquale Villari was born in Naples in 1826 where he was a student of De Sanctis until
1848, when they both participated in the Neapolitan revolt of 15 May. Consequently Villari
101
Umberto Levra, Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, vii-viii.
102
103
Aldo Vallone, La critica dantesca nell’ottocento, Florence, Olschki, 1958, 192.
110
went into exile in Florence, where he remained for the rest of his life. In 1859 he took up a
position teaching history at the university of Pisa, and from 1865 until 1913 he held the
chair of history at the Istituto di Studi Superiori in Florence. Villari was also involved in
numerous other Florentine cultural institutions, including the Accademia della Crusca and
the Società Dantesca Italiana. He was a member of parliament from 1873 to 1876, and in
the years 1880 to 1882; he was made senator in 1884, was the minister for education
1891-92 under prime minister Antonio Di Rudinì, and was the president of the Società
Dante Alighieri from 1896 until 1903. Villari had been chosen as the second president of
the Dante Alighieri based on his political image, which the society hoped would be a
powerful aid in its attempt to shed the anti-moderate and anti-clerical stance that had
seemed implicit in the birth of the association.104 A freemason, passionate nationalist, and
one of the first intellectuals to address mounting concerns about the ‘Southern Question’,
Villari assumed his mantle as president of the Dante Alighieri in the hope of exploring new
themes and methods of social intervention. At the same time his prominent presence was
meant to reassure both Catholics and the conservative, monarchic ruling group, that the
Dante Alighieri harboured no radical or subversive intentions.105
In his early works of history, Villari rejected the neo-Ghibelline and neo-Guelph divisions
when considering the Italian past, and instead looked for the unity of Italian history in the
Middle Ages and the political liberty of the Comuni, which appealed to him as the sacred
age of Italian history.106 In his search for a path to national renewal and glory, the figures
of Savonarola and Machiavelli were most favoured by Villari as role models. Machiavelli
was to be revered as a champion of Italian political renewal, and Savonarola as the
104
Beatrice Pisa, ‘Pasquale Villari e la Dante Alighieri: considerazioni su sette anni di mandato
presidenziale’, Storia contemporanea, 23(3), 1992, 428.
105
Ibid.
106
Antonio Panella, ‘Pasquale Villari: Discorso commemorativo letto il 22 dicembre 1918 nella sala di Luca
Giordano in Firenze’, Archivio storico italiano, vol. 2, 1918, 11, 32.
111
restorer of Italian civilisation, and as an admirable adversary of the Renaissance, which
had prepared the Italian people for political servitude by altering its customs.107
Although Villari had been educated in the school of Neapolitan Hegelism, he became one
of the first adherents to positivism in Italy, a philosophy which was founded on the
conviction that scientific methods, that is, the use of reason and objective observation,
were the most reliable source of knowledge.108 The positivist school strove to apply
scientific knowledge to finding solutions for social problems, and encouraged an extension
of the scientific method to historical, anthropological and moral disciplines.109 Positivism
and the historical method did not, however, succeed in eradicating a nationalist line of
thought from the work of many scholars of Dante, including Villari. A romantic mentality
endured in the study of Dante, which ensured that the Florentine poet was always
perceived first and foremost as an Italian, and that his Commedia was always held to
express the majesty of italianità.110 Thus Villari, inspired by the Risorgimento ideals of the
patria, independence, liberty and nationality, employed the historical method to construct a
national tradition in Italian history.111
In an early consideration of Italian history and Italy’s relationship to other European states
published in 1861, Villari contributed to the construction of a national narrative which held
that Italy, and an Italian national character, had always been in existence:
In tutta la storia del genere umano, una sola nazione può vantare la
successione di quattro civiltà diverse … la civiltà della nazioni che oggi
fioriscono in Europa, è di origine moderna. L’Italia, invece, fiorente al
tempo degli Etruschi, sale con Roma a maggiore altezza; caduta, rinasce
nel medio evo colla Chiesa ed i Comuni; vinta e conculcata, la vediamo
oggi, dopo tre secoli e mezzo, sorgere a novelli destini. Ed è sopra tutto
notevole, che in tanta varietà di fortuna, ha sempre mantenuta inalterabile
una stessa indole nazionale.112
107
Ibid., 15.
108
109
Alberto Asor Rosa, La Cultura, 879; Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and society, 1796-1896’, 230.
110
111
Alberto Asor Rosa, La Cultura, 879, 884. Villari’s La filosofia positiva e il metodo storico, published in
Milanese journal Politecnico in 1866, is considered to be one of the first positivist documents in Italy.
112
Pasquale Villari, L’Italia, la civiltà latina e la civiltà germanica, 2nd edn, Florence, Società toscana per la
storia del Risorgimento, 1989, 5.
112
In this same work Villari presented Dante as a ‘precursore di nuovi tempi’, not only
because he had initiated ‘una letteratura nazionale’, but also because he had forseen the
future regeneration of Italy:113
Dante Alighieri, nella sua Monarchia, invita l’imperatore, perchè venga in

Roma a rendere l’Italia nuovamente regina delle genti. La Chiesa, egli
diceva, resti sovrana del regno spirituale; ma abbandoni questa
preponderanza temporale, divenuta ormai funesta alla religione ed allo
stato … e ciò che v’era di generoso e magnanimo nel pensiero di Dante,
non poteva esser compreso da’ suoi contemporanei, i quali ancora non
vedevano l’avvenire che s’apparecchiava alla religione rinnovata ed alla
nazione riunita.114
Thus for Villari, Dante was a prophet of the unification of Italy, and, as this passage
indicates, of an Italian state in which the Church enjoyed only spiritual authority. Given
that in this piece Villari also referred to Dante with Foscolo’s memorable appellative, ‘il
fiero Ghibellino’, it is clear that he ascribed to the image of Dante as a proponent of a
secular Italian state, and read his works as a justification for its legitimacy.115
In the biography Villari sketched of Dante in the preface to the work Antiche leggende
che illustrano la Divina Commedia, published in celebration of the 1865 sixth centenary of
the poet’s birth, he paid particular attention to the political concepts Dante had laid out in
his Monarchia. The focus of Villari’s discussion of this work was Dante’s designations of
the different roles to be taken by the emperor and the pope in the ideal organisation of an
Italian polity, as it had been in Villari’s dissertation of 1861. This exegesis of such a
particular section of Dante’s treatise on politics, also popular with many other scholars,
again reflected the central preoccupation of the new ruling elite in the 1860s with the role
of the Church in Italian society.
Villari made sure to first present the so called Ghibellinism of Dante as a new philosophy,
separate from that of the Germanic tradition. He proposed that Dante’s doctrine was
connected ‘alle tradizioni classiche dell’impero romano’ and thus part of a purely Italian
113
Ibid., 35.
114
Ibid., 32-33.
115
Ibid., 57.
113
tradition.116 This fourteenth century Ghibellinism ascribed to by Dante was based on ‘un
partito nazionale e cattolico, ma fieramente avverso al dominio temporale dei papi; il
partito a cui appartennero più tardi quasi tutti i nostri più grandi scrittori. Dante fu per
qualche tempo l’anima e la mente di quegli esuli, fra i quali cercò di far nascere l’idea
d’una patria comune, che doveva più tardi fare scomparire i Guelfi e i Ghibellini. Il libro De
Monarchia è nel medesimo tempo il programma di questi esuli inquieti, e la prima pietra
del partito nazionale’.117 It is clear in this passage that the exiles of whom Villari wrote
included not only Dante and others of the fourteenth century, but also the patriotic exiles of
nineteenth century Italy. Villari thus characterised Dante’s thought as both inspiration for,
and the programme of, Risorgimento patriots.
Villari posited that Dante was truly the prophet of the modern Italian nation state because
of his ‘Ghibelline’ thought. In the Middle Ages, Dante had forseen the political shape of the
modern age when he had proposed ‘il concetto d’una patria comune; fra le teoriche degli
scrittori imperiali e papali, il principio del diritto come fondamento dello Stato: e ritornava
così alla società civile la sua indipendenza, ed agl’Italiani il sentimento di nazione.’118
Villari’s explanation of Dante’s political thought in the Monarchia made the poet very
clearly a proponent of the abolition of the temporal dominion of the papacy, and of a purely
spiritual authority to be held by the Church in the Italian state:
Se il diritto è sacro ed inviolabile, se esso è distinto così chiaramente dalla

morale e dalla religione; lo Stato deve, per necessaria consequenza,
essere distinto, diviso dalla Chiesa; l’imperatore è indipendente dal papa, il
cui regno deve essere tutto e solo spirituale. … Roma appartiene
all’impero; il successore di Pietro deve rappresentare Cristo, che disse:
Date a Cesare quel che è di Cesare. – Ma il padre dei fedeli non è esso
infallibile? – La sua infallibilità, risponde arditamente l’Alighieri, è limitata a
ciò che egli fa come capo spirituale e religioso; allora tutti, anche
l’imperatore, debbono ubbidirgli come a padre; ma esso non può far male
del bene, e bene del male; non può uscire dai suoi confini, per violare ciò
che è la espressa volontà di Dio. E ciò fanno i papi, secondo l’Alighieri, non
solo col dominio temporale, ma con le loro pretese sulla civile società, che
116
Pasquale Villari, ‘Dante e la letteratura in Italia’, Saggi critici di Pasquale Villari, vol. 1, Lanciano, G.
Carabba Editore, 1919, 104.
117
Ibid.
118
Ibid., 147-148.
114
sono la violazione di quel diritto, che è un principio sociale inviolabile e
sacro, perchè è la stessa volontà di Dio…119
It would have been difficult for readers of Villari’s exposition of Dante’s thought in 1865 to
have interpreted the patriotic historian’s words as anything other than a promotion of Italy
as a fundamentally secular nation state. Villari explained very clearly that Dante had
believed that the independence of the emperor from papal control was a state ordained by
God, that ‘la base della società è il diritto’.120 The implication of this analysis of Dante’s
thought was that the Italian nation state, which could be considered the counterpart of
Dante’s ‘emperor’ in the nineteenth century, had the God-given right to independence from
any political interference from the pope. Thus this identification of a concept of the secular
state in Dante’s political thought provided a historical foundation for Italian national unity.
Several decades later Villari’s treatment of Dante no longer focused upon the import of
the poet’s political thought for the issue of the role of the Church in the Italian state. In an
article about Dante’s Monarchia published in Nuova Antologia in 1911, Villari’s brief
statement about Dante’s concept of the role of the Church expressed in the Monarchia,
that the treatise ‘assume la difesa dell’Impero contro la Chiesa, della Società laica contro
l’ecclesiastica, ed in ciò si fa specialmente consistere il suo merito principale’, suggested
that the legitimacy of the secular Italian state was no longer an issue to be discussed at
length.121 Indeed, by 1911, after fifty years of unity, the Italian state had reached some
measure of conciliation with the Church, and consequently Dante’s political treatise had
ceased to be the object of inquiry for secularists seeking historical support for their
polemics.
Instead Villari offered a reading of Dante which promoted him as the greatest precursor
of the Italian nation for reasons other than his purported concept of the secular state.
Dante was, for Villari, the supreme symbol of the Italian nation because his Commedia had
119
Ibid., 109-110.
120
Ibid., 148.
121
Pasquale Villari, ‘Il “De Monarchia” di Dante Alighieri’, Nuova Antologia, 235, 1 Feb 1911, 385-386.
115
indicated what were held to be the important markers of nationhood in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries: geographical unity, ethnic homogeneity, cultural cohesion and
the desire of the country’s inhabitants to be perceived as a united whole. Whether or not
all of these factors of national unity were actually in existence in Italy fifty years after its
political unification, the importance of Villari’s words lay in his continued efforts to provide
an image of Italian unity through the analysis of Dante’s significance:
Quanto all’Italia, “che il mar circonda e l’Alpe, che chiude i suoi termini a
Pola presso del Quarnaro”, nessuno può negare che egli ne riconosca, ne
senta più di tutti la unità geografica, etnografica, letteraria, ideale e morale,
da cui l’unità politica inesorabilmente dovrà poi derivare. E sotto questo
aspetto può dirsi veramente che la Divina Commedia è stata il più grande,
efficace fattore della nostra unità nazionale.122
Thus Villari could see in the great poem evidence of the ‘intrinsic’ unity of Italy, of the
centuries long existence of the Italian nation, and this achievement rendered Dante a
national hero. Yet Villari no longer presented the poet as the prophet of the Italian nation
state, of the political unity of Italy in its modern form. He averred that given Dante’s vision
of a return to universal empire, such a reading was impossible:
Ma non è men vero che a questa unità politica, ed alla possibilità di una
vicina attuazione di essa egli non accennò mai. Nè mai accennò
esplicitamente alla costituzione necessaria dello Stato nazionale moderno.
Mirava invece a mantenere intatta la integrità medioevale dell’Impero, che
era destinato a perire.123
Instead, in this exposition of Dante’s Monarchia, Villari devoted more attention to the
poet’s concept of empire, a trend which was to become common in politically expedient
studies of Dante in the early twentieth century. While many commentators would turn to
Dante’s imperial ideas in a quest for justification of Italy’s colonial endeavours, Villari, like
De Sanctis, adhered to a Mazzinian interpretation of Dante’s concept of empire, and
favoured a reading which mused upon its implications for international co-operation:
122
Ibid., 401.
123
Ibid., 401.
116
La sede dell’Impero doveva essere Roma, il che avrebbe assicurato
all’Italia un posto eminente fra le diverse populazioni. Questo è il concetto
fondamentale del De Monarchia. Se le nazioni erano destinate a costituirsi,
e l’Impero era, in conseguenza, destinato a scomparire, il concetto che lo
informava non doveva perire del tutto. Un tale concetto non è veramente
estraneo, molto meno in opposizione a quello delle nazioni moderne. Noi
non vogliamo, come gli antichi, sopra tutto i Romani, una nazione sola,
dominatrice delle altre. Riconosciamo invece in tutti i popoli uguale diritto a
costituirsi, ad esistere. Il principio di nazionalità e quello di internazionalità,
di fratellanza, di unità dei popoli civili sono ugualmente necessari a
costituire lo Stato moderno. L’uno e l’altro concetto s’impadronirono
dell’animo di Dante, ma sopra tutto se ne impadronì il secondo,
rappresentato appunto dall’Impero, che solo poteva liberare l’Europa dai
continui conflitti, dalle temute calamità, e salvare l’Italia. Così fu concepito il
De Monarchia di Dante.124
It would seem that Villari found the widespread increase in aggressive colonialism and
belligerent expansionism in Europe in the early twentieth century rather troubling, which
prompted him to lend his considerations of Dante’s Monarchia to the cause of promoting
peace among nations. Indeed, by 1911 it was not only exponents of the nationalist and
modernist movements who desired the aggrandisement of Italy. Many figures of official
Italy active in Giolitti’s regime had also warmed to ideas of expansionist nationalism.125
The oratorical tenor of the opening of the grandiose monument to Vittorio Emanuele II in
Rome in June 1911 attested to this development. Although the official speeches of the
celebration made frequent reference to Italy’s commitment to international peace and
fraternity, nationalist rhetoric about Italy’s renewed greatness was more prevalent.126 And
several months later, in September 1911, the Italian state attempted to make its imperialist
rhetoric into reality when it embarked upon its first major imperial war of the century in
Libya against Turkey. Villari’s warning that excesses of patriotism, ‘dello spirito nazionale,
che spingono i popoli, senza nessuna ragione di prossima guerra, ad armarsi, per essere
pronti, alla prima occasione, a gettarsi gli uni contro gli altri, e cercare di distruggersi, finirà
prima o poi col provocarlo di nuovo’ was thus rather prescient.127
124
Ibid., 402-403.
125
R. J. B. Bosworth, ‘The opening of the Victor Emanuel Monument’, Italian Quarterly, XVIII, 1975, 80.
126
Ibid., 84.
127
Pasquale Villari, ‘Il “De Monarchia” di Dante Alighieri’, 404.
117
Villari’s conclusion to this article returned to the more exultant theme of Dante’s great
significance to the Risorgimento. Villari’s contemplation of the international import of
Dante’s thought led him to compare the poet to another great Italian who had, like Dante,
longed for the unity of the Italian nation and for the ultimate peace and co-operation
among many united nations. Villari characterised Giuseppe Mazzini, as he had Dante, as
‘un eroe umano’ who ‘dedicò la sua vita intera alla patria’, and for whom ‘l’unità,
l’indipendenza e la libertà d’Italia erano inseparabili dalla indipendenza e libertà degli altri
popoli’.128 The significance of this final paragraph lies in the way it pointed to the
development of a myth of the Risorgimento. Villari referred to the Risorgimento not as the
elite and dynastic fact that it had been, but as a national-popular revolution:
[la] nostra rivoluzione nazionale, che fu politica, morale e sociale nello

stesso tempo. Non ci spingevano infatti il bisogno di una o di un’altra forma
di governo, non odio di razza, non conflitti economici. Pareva che dalla
coscienza di un popolo intero, divenuto intollerante della corruzione e della
ignoranza in cui i passati Governi volevano tenerlo, irrompesse inesorabile,
irresistibile il grido: Insorgiamo per conquistare anche noi il diritto di essere
onesti, perchè sentiamo che il nostro passato ci dà il diritto e c’impone il
dovere di contribuire efficacemente anche noi al progresso civile e morale
del mondo!129
Villari’s presentation of the establishment of the Italian state reflected the recasting of the
Risorgimento as an endeavour of all Italians, as a ‘revolution’ that had for the most part
been the work of the ‘popolo’ made aware of being a nation, which took form during the
last two decades of the nineteenth century under the aegis of Crispi.130 In this period
intellectuals of the ruling elite crafted a narrative of the Risorgimento as Italy’s founding
myth, which veiled the reality of the bitter differences between moderate and democratic
patriots, and promoted the idea that the Left and Right had fought for the common goal of
a united Italy.131 The most startling facet of this myth was the inclusion of Mazzini in the
128
Ibid., 404.
129
Ibid.
130
131
118
national pantheon of Risorgimento heroes, as the true bearer of the unitary ideal.132
Mazzini had in fact been considered too radical by the moderate technicians of unification
led by Cavour to be lauded in the new monarchical state, and ended his days neglected by
state and public attention.
Through Mazzini, Villari also united Dante to this myth of the Risorgimento: ‘[Lo] spirito
animatore [di Mazzini] è quello stesso spirito di fratellanza che ispirò il De Monarchia, che
penetrò in tutte le opere di Dante. Da esse, e specialmente dalla Divina Commedia, che
ne è come la sintesi, la letteratura italiana, … divenne il fattore principale del nostro
Risorgimento’.133 Villari thus affirmed the fundamental importance of Dante to both
Mazzini, who was inspired by the divine poet’s commitment to national unity and
international co-operation, and to the Risorgimento, whose participants he had inspired
with his patriotic works. Like De Sanctis before him, he contributed to the creation of
Dante as the patron saint, if not a protagonist, of the Risorgimento.
***
The representation of Dante by poet Giosuè Carducci did much to further the myth of the
Florentine poet as a symbol of the Italian nation and its secular state. Carducci was one of
the most prominent exponents of the culture of disappointment and nostalgia which
developed in late nineteenth century Italy, and his opinion came to be shared by a large
proportion of intellectuals.134 Carducci put into discussion ‘the system’, which he saw as a
betrayal of the blood sacrificed during the Risorgimento, and the triumph of corruption.135
For Carducci, Dante was a symbol of Italy’s great destiny as a nation, and the medieval
poet was often a reference point for him as he lamented the new Italy’s failure to
correspond to the Risorgimento vision of the Italian nation.

132
133
Pasquale Villari, ‘Il “De Monarchia” di Dante Alighieri’, 404.
134
135
Ibid.
119
Carducci was born in the Tuscan town of Valdicastello in 1835 and grew up during the
heroic phase of the Risorgimento. The young scholar inherited his early radical republican
sympathies from his father, a physician and carbonaro. Carducci entered the Scuola
Normale di Pisa in 1853, and in 1860 he was appointed to the chair of Italian literature at
the University of Bologna, a position he held until 1904. Indeed it can be said that
Carducci contributed greatly to shaping Italian education, having instructed two
generations of Italian school teachers and university professors.136 In 1881 the poet and
professor became a member of the Consigilio Superiore della Pubblica Istruzione in
Rome, in 1886 a member of the Accademia della Crusca, and in 1890 he was made
senator. Carducci enjoyed considerable influence in the culture of Umbertian Italy, and by
the 1890s he was held to be Italy’s greatest living poet, and as the ‘poeta-vate’ of the Third
Italy received Italy’s first Nobel Prize for Literature in 1906.
Carducci was the greatest advocate of a cultural tradition which favoured literary
nationalism and ideological positions of a liberal and Enlightenment nature, and which
rejected romanticism as a foreign influence.137 He felt a particular contempt for the
aesthetic coupling of romanticism and Christianity which had dominated Italian literature in
the three decades before unification.138 After 1870, Carducci and other intellectuals of the
Left, a political grouping which was generally characterised as secular, positivist and
masonic, found the most adequate form for their intransigent secularism in classicism. 139
This neoclassical trend championed by Carducci also prevailed in the formation of public
opinion in the late nineteenth century, above all due to its national populist implications.140
Carducci did maintain, however, a romantic conception of literature and poetry, by which it
was meant to evoke the history of the nation and interpret popular sentiments, as well as
136
Paul Arpaia, ‘Constructing a national identity from a created literary past: Giosuè Carducci and the
development of a national literature’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 7(2), 2002, 193.
137
138
Richard Drake, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, 6.
139
Ibid.
140
120
promote civic and patriotic duty.141 In his approach to his critical and philological studies,
Carducci was committed to the positivist ‘historical method’.142
Carducci’s political passion gave his poetry its most prominent and defining
characteristic. Although as a youth Carducci had been a monarchist, after the defeat at
Aspromonte and Garibaldi’s treatment by the new government, he came to believe the
monarchy could not resolve the problem of making Rome capital of Italy, and turned
towards the democratic, republican and anti-papal principles of the Jacobin tradition.143
His dissatisfaction with the government’s handling of the ‘Roman question’ led him to take
part in Mazzinian demonstrations, yet he found little cause for jubilation when Rome was
finally seized, given that Garibaldi was confined to Caprera and Mazzini was imprisoned at
Gaeta.144 Carducci was fiercely anticlerical and accused the clergy of using religion to
political ends.145 The poet’s Inno a Satana, begun in 1863 and published in late 1865
under the pseudonym Enotrio Romano, was a challenge to the manzoniani and
moderates.146 The polemical poem exalted progress and liberty, and condemned every
form of obscurantism.147
With the Left in power after 1876, and the continued failure of the new Italian state to
realise the ‘Terza Italia’ longed for during the Risorgimento, Carducci relinquished his
more radical Mazzinian beliefs and looked for another avenue to the realisation of Italian
greatness.148 He decided the institution to fulfil his hopes was the House of Savoy, and
this new-found respect for the monarchy was due in no small part to the admiration he felt
for the gentility of the royal couple, Umberto and Margherita.149 The development of
Carducci’s monarchical sympathies, in keeping with the evolution of the sentiments of his
141
Renato Della Torre, Invito alla lettura di Giosuè Carducci, Milan, Mursia, 197.
142
Ibid., 164.
143
Ibid., 34.
144
Ibid., 28.
145
Ibid., 194.
146
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, 568.
147
Renato Della Torre, Invito alla lettura di Giosuè Carducci, 35.
148
Paul Arpaia, ‘Constructing a national identity from a created literary past: Giosuè Carducci and the
development of a national literature’, 195.
149
Renato Della Torre, Invito alla lettura di Giosuè Carducci, 45.
121
class, was reflected in his changing reaction to overtures of royal patronage. In 1878,
Carducci had declined to swear an oath of loyalty to the king in order to receive the ‘ordine
civile di Savoia’, while in 1893 he did accept the title of ‘Cavaliere della Corona’ from the
king.150
Carducci’s poetry frequently turned to the theme of romanità, on the one hand exalting
the ideal values of ancient Rome, and on the other employing his myth of Rome to lament
the repellent nature of contemporary Italy. Carducci’s evocation of the great Roman past
was intended to inspire Italians to desire the Third Rome of Mazzini, and the poet came to
elevate Rome to a symbol of the ‘Italian people’.151 The images of romanità created by
Carducci did not, however, correspond to the Rome of Mazzini’s mystic romanticism, but
instead initiated a tradition of political romanità that would be utilised by the Fascist
regime.152
The study of Dante and his works was a lifelong passion for Carducci, as he indicated in
the epigraph he added to the poem Tre donne intorno al cor mi son venute published in
1904, ‘da lui cominciai, con lui finisco’.153 And indeed Dante is a frequent presence in his
poetry, as a well as a subject of his efforts to identify a course of national Italian literature.
Throughout his career Carducci held Dante to be the father of the Italian language and of
national literature, and consequently revered him as the instigator of an Italian national
consciousness.
A review by the young university professor in 1861 in the Florentine daily La Nazione of a
recent commentary of the Divina Commedia indicates the reverence Carducci felt for
Dante as a representative of the patria and of Italian achievement. Carducci began his
review with an exaltation of Dante as a symbol of italianità:
Sempre che e dovunque la patria assorga a qualche pensiero o gentile o

magnanimo, sempre che la gloria paesana si addimostri in qualche bella
150
Ibid., 44, 164; Alberto Asor Rosa, Sintesidi storia della letteratura italiana, 382.
151
Richard Drake, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, 6; Renato Della Torre,
Invito alla lettura di Giosuè Carducci, 193.
152
Federico Chabod, Italian Foreign Policy: the statecraft of the founders, 260.
153
Francesco Mattesini, Per una lettura storica di Carducci, Milan, Vita e Pensiero, 1975, 438.
122
prova o di mano o d’ingegno e la forza civile nei portati dell’industria
venerandi e incruenti; ivi è la tua sembianza, ivi la tua memoria, ivi la
religione del tuo nome, o Allighieri. (…) Questa umile Italia, questa prava
terra italica, è gloriosa della tua gloria, o poeta; ella s’è rilevata
superbamente, nel suo cammino diritto, dietro lo splendore della tua
dottrina, o padre.154
The rhetorical fervour of such a characterisation of Dante reflects the exuberance felt in
the first year of unity by patriots such as Carducci who had witnessed the fulfilment of their
dreams of an independent Italian state. The influence of Risorgimento passions is evident
in Carducci’s treatment of Dante at the dawn of Italian unity, which cast him as the
proponent of the ‘doctrine’ of Italian national unity.
Carducci at this time also adhered to the characterisation of the Florentine poet as a
‘Ghibelline’ who had desired Italian unity and the abolition of the temporal power of the
Church. A speech made by Carducci at the final lecture for his Italian literature course at
the University of Bologna in June 1861 highlights the politicisation of Dante that had begun
during the Risorgimento, above all with the exegesis of Dante’s thought undertaken by
Foscolo and Mazzini. The speech followed Carducci’s conclusion of the course and the
topic of political interpretations of the Divina Commedia, and was entitled ‘Niccolini e
Cavour’, a commemoration of the recent deaths of neo-Ghibelline author and commentator
of the Divina Commedia, Giovanni Battista Niccolini, and Italy’s first prime minister.
Carducci introduced his commemoration with a summary of his interpretation of Dante’s
political thought:
… Dante e con lui i migliori ghibellini altro non aver voluto colla
restaurazione dell’impero che l’unità dell’Italia assicurata da un principe qui
imperante senza armi straniere e naturalizzato con le grandi memorie del
Campidoglio, aver Dante avversato la Chiesa romana perchè per sue
ambizioni temporali impediva questo grande divisamento e fomentava le
discordie dei Comuni italiani.155
154
G. Carducci, ‘La Divina Commedia col comento di P. Fraticelli, Firenze, G. Barbera, 1860’( first
published in La Nazione (Florence), 21 Oct 1861), Opere di Giosuè Carducci, vol.5: Ceneri e faville, serie
prima, 1859-1870, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1908, 314.
155
G. Carducci, ‘Niccolini e Cavour’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione nazionale, vol XXVI, Ceneri e
Faville, serie prima(1848-1868), Bologna, Zanichelli, 1938, 315.
123
Carducci was thus following Foscolo’s interpretation of a ‘Ghibelline Dante’, who had
opposed the Church’s temporal dominion. Carducci then went on to give a potently
anticlerical but brief eulogy for Niccolini and Cavour. He characterised the two great
patriots as men who had both laboured to ‘far questa nuova Italia figlia del pensiero di
Dante’.156 Carducci praised Niccolini as a man who ‘contro i neoguelfi da ogni parte
minaccianti l’Italia pensò profetò scrisse’, and who in his novel Arnaldo da Brescia, which
exalted the antipapal struggle and republican ideals, ‘fulminò la curia romana nemica così
di Dio come dell’Italia, collegata sempre agli oppressori stranieri’.157 Such commitment to
the antipapal cause on the part of the letterato, whose great novel became a popular icon
in anticlerical propaganda in united Italy, was matched by the actions of the great
statesman Cavour, who ‘con solo il senno e la forza italiana seppe ai guasti grandissimi
del Trattato di Villafranca riparare e condurre l’Italia ai plebisciti alle annessioni alla unità,
che ha dimostrato all’Europa la necessità politica e morale di lasciar cadere quel tarlato
abuso del poter temporale, e che pur morendo poteva additare all’Italia la via già da lui
tracciata per andare a Venezia ed a Roma’.158 This speech clearly indicates Carducci’s
fundamental concern for the Church’s continued hold on Rome despite the creation of
Italy, and his nomination of Dante as a champion of the concept of a secular state.
Yet by 1867 Carducci was no longer turning to Dante in order to bolster the anticlerical
cause. In the sonnet Dante of that year, he expressed his enduring veneration of Dante’s
immortal poetry, but also his reappraisal of the significance of Dante’s political thought for
contemporary Italy, and his subsequent realisation that Dante philosophised above all
according to his Christian faith and imperial political doctrine:
Dante, onde avvien che i vóti e la favella

Levo adorando al tuo fier simulacro,
E me su ‘l verso che ti fe’ già macro
Lascia il sol, trova ancor l’alba novella?
156
Ibid., 316.
157
Ibid., 316, 317.
158
Ibid., 317.
124
Per me Lucia non prega e non la bella
Matelda appresta il salutar lavacro,
E Beatrice con l’amante sacro
In vano sale a Dio di stella in stella.
Odio il tuo santo impero; e la corona

Divelto con la spada avrei di testa
Al tuo buon Federico in val d’Olona.
Son chiesa e impero una ruina mesta

Cui sorvola il tuo canto e al ciel risona:
Muor Giove, e l’inno del poeta resta.159
This break with an essentially ‘Ghibelline’ interpretation of Dante’s thought which Carducci
had accepted and expressed during the heady days of the late Risorgimento was perhaps
due to the more considered and historically grounded reading of Dante that Carducci had
undertaken in his 1866-67 articles for the journal Nuova Antologia and his courses on the
development of Italian literature at the University of Bologna. Carducci’s definition in the
poem of Dante’s significance for him reflects how Dante’s poetry had a lasting significance
as one of the founding stones of an Italian national identity, while various political
interpretations of the fundamentally Christian and medieval poet were more ephemeral.
Carducci’s revision of another poem entitled Dante written in 1854 is a clear indication of
his altered perception of the relevance of Dante to the political creation of the Italian state,
and to the battle to end the pope’s control of Rome. In the 1874 reprinting of the poem
Carducci added a note to the lines
Te salutò in desio,
Alma Italia novella
Una d’armi di leggi e di favella.160
which stated ‘Questo stava bene dirlo nel 1854: ma che Dante pensasse all’unità d’Italia,
oggi, studiati un po’ meglio i tempi l’uomo e il poema, non lo direi più né in un ditirambo.
Le son novelle che oramai bisogna lasciarle a quei che sudano a lusingare il veltro’.161
159
G. Carducci, ‘Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Giambi ed Epodi e Rime Nuove, vol. IX, Bologna,
Zanichelli, 1908, 189.
160
G. Carducci, ‘Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Juvenilia e Levia Gravia, vol. VI, Bolgna, Zanichelli,
1909, 126.
125
By 1888, when he gave a lecture in Rome on the topic of Dante and his works, Carducci
was clearly disdainful of the traditional secular and Catholic polemics that were attached to
the interpretation of Dante. The state sponsored dissertation, entitled L’Opera di Dante,
was essentially a synthesis of all Carducci’s thought on Dante.162 In the speech, Carducci
argued that Dante had given Italy the consciousness of being a nation when he promoted
the use of an Italian vernacular, and then employed this language in his immortal poem.
With the emergence of the ‘popolo d’Italia’ from the liberty of the medieval Communes,
Dante became its ‘voce e insegna nei tempi, che dovea far salire alle più alte cime del
pensiero la lingua italiana e d’italiana gloria improntare il mondo più saldo e duraturo, il
mondo degli spiriti’.163 In Carducci’s construction of a national history of Italian literature,
Dante was to be exalted as the great heroic figure who had given a linguistic form to an
Italian consciousness, which was already in existence: ‘L’Italia, venuta ora al punto di
procedere alla più spirituale manifestazione dell’essere suo, la estrinsecazione della
potenza meditativa e affettiva e fantastica, cioè della vita interiore, nell’arte della parola’.164
Carducci also highlighted in this lecture that Dante was so important to Italian national
identity because he was the prime exemplar of a patriotic citizen. Indeed, for Carducci, as
for the generation of the Risorgimento, the greatness of Italy was primarily the product of
the strong civic sensibility of Italians, in the past as in the present.165 Carducci praised
Dante as a great poet and a great man who pursued his art in the name of civic duty and
the universal happiness of humanity: ‘Dante anzi tutto è un grandissimo poeta, e
grandissimo poeta è, perchè grand’uomo; e grand’uomo, perchè ebbe una grande
161
Ibid., 273; Paolo Bellezza, Curiosità dantesche., Milan, Hoepli, 1913, 101.
162
Aldo Vallone, La critica dantesca nell’ottocento, 208. Carducci explored Dante’s influence and place in
Italian literature in his courses at the University of Bologna from 1868-1871, ‘Dello svoglimento della
letteratura nazionale’, and in a series of essays published in Nuova Antologia 1866-1867, ‘Della varia fortuna
di Dante’, which Carducci had originally planned to be history of the Divina Commedia from 1321 to 1789,
but his study only reached the mid 14th century.
163
G. Carducci, L’Opera di Dante: Discorso di Giosuè Carducci tenuto in Roma a dí VIII gennaio 1888,
Bologna, Zanichelli, 1888, 6.
164
Ibid., 11.
165
126
coscienza … Senza mai un’ombra d’interesse privato, questo mendico superbo va
pensoso e sdegnoso per le terre d’Italia, cercando non pane o riposo, ma il bene di tutti’.166
The central argument of Carducci’s study of Dante was that the medieval poet was
fundamentally a man of the people. Carducci held that ‘nella Commedia il poeta canta al
popolo, a tutto il popolo, a tutti i popoli’, and with the great poem, ‘Il poeta cominciò a esser
fedele al genio del popolo fin nella scelta del metro, che è il sirventese della poesia
narrativa cantata su le piazze d’Italia’.167 It is likely that this aspect of Carducci’s
interpretation of Dante is primarily a reflection of his rhetorial populism, and not of any
deep-seated concern for the plight of the lower classes.
Carducci was also very clear in this lecture about his rejection of a political interpretation
of Dante’s thought which cast the poet as a proponent of Italian unification, or the
legitimacy of the secular state:
A ogni modo non è il caso di cercare nelle massime monarchiche

dell’Allighieri un principio all’unificazione d’Italia, se non in quanto questa
fosse compresa nell’unità del cristianesimo. L’amor patrio e l’idea
nazionale fiammeggiano nel sentimento che il poeta ebbe profondissimo
delle glorie e delle miserie d’Italia, nel sentimento dell’impero come
instituzione romana, come diritto italico… Né anche la indipendenza,
fortemente affermata e ragionata dall’Allighieri, dell’impero dalla chiesa, la
storia permette di trarre a sensi troppo moderni. … Il libro di monarchia è
l’ultima scolastica espressione del classicismo politico medievale; e cercarvi
ciò che oggi dicesi lo stato pagano e lo stato ateo sarebbe, fare ingiuria
all’Allighieri, secondo le sue idee. Ma gloriamoci – e non è poco –
altamente, sinceramente e securamente gloriamoci, che Dante è il maestro
nostro ed il padre nella conservazione della tradizione romana al
rinnovamento d’Italia, ch’egli fu il testimone e giudice nei secoli, il più puro e
tremendo giudice e testimone, del mal governo della gente di chiesa e della
necessità morale di averlo abbattuto.168
Another prominent aspect of Carducci’s treatment of Dante was the way the Florentine
poet became a point of reference on certain occasions when Carducci lamented the
disappointing reality of contemporary Italy. In an 1866 review of two publications for the
1865 centenary of Dante’s birth, Carducci protested that the celebrations in Florence had
166
G. Carducci, L’Opera di Dante, 33.
167
Ibid., 36, 44.
168
Ibid., 31-34.
127
been of little benefit to ‘the people’, and thus did not encourage nor enable the involvement
of ‘the people’ in the Florentine festivities:
Ma una festa, a essere utile, bisogna che per mezzo del sentimento faccia
passare un’idea nelle teste dei più con tanta efficacia che la vi permanga
divenendo cognizione o concetto. Ora i gorgozzuli fatti rochi nelle piazze e
nelle academie che cosa appresero al popolo, che ad academie non va e a
cui quella gloria fu negata fino la piazza?169
Carducci complained that without the participation of the ‘popolo italiano’ the celebration
had not been truly national, nor worthy of Dante, that ‘Italia degli Italiani’ had not been
achieved.170 The commemoration of Dante’s birth did further dishonour to the poet
because Rome was still controlled by the Church. Thus it would seem that, while the sixth
centenary of Dante’s birth became in effect a pretext for the celebration of the newly
created Italian state with its capital in Florence, it also provided Carducci with an
opportunity to criticise the new and inglorious Italy which supposedly had not lived up to
Dante’s vision, and which was faced with bridging the gulf between ‘legal’ and ‘real’ Italy.
In his poem Nel sesto centenario di Dante of 1865, Carducci expressed similar concerns
for the new Italian state’s betrayal of what he held to be Dante’s ideal of Italy. This
contemplation of the commemoration of Dante pointed out that Italy was not whole without
its eastern territories, which were still under Austrian control:
Io ‘l vidi. Su l’avello iscoverchiato

Erto l’imperïal vate levosse:
Allor la sua marina Adria commosse,
E tremò de l’Italia il manco lato.171
Carducci also lamented the trouble the Church still caused Italy, and the fact that Florence
was capital instead of Rome:
169
G. Carducci, ‘Sunto di tre letture pubbliche fatte da Stefano Bissolati per incarico del Municipio di
Cremona (Estratto dal Corriere Cremonese, maggio 1865)’, Cremona, Ronzi e Signori, 1865, and ‘Per il sesto
centenario di Dante, ricordo al Popolo’, Firenze, Bettini, 1865 (Both reviews were published in the Ateneo
italiano, Firenze, 21 Jan 1866), in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Ceneri e faville, vol. V, Bologna, Zanichelli,
1908, 324.
170
Ibid., 326.
171
G. Carducci, ‘Nel sesto centinario di Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Juvenilia e Levia Gravia, vol.
VI, 1909, 376.
128
- Ahi, serva Italia, di dolore ostello!
Ancor la lupa t’impedisce, e doma
Gli spirti tuoi domestico flagello.
Ma rechi a l’Arno la mal carca soma:

Non questo è il nido del latino augello:
Su, ribelli, e spergiuri, a Roma, a Roma. –172
The poem culminates with the dream of great warriors and artists of Italy’s past moving in
two armies under Dante’s authoritative guidance to complete Italian unity. The spirits of
illustrious Italians past follow Dante’s lead; one group, the soldiers, heads to the Adriatic
coast to win back Italian territory from Austria; the other group, the thinkers, are led by
Dante to Rome:
Gli uni, in pruove di guerra anime forti,

Scendean sinistri ver’ le adriache genti:
Oh, quando i vivi a te salvar son lenti,
Sacra Italia, per te pugnino i morti!
Gli altri, a filosofar menti divine,

Dietro il poeta che splendea primiero
Le famose attingean rive latine.
Quel che avvenne, non so: ma tosto, io spero

Rifiorita d’onor su le ruine
Roma libera fia da l’adultèro.173
Perhaps the deepest criticism voiced in the poem was for contemporary Italian citizens
who were not acting to save Italy from the Church and complete her unity. Instead in
Carducci’s reverie, the dead heroes of Italy felt compelled take up the task.
In a later poem, In morte di Giovanni Cairoli (January 1870), which expressed Carducci’s
frequent complaint until 20 September 1870 about an Italy without Rome, Dante was
invoked as a model of patriotic fervour and indignation:
E i viva urla a l’Italia. Maledetta

Sii tu, mia patria antica,
Su cui l’onta de l’oggi e la vendetta
De i secoli s’abbica!
172
Ibid., 377.
173
Ibid., 378.
129
La pianta di virtú qui cresce ancora,
Ma per farsene strame
I muli tuoi: qui la viola odora
Per divenir letame.
Oh, risvegliar che val l’ira de i forti,

Di Dante padre l’ira?
Solingo vate, in su l’urne de’ morti
Io vo’ spezzar la lira.
Accoglietemi, udite, o de gli eroi

Esercito gentile:
Triste novella io recherò fra voi:
La nostra patria è vile.174
Such reference to ‘Dante padre’ is a reminder that the promise of the Risorgimento had
not been fulfilled, that the Italy Dante was held to represent was not yet in existence.
***
The issue of a proposed ‘cattedra dantesca’ to be established at the University of Rome
with Carducci as its first incumbent, reveals how Dante had come to be a symbol of
anticlericalism in the new Italian state, due in no small part to the politicised readings of his
works by scholars such as De Sanctis, Villari and Carducci, which promoted the idea of
the poet as a prophet of the secular state. This secular, antipapal protest in the form of a
centre for the study of Dante’s works, also indicated how Italian culture had become an
important battleground for the state and the Church as they struggled for the allegiance of
the hearts and minds of Italians.
The principal instigator of this proposal was philosopher, politician and passionate
anticlerical Giovanni Bovio, who intended the chair of Dante studies in Rome to stand in
contrast to the ‘chair of St Peter’.175 It was apparently a response to the ‘cattedra
174
G. Carducci, ‘In morte di Giovanni Cairoli’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione nazionale, Giambi ed
Epodi, vol. III, 52.
175
‘370. (Lettera da Bovio a Crispi – Roma) Napoli, 9 luglio ‘87’, Carteggi politici inediti di Francesco
Crispi (1860-1900), Rome, L’Universelle, 1912, 409; Paolo Bellezza, Curiosità dantesche, 63.
130
dantesca’ that Pope Leo XIII had established in 1885 at the Istituto Leoniano in Rome.176
The law for the creation of the chair at the University of Rome was passed 3 July 1887 by
parliament during the final days of the premiership of Agostino Depretis.177 This proposal
came at a time of crisis, after the tragedy of Dogali in January 1887, and at a time when
Leo XIII was contemplating a conciliation with the Liberal state in the summer of 1887.178
Greeted by opposition from Catholic and anticlerical intransigents alike, the idea of
conciliation was finally deemed premature by both the pope and the new prime minister
Francesco Crispi, and this failure of 1887 was followed by a period of fiercer conflict
between Church and state.179
By the 1870s the anticlericalism of some members of Italy’s patriotic ruling class had
become as much cultural as political, with bitter criticism of the Church a frequent focus for
politicians and the press.180 While the leaders of the Right worked to diminish the power of
the Church according to Cavour’s preference for the separation of Church and state, a
goal they pursued with the 1871 Law of Guarantees, the elite of the Left, which came to
power after 1876, was rabidly hostile to any influence the Church and its vicars exerted in
Italian society. The anticlericalism which coloured cultural and political discourse in the
early decades of Italian unity was nurtured by the Church’s opposition to the state from
1859 onwards, which undermined the monarchical state’s efforts to represent and unite
the Italian nation. This reaction to the political stance taken by the Roman curia, the
higher clergy and the Jesuits against united Italy was also fed by the antipathy to
modernity felt by the Church and its representatives.181 However, despite the popularity of
hostile anticlerical slogans during the second half of the nineteenth century, the relations of
176
Guido Mazzoni, ‘Dante nell’inizio e nel vigore del Risorgimento’, Dante e l’Italia nel VI Centenario della
morte del poeta MCMXXI, Rome, Società Anonima Poligrafica Italiana, 1921, 379.
177
G. Carducci, ‘Ad Adriano Lemmi’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione nazionale, Rifiuti e grazie,
vol.XXV, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1938, 276.
178
179
Ibid., 88.
180
N. Doumanis, Italy, 110-111.
181
131
successive governments with the Church were more often influenced by political
pragmatism than anticlerical fervour.182
Anticlericalism in Italy had ancient origins, and its exponents could lay claim to its remote
and glorious origins in Ghibellinism.183 It was influenced by anticlerical movements in the
rest of Europe, especially that of France.184 It was also encouraged by the positivist
climate of the second half of the nineteenth century in which science was held to be the
liberator of the human race.185 Faith in the mission of science as the instruction and
practice of free experimental inquiry, and as the facilitator of the progress of human
morality, came to be favoured over the dogma of Catholic religious belief.186 The battle
against clerical influence in Italy reflected the attempt of the new ruling and cultural elite to
promote Italian life to the standard of civilisation in Western Europe, which was founded
upon the principles of modernity, parliamentary politics, a free economy, and a secular
state.187 The Italian state consequently claimed to represent a ‘lay morality’, based on
liberalism, rationality and progress.188
For anticlericals, who had a particularly visible exponent in the fiercely intransigent
Garibaldi, the seizure of Rome was not only a nationalist aim, but also and above all it
signified the destruction of the papacy and the liberation of humanity from clerical
oppression.189 Before and after the seizure of Rome in 1870 the ‘Roman question’
dominated political life, and both the Church and the state competed for rhetorical
highground as the standard bearer of italianità.190 And indeed after 1870 there were ‘rival
Romes’ with their respective courts at the Quirinale with the king, and at the Vatican with
182
183
Ibid.
184
Ibid.
185
Christopher Duggan, ‘Politics in the era of Depretis and Crispi 1870-96,’ 156.
186
187
Ibid., 195.
188
189
190
Ibid., 379.
132
the pope.191 The state’s task was arduous, given that they were confronting the papacy as
a universal idea, and given particularly that the population of Rome was still intimately
papalist.192 A testament to the hold the Church had over Rome was the contrast between
the reception of the funeral of Vittorio Emanuele II and that of Pius IX in Rome, who both
died in 1878, with three times as many people attending the ceremony for the pope at St
Peter’s.193
The proposal for the institution of a secular ‘cattedra dantesca’ in Rome in 1887 was thus
raised during the heyday of the anticlerical tumult. The greatest example of such an
attempt by the anticlerical section of the Liberal political elite to express its secular values
in defiance of the papacy, and to legitimise its rule in Roman public space, was its raising
of a monument to Giordano Bruno in the Campo de’ Fiori.194 The monument to Bruno,
who had been burnt at the stake in Campo de’ Fiori in 1600 for his pantheistic
philosophical thought, was unveiled 9 June 1889, the Feast of the Holy Spirit, as a
challenge to the Church and in celebration of the spirit of science.195 The inauguration of
the statue to Bruno was a moment of triumph for freemasonry, and united all sections of
the anticlerical front. Giovanni Bovio, the proponent of the ‘cattedra dantesca’, was an
orator at the event.196
The nomination of Carducci as the first to hold the chair of Dante studies in Rome was
perhaps an obvious choice for politicians hoping to make the exposition of Dante’s thought
an act of protest against the overwhelming influence the papacy enjoyed in Rome. The
poet who had penned the religiously and politically polemical Inno a Satana had become
well known in the new state as a fierce opponent of papal and clerical dominance in Italian
culture and society. Carducci’s profound belief in the myth of Rome as a mission, which
191
Ibid.
192
193
194
Bruno Tobia, Una patria per gli italiani: spazi, itinierari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870-1900), Rome-
Bari, Laterza, 1991, vi-vii.
195
196
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘An Old Church and a New State: Italian Anticlericalism (1876-1915), European History
Quarterly, 2, 1983, 229.
133
conditioned him to hurl invectives at official Italy for having given the nation a Byzantium
when it had called for the greatness of Rome, encouraged the association between the
poet and the necessity felt by the new ruling elite to transform Rome from a symbol of the
Church into the heart of a modern, secular state.197
Carducci, however, declined to take up this prestigious and polemical post in Rome.
Despite his opposition to papal influence, he did not like the politicisation of the chair of
Dante studies, believing it to be above all ‘un trattenimento estetico’, and himself ‘il meno
adatto a dare tali trattenimenti’.198 Although Carducci had already informed his friend
Bovio that he would not take up the post, a subsequent effort was made by another
anticlerical and friend of Carducci, the Tuscan democrat and one of the grand masters of
the freemasons, Adriano Lemmi, to convince the emerging ‘poeta-vate’ of Italy to change
his mind. In a letter to Lemmi of 23 September 1887, Carducci reiterated his objections,
which ultimately centred upon the fact that he no longer agreed with those of the
anticlerical persuasion who wanted to paint Dante as Ghibelline and anti-conciliatory, as
Foscolo had done, particularly as the first tentative steps were being made to a conciliation
between Church and state.199
Gl’intendimenti con i quali e per i quali fu dettata la legge appaiono dai

discorsi che la proposero e la sostennero; e sono tali che a qual sia per
accettare l’insegnamento dantesco in Roma richiedono intorno alle opinioni
e alle dottrine politiche e religiose di Dante una persuasione che io non ho.
Per me la grandezza di Dante non esce dal cerchio del medio-evo e dello
stretto cattolicismo: la riforma che Ugo Foscolo immaginò tendesse egli a
fare o volere nella Chiesa non toccava, se mai, i dogmi; mirava a un
cattolicismo più rigido, più ascetico, più prepotente. Nessuno più
dell’Alighieri idealmente vagheggiò, nessuno più dell’Alighieri avrebbe
politicamente approvato una conciliazione tra il papa e l’imperatore. La
conciliazione, del resto, è una vecchia utopia italiana di cui non bisogna
aver paura. Ma non iscivoliamo in politica. Io dico che in questi concetti
delle dottrine e dei sentimenti di Dante posso errare, anzi errerò di certo; e
mi lascerei volentieri convincere del contrario.200
197
Federico Chabod, Italian Foreign Policy: the statecraft of the founders, 257-259.
198
G. Carducci, ‘Ad Adriano Lemmi’, 277.
199
Francesco Mattesini, Per una lettura storica di Carducci, 364.
200
G. Carducci, ‘Ad Adriano Lemmi’, 276-277.
134
The ardent attempts by Carducci’s anticlerical friends to convince him to accept the
position revealed the considerable importance the secular cause possessed at the time.
On 24 September 1887, prompted by Carducci’s letter to him of the day before, Lemmi
wrote to Crispi urging the new prime minister to offer Carducci an extra post at the
university of Rome, such as the chair of medieval literature, in order to increase the
professor’s remuneration for his efforts and thus give him a greater incentive to become
the champion of a ‘Ghibelline’ Dante.201 Although unwilling to take up the ‘cattedra
dantesca’, Carducci did assent to inaugurate a series of ‘conferenze dantesche’ at the
University of Rome in January 1888, as a temporary substitute for the institution of the
chair of Dante studies. Carducci’s aforementioned L’Opera di Dante was thus composed
in the context of this issue, and the speech confirmed Carducci’s line of rigorous adhesion
to the historical method.202 Despite one commentator’s claims that the first ‘conferenza
dantesca’ in Rome ‘fu un avvenimento letterario di grande importanza’, it apparently did
not achieve the success desired by its instigators.203 The modest turnout for the lecture,
with only a few thousand in attendance, was attributed by the same commentator to the
disorganisation and woes of the government in Rome. Rather than reflecting glory upon
the Italian state, the poorly publicised speech about Dante – apparently the lecture had
only been advertised in a few newspapers a few hours before the event, and there had
been no notification at the university – merely highlighted that ‘A Roma le miserie della
politica, e molte altre miserie più piccole, ed anche più grandi, non lasciano spazio alle alte
e serene occupazioni della mente’.204
The institution of this anticlerical ‘cattedra dantesca’ was never realised, and further
attempts to erect a great monument to Dante in Rome continued to fail. In 1900, the
raising of a ‘national’ monument to Dante in Rome was proposed in parliament, but was
put on hold after the assassination of Umberto I. According to reports on these plans in
201
202
Francesco Mattesini, Per una lettura storica di Carducci, 364.
203
‘La prima conferenza dantesca in Roma’, Nuova Antologia, 97, 16 Jan 1888, 341.
204
Ibid.
135
the journal of the Società Dante Alighieri, the statue of Dante in Rome was still intended
as a protest against the Church, given that it was characterised as an homage to Dante
‘come simbolo dell’unità della patria, della separazione del pastorale dalla spada e di ogni
più alta idealtà umana’.205 Yet again in 1908 the idea of a monument to Dante in Rome
was proposed in parliament, but to no avail. It seems that after much debate about its
institution, with various sites suggested, objections voiced by Carducci finally scuttled the
idea.206 The influential poet had apparently decisively opined that a statue to Dante in
Rome could never appropriately honour Dante’s great significance, that he envisioned ‘in
un monumento al maestro, nelle sembianze di lui, rese tangibili e materiali, qualche cosa
che diminuiva l’altissimo ideale che se ne era foggiato’.207 The recognition of Dante’s
great significance to the Italian state in the urban space of Rome finally came with the
foundation of the ‘Casa di Dante’, inaugurated by Villari on the 14 January 1914. The
municipal council of Rome had offered to cultists of Dante who still desired to establish a
public monument to Dante the use of the medieval Palazzo degli Anguillara for the
purpose of housing a library and archive devoted to the works of the poet.208 Clearly the
aspect of the poet’s national significance which found enduring commemoration in Rome
was his contribution to Italian culture, and not his politicisation as a proponent of the
secularist cause.
***
Some Catholic scholars also employed Dante as a rhetorical weapon to bolster their
campaign against the new, secular Italian state. For those supporters of the Church who
disdained an anticlerical interpretation of Dante’s thought, the natural response was the
205
Atti della Società “Dante Alighieri” per la lingua e per la cultura italiana fuori del Regno, no. 6, March
1902, 1.
206
Paolo Bellezza, Curiosità dantesche, 507, 517.
207
‘Tra libri e riviste: Per la casa di Dante’, Nuova Antologia, 253, 1 Feb 1914, 542.
208
Ibid.
136
promotion of their own exposition of the Florentine poet as first and foremost a Catholic. In
this undertaking Catholic opposition to the Italian state took a similar approach to that of its
anticlerical foes in its campaign to be the true representative of italianità, with its attempt to
counter secular heroes with its own Catholic ones. From the 1850s on the Pope had
pursued a programme of beatifications, religious festivals and commemorations, organised
in opposition to secular festivities. Pius IX also tried to develop a personal cult based on
his own suffering.209 The Church and its intellectuals never renounced their intervention in
the process of forming modern Italy, and the 1871 Law of Guarantees had provided the
Church with a secure position from which it was free to denounce Italy with near
impunity.210 Catholic critics of the Italian state identified the latter’s principles of modernity,
liberalism and secularism with the all encompassing enemy, ‘Rivoluzione’.211
The voluminous number of articles dedicated to the analysis of Dante’s philosophical,
religious and political thought in the Jesuit journal Civiltà Cattolica, founded by a
Neapolitan Jesuit scholar Father Curci, under the aegis of Pius IX, attests to a Catholic
appropriation of Dante. The Jesuits played a prominent role in the ‘culture war’ between
the Church and the supporters of a secular Italian state, and the very title of their journal
expressed their belief that the second half of the nineteenth century was a period of
cultural polarisation.212
In an 1865 article entitled ‘La Monarchia di Dante Alighieri e il dominio temporale de’
Romani Pontefici’, the authors of Civiltà Cattolica attacked Liberal scholars of Dante for
their distortion of the poet’s ideas in the Monarchia to support and justify the creation of
Italy, and their desire to see the destruction of the Church:
I Dantisti della nuova Italia non solo sostengono, che l’Alighieri volesse
annullata ogni politica signoria de’ Romani Pontefici; ma, come
209
Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: invention of a hero, 378; Ilaria Porciani, La festa della nazione:Rappresentazione
dello Stato e spazi sociali nell’Italia unita, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1997, 12.
210
Umberto Levra, Fare gli Italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, 50; Christopher Duggan,
‘Politics in the era of Depretis and Crispi 1870-96’, 156.
211
212
Martin Papenheim, ‘Roma o morte: culture wars in Italy’ , 210-211.
137
accennammo, appunto in questo fanno consistere la medesimezza del
concetto di lui, con quello che si è inteso di attuare col regno d’Italia.
Perocchè a niuno oggimai è nascosto, che nell’intento della Rivoluzione
quello che importa soprattutto è l’occupazione di Roma; che è quanto dire
l’abbattimento del dominio temporale de’ Papi.213
Just as it did for some nationalist intellectuals, the discussion of Dante’s political thought
and his conception of Italy provided the Jesuit scholars with a pretext for expressing their
position. In this case, it was a platform from which to attack ‘la Setta’ behind the
‘Rivoluzione’. They maintained that, contrary to the true desire of Dante, the Liberal
‘settarii’ wanted to ‘abbattere il dominio temporale de’ Papi, per avere con ciò mezzo e
modo di distruggere la Chiesa’.214 The interpretation of Dante’s Monarchia supported by
the authors of Civiltà Cattolica did not find in the treatise a call for the abolition of the
temporal power of the Church. Instead the authors of Civiltà Cattolica asserted that
Dante’s ideal of universal empire actually would allow the pope to maintain his territory,
just as other monarchs would, while still respecting the ultimate authority of the emperor:
[Dante] voleva il suo Monarca signore di tutto il mondo, che i re e principi

particolari e le diverse republiche(sic.) seguitassero insieme a mantenersi
signori de’ loro Stati … Adunque dal principio, che Dante pone di un
Signore universale, non discende la conseguenza, che dovesse per questo
essere assorbito il territorio del Papa.215
The authors of Civiltà Cattolica did not fail to weigh in on the issue of the ‘cattedra
dantesca’ in Rome. A review of a commentary of the Divina Commedia produced by a
Catholic scholar provided Civiltà Cattolica with the opportunity to comment upon the
proposed centre for Dante studies in Rome. They welcomed the commentary by the
Jesuit Cornoldi because
Imperocchè appunto in questi ultimi tempi si è devisato il modo di

falsificare, per così dire, legalmente la Divina Commedia, in quel modo che
si procaccia di legalmente falsificare tutta intera la storica nostra italianità;
istituendo per legge, in segnacolo di contraddizione al Papato nella città di
Roma, una cattedra, dalla quale, come da un congegno di lanterna magica,
213
‘La Monarchia di Dante Alighieri e il dominio temporale de’Romani Pontefici’, Civiltà Cattolica, vol.2,
series 6, 1865, 672-673.
214
Ibid., 675.
215
Ibid., 682.
138
si mostrasse Dante, non più in aspetto di quel cristianissimo filosofo ch’egli
pur fu, ma in veste di frammassone, di libero pensatore e, se si vuole
ancora, in camicia rossa da garibaldino.216
They praised the good sense of Carducci, whom they referred to as ‘il cantor di Satana’,
for having refused, despite himself, the role of ‘falsificatore cattedratico della Divina
Commedia’, and for promoting the correct interpretation of Dante as fundamentally
medieval and Catholic in thought.217 Yet again discussion of Dante and interpretation of
his thought became a pretext for attacking the government, which ‘da trent’anni ogni pietra
muove per trasformare il cattolico edifizio del poema dantesco in una loggia massonica’.218
An article in Civiltà Cattolica of 1911 about the proposed monument to Dante in Rome
revealed that after fifty years of Italian unity, much had changed in the Church’s stance on
the Liberal state. The authors of the Jesuit journal exhibited a much less rabid tone in their
discussion of the state’s treatment of Dante as a national symbol, and no longer criticised
the state’s rulers as a ‘sect’. They expressed their acceptance of Dante’s well established
significance as a representative of the nation, but also still characterised the poet as above
all else a Christian and Catholic:
Dante e Roma: se questo nesso ha un significato più o meno nazionale, ne

ha però anche uno assai più universale, e perenne che vince ogni altro, ed
è il cattolico, apostolico, romano. Egli, prima che cittadino della Roma dei
Cesari, si vanta cittadino di quella Roma onde Cristo è romano.219
This mellowed approach reflected the fact that in the first decade of the twentieth century,
the Church had dropped its traditional intransigence and had cautiously allowed its faithful
to support the Italian state.
The thawing in relations between the Church and Liberal state was further evidenced by
an article in Civiltà Cattolica of 1914 which expressed support for the project for a Catholic
celebration of the 1921 sixth centenary of Dante’s death already being organised by a
216
‘Rivista della stampa italiana: La Divina Commedia di Dante Alighieri, col comento di Giovanni Maria
Cornoldi di C. d. G., Civiltà Cattolica, vol.9, series 13, Dec 1887, 61.
217
Ibid., 64.
218
Ibid.
219
‘Il monumento a Dante in Roma’, Civiltà Cattolica, vol. 4, 1911, 258.
139
special Catholic committee. The authors of Civiltà Cattolica proclaimed that Catholic
Italians, who in 1865 had celebrated the anniversary of Dante’s birth, looked forward to
doing the same in 1921:
Oggi, come allora, i cattolici italiani non vogliono essere da meno nelle
onoranze allo spirito di Dante … ormai, il tempo e la riflessione abbiano
fatto sì che la loro voce più non debba, come allora, sonare protesta contro
il culto dei profanatori del pensiero e della credenza cattolica della mente di
lui.220
This declaration by the authors of Civiltà Cattolica suggested that the thought of Dante
was no longer widely purveyed as the historical justification for an anticlerical protest as it
once had been. And indeed serious scholarship of Dante had gone some way in allowing
the image of Dante as a Christian poet to be accepted as a complement to his image as a
great exponent of Italian national culture.
Like many an appropriation of Dante as a rhetorical bolster to a particular cause, the
explicit employment of Dante in the service of the legitimisation of the secular Italian nation
state would come to an end. But the promotion of Dante as the father of a distinctive and
long-lived Italian cultural tradition, and as a symbol of italianità would endure. Thanks to
the efforts of patriotic letterati who functioned as ‘high priests’ of national memory in the
Liberal state, the name Dante became synonymous with the Italian nation, and he was
arguably transformed from a medieval Florentine poet into a patron saint of united Italy.
Despite their political and cultural differences, which conditioned their utilisation of Dante in
support of contrasting claims to be the true representative of italianità, both the proponents
of a strictly secular Italian culture, and those of Catholic Italian culture, ultimately met and
were in accord in the national cult of Dante which flourished in Liberal Italy.
220
‘Concorso internazionale per il centenario della morte di Dante Alighieri’, Civiltà Cattolica, vol. 4, 1914,
210.
140
4
The irredentist Dante in Liberal Italy
One of the most significant appropriations of Dante in the Liberal period was his elevation
as a symbol of irredentism, a role which was encouraged by his characterisation during the
Risorgimento as a prophet of national unification and as the creator of the Italian language.
Inspired by this aspect of the myth of the poet as a national symbol, a national society
purportedly created to protect the italianità of those Italians living outside the Italian state
placed itself under the patronage of Dante, and was named the Società Dante Alighieri. It
also prompted the erection a monument to Dante in the Austrian held city of Trento in
1896, which was conceived as a visual representation of the city’s italianità, and as a
symbol of the desire of some of its inhabitants that the Trentino be politically united to the
Italian nation state. This utilisation of Dante as a national symbol and as an instrument of
national expansion reveals above all how some sections of the ruling elite imagined the
Italian nation as an entity defined by language and geography.
The irredentist movement, of which Dante became a prominent symbol in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, was born from the ‘incomplete’ nature of the
Risorgimento. It was in fact the unification of Italy which had conditioned the conception of
the idea of the ‘terra irredenta’, or the ‘unredeemed land’ from Austria. Many of the ruling
elite held fast to the Risorgimento vision of Italian territorial unity, and believed that several
regions, where a significant number of inhabitants adhered to Italian traditions and used
the Italian language, had unjustly remained outside the new kingdom.1 Thus after 1870
the struggle for the inclusion in the nation state of some northeastern regions still under
1
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’, Storia
Contemporanea, 1, 1970, 469.
141
Austrian control appeared, for some members of the ruling elite, to be the logical
continuation of the Risorgimento.2 And for the Liberal state, founded upon the myth of the
‘resurgence’ of a well defined and long-lived Italian nation, the eventual redemption of
Trento and Trieste, which had always been seen as part of Italy, was a necessary part of
the justification of its own existence.3
The greatest enemy of many protagonists of the Risorgimento had been Austria, and in
the early years of the new Italian state the Austrophobic tradition lived on in its former
territories, giving fuel to the irredentist cause. This post-Risorgimento hangover of hostility
accounted for the fact that territories under the control of the Habsburg Empire were the
primary focus of irredentist concern. Interest in reclaiming Italy’s mare nostrum, which
entailed seizing Corsica and Nice from France, Malta from Britain, and the colonisation of
Tunisia, was secondary in the early decades of Italian unity. Advocates of irredentism
maintained that Italian territory should be extended to the ‘natural’ borders indicated by the
Rhetic and Giulian Alps in the northeast.4 This designation of Italian geographical integrity
thus proposed the Alto Adige, the Trentino, Trieste and Istria to be unredeemed. Dalmatia
was also held to be Italian, despite the fact that Italian speakers numbered less than 5 per
cent of the population.5 The ostensible justification for the inclusion of these regions in the
Italian kingdom was their supposed adherence to Italian cultural traditions. That the
peoples of these regions might actually have identified more with German, Slovenian or
Croatian cultures, or might have felt that their primary loyalty was to the Habsburg dynasty
or to the Catholic Church, was of little relevance to irredentists.6 This claim veiled,
however, the fact that the fundamental motivation of irredentists was their belief that these
2
Ibid., 470.
3
R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy, the Least of the Great Powers: Italian foreign policy before the First World War,
London-New York, Cambridge UP, 1979, 246.
4
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’, 473.
5
Ibid.
6
142
territories were necessary to the fulfilment of the Risorgimento ideal of Italy’s geography,
and more practically, to the military security of the Italian state.7
In its early years, the irredentist movement was above all fostered by republican forces,
and always maintained a component of the sinistra storica.8 The greatest supporters of a
continued diplomatic and military campaign against Austria for a completion of the
Risorgimento and extension of Italian borders were Mazzinians and Garibaldinians, who
were unhappy with the monarchical solution to Italian unification.9 After the 1866 war with
Austria by which Italy gained the Veneto, the problem of completing national territory
ceased to be an exigency for the Italian government, whose immediate priority was the
preservation of the fragile new state.10 Italy’s statesmen were also aware that they could
only pursue further conflict with Austria if victory were a certainty.11 By 1882, when Italy
defensively joined with Germany and Austria in the Triple Alliance, irredentism had
become an unrealistic ambition for the Italian state. Subsequently, irredentism took on the
character of a protest against a state that did not know how, or care, to realise the
aspiration of completing the Risorgimento.12 The cause of irredentism in fact became a
point of convergence for all those Liberals who, for different reasons, opposed
governmental politics.13
One of the most distinctive features of the national cult of Dante was the employment of
his references to Italy in his great poem as evidence of a precise geographical definition of
the Italian nation state. Dante’s representation of cities, regions and landscapes of Italy in
the Divina Commedia became an important bolster to the image of the territorial unity of
the Italian nation, and took on particular significance for the contentious issue of the Italian
7
8
Ibid., 467.
9
R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy, the Least of the Great Powers, 9.
10
11
12
13
Ibid., 479.
143
border with the Austrian empire. Villari defined most succinctly the relevance of the poet
and his great work to the geographical conception of the Italian nation:
non v’ha dubbio alcuno che Dante riconobbe mille volte apertamente la
intrinseca unità nazionale del paese che “il mar circonda e l’Alpe”, della
terra dove “il sì suona” … La Divina Commedia è anzi il principale fattore
della intrinseca unità nazionale d’Italia. Dante ne rimane in eterno come la
vivente personificazione.14
In the course of his political life and in exile, Dante had spent time in various cities of the
Italian peninsula, and had subsequently immortalised many of them in his poem. As one
scholar noted in the early twentieth century, in the great poem ‘sono disegnati o coloriti i
leggiadri paesaggi della sua Toscana o dell’ospitale Romagna, dell’Umbria verde o delle
valli del Po o dell’Adige, o le rupe famose del Trentino’.15 Dante’s words, however, were
not only employed to justify the italianità of irredentist regions. For cities of the new
kingdom striving to rewrite their histories in a national key, and to qualify their identities as
having always been ‘Italian’, it became rather convenient to call upon the figure of Dante.16
Mention of a particular city or region in the Divina Commedia was taken as a sign of its
belonging to the Italian nation, and as a guarantee of its rightful inclusion in the Italian
nation state. The great poem was thus useful in the articulation of a sense of national
identity because it could provide evidence of the distant origins and long lived traditions of
the Italian nation.17 For patriotic letterati who turned to Dante in search of a definition of
italianità, the Divina Commedia was revered as ‘la magna charta della nazionalità
italiana’.18
Given that in the cause of irredentism the Italian language immortalised by Dante
became the most important marker of identity, the poet’s description of Italy as the land
’dove il sì suona’, was frequently used as a rhetorical bolster to justifications of the desired
reclamation. Reference to the lines
14
Pasquale Villari, ‘Dante e l’Italia’, Nuova Antologia, 253, 16 February 1914, 572.
15
Michele Scherillo, ‘Dante il Simbolo della Patria’, La Patria, no.2, February 1912, 95.
16
Erminia Irace, Itale Glorie, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2003, 155.
17
Stuart Woolf, ‘Introduction’ to Stuart Woolf (ed.), Nationalism in Europe, 1815 to the Present: a reader,
London-New York, Routledge, 1996, 2.
18
Michele Scherillo, ‘Dante il Simbolo della Patria’, 104.
144
sì com’a Pola, presso del Carnaro
ch’Italia chiude e suoi termini bagna (Inf. IX: 113-114)
was also frequently included in the rhetoric of calls for the extension of Italian territory in
the east, at least to the bay of Quarnaro, just to the west of Fiume. This utilisation of the
poet’s words culminated during the First World War and in its aftermath, when the
prophetical authority of Dante was invoked to legitimise the new strategical borders of the
Brennero and the Quarnaro.19
***
It was fitting that the most enduring association established to represent the irredentist
cause took its name from the poet who had become one of the great symbols of Italian
unification. The Società Dante Alighieri was created in Rome in 1889, on the suggestion
of emigrés from the Trentino Enrico Tolomei, Giacomo Venezian and Salvatore Barzilai,
with the intention of promoting the use of the Italian language and the appreciation of its
culture outside the Italian kingdom. Given the partisan origins of the irredentist movement,
a distinctive characteristic of the Dante Alighieri was that initially it brought together
supporters of all Liberal political persuasions. Radical, anticlerical republicans and more
conservative moderates were united in the ostensible cause of sustaining Italian culture
and promoting the Italian nation’s right to expand its existing borders. Its origins in
Risorgimento idealism attracted the allegiance of several prominent figures in united Italy,
among them Carducci, Villari, who would become the society’s second president, Menotti
Garibaldi, and the former Mazzinian Ernesto Nathan, who successively held the posts of
Grand Master of the Orient and mayor of Rome.20 The first president of the society was
19
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia Fortuna di Dante’, Rivista storica italiana, 78(3), 1966, 572.
20
145
the moderate politician, scholar and journalist Ruggero Bonghi, who had been the last
minister of education for the destra storica.21 The Dante Alighieri was clearly considered to
be an association through which the ruling elite could express their identification with the
Liberal conception of the Italian nation.
The Dante Alighieri was not the first formal society to emerge from the irredentist
movement. In the early decades of unity, many irredentist groups had sprung up in the
peninsula, often taking their names from Mazzini or Garibaldi.22 The most significant
preceding societies were the Pro Italia Irredenta, established in Naples in 1877 by M. R.
Imbriani, to whom it is attributed the coining of the term ‘irredentismo’, and the Pro Patria,
established in the Trentino in 1886.23 The Pro Patria had come to life in reaction to the
German Schulverein’s activities to promote German culture in the Trentino.24 Support for
this irredentist group rapidly spread to Trieste and Dalmatia, and in 1890 it was disbanded
by Austrian authorities, before being rapidly reborn as the Lega Nazionale.25
The creation of the Società Dante Alighieri was motivated by more than a concern for the
protection of irredentist communities. It was also strongly encouraged by the desire felt by
the ruling elite that the new Italian state attain the status and duties of a great power. The
leaders of the Dante Alighieri were aware of similar societies flourishing within other
states, such as the Alliance Française, Germany’s Schulverein and the Slavic Society of
Cyril and Metodius in the Habsburg Empire. The Italian ruling elite was determined that
Italy follow the example of other European powers, influenced as it was by the perception
that there was an enormous gap between the great powers of Europe and Italy.26 The
establishment of a national cultural association was just one of many steps towards
‘catching up’ with the great European states. In his inaugural speech at the second
21
Ibid.
22
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, Rome, Bonacci Editore, 1995, 18.
23
24
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, 19.
25
Ibid.
26
dell’Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1992, 49.
146
congress of the Dante Alighieri in 1891, president Ruggero Bonghi elucidated this
objective, and placed the existence and activity of the Dante Alighieri within an
international context. He spoke in terms of Italy’s need for ‘spiritual’ expansion, and its
contest with European powers for prestige and influence:
Il fine nostro è … spirituale. Noi guardiamo dappertutto dove l’Italia sta e

può stare, comunque vi stia. Noi vogliamo contendere ai francesci, ai
tedeschi, agli slavi, agli anglosassoni il campo della coltura intellettuale e
civile … Non ne potremmo aspirare a meno, in un nome così grande, come
quello che abbiamo invocato di Dante Alighieri.27
Such a contention evidenced the late nineteenth century idea that language was held to be
the basis of national consciousness, and thus that the ‘spirit’ of the Italian nation could be
conserved and encouraged to grow by nurturing its language and culture. As Eric
Hobsbawm has pointed out, however, contrary to this nationalist myth, language was in
reality a ‘cultural artefact’, and, in the Italian context, it was a means by which the Liberal
ruling elite could establish its political and cultural hegemony.28 Bonghi’s words also
intimated another belief of nineteenth century nationalism, that nation building was
inevitably seen as a process of expansion.29 Thus the Dante Alighieri existed in the eyes
of its creators to promote Italy’s spiritual and territorial growth.
In taking Dante as their figurehead, the group clearly displayed their belief in the
fundamental relationship between language and culture and the idea of the Italian nation.
The instigators of the Dante Alighieri were well versed in the myth of Dante as the father of
the Italian language, and of the Italian nation, established during the Risorgimento. In this
period the Italian language had provided the central argument for the creation of a unified
national state, and, along with the high culture it expressed, was the only basis for a
national identity. Villari made sure to stress the significance of language, and of Dante, its
27
Atti della Società “Dante Alighieri” per la diffusione della lingua e della coltura italiana fuori del Regno,
no. 1, July 1891, 3. From this point on to be referred to as ‘Atti’.
28
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1990, 110-111.
29
Ibid., 32.
147
greatest symbol, to the idea of Italy in his inaugural speech at the 9th congress in Turin in
1898:
Che cosa è mai la lingua, se non il pensiero, l’animo stesso della patria,
divenuto sensibile, visibile ai nostri occhi, personificato nel nostro maggiore
poeta, da cui la Dante Alighieri prende gli auspicii ed il nome? Per mezzo
della lingua che parliamo, la tradizione accumulata di tutto ciò che
pensarono i nostri padri vien fusa, trasfusa in noi, ed insieme con ciò che
pensammo, sentimmo e soffrimmo noi, si trasfonde nei nostri figli. La
lingua s’arricchisce, s’illumina, risplende a misura che i nostri animi si
purificano e si nobilitano. Si oscura, illanguidisce e decade, ogni volta che il
pensiero nazionale s’infiacchisce, che i nostri animi s’abbassano. Pensare
alla lingua e diffonderla, vuol dire pensare alla patria, promuoverne la
prosperità e gli alti destini. […]
Come Omero faceva dei Greci un popolo solo anche quando combattevano
fra di loro; come Shakespeare riunisce gli Anglo-Sassoni ovunque si
trovano sparsi nel mondo, così Dante, attraverso mille vicende e conflitti,
attraverso lo spazio ed il tempo, forma degl’Italiani un popolo solo. Tale è
la forza del linguaggio e della poesia.30
This belief in the fundamental importance of the significance of language and Dante to
the national idea was often exhibited in scholarly efforts to construct an Italian identity. In
his dissertation upon the role of the elite cultural society the Accademia della Crusca,
Pietro Fanfani posited that Dante had been the first in Italy to recognise the importance of
language to the unity of the nation:
… lo studio della lingua italiana… questa è opera sublime di civiltà e di

nazionalità; dacchè la lingua è ciò che ne differenzia dai bruti, come ben
disse Cicerone: lingua è nazione … lo studio della lingua è il vero cemento
che tiene unite le varie membra di una nazione, i popoli di provincie diverse,
e fa chiamargli fratelli. Questo comprese prima in Italia la gran mente
dell’Alighieri, che avea senno da tutto comprendere; e col proposito di
vedere ridotta l’Italia ad una sola famiglia compose l’opera De Vulgari
Eloquio.31
These considerations of the ties between Dante, the Italian language and the Italian
nation, attest to the nineteenth century nationalist myth that language was the basis of
national identity. Villari’s proposition that the state of a language and the culture it
expressed could act as a barometer for the strength of national sentiment revealed the
concern behind the society’s focus on the promotion of the use of the Italian vernacular.
30
Atti, no. 8, January 1899, 8-9.
31
Pietro Fanfani, ‘L’Accademia della Crusca e la lingua italiana’, Nuova Antologia, 3, December 1866, 646.
148
Villari also posited the idea that language contained the history of Italy’s ancestors, and
was thus proof of the continuity of the Italian nation through centuries past. The historian’s
argument expressed the fact that language was above all held to be very effective as an
emotional link between individuals and the ‘imagined community’ of the nation.32 He
clearly exemplfied how language was believed to be the primordial foundation of national
culture and the matrix of the national mind, despite its reality as a constructed ‘cultural
artefact’.
Given that the society had been born from the desire to give an outlet to lingering
Risorgimento sentiments to complete Italian national territory, the naming of the society
after the poet was also encouraged by his elevation as a prophet of Italian unity. In his
inaugural speech at the third congress of the society in 1892, Bonghi revealed that the
society also adhered to the Risorgimento image of Dante as a proponent of the Italian
nation state:
[La Dante Alighieri] prende nome dal maggiore dei nostri poeti, che fu
insieme l’italiano che ebbe più parte a plasmare la lingua nostra e più sentì
e largamente espresse tra le dilaniazioni nelle quali visse, il concetto della
grande patria nostra.33
The founders of the society also claimed that they had named it after Dante because they
hoped membership in their association would supersede the political divisions of the
Liberal state. Carducci, who is credited with suggesting the society’s title, felt that Dante
ideally represented the national nature of the group and its ambitions, and that the poet
symbolised a politically neutral italianità.34 The mayor of Bologna, the honorary president
for the 8th congress in Bologna in 1896 after the death of Bonghi, affirmed in his inaugural
speech the society’s adherence to this ideal, with his declaration that while the delegates
may have been otherwise divided by politics, at the society’s congress they were united in
their pursuit of their ‘alto dovere civile’:
32
Stuart Woolf , ‘Introduction’, 30.
33
Atti, no. 2, January 1893, 2.
34
149
qui un solo sentimento domina i cuori, il più intenso e puro che mai abbia
guidato i popoli nelle vie della storia; quell’alto sentimento nazionale, che
per noi si riassume nei nomi eternamente grandi di Dante e d’Italia.35
However, not all members were as enthusiastic about the suitability of Dante as the
standard bearer of the society. Some members were concerned that the name ‘Dante
Alighieri’ led to confusion about the exact nature of the society’s activities and did not
adequately represent its aims. At the 1897 congress the Milanese committee had, for this
motive, proposed that the society’s name be altered:
la nostra Società ha un nome elevato, sublime, che ha tutti i meriti e un solo

difetto, quello di non dire il suo scopo, anzi di farne intendere un altro.36
The Milanese committee supported its proposal with evidence of how many Italians were
confused by the name, ‘per fino le persone che appartengono alla classe elevata’,
generally mistaking it for the Società Dantesca Italiana.37 They gave the example of the
eminent scholar Cesare Cantù, who, on invitation to join the Dante Alighieri, had
responded that he was already a member, in reference to his affiliation with the Società
Dantesca Italiana. To avoid such confusion it was suggested that the name of the
illustrious patron be retained, but that ‘Società’ be substituted with ‘Lega Italica’ in the
group’s title, because ‘lega’ ‘rende subito l’idea non politica ma patriottica’.38 Villari, as
president, rejected this proposal on the basis that the situation would be rendered even
more unclear by such changes, and that the Dante Alighieri would have to start all over
again to make itself known.39
In response to this decision another member raised a more pertinent objection to the
name of the association: ‘Dante riceve un culto speciale presso le persone colte, … [però]
non si può pretendere che sia conosciuto dal popolo’.40 Dante as a symbol of the Italian
nation, its language and its unity, was of course elaborated by an elite nourished on high
35
Atti, no. 6, April 1897, 4.
36
Atti, no. 7, February 1898, 35.
37
Ibid., 36.
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid., 38.
40
Ibid., 39.
150
culture, who had little contact with social reality in Italy.41 While the elite and middle class
members of the Dante Alighieri were aware of the national and cultural connotations of the
name Dante, those without secondary schooling were perhaps not, and the poet was
unlikely to inspire widespread subscription. Thus the very naming of the society indicated
that it had not been created as an association that aimed at mass support.
Although some members were critical of the ambiguity of the society’s title, for its
founders this very equivocality was desired in order to obscure the political aims of the
group. The symbolism of the name Dante was of fundamental importance to the group’s
leaders, who hoped the society’s intentions would be understood without being clearly
expressed.42 The objective the society hoped to obscure was the reclamation of irredentist
territories from Austria. For the elite and classically educated members of the Dante
Alighieri, one significance that could be attributed to the society’s namesake was the
desire for an extension of the ideal, or ’natural’, borders of Italian national territory. While
Bonghi often denied any irredentist scope to the society, he did on one occasion reveal
that he viewed Dante as a symbol of a particular conception of the Italian nation’s
geographical integrity: ‘… la Dante Allighieri, chiamata così dal più forte intelletto italiano, e
che meglio ha sentito i confini della patria’.43
According to its leaders, the society had been established to sustain the national
principle, not to engage in politics, and its first president Bonghi strove to cultivate a
moderate image for the society, and stressed its fundamental pedagogic role.44 For the
benefit of the Austrian authorities, the Dante Alighieri maintained that its defence of the
Italian language, its assistance in the construction of schools and erection of monuments
to great Italian patriots beyond the northeastern frontier, was only an expression of cultural
41
42
Ibid., 157.
43
Atti, no. 4, April 1895, 8. This reference was made during Bonghi’s inaugural speech for the 5th Congress
in 1894.
44
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, 54, 30.
151
celebration.45 Italy’s involvement in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria at the
time of the society’s birth made the encouragement of overt aspirations to redeeming
territory from the Habsburg empire politically unfavourable, and indeed irredentism was no
longer a part of official foreign policy. But just as it trusted in the layered significance of
Dante as its figurehead, so too did the Dante Alighieri rely on the symbolic value of its
cultural activities, aware of their implicit political associations.
The society’s efforts to present itself as a non-political association at the time of its
inception was an intriguing feature, given that it actually did hope that its efforts would one
day result in the extension of the political borders of Italy. It also claimed to be without
political intentions in an attempt to appear as a non-partisan association. Bonghi and the
other founders did not want the society, with its official aspiration to encourage broad
membership in Italy, to be perceived as a radical republican group or a masonic
association, despite its origins in the left-wing irredentist traditions of Risorgimento
republicanism.46 This rejection of a political role, of a kind, in Italian society was also a
way for the Dante Alighieri to distance itself from a world of politics which was seen as
corrupt.47 It has nevertheless been argued that the foundation of the Dante Alighieri had
been anything but an apolitical move. Its creation was motivated as much by the desire of
a certain section of the ruling elite to protest against governmental politics of the late
nineteenth century, as it was prompted by their concern for the welfare of Italians living
outside the borders of the Italian state.48 Established during the premiership of Crispi, who
was opposed to irredentism, the Dante Alighieri took on the significance of opposition to a
corrupt system which had betrayed the ideals of the Risorgimento, by reproposing the
issue of irredentist lands to the official world of politics, and to public opinion.49
45
Ibid., 74-75.
46
Ibid., 39.
47
Ibid., 62.
48
49
Ibid., 480.
152
However, behind the veil of its official non-political image, the Dante Alighieri always
retained its desire to redeem Italian communities from Austrian domination. Bonghi clearly
expressed this aim in his inaugural speech at the 3rd congress in 1892, when he declared
that ‘La lingua e la coltura italiana ha a riconquistare terre che ha perse, ha a respingere
assalti intesi a cacciarla di dove ancora prevale’.50 At the congress the following year, his
adherence to irredentist aspirations had become even more obvious, given his reference
to the great ideal ‘che Dante ha avuto tanti secoli fa, di quello che debba essere
l’espansione d’Italia nei suoi confini naturali’, and his declaration that ‘i confini naturali non
[sono] ancor posseduti, la espansione italiana al di là non [è] ancor vicina al suo termine’.51
Although his declarations did not include explicit calls for the Italian government to act in
achieving the redemption of supposedly Italian territory, Bonghi’s speeches did contain
many references to irredentist lands and the desire for their reclamation by Italy. The first
president perhaps thought he was being subtle when he announced that the society was
prepared for, and anticipated, a future time when Italian national territorial integrity would
be achieved:
Noi, Società Dante Alighieri, non escludiamo … qualunque mutazione nei

confini degli Stati quali sono oggi, perchè la nazione italiana possa ancora
raccogliersi dentro i suoi confini più perfettamente che non ha fatto finoggi,
e radunare quel milione e più d’Italiani che sono fuori.
Noi vogliamo inoltre, che nelle regioni italiane il sentimento, la coltura e la
lingua italiana, quando si raggiunga l’avvenire desiato, si trovino assai
diffuse.52
For those who attended the annual congresses or read the yearly bulletins, it was thus
likely that the Dante Alighieri appeared to have a political scope to its activities. The
senator Graziadio Ascoli, for example, accused the society of having a political aim in
Austrian controlled territories to the north and east of Italian borders. In an article entitled
‘Gl’Irredenti’ published in Nuova Antologia in 1895, Ascoli observed that the Dante Alighieri
promoted the redemption of these regions as part of Italian territory. Bonghi refuted these
50
51
Atti, no. 3, May 1894, 24; 5.
52
Atti, no. 4, April 1895, 7. Bonghi’s inaugural speech at the 5 th Congress 1894.
153
claims in a subsequent article in Nuova Antologia, published after his death in October
1895. He asserted that irredentism was defined as ‘un fenomeno morale e psicologico cui
non risponde sempre lo stesso fatto reale’, and insisted that the term ‘irredentism’ did not
convey any political significance, declaring, perhaps with the religious connotations of the
term in mind, that ‘redenzione non è altro che liberazione da un dolore’.53 What was most
revealing about Bonghi’s essay in defence of the society’s non-political nature was its
reference to the naming of the society after Dante:
La Società Dante Alighieri mostra col suo nome stesso di non avere se non
un fine di cultura davanti agli occhi; vuole l’incremento dell’italianità
dappertutto dove appare, e nelle diverse forme che appare … ciò che essa
si propone è la diffusione della lingua e della cultura italiana; e ciò non
perchè gl’Italiani d’oltremonte e d’oltremare compongono versi, ma perchè
nella cultura e nella lingua trovino un mezzo di esaltare il sentimento della
patria.54
In this piece Bonghi chose to invoke the image of Dante as a symbol of Italian culture,
without political implications. He argued that the ‘Dante’ of the Dante Alighieri was not the
politically charged figure who had often been cast as a prophet of Italian unification, and
who had sketched a geographical conception of Italy that was contrary to the
contemporary political borders of Italy. Bonghi thus indicated how useful Dante was as a
symbol of the society due to the very fact of the diverse meanings that could be attributed
to him. For the official discourse of the society, the poet represented language, culture
and patriotism. Within the society however, and for those outside Italy aspiring to become
citizens of united Italy, Dante was also revered as a champion of irredentism.
The Dante Alighieri undoubtedly began its life as a culturally and politically elite group.
The statement by the president of the Genovese committee at the 17th Congress in Genoa
in 1906 that ‘La Dante, come la rivoluzione italiana, nacque da un manipolo di aristocrazia
intellettuale’ was very apt.55 At the second congress of the Dante Alighieri in April 1891,
53
Ruggero Bonghi, ‘Per la Società “Dante Alighieri”’, Nuova Antologia, 144, 15 December 1895, 601, 602.
54
Ibid., 602-603.
55
154
26 of the 57 delegates present, representing 30 local committees, were members of
parliament.56 At this congress, Bonghi affirmed the importance of the society’s strong
base in the political world:
Per ora vi abbondano gli uomini politici, ai quali il paese affida ogni altra
cura della sua vita pubblica. Ed è bene. Non v’è persone più di loro adatte
e in grado di dare un vigoroso impulso… A chi potrebbe spettare meglio
che a loro, di salvare l’animo e il pensiero italiano, dov’è prevalso ab antico,
o espanderlo dove può prevalere oggi, allargare questa patria
intellettualmente.57
And it seemed the Dante Alighieri was determined to endure as an elite association. At
the society’s annual congress in 1892, the delegates put to the vote ‘l’accoglimento nella
Società di ogni classe di cittadini’.58 This proposal to broaden the social bases of the
association entailed that membership would also be granted to workers and students for
the annual fee of 2 lire, reduced from the usual contribution of 6 lire a year.59 The motion
was rejected by a two thirds majority.60 Conversely, in 1900 the Dante Alighieri made an
effort to increase the number of its higher fee paying members who were engaged in
politics, concerned that ‘molti al Senato e alla Camera non figurino ancora fra i soci’, by
issuing an appeal to parliamentarians.61 The Dante Alighieri indeed provided an example
of how the ruling elite of Liberal Italy pursued a ‘nationalisation of the middle classes’
rather than of ‘the masses’, by recruiting and attracting members who had access to and
interest in high culture.62
If its propaganda is to be believed, it would seem that by the turn of the century the Dante
Alighieri had achieved considerable success in attracting members from the middle
classes. In an article of publicity first issued in the Florentine avant-garde artistic review
Marzocco, the president of the Florentine committee of the Dante Alighieri, Professor
56
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, 39-40.
57
Atti, no. 1, July 1891, 3.
58
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid., 16.
61
Atti, no. 1 (new series), November 1900, 52.
62
dell’Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1992, 49.
155
Augusto Franchetti, appraised the milieu of the congresses as a place where one could
meet ‘in comunione fraterna, uomini delle più varie condizioni; vengono dalle diverse
provincie, ed anche da paesi remoti, insegnanti d’ogni grado, ingegneri, medici, legali,
banchieri, negozianti, militari, ecclesiatici, signore di eletta coltura’.63 It is not surprising
that, as Franchetti contended, some Italians of lower middle class occupations such as
teachers and shopkeepers would be attracted to the Dante Alighieri. Having earned its
petit bourgeois status by virtue of holding non-manual jobs that required schooling, the
lower middle class owed its standing to its use of the official Italian language.64 Thus
membership in the society, which represented the Italian nation state and pursued the
protection of its official language, was the ideal means for lower middle class Italians to
exhibit their belonging to the culturally elite Liberal version of the Italian nation.
In contrast, for peasants and manual workers engaged in the struggle for survival,
involvement in the Dante Alighieri, with its abstract goals, held little appeal, despite the
theoretical ambition of the society’s elite leadership to popularise the association.65 And
for those who were loyal to the Church, participation in the Dante Alighieri was also
discouraged by the clearly secular, and at times even anticlerical image of the society,
which, on the contrary, often encouraged the allegiance of the Liberal ruling class.66
Widespread participation in the Dante Alighieri indeed developed slowly in Italy and
abroad. In the first 10 years of its life, the scope of the Dante Alighieri had remained
modest, with 48 committees in Italy, and 22 abroad by 1900.67 In the Florentine Strenna
Dantesca for 1903, an article promoting the Dante Alighieri lamented the low membership
of the society. Of 33 million Italians, only 13 000 participated in the Dante Alighieri, 3 000
63
Augusto Franchetti, ‘La Società Dante Alighieri’, Strenna dantesca compilata da Orazio Bacci e G. L.
Passerini, no. 1, 1902, 86.
64
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 117-118.
65
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri” , 166.
66
Ibid., 206.
67
Ibid., 151.
156
of them residing abroad.68 This figure was held to be pitiful in contrast to the robust
membership numbers of the Lega Nazionale; out of an estimated 800 000 Italian speakers
resident in Trento, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia, 20 200 were members of the Lega
Nazionale.69 Such figures are perhaps most significant as a confirmation of the
fundamentally irredentist appeal of the Dante Alighieri. Indeed, the Dante Alighieri enjoyed
more popularity in regions which had once been dominated by the Austrian Empire, and
inspired minor support in the South, where for the most part the imposition of the Italian
state had not been as enthusiastically received.70
Villari’s leadership of the Dante Alighieri from 1896 to 1903 did, however, sponsor greater
social and financial growth for the group. The image of the Dante Alighieri was enhanced
by the prestige of Villari’s achievements as a scholar and politician, and by his extensive
contacts among elites in Italy and abroad.71 Under Villari the society worked more
intensely to propagandise its mission, and it also attempted to involve school and
university students, the army, women, and to a lesser extent, urban workers. Its main
avenues for publicising its cause were conferences, plays, balls, fairs and concerts. These
events were organised with the intention of enhancing the image of the Dante Alighieri
while spending little, and premised on the idea that people would be inspired to join the
society due to a sense of patriotic duty.72 By 1913, the number of branches had increased
to 236 in Italy, and 78 abroad.73
In the name of Dante, the society proposed to ‘aiutare ovunque occorre lo sviluppo della
coltura italiana e del sentimento di italianità’.74 The primary area of concern for the Dante
68
A. Eccher, ‘La Società “Dante Alighieri” per la tutela della lingua e della cultura italiana fuori del Regno’,
Strenna dantesca compilata da Orazio Bacci e G. L. Passerini, no. 2, 1903, 89.
69
Ibid.
70
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, 152-153.
71
Ibid., 261.
72
Ibid., 161.
73
Ibid., 151-152. Pisa has noted that the figures for the number of committees are not overly reliable due to
exaggeration and to the fact that committees were created and dissolved frequently.
74
Atti, no. 1, July 1891, 4.
157
Alighieri in its role as a patron of Italian culture was the Italian population living under
Austrian control. At the congress in 1891, the central council of the Dante Alighieri
stressed the importance of its intervention and cultural support beyond Italy’s northeastern
frontier:
Ai nostri confini del Nord e dell’Oriente si combatte un’aspra lotta. Nel

Trentino l’elemento italiano continua animoso la secolare lotta della latinità
contro il tedesco, della valle contro la montagna; nell’Istria e nel Friuli
Orientale gli Slavi una volta tenuti lontani dalla cosa pubblica sono penetrati
nelle diete ed in molti municipi e vi alzano la voce.75
The Trentino was a primary focus for the society’s irredentist ambition. The alpine region
was politically united to the German province of the South Tyrol, but the majority of its
inhabitants were Italian speakers. The German majority in the provincial parliament left
Italian speaking Trentini at a considerable disadvantage in their struggle to maintain their
Italian customs and economic interests.76 Of perhaps even greater importance to the
irredentist cause was Trieste, a major polyglot European port and the key to a pre-eminent
role in trade with the near East.77 While the governing language of Trieste had long been
Italian, in the late ninetenth century it was difficult to claim that its population
overwhelmingly identified themselves as Italian.78 Cities of interest to the irredentist
movement in Istria and Dalmatia, such as Pola, Fiume, Zara and Spalato, had once been
ruled by the Venetian Empire, and thus retained some vestiges of Italian customs.79 In
these Adriatic regions, Italian irredentists, supported by the Dante Alighieri in its ‘cultural’
capacity, struggled against both Austrian centralisation and the growing influence of the
Slav population and its burgeoning nationalism.80
75
Atti, no. 1, July 1891, 7.
76
77
Ibid., 490.
78
R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy and the Approach of the First World War, London, Macmillan, 1983, 55.
79
Ibid.
80
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’ , 488.
158
At the 1891 congress another member declared the importance of the second realm of
interest for the Dante Alighieri in its promotion of Italian culture, the many Italians
emigrating every year:
Si tratta di circa un ventesimo della Nazione italiana che vive fuori di casa
sua. Ora è necessario che di questo ventesimo della Nazione italiana ci
preoccupiamo non soltanto in quanto riguarda le sue condizioni
economiche, ma anche in quanto riguarda le sue condizioni intellettuali.
Una parte di questi nostri connazionali … pèrdono, un poco alla volta,
anche l’uso della lingua italiana, ed i loro figliuoli si dimenticano forse di
essere italiani.81
In the early years of the twentieth century emigration from Italy would indeed reach
troubling proportions, and by 1914 emigrants numbered almost 1 million annually.82 The
maintenance, or more often ‘export’ of italianità to emigrant communities, was considered
by many of the Dante Alighieri to be a secondary battle to that of preserving the italianità of
irredentist territory. The society’s interest in emigrants was greatest for those who had
settled in the Mediterranean, and grew as Italian ambitions for imperialist expansion in the
region flourished at the end of the nineteenth century. Italy struggled to compete with
Britain, Austria, and particularly France, which had established colonies in Algeria, Tunisia
and Morocco, for its place in the sun, and held firmly to its historical pretensions to
predominance in the Mediterranean.83 At the congress of 1891 one member spoke at
length about the lamentable decline in Italian influence in the Mediterranean, which he
referred to as ’il mare delle nostre memorie, che dovrebb’essere il mare delle nostre
speranze’.84 Given this past Italian pre-eminence in the Mediterranean, the same member
declared that Italy had ‘un dovere quasi di nobilità, un dovere quasi ereditato col sangue,
di sostenere, di rialzare le sorti di quella lingua italiana che ancora pochi anni fa era la
lingua più diffusamente parlata nel Levante’.85 He declared that with France, Austria, and
Germany building their empires in the Mediterranean, Italy must do the same: ‘dobbiamo
81
Atti, no. 1, July 1891, 19.
82
R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy and the Approach of the First World War, 8.
83
84
Atti, no. 1, July 1891, 19.
85
Ibid., 20.
159
difendere la nostra lingua là dove essa si mantiene ancor viva; dobbiamo cercare di
riconquistare il terreno perduto, procurando di risuscitare le memorie delle passate glorie;
ma dobbiamo anche cercare di diffondere la nostra lingua e la nostra cultura là dove esse
non esistono e non hanno mai esistito’.86 This speech yet again indicates how important
language had become as marker of national identity, and as the basis of national
consciousness.
The society pursued greater intervention in Italian emigrant communities, however, under
the presidency of Villari. Well known for his commitment to addressing the ‘social
question’, Villari was aware that emigrating workers were very open to learning the local
language abroad, given that, for the most part, they used only dialect and had little
knowledge of the Italian language.87 Villari also feared that Italian working class emigrants
would be more likely to be loyal to class interests than to their inhospitable and faraway
patria.88 In an attempt to encourage patriotism in such emigrants, the Dante Alighieri
commissioned a text which exhibits a utilisation of Dante to help educate them about Italy.
Entitled La Patria Lontana, and written by a professor from the University of Genoa, this
work rather ambitiously proposed to
far conoscere le condizioni odierne dell’Italia nelle industrie, nei commerci,

nelle arti, nella vita pubblica, di ricordarne le glorie antiche e recenti, di
ridestare il sentimento d’amor patrio, dove esso è assopito, o illanguidito, di
combattere le tendenze al vizio, alla delinquenza settaria, di mostrare ai
coloni i loro doveri, di far loro conoscere ciò che essi devono alla patria
lontana e ciò che essa spera ed ha il diritto di attendere da loro, di
raccomandare la concordia, l’operosità, il culto delle memorie gloriose, la
fede nell’avvenire della nazione.89
The book proclaimed Dante ‘un simbolo della nazione italiana’90 and Italy’s greatest poet
who ‘in mezzo alla tenebre del medio evo sentì primo il concetto della grande patria
86
Ibid., 21.
87
88
Ibid.
89
Camillo Manfroni, La Patria Lontana: libro di lettura per gli Italiani, Livorno, Raffaello Giusti Editore,
1898, iii-iv.
90
Ibid., 135.
160
nostra’.91 It is not surprising that the poet was invoked in the section of the text discussing
Italy’s irredentist territory, and the famous lines of the Commedia which were held to define
Italy’s eastern border were employed: ’Nel mare Adriatico, che bagna le coste orientali
della nostra penisola dal capo di Leuca fino al golfo del Quarnero,
Che Italia chiude e i suoi termini bagna,
come disse il nostro grande poeta Dante Alighieri, una parte del territorio,
geograficamente, storicamente ed etnograficamente italiano, è ancora occupato dagli
stranieri’.92 Dante’s verse was again utilised to describe the geography of Liguria, whose
coasts ‘si estendono ad arco dal confine francese, segnato da una linea convenzionale
presso Ventimiglia, fino alla foce della Magra,
che per cammin corto

Il Genovese parte dal Toscano’.93
It was probable that, for many of these Italian emigrant workers for whom the book was
intended, the patria conceived by the society, as well as by the medieval poet, had been
as distant from them while they had resided in Italy as it was when they were abroad.
In his term as president of the Dante Alighieri Villari steered the society towards a more
explicit promotion of Italian expansionism. The most prominent characteristic of Villari’s
presidency was his insistence, in keeping with a faithful reading of the statutes of the
society, that Italian emigrant communities receive as much attention from the society as
the irredentist territories. The patriotic historian was committed to making Italy a strong,
respected nation state, and he envisioned the peaceful expansion of Italy in the world
through emigration.94 Villari made reference to this concept of ‘una via italiana
all’imperialismo’95 in his speech at the congress of 1901, in which he proposed the idea of
‘la più grande Italia’ of Italian colonies to be established not by military conquest, but by
91
Ibid., 42.
92
Ibid., 40.
93
Ibid., 56.
94
95
Sabbatucci coined this phrase.
161
Italian workers.96 Villari proposed that communities of Italian workers abroad were, in their
own way, ‘terre irredente’, and just as important as the Trentino or Trieste to the Italian
nation.97 He insisted that the promotion of the Italian language among Italian emigrants
was vital to the expansion of Italy as a nation, and thus under the aegis of Villari, the Dante
Alighieri attempted to make emigrants from the peninsula into Italians. Villari’s treatment
of the issues of irredentism and emigration was founded on his particular conception of the
nation, influenced by Social Darwinist thought, as a living organism which had the right to
grow and affirm itself.98 For nineteenth century European intellectuals such as Villari, a
nation state’s territorial expansion provided the Darwinian proof of evolutionary success as
a social species.99 According to this idea of the nation, irredentism and emigration
became part of the continuous struggle of the nation to expand and prosper in the world.100
By placing irredentism within the context of this more general expansionist vision, Villari
stripped it of its initial raison d’être, as an ideological expression and as a concrete
proposal for foreign policy.101 Villari’s treatment of the irredentist cause as president of the
Dante Alighieri thus ultimately led to the rise of a new type of more militarist and
conservative irredentism that was concerned more generally with the defence of italianità
outside Italy.102
By the early twentieth century, therefore, the concept of irredentism the Dante Alighieri
had originally proposed to represent had altered. While the Dante Alighieri had been
founded on the Risorgimento myth of irredentism, nourished by republican ideals, it had
drifted away from these roots in an Enlightenment tradition of the right to self-
determination, and towards the promotion of Italian imperialism. The society’s adherence
96
Atti, no. 5 (new series), December 1901, 18.
97
Ibid.
98
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’, 484;
99
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 38.
100
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’,
485.
101
Ibid., 486.
102
Ibid., 499.
162
to a more expansionist conception of nationalism was above all influenced by, and
reflected, the changes that had occurred in the political atmosphere of Italy in the early
1900s. Austria’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 had raised Italy’s hopes for
territorial compensation from the empire, given that the renewal of the Triple Alliance in
1891 had included a stipulation which gave Italy the right to reparations from Austria if it
altered the status quo in the Balkans. When Austria refused to recognise Italian
expectations of gaining Trento or Trieste, the Triple Alliance was revealed to be of little
practical value to Italy.103 This debacle led to an upsurge of irredentism in Italy, but of a
generically patriotic and expansionist type.104 Irredentism had become a pretext for
nationalist expansionism, and within this mentality little distinction was made between
Italian aspirations towards Trieste or Tunisia.105 Meanwhile, the socialist movement, which
opposed irredentism, had assumed a more prominent role in parliament and was accepted
by some Liberals, notably Giolitti, as a valid political force within the state.106 This
development encouraged the identification of irredentism with conservatism, and further
eroded its original standing as a radical left-wing movement. By 1911 the Dante Alighieri
had embraced the new myth of Italy as a strong, aggressive and expansionist nation, and
gave its unconditional support to the invasion of Libya.107 The rigid distinction between
irredentism and expansionist imperialism had finally disappeared, and the cultural and
pedagogic activity of the Dante Alighieri openly became a bolster to Italy’s imperialist aims
and its competition with other countries.108 By the advent of the Great War the Dante
Alighieri had become a semi-official purveyor of cultural propaganda.109 The society
supported the intervention of 1915, and at war’s end, the educationalist and politician
103
Ronald S. Cunsolo, Italian Nationalism: From Its Origins to World War II, Malabar, Florida, Robert E.
Krieger, 1990, 101.
104
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Irredentismo e movimento nazionalista in Italia’ (part 2), Storia Contemporanea, 2,
1971, 63.
105
Ibid., 63-64.
106
107
Beatrice Pisa, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, 6, 14.
108
Giovanni Sabbatucci, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista in Italia’, 483;
109
163
Paolo Boselli, who had assumed the presidency of the society in 1907, and who served as
prime minister in 1916-1917, hailed the outcome as the realisation of the society’s
unwavering irredentist goal:
La Terza Italia, vaticinata da tutti i suoi spiriti eccelsi, da Dante Alighieri a

Giuseppe Mazzini, è oggi compiuta … L’Italia rivendica le sue terre
adriatiche e tridentine dove sventola, lungamente atteso, il nostro vessillo.
La Società “Dante Alighieri” che fin dal suo nascere, per trent’anni, disse ai
fratelli divisi la parola della speranza, tenne desta nella Nazione la volontà
di riscattare gl’Italiani gementi sotto il giogo straniero, oggi vede compiuti i
suoi voti.110
With the end of the period of Italy’s great irredentist struggles in 1920, the Dante Alighieri
reached a turning point. It naturally gave greater attention to Italian emigrants, and did
away with its official claim to be removed from domestic politics.111 Under Boselli, who
was one of the first politicians in Italy to accept honourary membership in the Fascist party,
and who remained president of the society until 1932, the Dante Alighieri began to develop
an affinity with Fascist political ideals.112 With the establishment of the Fascist regime, the
society lost its autonomy from government control, and the Fascist press would claim that
‘la “Dante“ traccia le strade sulle quali marceranno e marciano le idee del Fascismo nel
mondo’.113
***
Although in the late nineteenth century Trento and Trieste were frequently spoken of as
the two sides of the same coin when calls were made for the redemption of Italian territory
under Austrian control, the reality of irredentism in the Trentino was very different from that
in the Adriatic.114 Many inhabitants of urban centres in the Trentino spoke Italian and
110
Atti, no. 47, 5 November 1918, 1-2.
111
112
Ibid.
113
‘Scritti e discorsi per la “Dante”’, Popolo d’Italia, 31 Aug 1933, 3.
114
164
considered themselves to be Italian.115 For centuries the Trentino, and the region of the
South Tyrol or the Alto Adige to its north, had been part of the political events of the Italian
peninsula, until the Habsburgs succeeded in establishing their dominion over the area in
the fourteenth century.116 Although the Habsburg monarchy continued to rule these
regions until the Napoleonic era, they preserved their ‘Italian’ character and resisted
Germanisation.117 In 1810, the Trentino and the South Tyrol were briefly annexed to the
Kingdom of Italy established by Napoleon, before being restored to the Austrian empire in
1815.118 In the nineteenth century the precise definition of the ‘natural’ geographic
boundary between Italy and Austria became a particular issue of contention.119 The South
Tyrol and the Trentino had always been the object of Habsburg ambition, because
possession of this territory afforded easy access to the peninsula and thus a considerable
military advantage. The new Italian state, similarly concerned with the military defence of
its territory, identified Italy’s natural frontier to be the Alpine watershed at the Brenner
Pass.120
The exclusion of the Trentino from united Italy was particularly damaging to the region’s
economic interests, because under the new political boundaries it was deprived of its
natural markets of Lombardy and the Veneto, and this economic trauma was not remedied
by the region’s incorporation into the Habsburg empire.121 From the time of the
Risorgimento onwards the ruling class of the Trentino maintained their demands for the
administrative autonomy of the region. The Austrian government refused, however, to
make any distinction between the Trentino and the South Tyrol, insisting that the two
115
Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1997,
130.
116
Mario Toscano, Alto Adige-South Tyrol: Italy’s frontier with the German World, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1975, 1.
117
Ibid.
118
Ibid.
119
Ibid., 2.
120
Ibid., 3.
121
165
regions constituted a political and economic unit.122 After the Austro-Italian war of 1866,
the Austrian authorities became even more inflexible in their attitude towards the Italian
population of the region, and maintained a policy of progressive Germanisation of the
Trentino.123 In 1886, as we have seen, irredentist Trentini established the Pro Patria
society in an attempt to resist this cultural conditioning and to express their Italian
nationalism.
In the late nineteenth century the ruling elite of the Trentino chose to exhibit their Italian
consciousness and their aspiration to belong to the Italian nation state by commemorating
Dante with a monument in the city of Trento. The mythical image of the Florentine poet
was attractive to irredentists in the Trentino because it possessed potent connotations of
Italian patriotism, and of the Risorgimento struggles for unification. Dante’s appeal also
lay in the fact that he was primarily a cultural figure, and thus the public celebration of his
image in the Trentino was not an overt affront to Austrian authority. The celebration of his
image as a symbol of the Italian nation was above all a means for irredentist Trentini to
declare that the Risorgimento remained incomplete for the Trentino. The verse penned by
Carducci for the occasion of the inauguration of the monument to Dante in 1896 eloquently
alluded to this belief:
Così di tempi e genti in vario assalto

Dante si spazia da ben cinquecento
Anni de l’Alpi su ‘l tremendo spalto;
Ed or s’è fermo, e par che aspetti, a Trento.124
In this evocation of nationalist mythology, Dante was waiting at Trento for his vision of
Italian unity to be complete, just as Italian nationalists of the Trentino were waiting for their
Risorgimento to be finished.
Dante was above all a symbol of irredentists in the Trentino because he was considered
to be the ‘father’ of the Italian language. Language was the most important factor that
122
Mario Toscano, Alto Adige-South Tyrol: Italy’s frontier with the German World , 2.
123
Ibid.
124
Giosuè Carducci, ‘Epigraph’ to Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, XI Ottobre MDCCCXCVI: Ricordo
dell’Inaugurazione del Monumento Nazionale a Trento, Trento, Giovanni Zippel Editore, 1896, ii.
166
these supporters of an Italian Trentino could use to justify that the region rightfully
belonged to the Italian nation and its state. Dante was held to be the father of the
language spoken in the Trentino, just as he was the father of the language of the Italian
nation state. Whether or not the majority of inhabitants of the Trentino actually spoke the
official Italian of the Italian state was irrelevant to the irredentists. For those who used the
official Italian language, the ruling elite of the Trentino, writing and speaking Italian gave
them access to a more powerful status. The unification of the Trentino to Italy would
confer on them the prestigious standing as Italian speaking citizens of the Italian state,
which was preferable to being a threatened minority in a foreign empire.125
The constructed image of Dante as a symbol of the Italian language was thus useful to
Trentino elites in their quest to affirm the Trentino as an Italian region. An essay which
asserted Dante’s recognition of the Trentino’s linguistic affinity with the Italian nation,
included in a special volume published for the occasion of the inauguration of the
monument, entitled Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, which contained studies by local scholars
on the italianità of Trentino history, art, culture and language, evidenced this utilisation of
Dante. It claimed that the medieval poet, in his De vulgari eloquentia, ‘riconobbe il
vernacolo di Trento per italiano, sebbene non di quell’italiano ch’egli cercava, e lo pose a
fascio coi parlari di Torino e d’Alessandria’.126 The author further maintained that the
Trentino had protected its Italian language from corruption over the centuries since Dante
had considered its character: ‘dopo l’attestazione di Dante, Trento depurò ognor più il suo
linguaggio, e questo rimase sempre italiano, anco nel tempo della maggiore infiltrazione
d’abitanti tedeschi … la quale infiltrazione andò poi riassorbita e si dileguò nel corpo della
popolazione, talchè oggi, che tolga gli avventizî, Trento è più che mai una città
125
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 110.
126
Vittore Ricci, ‘D’una causa remota del monumento a Dante Alighieri a Trento’, Il Trentino a Dante
Alighieri, 39.
167
prettamente italiana di lingua’.127 This vision of Trentino linguistic development thus
posited that the Trentino possessed a long-lived tradition of Italian consciousness.
Another contribution to this collection of studies on Dante and the Trentino exemplified
that in the late nineteenth century, ‘ethnicity’ had become an important factor in the
assertion of a national identity, influenced by Darwinian theories of evolution which
encouraged the application of allegedly scientific principles to an elaboration of the idea of
‘race’.128 This scholar also averred that because the dialect of the region was ‘italico’, its
people were Italian, and added weight to this proposition with the claim that Trentini were
‘ethnically’ Italian.129 He argued that the ancient Roman domination of the Trentino had
not determined the region’s italianità, because its people had already been ‘Italian’. This
claim was based on the discovery of archeological artefacts which predated the Roman
era and which had an affinity to objects of the same period found in the rest of Italy. These
artefacts were held to demonstrate that the origin of ancient people of the Trentino was the
same as the peoples of the rest of Italy.130 This author concluded that the region had
been ethnically Italian for countless centuries, a fact which had thus conditioned its
language and customs to be Italian.
The Trentino’s claim to belong to the Italian nation on the basis of language was
bolstered by Dante’s nomination of Trento and its region in the Divina Commedia. The
argument seemed to be that if Trento was mentioned by Dante, it must be Italian. Dante’s
great poem was therefore utilised as evidence that the region had for many centuries been
a recognisable part of Italy. There are two particular passages in Inferno which spoke of
the Trentino, and which, as the Trentino scholar Giuseppe Zippel noted, were ‘i versi, che
127
Ibid.
128
Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 107-108.
129
L. Campi, ‘L’Italianità del Trentino’, Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, 34, 31.
130
Ibid., 31-32.
168
nel secolare, affettuoso culto per l’Alighieri, sempre ripeteron con memore orgoglio i
Tridentini’.131
The first passage makes reference to the Italian frontier with Germany in the line ‘l’alpe
che serra Lamagna’, and gave rise to infinite debate about exactly where Dante thought
Italy ended and Germany began:132
Suso in Italia bella giace un laco,

a piè de l’alpe che serra Lamagna
sovra Tiralli, c’ha nome Benaco.
Per mille fonti, credo, e più si bagna,

tra Garda e Val Camonica Apennino
dell’acqua che nel detto laco stagna.
Luogo è nel mezzo là dove ‘l trentino

pastore e quel di Brescia e ‘l veronese
segnar porìa, se fesse quel cammino. (Inf. XX: 61-69)
In the second passage from Inferno much revered by Trentini, it was believed that the
landscape of the Slavini di Marco, to the south of the city of Rovereto, had inspired Dante in
his imagining of the rocky descent into the circle of the violent:
Era lo loco ov’a scender la riva

venimmo, alpestro e, per quel che iv’er’anco,
tal, ch’ogni vista ne sarebbe schiva.
Qual è quella ruina che nel fianco

di qua da Trento l’Adice percosse,
o per tremoto o per sostegno manco,
che da cima del monte, onde si mosse,

al piano è sì la roccia discoscesa,
ch’alcuna via darebbe a chi su fosse (Inf. XII: 1-9)
The idea for the monument to Dante was first proposed by members of the Pro Patria
association in 1886 as a means of publicly asserting the italianità of the Trentino. This
group was spurred in its desire for a monument to Dante by the erection in Bolzano in
1889 of a monument to Walther von der Vogelweide, a revered German lyrical poet of the
131
Giuseppe Zippel, Lectura Dantis: Dante e il Trentino. Conferenza letta da Giuseppe Zippel nella Sala di
Dante in Orsanmichele 8 Gennaio 1920, Florence, Sansoni, 1920, 8.
132
Ibid., 14.
169
Middle Ages, in affirmation of the city’s German identity. In that same year a committee
was formed in Trento to plan the monument to Dante, and defined its objective to be ‘una
pubblica insigne testimonianza di affetto e di gratitudine a Dante Alighieri, al Padre della
nostra lingua e della nostra civiltà’.133 The municipal council of Trento gave its full support
to the plans for the monument, and the authorities in Vienna granted permission for the
collection of public donations for its realisation.134 A request for subscriptions to the
monument was published in newspapers in the Trentino and in the Kingdom of Italy.135
Donations to the cause were received from many cities of the region, as well from
individual Trentini, and Italians residing in other parts of the Austrian Empire, in the cities
of Gorizia, Trieste and Zara, also subscribed to the monument.136 The first donation from
the Kingdom of Italy was offered by the city of Florence, and many other Italian cities
followed suit.137 Within 3 months, a purported 120 000 lire had been raised to honour
Dante as a symbol of irredentism.138 The widespread enthusiasm for the erection of the
statue to Dante indicated that the monument was, as those planning it claimed, a truly
‘national’ celebration of Dante, and not just a local Trentino commemoration.
This fact was most decisively exhibited during the inauguration of the monument on 11
October 1896, when wreaths from 120 cities of the Italian peninsula and irredentist
regions, and included Florence and Verona, as well as the irredentist cities of Trieste,
Gorizia and Zara, were placed at the base of the monument.139 The press also reported
that the speech given by the president of the planning committee for the monument,
Guglielmo Ranzi, for the inauguration was impressively frank. Ranzi had apparently hailed
the statue of Dante as a ‘difesa legittima della civiltà italiana contro un tentativo di
133
Guglielmo Ranzi, ‘Il Monumento a Dante in Trento’, Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, 76.
134
Ibid., 81.
135
Ibid., 77.
136
Ibid., 83.
137
Ibid., 84.
138
‘Dante a Trento, 11 ottobre 1896’, Corriere della Sera, 10-11 October 1896, 1.
139
‘Il Monumento di Dante a Trento’, Osservatore Romano, 12-13 October 1896, 2.
170
germanizzazione del Trentino’.140 This characterisation of the monument as a defiant
confirmation of italianità under threat was just one of the interpretations applied to its
significance. At the annual congress of the Società Dante Alighieri in October 1896, the
then vice-president of the society, former Mazzinian and freemason Ernesto Nathan,
spoke of the recently unveiled monument to Dante, identifying it as a symbol of secular
faith:
Là sulla piazza di Trento, ove si riunirono i capi della chiesa per discutere
su questioni di dogma, si erge una statua che non discute, ma irradia una
fede, una fede civile e pura, quella della italianità.141
Clearly for Nathan, as for many other Italian nationalists, Dante was also revered as the
patron saint of the new, secular ‘religione della patria’ which struggled to compete with the
deep-rooted Catholic faith of Italy.
In contrast to Nathan’s appraisal of the monument to Dante as a symbol of the new
secular faith in the Italian nation, the Catholic press declared that Dante was a
representative of the universality of the Christian faith, and therefore greater than the
irredentist cause. The reports on the inauguration of the monument in the Osservatore
Romano criticised the appropriation of the poet by what they considered to be an unworthy
cause. In its view, as a result of the ‘ristrettezze delle moderne esclusività nazionali’,
Dante had been reduced ‘da poeta dei supremi destini umani, a poeta di gare terrestri e
passeggere’.142 The occasion of the inauguration also gave the Osservatore Romano the
opportunity to disparage the troubled Italian state and its hostility towards the Church:
E bisognerebbe davvero che [il popolo trentino] fosse stato preso dalla più
insana delle follie, se potesse venir sospettato sul serio di aspirare a
dividere la nostra sorte divenuta ogni giorno più lagrimevole e triste. […]
Essi ci invidiano, gli infelici, le nostre leggi ostili alla Chiesa, le sevizie usate
agli Ordini religiosi, l’ateismo delle nostre scuole, la licenza dei nostri teatri,
la corruttela dei nostri costumi…
Tutto ciò non ha nulla che vedere col massimo dei nostri poeti, la cui
grande figura viene indegnamente sfruttata a servigio di inconsulte e fittizie
agitazioni, che tutt’altro fanno fuori che il bene del paese che si dice
140
‘L’Inaugurazione del Monumento di Dante a Trento’, Corriere della Sera, 12-13 October 1896, 2.
141
Atti, no. 6, April 1897, 8.
142
‘Pel Monumento di Dante a Trento’, Osservatore Romano, 10-11 October 1896, 1.
171
d’amare. L’italianità di Trento, lo ripetiamo, e l’affermazione legale e
pacifica di questo sentimento non hanno a temere che un nemico ed una
minaccia: l’irredentista e l’irredentismo!143
The monument in Trento essentially sought to solidify the idea of italianità in the form of
Dante. The monument was a way for the ruling elite of the Trentino to demonstrate their
sense of belonging to the Italian nation in urban space, and to label Trento as an Italian
city.144 The statue would stand as a permanent visual evocation of the city’s italianità, and
would be a means of educating new generations of its citizens in Italian patriotism.145 In
keeping with its didactic purpose, a prominent site was chosen for the monument to Dante
in the Piazza della Stazione, which would ensure that the effigy of Dante was the first thing
to be seen on arrival in Trento.146
The design of the monument was also an intricate exhibition of its precise significance. It
is an imposing 17.6m in height, with the pedestal reaching 13m, and the statue of the poet
5m. The figure of Dante is, of course, the apogée of the monument. The poet is
represented holding a volume of his great poem, and with his right arm outstretched as if,
in the view of its instigators, ‘in amorevole atto di protezione’.147 The press described the
face of the statue as expressive of ‘la fierezza dello sdegnoso ghibellino, temperata da una
certa paterna benevolenza verso il popolo che si rifugia sotto il suo patrocinio’.148
The base of the monument is decorated with sculptures representing the Divina
Commedia. As one account of the design of the monument noted, ‘Il naturale piedistallo di
un monumento a Dante, non può essere che la Divina Commedia che lo rese
143
‘Nel nome di Dante’, Osservatore Romano, 13-14 October 1896, 1.
144
Bruno Tobia, ‘Urban Space and Monuments in the “nationalisation of the masses”’, in Stuart Woolf (ed.),
Nationalism in Europe, 1815 to the Present: a reader, London-New York, Routledge, 1996, 171.
145
Bruno Tobia, Una Patria per gli italiani: spazi, itinerari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870-1900), Rome-
Bari, Laterza, 1991, 98-99.
146
Guglielmo Ranzi, ‘Il Monumento a Dante in Trento’, 84.
147
Carlo Papini, Il Monumento a Dante per la Città di Trento del Prof. Cesare Zocchi, Florence, Tip.
Bonducciana, 1893, 11.
148
‘Dante a Trento, 11 ottobre 1896’, Corriere della Sera, 10-11 October 1896, 1.
172
immortale’.149 The choice of images from the Commedia was very specific, and they were
intended to convey the political meaning of the monument. The base is divided into three
levels, representing each canticle of the Commedia. The lowest level of the base takes its
imagery from the passage of Canto V of Inferno, which begins
Stavvi Minòs orribilmente, e ringhia:

essamina le colpe ne l’intrata;
giudica e manda secondo ch’avvinghia. (Inf. V: 4-6)
This image was intended to represent ‘il regno dell’eterna pena, e l’attesa dei trentini, che
giustizia sia fatta’.150 It was a visual evocation of the desire of Trentini for the justice of
unity with Italy. The second level of the base displays a very meaningful passage for
Italian patriots from Canto VI of Purgatorio, the episode of Sordello:
ma di nostro paese e della vita

c‘inchiese; e ‘l dolce duca incominciava
“Mantova…”, e l’ombra, tutta in sé romita,
surse ver lui del loco ove pria stava,

dicendo; “O Mantovano, io son Sordello
della tua terra!”; e l’un l’altro abbracciava. (Purg.VI: 70-75)
This episode was intended to represent the glorification of patriotism, and was held to
express the sense of belonging of Trentini to the Italian nation. The final and highest level
of the base of the monument represents the Paradiso and displays an image of Beatrice
surrounded by angels. Beatrice, Dante’s inspiration, was in this interpretation a symbol of
Italy. This placement of Beatrice, as an metaphor of the Italian nation, at the summit of the
monument’s base, was a representation of the heights the Trentini were striving to
reach.151 The allegorical employment of episodes and figures from the Commedia in the
sculpted panels of the monument thus attested to the political aspirations of Trentini,
conveying the meaning of their celebration of Dante to which the monument’s inscription
could only allude: ‘A Dante, al Padre, il Trentino col plauso della Nazione’.152
149
Carlo Papini, Il Monumento a Dante per la Città di Trento del Prof. Cesare Zocchi, 4.
150
Giuseppe Zippel, Lectura Dantis: Dante e il Trentino, 33.
151
Bruni Tobia, ‘La statuaria dantesca nell’Italia Liberale:Tradizione, identità, e culto nazionale’, Mélanges
de l’Ecole Française de Rome: Italie et Mediterranée, 109 (1), 1997, 87.
152
Ibid., 87.
173
Figure 5. The monument to Dante in Trento, erected 1896.
174
Figure 6. First level of pedestal to monument depicting Minos.
Figure 7. Second level of pedestal depicting Dante, Virgil and Sordello.
175
Figure 8. Third level of pedestal depicting Beatrice.
Figure 9. Postcard issued in 1948 by the Trento branch of the Società Dante Alighieri in
commemoration of victory in 1918, and Dante’s role in it.
176
***
Italy’s involvement in the First World War triumphantly affirmed the utilisation of Dante as
a symbol of the Italian nation. Not surprisingly, the aspect of his constructed image which
was most frequently employed was his elevation as the emblem of Italy’s unredeemed
territory, which many hoped Italy’s success in the war would see annexed to the Italian
kingdom. In seeking to demonstrate the relevance of Dante to Italy’s martial endeavour,
many scholars hoped to prove the value of their academic efforts in the Italian national
cause.
A Lectura Dantis of February 1918 entitled ‘L’Italia nel libro di Dante’ which provided a
contemplation of the many images of Italy in the Divina Commedia, did not fail to refer to
the important political issue of the time, the hopes for an expansion of Italian territory. It
characterised Dante’s vision of Italian frontiers as ‘sacred’, and above all as a confirmation
of Italy’s ‘natural’ borders. The orator presented the passage beginning
Suso in Italia bella giace un laco,

a piè dell’alpe che serra Lamagna (Inf. XX: 61-62)
as support for the proposition that the Alps were ‘i termini sacri immutabili della
penisola’.153 Dante’s representation of Italy’s frontiers in the divine poem was held to offer
‘un nuovo e sicuro documento della realtà, della natura’.154 The orator went on to state
that ‘La Venezia, il Friuli, la valle dell’Isonzo, l’Istria, e tutte le terre redente del sangue e
del valore italiano, sono piene della presenza e della leggenda di Dante’, as though the
fact that the poet had visited these lands was evidence of their belonging to the Italian
nation.155
It would seem that this affirmation of Dante’s authority on Italian territorial integrity was
premised on the belief in the Divina Commedia as a legitimate and sacred document of
153
Vittorio Turri, Lectura Dantis: Italia nel libro di Dante: Conferenza pronunciata da Vittorio Turri nella
‘Casa di Dante’ in Roma 26 febbraio 1918, Florence, Sansoni, 1918, 6.
154
Ibid., 7.
155
Ibid., 30.
177
Italian national history and national identity. Given the connections made between the
poet and the Italian nation since the Risorgimento, it perhaps seemed logical, for some
fervently patriotic scholars, to turn to the Commedia as a text of national history. The
author of the Lectura Dantis confirmed this appraisal of the poem when he declared ‘L’itala
gente è tutta, con le sue molte vite, nel libro di Dante: tutta, dalle origini leggendarie di
Roma alla virtù e alla forza che atterrò l’orgoglio di Annibale; dal trionfo di Cesare al
sacrificio eroico di Catone; dal soccorso di Carlo Magno alla restaurazione dell’Impero; dal
dolore e dalla gesta di Milano al grido e alla vendetta di Palermo’.156 Thus the Divina
Commedia was cast as a text of the fortunes of the Italian nation from Ancient Rome to the
Middle Ages.
A notable example of this academic endeavour to support the war through the exposition
of Dante’s works and his significance for Italy was a special issue of the literary journal
Nuovo Convito published in 1917 entitled ‘Dante e la Guerra’, which contained
contributions from scholars from all parts of the kingdom. University professors, well
known dantisti, and even some government ministers and senators contributed to this
work, which is characterised by its turgid, overblown rhetoric, as much as by its efforts to
bring Dante into the twentieth century. The many articles of this issue were intended to
reveal how ‘l’opera dantesca risponda ad ogni problema storico della vita italiana’, and
how during the Great War, ‘il pensiero dell’Alighieri sia prescelto a guida, e il nome a
simbolo di tutte le iniziative civili, sociali, intellettuali della patria’.157 The same author
asserted the value of this academic support for Italy’s cause on the basis that the great
patriotic intellectuals of the age of the Risorgimento had recognised that the fortunes of the
cult of Dante were an infallible index of the fortunes of Italy.158 This special issue of Nuovo
156
Ibid., 22.
157
Maria Del Vasto Celano, ‘Il Monito di Dante’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June-30
September 1917, 5.
158
Ibid.
178
Convito thus aimed to prove that the current generation of Italian scholars was keeping
alive the cult of Dante.159
A subsequent article pursued this theme of the great value of the study of Dante to the
success of Italy’s campaign in the war. This author claimed that Italy had been united
thanks to ‘la fede tenace del pensiero’ because the cult of Dante, which was ‘l’espressione
più elevata della coscienza e del genio nazionale’, had inspired and sustained the great
Risorgimento patriots in thought and action.160 This rhapsody about the mystical
correlation between honouring Dante and the fortunes of Italy, essentially cast the poet as
Italy’s patron saint. Its argument justified the work of dantisti and suggested that a strong
cult of Dante would guarantee that Italy would be victorious in the Great War.
The essay of another academic on this religion of Dante even made the assertion that ‘Il
pensiero dei maggiori uomini politici italiani, che hanno determinato l’intervento, risulta
esso pure profondamente imbevuto di pensiero dantesco’.161 He also proposed that ‘la
lotta fra gli interventisti e i neutralisti ha per sua recondita corrispondenza una intima ed
inconsapevole battaglia fra i cultori di Dante e coloro che Dante hanno ignorato ed
ignorano’.162 His subtle suggestion was that those Italians who did not worship Dante,
were not patriotic, and did not revere the Italian nation as they should. This author wrote
of Antonio Salandra and Sidney Sonnino, the prime minister and foreign minister at the
time of Italy’s entry into the war, as political protagonists who were, like Giuseppe Mazzini,
inspired by Dante’s thought. These figures were presented in contrast to socialists who
did not want Italy to go to war, and who apparently disregarded Dante.163
A clear premise of many of the essays in this work was that Italian unity was not yet
complete, and that the Great War was the final prosecution of the wars of the
159
Ibid., 7.
160
Antonio Bruers, ‘Dante nel Pensiero del Risorgimento’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9,
30 June- 30 September 1917, 53.
161
Emanuele Sella, ‘La Religione di Dante negli anni di Guerra’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no.
6-9, 30 June- 30 September 1917, 98.
162
Ibid.
163
Ibid., 99.
179
Risorgimento. Indeed, for many of the Italian ruling elite, the annexation of the Veneto in
1866 had left unfinished the struggle against Austria, and ultimately even official
propaganda came to define the First World War as the war ‘to complete the
Risorgimento’.164 While it had been necessary for Italy to ally itself with Austria in times of
peace, the advent of a general war in Europe gave Italy’s ruling elite the opportunity it had
awaited for 50 years to redeem the Trentino and Trieste.165 The greatest priority for Italy,
once it had decided to enter the war on the side of the Entente powers, was to gain
strategically sound and, what were alleged to be, ethnically just borders.166 Italy’s policy in
the war was, as the prime minister Antonio Salandra defined it, one of ‘sacro egoismo’. To
this end, the foreign minister Sidney Sonnino negotiated the Treaty of London in early
1915 with the Entente, by which Italy pledged to renounce its alliance with Germany and
Austria and enter the war. In return Italy would gain the Trentino and the Cisalpine Tyrol
with its ‘natural and geographic boundary’ of the Brenner frontier, Trieste, Istria, and much
of Dalmatia and its islands.167
The majority of contributions to this issue of Nuovo Convito utilised Dante’s works to justify
the redemption of irredentist territories under Austrian control. The respected dantista E. G.
Parodi, who held Dante to be ‘il poeta nazionale’ because ‘dall’opera di lui si sprigiona un
così intenso e così vasto sentimento d’italianità’, was one of many scholars who wrote
about the representation of Italy in the Divina Commedia :168
Vi tracciò con occhio sicuro i nostri confini geografici, al Brennero e a Pola,

egli che già, in un trattato latino, ne aveva mirabilmente tracciato i confini
linguistici […] E poi le stirpi, le provincie, le città, le castella, il loro presente
e il passato, le loro grandezze e le loro miserie, la gloria e l’onta, tutto egli
seppe, tutto egli ricordò e cantò per gli innumerevoli secoli avvenire, ad
esempio e ad ammonimento […] L’Italia era divisa, ma la sua unità si
ricomponeva, all’alba dei tempi moderni, nella Divina Commedia.169
164
R.J.B., Bosworth, Approach of the First World War, 55.
165
Ibid., 50, 57.
166
Ibid., 57.
167
Ibid., 134; Mario Toscano, Alto Adige-South Tyrol: Italy’s frontier with the German World, 5.
168
E. G. Parodi, ‘Dante, Poeta Nazionale’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June- 30
September, 1917, 84. Parodi first published this piece in 1914.
169
Ibid., 83.
180
Despite his credentials as a serious scholar of Dante, even Parodi was caught up in the
nationalist exploitation of Dante. He was not immune to employing Dante to express his
patriotism, and to using the poet’s thoughts to support the contemporary political agenda of
the Italian nation state as it sought to redeem territory from Austria. His participation in this
misuse of Dante in the name of the Italian nation attests to just how powerful and pervasive
the nationalist myth of Dante had become.
G. L. Passerini, another well known dantista, provided a detailed exegesis of Dante’s
designation of the ‘natural’ borders of Italy. He presented the borders that Italy hoped to
achieve from the war, the Brenner Pass to the north, and the bay of Quarnaro to the east,
as the sacred and natural barriers which God had placed between Italy and ‘le terre dei
barbari’, and to which Dante had given immortal recognition.170 Passerini quoted the
favourite verses of Inferno IX, ‘sì com’a Pola, presso del Carnaro/ ch’Italia chiude e suoi
termini bagna’, and of Inferno XX, ‘Suso in Italia bella giace un laco/ a piè dell’alpe che
serra Lamagna’, as proof of the ‘sacredness’ of the hoped for northeastern frontiers.
Passerini also went on to discuss the various places in irredentist territories that Dante had
visited, on the premise that his journey to these locations was evidence of their belonging to
the Italian national territory. Dante’s mention of places such as Pola and the Trentino in the
Commedia were taken as proof that Dante had visited them, as were the mere legends of
Dante’s presence in places in the Friuli, Istria and Dalmatia.171 At Tolmino in the Friuli there
was a cave named after Dante, the Dantowna-Jama, at Pola in Istria there persisted the
legend that Dante had stayed at the Benedictine convent of San Michele in Monte, and at
Duino in Dalmatia there was a rock known as the ‘Sasso di Dante’.172 Passerini considered
these legends to be the ‘sacre vestigia’ of Dante, justifying their identification as rightful
170
G. L. Passerini, ‘Ricordi Danteschi nel Trentino e nella Venezia Giulia’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la
Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June- 30 September, 1917, 20.
171
Ibid., 20.
172
Ibid.
181
Italian territory.173 Clearly for Passerini, as for other cultists, Dante was not only Italy’s
‘founding father’, but also its patron saint.
Another great Dante scholar, Isidoro Del Lungo, made a brief contribution entitled ‘Dante e
la Dalmazia’, which rather refreshingly suggested that Dante’s designation of the bay of
Quarnaro as the eastern frontier should not be taken as a definitive pronouncement. Yet
Del Lungo had a broader vision of the geographical definition of the Italian nation,
contending that the italianità of all Dalmatia, not just that part which extended to the
Quarnaro, was assured by its language, history and proximity to the Italian peninsula.174
The frequent references to what was held to be Dante’s prophetic vision of the geography
of the Italian nation even prompted one scholar of geography, in the aftermath of the war, to
apply himself to investigating the merit of such assertions. The eastern borders of Italy
were still a contested issue even after the Versailles peace conference in 1919. At the
conference Italy had demanded the full terms of the 1915 Treaty of London, and most of
these demands were granted, although they to some extent contradicted the ‘principle of
nationality’, which dominated the post-war settlement under the aegis of U.S. president
Woodrow Wilson.175 While Italy gained the Trentino, the South Tyrol to the Brenner Pass,
Trieste, Istria and northern Dalmatia, the new prime minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and
the foreign minister Sonnino also requested the city of Fiume, which had not been included
in the 1915 negotiations.176 These politicians and other supporters of Italian irredentism
liked to believe that the majority of the citizens of Fiume considered themselves to be
Italian, and wanted to be included in the Italian kingdom.177 Italy was torn between
honouring the realpolitik Treaty of London, and embracing the principle of nationality to
claim Fiume.178 The Allied powers ultimately refused to give Italy Fiume, which sparked a
173
Ibid.
174
Isidoro Del Lungo, ‘Dante e la Dalmazia’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June – 30
September 1917, 69.
175
Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1995, London-New York, Longman, 1996, 203.
176
Ibid.
177
Ibid.
178
Ibid.
182
postwar crisis for the Italian state. The Orlando government fell with Italy’s territorial claims
in the Adriatic unresolved, and in September 1919 D’Annunzio and his 2000 ‘legionaries’
occupied Fiume for 15 months.179 The issue of Italy’s eastern border was finally resolved
when Giolitti returned as prime minister and negotiated a settlement with the new
Yugoslavia by which Fiume was declared independent and Italy gained only northern
Dalmatia, including the city of Zara and 4 islands.180
This article was published during the occupation of Fiume, and indicates how it had
become natural to use Dante as a background for important debates about the Italian
nation and its state. This scholar pointed out that while the lines
sì com’a Pola, presso del Carnaro

ch’Italia chiude e suoi termini bagna (Inf. IX: 113-114)
were often cited as if they had a well defined value, it was in fact difficult to determine
exactly where Dante held the border to be on the Quarnaro.181 The author maintained that
there was no doubt that Dante held Istria to be a part of Italy, based on the famous
Quarnaro reference and supported by his conclusions on the language of the region in the
De Vulgari Eloquentia.182 However, he stated that modern scholars were divided in their
interpretation of the poet’s conception of Italy’s eastern frontier. Some resorted to the
historical tradition of the Roman Empire and placed the border at Arsa, while others argued
it lay at Fiume.183 The author thus proposed to undertake a detailed investigation of what
exactly Dante meant by ‘Quarnaro’, based on the evidence of common beilefs about the
Adriatic region in the Middle Ages. His conclusion, not surprisingly, did not provide any
clear answers, but this seriously approached exercise was an example of the extent to
which the national cult of Dante had been exaggerated under the influence of the war.
179
Ibid., 204.
180
Ibid., 205.
181
Giuseppe Andriani, ‘Il Confine dell’Italia sul Quarnaro secondo Dante’, Bollettino della Reale Società
Geografica Italiana, vol. 9, no. 7-10, July-October 1920, 213.
182
Ibid.
183
Ibid., 215.
183
***
This patriotic exploitation of Dante during the Great War can, be seen however, as a
natural extension of developments in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Italy.
Indeed, by the turn of the century, given the long-standing employment of the poet in
bolstering the great causes of the Liberal elite such as secularism and irredentism, a
veritable cult of Dante had been firmly established which engendered widespread
misappropriation of the medieval poet. According to this national cult, homage to Dante,
whether by public celebration, or through a study of his works, or citation of his immortal
verses to provide rhetorical support for a topic of national significance, constituted for a
large part of the cultural elite, a display of patriotism and an act of belonging to the Italian
nation. A passage in a history textbook for technical schools of the early 1900s
exemplified this utilisation of Dante and his Divina Commedia as a means of expressing
one’s italianità, and as a spur to patriotic duty. In this introduction to a chapter on the
history of the Kingdom of Italy, an alleged episode in the education of the young prince
Vittorio Emanuele III was recounted as an indication to other students on how to be good
Italians:
Anche S.M. la Regina seppe resistere a tutte le debolezze dell’affetto

materno che sono spesso la rovina dei giovinetti. E a questo proposito
vogliamo ricordare un aneddoto.
Un giovedì, il Re s’intratteneva coi ministri per la firma dei decreti, ed era
passata da un bel pezzo la solita ora della colazione.
-Mamma, ho fame – disse il pincipino che aveva allora tredici anni, il cui
stomaco sentiva gli effetti di questo ritardo. La Regina prese la Divina
Commedia, l’aprì a un certo punto, e presentandola al figliuolo, gli disse:
-Leggi qui, e la fame ti passerà. Era il canto del Conte Ugolino.184
The message of this anecdote was clear; just like the members of the royal family, patriotic
and dutiful Italians should seek inspiration in the Divina Commedia.

184
Giovanni Bragagnolo & Enrico Bettazzi, La Storia d’Italia per le Scuole Tecniche secondo i vigenti
programmi, vol III: Storia moderna 1492-1900, Turin, Casa Editrice G. B. Petrini di Giovanni Gallizio, 1912,
244. The Conte Ugolino is represented in Inferno XXXIII as a traitor to his patria who starved to death, and
the passage includes some gruesome images of hunger.
184
The sentiment of this passage had been the inspiration behind the foundation of the
Società Dantesca Italiana in 1888. The purpose of the society was held to be the
promotion of the study of the life, times, and works of Dante. This aim was to be pursued
by working for the publication of critical, national editions of all the poet’s works, and by the
issue of a bulletin containing information about research conducted on Dante. The
founders of the Società Dantesca Italiana claimed that their association intended to be
’l’Italia, che onora e studia l’intelletto, l’animo, la parola del suo Dante’.185 Accordingly,
while the principal seat of the Società Dantesca Italiana was located in Florence,
committees were rapidly established in other cities of Italy, but were essentially a means
for municipal elites to demonstrate their patriotism. The contention that this cultural
society would represent the entire Italian nation united in its reverence for Dante of course
belied the fact that it was an elite creation glorifying Italian high culture, which by its very
nature excluded uneducated Italians from participating in its rites. The list of founding
members of the Società Dantesca Italiana clearly signalled its elite character, and included
many great figures of the cultural world of Liberal Italy, such as Villari, Carducci, Cesare
Cantù, Ruggero Bonghi, Alessandro D’Ancona, Isidoro Del Lungo, and senator and
marquis Pietro Torrigiani, mayor of Florence at that time. The Società Dantesca Italiana
was undoubtedly exclusive, given that membership in it was subject to approval by the
central committee, and further restricted by the annual fee of 10 lire.186 Thus the claims by
its founders that the elite Società Dantesca Italiana was ‘national’ in scope, revealed that
they ascribed to a very narrow conception of what was meant by the term ‘Italian nation’.
It was clearly a reflection of themselves, well educated and at least middle class. The
Società Dantesca Italiana can thus be seen as an expression of the Liberal ruling elite’s
effort to ‘nationalise’ the middle classes utilising the cult of Dante.
185
‘Brevi notizie sulla Società Dantesca Italiana dalla sua costituzione’, Bullettino della Società Dantesca
Italiana, no. 1, March 1890, 23.
186
‘Statuto’, Bullettino della Società Dantesca Italiana, no. 1, March 1890, 13.
185
The society also adopted in 1899 the tradition of the Lectura Dantis in Florence, which
Boccaccio had initiated in 1373. The ‘Sala di Orsanmichele’ in the Church of
Orsanmichele in Florence was renamed the ‘Sala di Dante’ and dedicated to the public
exegesis of Dante’s works.187 The renewal of the Lectura Dantis was important because it
was more than the reprisal of a particularly Florentine practice: ‘Sulla cattedra fiorentina
d’Or San Michele son saliti e saliranno studiosi d’ogni parte d’Italia, volentieri accorrendo
al fatidico nome di Dante e di Firenze. È, dunque, l’Italia nuova, l’Italia una, che legge
nella città centro dell’unità sua linguistica, il suo Dante: nel sacro poema del quale, pur ne’
giorni di servitù politica, gl’italiani si riconobber fratelli’.188 The Florentine Lectura Dantis
was reinvented as a national Italian tradition, in which all Italians who met the society’s
stringently elite criteria for participation, could display their homage to Dante, and through
him, to the Italian nation. This reinvented tradition can thus be considered part of the
ruling elite’s attempt to establish continuity with the past, in order to confer legitimacy on
the Liberal state’s claims to represent the Italian nation.189
The Società Dantesca Italiana, as a national institution which celebrated the culture of
Italy through the study of Dante, clearly reflected the cultural foundations of the idea of the
Italian nation. In his speech for the inauguration of the Milanese committee of the Società
Dantesca Italiana in 1896, the committee president, Gaetano Negri, expounded this
fundamental importance of Dante to Italian culture, and to the Italian nation:
noi dobbiamo riconoscere che Dante è propriamente il genio creatore e

protettore dell’idea italiana. Io non so se, senza Dante, ci sarebbe stata
l’Italia. La patria è una concezione affatto ideale che nasce dalla
comunanza della lingua, delle memorie, delle tradizioni, delle glorie, assai
più che dalla determinazione di confini geografici, o da ragioni di parentele
etnografici. Dante ha dato all’Italia lo strumento di una lingua perfetta;
Dante ha innalzato uno dei più eccelsi monumenti di pensiero che l’umanità
abbia costruito; Dante è rimasto una figura luminosa, intorno alla quale tutte
le genti che parlavano i dialetti della sua lingua si sono strette, per esser
187
‘Atti e Communicazioni della Società’, Bullettino della Società Dantesca Italiana, new series vol. VI, no.
9, June 1899, 178.
188
‘Lectura Dantis’, Strenna Dantesca compilata da Orazio Bacci e G.L. Passerini, no. 1, 1902, 78. A
Lectura Dantis in Rome was inaugurated in 1901.
189
Eric Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1983, 1, 265.
186
partecipi della gloria che da lui emaneva, e così si è formato il vincolo
ideale della patria italiana.190
The scholar went on to note that, while other European states had a monarchical tradition
that could hold the nation together and give it political unity, Italy had, at the time of its
resurgence, only the unity of its culture.191 Without Dante and his essential contribution to
Italian culture and its language, the Italian nation had very little foundation. Such a
contention suggested that, at least in the eyes of this scholar, the Savoy dynasty was not
representative of the Italian nation, despite attempts by moderate historians to construct a
national narrative which made the Piedemontese monarchy the centre of Italy’s national
destiny.192
Negri’s concluding exhortation in this speech also evidenced what had come to be a
common rhetorical myth in Liberal Italy, the supposedly vital connection between the study
or cult of Dante and the fortunes of the Italian nation. The cult of Dante, its strength or
weakness, was an indication of the potency of Italian patriotism:
Teniamo vivo, nell’Italia risorta, il culto di Dante. Se lo lasciassimo cadere,

sarebbe, pur troppo, un nuovo indizio il quale farebbe più angoscioso il
dubbio che, per altre ragioni, ci angustia l’anima, il dubbio che gli Italiani
abbiano conquistata una patria … per non esserne degni.193
The patriotic cult of Dante, which mythologised him as a symbol of the Italian nation,
undoubtedly permeated the high culture of Liberal Italy. When a solemn rhetorical
reference of national or patriotic significance was needed, Dante and his Divina Commedia
were frequently called upon. It became common for politicians to quote verses of the
Commedia in parliament to illustrate a point.194 Several political figures were known for
their academic interest in Dante. Conservative Liberal Sidney Sonnino, for example, who
held the premiership in 1906 and 1909, and who was foreign minister during the Great
War, devoted some of his time to the exposition of Dante’s thought, and in one study
190
Gaetano Negri, ‘Prefazione’ to Con Dante e Per Dante: Discorsi e Conferenze Tenuti a cura del Comitato
Milanese della Società Dantesca Italiana, Milan, Hoepli, 1898, xviii-xix.
191
Ibid., xix.
192
193
Negri, op. cit., xxxiii.
194
See Paolo Bellezza, Curiosità Dantesche, Milan, Hoepli, 1913, 67-78.
187
hailed the poet as an ‘efficiente strumento del risorgimento nazionale’, and as ‘un faro
luminoso, stimolo alla virtù operosa, alla disciplina di sè, alla fede nel bene, allo illimitato
amore per la patria’.195
Even Friedrich Engels invoked the name of Dante in his preface to the 1893 Italian edition
of the Communist Manifesto:
The Manifesto does full justice to the revolutionary part played by capitalism
in the past. The first capitalist nation was Italy. The close of the feudal
Middle Ages, and the opening of the modern capitalist era are marked by a
colossal figure: an Italian, Dante, both the last poet of the Middle Ages and
the first poet of modern times. Today, as in 1300, a new historical era is
approaching. Will Italy give us the new Dante, who will mark the hour of
birth of this new, proletarian era?196
While this reference to Dante was perhaps nothing more than a rhetorical device to make
the manifesto seem relevant to Italy, it spoke of the ubiquitous presence the name of the
Florentine poet had attained in Italian culture, and was perhaps expected to provoke an
impassioned response.
It was even predictable that Italy’s first dreadnought, launched in 1913, was christened
the Dante Alighieri, and had the appropriate line from the Divina Commedia, ‘con l’animo
che vince ogni battaglia’, engraved on its command tower.197 Only the name of one of the
greatest symbols of the Italian nation was sufficiently glorious for the modern battleship. It
is also not surprising that Dante was included in the solemnities of the interment of Italy’s
‘Milite Ignoto’ at the monument to Vittorio Emanuele II in Rome in November 1921. The
‘Milite Ignoto’, an anonymous and thus national symbol of the patriotic sacrifice made by
Italian soldiers in the Great War, was venerated by being laid to rest at Italy’s ‘altare della
patria’, incorporated into the grandiose symbol of united Italy, the Vittoriano.198 The train
195
Sidney Sonnino, ‘Il Canto VI del Paradiso’, Nuova Antologia, 200, 1 March 1905, 20. Sonnino first
presented this paper as a Lectura Dantis in Rome on 19th February 1905.
196
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto with an Introduction by A. J. P. Taylor, London,
Penguin, 1967, 75-76.
197
Bullettino della Società Dantesca, XX, no. 1, March 1913, 80.
198
Bruno Tobia, L’Altare della Patria, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1998, 75.
188
carriage which bore the remains of the unknown soldier to Rome was inscribed with a line
from Dante’s great poem: ‘L’ombra sua torna ch’era dipartita’.199
By the early twentieth century the cult of Dante had become, in the opinion of some
intellectuals, rather excessive. One example of the vacuity of the pervasive celebration of
all things dantesque was the commemoration of the ‘visione dantesca’ in 1900. The
occasion, which celebrated the sixth centenary of 1300 as the year in which Dante set his
imaginary vision of the journey described in the Divina Commedia, was even officially
recognised. The minister of education decreed that every secondary school would
participate in the commemoration because
L’importanza morale dell’opera dell’Alighieri apparve già nel fatto che, nelle
epoche più gagliarde e feconde della nostra storia, il culto di essa fu una
delle manifestazioni più cospicue e più nobili del patriottismo. L’Italia non
immemore, nè ingrata, compiuti i suoi destini, si è rivolta con nuova grande
alacrità allo studio del libro, ch’è stato e sarà nei secoli saldo e luminoso
documento, simbolo, guida, all’unità della coscienza nazionale.
Una festa di Dante avrà, dunque … opportuno significato patriottico e civile.
E perchè nelle scuole secondarie del Regno la lettura e l’interpretazione
della Divina Commedia, principal fondamento della cultura letteraria,
innalzano e fortificano negli animi giovanili, col senso dell’onesto e del
bello, l’amore della Patria; conviene che la visione dantesca si commemori
tra i giovani e dai giovani, affinchè sia accresciuta e meglio intesa l’efficacia
di quello studio.200
Thus on 5 April 1900, teachers were to read a Canto from the Divina Commedia to the
whole student body, and then the students were to take part in an essay competition on a
topic relating to Dante and his great work. It was reported that a modest 1373 students
actually wrote their essays, suggesting that the youth, and teachers of Italy did not share
the education minister’s opinion about the solemnity of the occasion, or that the study of
Dante was an important patriotic duty.201 Given that Dante was presented to these
students as a symbol of the Italian nation, this lack of enthusiasm for the study of the poet
signalled that the state’s approach to encouraging national sentiment in its subjects had
perhaps been rather ineffective.

199
Ibid., 76.
200
‘Il Sesto Centenario della Visione Dantesca’, Bullettino della Società Dantesca Italiana, vol. VIII, no. 7-8,
April-May 1901, 178-179.
201
Ibid., 179.
189
One notable discussion of the excess of the cult of Dante can be found in an exchange of
letters between the respected dantista Corrado Ricci and the influential idealist
philosopher and historian Benedetto Croce, published in Croce’s journal La Critica in 1903.
Ricci shared with Croce his concern for what he characterised as ‘monoteismo dantesco’,
an overabundance of ‘conferenze dantesche, gare dantesche fra gl’insegnanti e tra gli
scolari; bibliografie dantesche e giornali esclusivamente danteschi; volumi, opuscoli,
articoli, cenni su Dante e sulle opere di Dante!’.202 He complained to Croce that all this
focus on Dante gave the impression that Italian literature could be summed up in one
name alone. Croce agreed that, although there were some valuable critical works on
Dante being produced in Italy, there was a large quantity of useless studies of him,
produced by dull and uncultured minds who were just following a cultural trend, and for
whom Dante was merely a ‘mannequin’ on which they could display their minor wares.203
Croce thought it better nonetheless that these many ‘inetti’ and ‘seccatori’ confine
themselves to a single topic, Dante, rather than subject other Italian literary greats to the
same meaningless treatment.204 Croce concluded with the advice that serious scholars
should continue to work rigorously to raise the level of literary studies in Italy, and noted
that already a rebellion was beginning against the ‘pseudoculto’ of Dante.205
The Florentine modernist Giovanni Papini concurred with Ricci and Croce about the
waste of time and energy encouraged by the cult of Dante. In one of several essays
devoted to this issue, first published in 1906, he deplored the central problem of ‘Dantismo’
as the ridiculous pride its purveyors took in it as a sign of ‘grandezza nazionale e una
grande officina di alta coltura spirituale’.206 Papini propounded that the contemporary
study of Dante, with its excrescence of conferences and commentaries, was of no
202
Corrado Ricci, ‘Il Monoteismo Dantesco: due lettere’, La Critica: Rivista di letteratura, storia e filosofia,
I, no. 3, 20 May 1903, 230.
203
Ibid., 232.
204
Ibid., 231.
205
Ibid., 232.
206
Giovanni Papini, ‘Per Dante e Contro Il Dantismo’, Eresie Letterarie: Opere di Giovanni Papini, vol. 13,
Florence, Vallecchi, 1947, 13. This essay was first published in the collection of essays by Papini and
Giuseppe Prezzolini, La Coltura Italiana, Florence, Lumachi, 1906.
190
assistance in understanding the Divina Commedia or the great spirit of Dante.207 He was
particularly contemptuous of the Lectura Dantis, which he held to be ‘una delle nuove
incarnazioni dell’eterno accademico professionale’, for whom Dante was a pretext for
building the repertoires of Italy’s ‘rivenditori di rettorica’.208
The central importance of Papini’s invective about Dante’s treatment in Liberal Italy lay in
his contention that the emptiness of this cult of Dante reflected the spiritual poverty of
contemporary Italy:
L’anima dell’Italia presente è piuttosto pratica e irreligiosa, prudente e

leggera, amante delle metodie eleganti, delle sciocchezze decenti, delle
facezie eleganti, dei rapidi guadagni e della politica del raggomitolamento …
L’anima italiana vive di compromessi e di mezzi sentimenti.209
Papini, and his frequent collaborator, the journalist Giuseppe Prezzolini, were the leading
figures of an avant-garde intellectual movement based in Florence in the early twentieth
century, which advocated the cultural regeneration of Italy. The Florentine avant-garde
was made up of young writers and artists who felt alienated from bourgeois life,
contemporary Italian politics, and positivist dominated high culture.210 They desired a
more spiritually educated Italy led by the new generation, and espoused a culture based
on the more rhetorical than practical concepts of activism, vitality and martial values.211
They propounded a myth of ‘two Italies’: the decadent Liberal establishment and the
‘nation’ or the ‘vital part’ of Italy.212 They believed it was their role to destroy the first Italy
and to educate the second Italy, and thus fulfil the promise of the Risorgimento, which the
current political order was incapable of doing.213 Papini and Prezzolini and their
associates purveyed their ideas in several journals, among them Leonardo (1903-1907)
and La Voce (1908-1914). These middle class intellectual critics reshaped the political
207
Ibid., 13-14.
208
Ibid., 20-21.
209
Ibid., 16.
210
Walter L. Adamson, ‘The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth-Century Italy: Rhetorical
Continuities between Prewar Florentine Avant-Gardism and Mussolini’s Fascism’, Journal of Modern
History, 64, March 1992, 28.
211
Ibid., 30; N. Doumanis, Italy, 124.
212
Walter L. Adamson, ‘The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth-Century Italy’, 29.
213
Ibid., 29, 32.
191
culture of Italy, and have been credited with influencing the development of Fascist
rhetoric and ideology.214 Their ideas were significant because they expressed, to some
extent, what large sections of the political classes already believed.215
An editorial published in La Voce in 1914, and most likely the work of Prezzolini, echoed
the thoughts of Papini about the national cult of Dante. Like Papini, Prezzolini expressed a
reverence for Dante, but contempt for the way he was treated by the positivist culture of
Liberal Italy:
DANTE. Quando vedo questo nome sui giornali l’idea di qualche catastrofe
cittadina, regionale o nazionale mi si presenta sempre davanti alla mente.
Dante: non può essere che una lapide, un monumento o, forse peggio, una
conferenza … Dunque ho visto: Dante; e la catastrofe c’era, sotto forma di
una edizione nazionale, votata dalla Camera all’umanità. […] Un’edizione
critica … sarà un’edizione illeggibile. I signori professori … riesceranno a
non farci leggere Dante, dico leggere letteralmente, dopo che i loro allievi,
discepoli, professori di scuole medie tirati su a bocconcini di metodo storico
sono arrivati a non farci più leggere Dante, dico leggere spiritualmente.216
Prezzolini was clearly critical of the static association between the name of Dante and
great national events, and highlighted the way conferences about Dante or editions of his
works had been elevated as events of great national importance. For this critic, the
national edition of Dante’s works was surely an indication of the catastrophic state of
Italian culture, which, devoid of vitality and creativity, could not comprehend the great spirit
of Dante and his significance.
The ultimate significance of the musings of these rebellious intellectuals on the treatment
of Dante in Italian culture is their obvious acceptance of the myth of Dante as an icon of
the Italian nation. They cast the poet as the exemplar of the ‘spirit’ which they found to be
lacking in contemporary Italy, and which they intended to restore. Their claims that Liberal
Italy had betrayed Dante was a means for castigating a political and cultural establishment
which had failed to create, spiritually and materially, their ideal of the Italian nation. In this
treatment of Dante they emulated their counterparts of the Risorgimento, Foscolo and
214
Walter L. Adamson, Avant-Garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
UP, 1993, 1, 4.
215
R.J.B. Bosworth, Italy and the Approach of the First World War, 79.
216
‘Dante’, La Voce, no. 10 (year VI), 28 May 1914, 37.
192
Mazzini, who had also created an image of Dante in their likeness, and used him to
represent their particular goals. What is most significant, however, is how Dante was yet
again an instrument for discussing the critical issues of the Italian nation; in this case, the
decadence and stagnation of political and academic culture fostered by the elite
establishment, and the failure of Liberal Italy to effect a moral regeneration of Italians.
Thus the manipulation of Dante to bolster Italian irredentist claims, which became such a
prominent aspect of the myth of Dante in the Liberal period, should not obscure the fact that
there were some intellectuals who protested the exploitation of the poet, and who
attempted to rescue his image as a great cultural figure from the excesses of the national
cult in which he had become embroiled. Nevertheless, the appropriation of Dante by
proponents of the expansion of Italian national territory to include the so-called irredentist
regions under Austrian control was an important and enduring layer of meaning added to
the myth of Dante as a national symbol. It could be argued that this creation of an
irredentist Dante was a natural corollary of the other roles attributed to Dante during the
Risorgimento and the Liberal era, such as his characterisation as a prophet of Italian unity
and as the father of an Italian cultural tradition. This elevation of the poet as the standard
bearer of irredentism confirmed, above all, the infrangible ties that had been established in
Italian nationalist discourse between Dante, the Italian language, and the Italian nation.
193
5
The battle for the soul of the Italian nation: The sixth centenary of Dante’s death in
1921
The celebration of the sixth centenary of Dante’s death in 1921 can be viewed as a battle
waged over Dante as a symbol of the Italian nation, where the ultimate prize was the
political and cultural hegemony of Italy. The principal festivities for the centenary, which
functioned as a public rite of nationhood, were organised by a Liberal establishment which
was celebrating its victory in war and the many years of its tutelage of Italian unity. Yet the
commemoration of 1921 revealed the cracks in the façade of the Liberal state, and the
crisis it had entered in the aftermath of the war. The Liberal utilisation of Dante was
threatened by rival appropriations of the medieval poet by Catholics, by the Fascist
movement, and even to some extent, by socialists. In displaying their own particular
affinity with Dante, these forces challenged Liberal claims to hegemony of the national
myth, and suggested that the Liberal state was not the only, nor the best, interpreter of
Italian national identity.
This celebration of the Italian nation in the name of Dante revealed that the very definition
of that nation was in transformation. In the first two decades of the twentieth century, the
nineteenth century idea of the Italian nation based on the principles of nationality and
liberty, which the myth of Dante had originally been constructed to serve, was confronted
by the idea of the Italian nation conditioned by the imperialist, chauvinist, and elitist
ideology of radical right-wing nationalism.1 Profound social and cultural changes in the
early twentieth century, encouraged by industrialisation, modernisation, the rise of mass
political movements and imperialism, had influenced the nature of the Italian national
1
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia. Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, Milan,
Mondadori, 1997, 78; N. Doumanis, Italy, London, Arnold, 2001, 109.
194
myth.2 The Great War became a battleground for the different conceptions of the nation,
and in its aftermath, the contest continued between these incompatible visions of Italy, and
was intensified by the fortified challenge of socialist internationalism.3 By 1922 and the
Fascist seizure of power, the Liberal ruling class had failed to create a national state to
which more than a very limited part of Italian society adhered.4 For Catholics, socialists,
and those right-wing nationalists who were gravitating towards Fascism, the Liberal state
did not express the ‘true Italy’.5 Just as each group claimed affinity with a different version
of Dante, so were their visions of the Italian nation and an ideal political state diverse.
The sixth centenary of Dante’s death in 1921 fell at a crucial moment in the history of
Liberal Italy. It occurred a year before the Fascist ‘March on Rome’, and, although Italy
had emerged militarily victorious from the war, its government and society were in crisis.
The Liberal regime’s precarious hold on political and social order was weakened by the
challenge to its supremacy posed by the new mass political movements of Catholicism
and socialism, and the emerging political extremism of Fascism. The post-war period had
revealed itself to be the ‘age of the masses’, in which politics needed to reflect the will of
the enfranchised masses.6 During the pre-war Giolittian era, Liberal Italy had appeared to
have made considerable progress as a modern nation state. Giolitti had maintained a
broad political consensus, which lasted until 1914, and which had overseen economic
growth, social reform and a more democratic political course.7 However, the liberalism
championed by Giolitti had failed to formulate a persuasive ideology that would attract a
mass base, or to develop a national political organisation, which would have enabled it to
master the new era of mass politics.8
2
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia. Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, 76.
3
Ibid., 78.
4
Ibid., 79.
5
Ibid.
6
R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini, London, Arnold, 2002, 127.
7
Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2003, 20.
8
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Introduction’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy, Oxford, OUP, 2002, 4.
195
The First World War confirmed that the system of Liberal Italy no longer functioned. It
had encouraged the rise of patriotism as a mass phenomenon, but the force of this
sentiment was ultimately directed against the Liberal political order.9 Nationalists had
expected the Great War to ‘make Italians’, but Italy emerged from the conflict more divided
than ever, and the disputes of 1914-1915 between interventionists and neutralists lingered
in its aftermath.10 This political schism continued to be played out in the peace settlement,
and fuelled the polemics between those who hoped to annex territory in the Balkans, and
those who renounced it.11 The myth of Italy’s ‘mutilated victory’, which arose after the
Versailles peace conference in 1919, was an important factor in the collapse of the Liberal
regime. According to this widely held belief, Italy had won the war, but its statesmen had
bungled the peace. The former Hungarian city of Fiume became a potent symbol of the
fumbled diplomacy of Italian politicians. Although many right-wing nationalists and patriots
hungered for a greater piece of the Balkans, Italy had in fact made major gains from the
war, since it had finally acquired Trento and Trieste, and had witnessed the destruction of
its historic rival, Austria.12
Another contributing factor to the crisis of the Liberal regime was its failure to manage the
transition to a peacetime economy.13 Demobilisation caused widespread unemployment.
Inflation undermined the security of the middle class, the only social group on whom
Liberals could rely for support, and the increased expectations of all classes following the
war conflicted with the need to reduce government expenditure.14 This difficult financial
situation was exacerbated by the failure of the harvest in 1920, and that same year new
tax laws, which were unfavourable to the wealthy, only added to the widespread
discontent.15
9
10
Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1995, London –New York, Longman, 1996, 200.
11
12
Ibid., 282.
13
Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1995, 206.
14
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Introduction’, Liberal and Fascist Italy, 8-9.
15
Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, 300.
196
The Liberal regime’s hopes for returning to normality in 1919 were above all undermined
by the harsh reality of social upheaval ravaging Italy. The war’s acceleration of
industrialisation and urbanisation had increased the size of the working class, and the
depth of class divisions became rapidly apparent.16 The economic crisis was soon
worsened by intensive labour militancy. Strikes, lockouts, riots and factory occupations
became commonplace.17 Social discontent also affected rural Italy. Soldiers returned
from the war expecting the promised ‘land to the peasants’, and when this propaganda
proved to be untrue, land occupations occurred.18 At first, these uprisings were not
brutally repressed, and the government instead chose to compromise, in an attempt to
‘absorb’ popular discontent.19 While the old Liberal policy worked to maintain order in the
short-term, the disaffection of the threatened middle classes, industrialists, and
landowners, ultimately had fatal consequences for the Liberal state.20
The foundation of a national Catholic party posed one of the greatest threats to Liberal
political hegemony. Since unification, the Church had been the institution which had real
moral authority in Italy.21 Although the papal non expedit formally applied until 1919, in the
early twentieth century the traditional intransigence of the Church had been gradually
abandoned, and Catholic participation in politics had been condoned when Church
interests were directly threatened.22 During the Libyan campaign of 1911, the
demonstration of Catholic patriotism indicated that they were reconciled with national
unity.23 In 1913, at the first election with near universal male suffrage, the stability of the
Liberal order depended on Catholic support, given that only Catholics could provide a
16
Paul Corner, ‘State and Society, 1901-1922’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy, Oxford,
OUP, 2002, 37.
17
18
Ibid., 209.
19
Ibid., 207.
20
Ibid.
21
22
Ibid., 112.
23
197
mass turnout to counter socialist ascendancy.24 The compromise between Liberals and
Catholics was, however, always fragile, and Catholics soon looked to creating their own
party to safeguard their interests. In 1919 the Catholic Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI) was
established, under the leadership of radical priest Luigi Sturzo. Pope Benedict XV saw the
civic future of Catholics in this lay party, which had no official connection with the Church,
and his lifting of the non expedit that same year allowed both the clergy and laymen to
participate fully in the life of the Italian nation state.25 The PPI was a mass party more
inclined to the Left, and drew much of its support from Northern peasants.26 In the 1919
general elections the PPI emerged as the only mass-based alternative to the socialist
challenge, and impressively gained 100 deputies in parliament, but it was not sufficiently
united to make the most of its possible influence on politics.27
In the crisis of the post-war years in Italy it appeared that the ‘Bestia Rossa’ of socialism
would triumph, but the Left was in fact less of a threat than it was perceived to be. The so-
called ‘Biennio Rosso’ of 1919-1920 saw the rise of a proletarian challenge against the
previously unquestioned supremacy of the traditional ruling classes in public life.28 The
ascendancy of socialism and organised labour had been a disturbing reality for
progressive and conservative liberals and Catholics for several decades.29 The national
political party founded in Genova in 1892 in order to represent the interests of both urban
and rural workers in Italy, and which took the name of Partito Socialista Italiano (PSI) in
1895, had become by 1913 the largest opposition party in parliament.30 Although the
various socialist factions lacked the unity and organisation to seriously threaten the Liberal
order, in June 1914 the ‘Red Threat’ became a reality for middle class property owners
24
Ibid., 157.
25
Alice A. Kelikian, ‘The Church and Catholicism’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy,
Oxford, OUP, 2002, 56-57.
26
27
Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism, 57; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A
Political History, 286.
28
29
30
Ibid.
198
when the PSI called a general strike.31 The war and the Russian Revolution of 1917
strengthened the socialist movement, and increased its perceived menace. The PSI was
the only socialist party in Europe to adhere to its internationalist principles in regard to the
war, but ambiguously took the position of ‘neither support nor sabotage’, in order to
express its oppostion to the war while not appearing to be too unpatriotic, conditioned by
the fact that some of its leaders supported intervention.32 It was nevertheless labelled the
unpatriotic party, as it had been during the Libyan War.33 The socialist movement thus
needed the Great War to be accepted as a disaster in order to justify its authority in post-
war Italy.34 It indeed had success among the lower orders, given that the war
strengthened their hostility toward the state and solidified their class identities,
encouraging them to pursue their class interests through left-wing political movements.35
The war was certainly not the great nationalising experience envisaged by nationalist
ideologues.
The ascendancy of the Left in the dopoguerra was impressive. Membership in the PSI
increased from 50 000 before the war, to 200 000 in 1919, and by the same year the trade
union Confederazione del Lavoro had 2 million members, compared to 500 000 before the
war.36 The ‘Biennio Rosso’ of 1919-1920 was characterised by an unprecedented popular
uprising against the Liberal order, which seemed incapable of maintaining control. In early
1920, socialist leagues began to dictate terms in the hiring of labour on the large capitalist
farms of the Po valley, which effectively gave them control over the whole process of
production.37 In the South there was a spontaneous movement to occupy uncultivated
lands.38 And in northern cities, the factory council movement pressured industrialists for
workers’ control, which culminated in the occupation of many northern factories in
31
32
Ibid., 198.
33
Ibid., 183.
34
R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini, 127.
35
36
Ibid.
37
Paul Corner, ‘State and Society, 1901-1922’, 38.
38
Ibid.
199
September 1920.39 This social disorder was compounded by the serious gains made by
the Left in the 1919 general elections, which saw socialist deputies increase from 50 to
156.40 By 1920 the PSI was the largest party in Italy, and between them, the PSI and the
Chambers of Labour controlled 2000 municipalities and 26 out of 69 provinces.41 This
allarming situation was made even more frightening for the upper and middle classes by
the pro-Russian Revolution stance of PSI leaders.42
In late 1920 and early 1921, during the last Giolittian government when it seemed that the
‘Red Threat’ would engulf Italy, Fascism became a serious force in Italian political life, and
began its march towards usurping the supremacy of the Liberal regime. In this period,
Fascism, which had been established in March 1919 as a small Milanese movement of
discontented war veterans, right-wing intellectuals and interventionists, altered
considerably in its nature and ideology.43 Its influence was extended from the urban milieu
of Milan, to an agrarian base centred in the Po valley, where the violence of Fascist
squads became widespread.44 The success of squadrismo has been credited with
transforming Fascism into a mass movement. Fascist squads were the ideal instrument
for landowners in provinces dominated by Catholic or socialist unions, such as in Emilia-
Romagna and Tuscany.45 The squads presented themselves as the restorers of law and
order, and their violent activities were not prevented by police.46 Those who felt most
threatened by the advance of socialism, such as landowners, war profiteers and wealthier
peasants, were among the first to adhere to Fascism.47 Given the fear that Italy would
soon follow Russia into revolution, Fascism was able to cast itself as the nation’s defender.
39
Ibid.
40
41
Ibid.
42
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Introduction’, Liberal and Fascist Italy, 9.
43
Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, 284; Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and
Italian Fascism, 40.
44
Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism, 40.
45
46
Ibid., 216.
47
200
By the time it was formally established as a national political party in October 1921,
Fascism was rapidly gaining support from certain sections of the urban middle classes;
unemployed ex-soldiers, white collar workers, small industrialists, shopkeepers, and young
people in particular.48 Although the middle classes had emerged from the war fortified by
Italy’s victory and by the economic advantages it had brought them, they lacked the
political means or direction to assert this strength.49 Conditioned by their bitter resentment
at Italy’s apparent losses at Versailles, and the fear provoked by financial crisis and
rampant social conflict, they turned from democratic liberalism toward ultra-nationalist,
anti-socialist Fascism.50 They effectively rallied to the cause of Italian nationalism, but not
to the support of the Liberal state.51
The delicate equilibrium of the Liberal state was thus put into crisis in the dopoguerra by
slowing economic development, the intensificaton of social conflict, the radicalisation of
politics, and the emergence of new anti-democratic and anti-liberal political and cultural
forces.52 In short, the Liberal political class seemed to be increasingly unable to meet the
needs of post-war Italy.53 Already before the war a culture of anti-parliamentarism had
flourished, in which many intellectuals had propounded that a new state and new ruling
class could only be created by violent upheaval.54 Many of these intellectuals, who had
supported Italy’s entry into the war, had seen it as a way of destroying the Liberal order.55
Although the war had not provoked the collapse of Liberal Italy, the gains made by the
PSI and PPI in the 1919 elections did represent the decisive defeat of the old Liberal
system of patronage and political persuasion.56 In the dopoguerra the mass parties of
Catholics, nationalists and socialists made trasformismo difficult, and parliamentary
48
Paul Corner, ‘State and Society, 1901-1922’, 42-43.
49
Ibid., 39.
50
Ibid.
51
52
53
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
56
201
institutions were therefore at risk of ceasing to function.57 All post-war governments were
characterised by weakness, due to the economic situation, and to the large presence of
socialists and Catholics in parliament, who made up just over half of the chamber, and
who refused to co-operate to defend Italy from the forces of reaction.58 By 1922 social
disorder and parliamentary breakdown encouraged even moderates to look for a strong
leader to deliver Italy from crisis.59
***
The official, public celebration of the sixth centenary of Dante’s death in 1921 was
extensive, and surpassed in scope and spectacle the festivities for the anniversary of his
birth in 1865. For Italian cities the remembrance of Dante’s death was, as it had been in
the past, an opportunity to celebrate a city’s own particular history as part of the Italian
nation. The commemoration of Dante’s death nominally began on 5 June 1921, the day of
the festa dello Statuto, to enhance the importance of the event.60 The official national
celebrations culminated, however, in September, and were carried out in Ravenna,
Florence and Rome. The principal festivities were held in Ravenna from 10 to 14
September. The solemnities effectively began, however, on 11 September with a
procession of representatives of the military, of patriotic associations, and other official
guests, through the city to the tomb of Dante, where the bronze and silver wreath offered
by the military was deposited. This inaugural act was followed by the unveiling of the
‘Campana dei Comuni d’Italia’, a bell placed on a building next to the tomb of Dante,
donated by the cities of Italy.
On 13 September, the generally accepted date of Dante’s death, the central
commemorative ceremony for the centenary was held. The Corriere della Sera
57
58
59
60
‘La celebrazione del secentenario dantesco’, L’Alpe, no.6, June 1921, 15.
202
announced that it was ‘una celebrazione popolare, di un carattere più che cittadino,
altamente nazionale’.61 It enthused that Ravenna was host to ‘Tutta Italia… con le
bandiere e con i rappresentanti delle sue città: tutta l’anima della nazione, raccolta,
riverente, festante’.62 The day began with a procession of officials and civic associations
to the tomb of Dante. This cortège included representatives from regions recently united
to Italy, from the Trentino, Trieste, Dalmatia and Istria, as well as from the as yet
unattained city of Fiume. They were joined by the envoys of all cities of the Romagna, the
mayor of Rome and the Minister of Education, the eminent physicist Orso Mario Corbino,
as well as by representatives of the army and the navy, of the Società Dante Alighieri, of
the Freemasons, of the Associazione Madri e Vedove dei Caduti, and of the Fascists. A
place of honour was accorded to soldiers, garibaldini and legionaries from Fiume.63
The unredeemed city of Fiume appeared to be foremost in the minds of many
participants at the festivities in Ravenna, as indeed was D’Annunzio, the failed liberator of
the city recently made part of the new Yugoslav state. In September 1919, D’Annunzio,
with the war’s end no longer a hero in the headlines, had agreed to lead a military coup
organised by prominent nationalists and army officers, in an attempt to resolve by force the
debate over Italian claims to this Adriatic port.64 D’Annunzio had remained in Fiume for 15
months, inspiring patriotic fervour, but confirming with his coup the weakness of the Italian
state.65 The influence of the flamboyant poet’s nationalist liturgy in his ‘reggenza del
Carnaro’ upon the imagination of patriotic Italians was in evidence during the
commemoration of Dante. The Fascist daily Popolo d’Italia reported that as the
procession reached the tomb of Dante, ‘Ad un tratto un grido si [levò]: Per Fiume italiana:
Eja, eja, eja, Alalà!’, to which the crowd responded in unison.66 This war cry, first
employed in Fiume by the ‘duce del Carnaro’, would soon be appropriated by the Fascists,
61
‘Celebrazione di popolo alla Tomba del Poeta’, Corriere della Sera, 14 Sept 1921, 3.
62
Ibid.
63
Ibid.
64
65
Ibid., 205.
66
‘L’Apoteosi Dantesca a Ravenna’, Popolo d’Italia, 14 Sept 1921, 1.
203
and indeed the festivities in Ravenna confirmed the appraisal of D’Annunzio’s adventure in
Fiume as a dress rehearsal for the Fascist regime.67 The predominant ritual of this
commemoration before the tomb of Dante was the scattering of laurel leaves, which had
been collected by D’Annunzio from the shores of the Lago di Garda, and which the poet
had sent to Ravenna for the occasion with three pilots from the ‘gloriosa squadra del
Carnaro’.68 D’Annunzio had instructed that his offering be strewn by a mother who had
lost a son in the war.69
Although invited to attend the festivities in Ravenna, D’Annunzio had declined the offer
with the pompous words ‘non son degno’.70 Yet the absent war hero was accorded a
place of honour second only to Dante at the commemoration. After his speech for the
occasion, the mayor of Ravenna, Fortunato Buzzi, read the dramatic and politically
charged message sent by D’Annunzio with his sacks of leaves. D’Annunzio had
proclaimed
Mi voglio umiliare dinanzi all’Eroe sdegnoso ma non dinanzi alla Bestia

Trionfante. Come fu nella trincea e nell’assalto, combattere senza nome fra
combattenti senza nome, così vorrei essere oggi pellegrino oscuro fra
gente assorta, e davanti alla pietra e all’ombra sentir tremare in segreto il
mio cuore e la mia piaga.71
The reverence shown for D’Annunzio, for the heroes and wounded of the war, and the
participation of officials from newly attained territories, clearly indicated that the
remembrance of Dante was a welcome opportunity for many to celebrate the Italian nation
state’s recent victory. Given the attention accorded to Fiume, it was also an occasion for
some to recall the failure of the Liberal state to negotiate the peace settlement.
D’Annunzio’s message, which invoked the experience of the trenches, provided an
example of the militant current in Italy at that time being championed by the Fascists.
D’Annunzio’s employment of the term ‘Bestia Trionfante’, while ambiguous given the
67
68
‘Il dono votivo di D’Annunzio recato da messaggeri alati’, Corriere della Sera, 13 Sept 1921, 3.
69
‘L’Apoteosi Dantesca a Ravenna’, Popolo d’Italia, 14 Sept 1921, 1.
70
‘Il dono votivo di D’Annunzio recato da messaggeri alati’, Corriere della Sera, 13 Sept 1921, 3.
71
Ibid.
204
wayward character of the poet, was possibly a reference to the ascendancy of socialism in
Italy, which also offered a platform for the Fascists to bolster their movement. This
element of the centenary celebration of Dante revealed the prevailing nationalist mood in
Italy at the time, and attested to the fact that Dante was truly a powerful national symbol
who could be utilised to express the vital issues of the Italian nation.
205
Figure 10. Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna.
Figure 11. Inside Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna.
206
It was reported that representatives of socialist groups had initially intended to participate
in the commemoration of Dante. The president of the Lega dei Comuni socialisti had
officially supported the honouring of this national event, albeit with the recommendation
that socialists abstain from attending if the occasion became the object of ‘speculazione
politica’.72 However, during the ceremony at Dante’s tomb the place reserved for workers’
leagues, brotherhoods and co-operatives remained conspicuously empty. This
‘politicisation’ of socialist involvement did occur when socialist and workers’ meeting
places were attacked by Fascist squads, which caused ‘il proletariato’ to be absent from
the national festivities in Ravenna, while they defended their premises from further Fascist
assaults.73
The demonstrations by Fascist squads had certainly overshadowed the festive event in
Ravenna. The brief mention of the menacing Fascist presence in the city by Corriere della
Sera was elaborated upon by the socialist daily Avanti!, which reported that the more than
4 000 Fascists in the city ‘si abbandonarono ad atti vandalici e di violenza, perquotendo
pacifici cittadini’.74 The local police apparently exhibited ‘contegno più che passivo e
complice veramente disgustante’,75 and this lack of concern for violence perpetrated
against socialists was mirrored by the minimal coverage of it by the Corriere della Sera, a
leading establishment national daily. These events in Ravenna were just an example of
what had been happening in many regional areas since the Fascist squads had first begun
their onslaught against organised labour at the behest of landowners. And given the
general atmosphere of fear provoked by the ‘Biennio Rosso’, and by the perceived threat
of imminent socialist revolution, most Liberal authorities did nothing to contain the
squadristi, whom they could easily have controlled.76 Indeed the success of agrarian
72
‘Le feste dantesche ed i socialisti’, Avanti!, 15 Sept 1921, 2.
73
‘Celebrazione di popolo alla tomba del Poeta’, Corriere della Sera, 14 Sept 1921, 3.
74
‘Come i fascisti commemorano Dante’, Avanti!, 10 Sept 1921, 2.
75
Ibid.
76
207
Fascism was based in part on the complicity of the authorities, who in many cases aided
and abetted the violence of the squads.77
These political skirmishes did not seem to affect the official programme of the centenary,
which was to a large degree an expression of Italy’s high culture and of its guardianship of
the myth of Dante. The solemn proceedings at Dante’s tomb were followed by a banquet
for elite guests, and then the inauguration of the ‘Sala Dantesca’ at the Biblioteca
Classense. The official festivities in Ravenna were concluded on 14 September with a
special train trip for the elite participants to visit the Basilica di Sant’Apollinaire in Classe
outside the city, and was followed by a luncheon in the nearby ‘Pineta’ immortalised by
Dante.78
From 15 to 18 September the national festivities for Dante’s centenary continued in
Florence. While the commemoration of Dante had already been recognised on 6 June
when the festa dello Statuto was combined with the celebration of Dante, as it had in other
cities of Italy, Florence pre-empted this nationwide display of patriotism by first
remembering the anniversary of Dante’s death on 27 April, the anniversary of the Tuscan
Revolution of 1859.79 These additional, combined celebrations reinforced the association
between Dante and the achievement of national unification, and also perhaps indicated
Florence’s desire to exhibit the greatest degree of reverence for its native son. On both
occasions the citizens of Florence, representatives of civil and military authorities, and of
many Tuscan cities and patriotic associations, participated in processions in honour of
Dante, which either began or ended in Piazza Santa Croce where the monument to Dante
stands.
The procession of 15 September in homage to Dante was preceded by an official
ceremony in the Palazzo Vecchio. The mayor of Florence Antonio Garbasso reminded his
audience of elite delegates, including the mayors of Rome, Trieste, Fiume and many
77
78
‘Il sesto centenario della morte di Dante celebrato nelle città d’Italia’, Corriere della Sera, 15 Sept 1921, 3.
79
‘L’inizio a Firenze delle feste pel centenario dantesco’, Corriere della Sera, 28 April 1921, 4.
208
Tuscan cities, that they were participating in a celebration of national unity with the
assertion that ‘nell’unità della lingua, e quindi nel pensiero e nel culto dantesco, sta la
radice dell’unità d’Italia’.80 Following this speech, and those of the Minister of Education
Corbino and of the dantista Isidoro Del Lungo on behalf of the Accademia dei Lincei, the
procession set off from the Piazza della Signoria, the buildings of which had been adorned
with the gonfaloni of the Florentine guilds.81 The envoys of many cities of Italy, the war-
wounded, soldiers, garibaldini, legionaries of Fiume, Fascists, various schools, socialists
and many civic associations, all carried their flags as they participated in this rite of
nationhood in the name of Dante.82 The parade made its way through the principal streets
of Florence before arriving at the church of Sante Croce, which had its major naves
decorated with 24 paintings of Dantesque subjects.83 A laurel wreath of gold was then
placed on the cenotaph of Dante in Sante Croce, as the members of the cortège bowed
before it in sacred silence.84
Unlike the proceedings in Ravenna, which had been somewhat marred by Fascist
violence against socialist and workers’ groups, the elite elegance of the homage to Dante
in Florence was for the most part undisturbed. There was only one incident of conflict
commented upon by the press, when, prior to the grand procession, the Florentine
republican groups withdrew en masse from the patriotic display. The Corriere della Sera
reported that this abstention was provoked by pressure from Fascists, who demanded that
the red flags of the republicans have attached to them an Italian tricolore, as the flags of
the socialist union apparently already had.85 Prior to these municipal festivities, in July, a
procession organised by a Catholic youth group to lay a wreath at the statue of Dante in
Piazza Santa Croce, had also drawn the menacing attention of the Fascists. While the
procession route had been protected by royal guards because it was known that Fascist
80
‘Grandiosa cerimonia dantesca a Firenze’, Corriere della Sera, 16 Sept 1921, 3.
81
Ibid.
82
Ibid.
83
Ibid.
84
Ibid.
85
Ibid.
209
squads intended to disrupt the event, after the procession, young Catholic participants and
even two Catholic deputies were subjected to Fascist aggression.86 These relatively minor
incidents were evidence of the stance Fascists had taken as the defenders of the Italian
nation, of the power they were able to exert over other groups in Italian society with
apparent impunity, and of the fact that, at this point, they largely controlled Florence.
The following day the commemoration of Dante was continued with a trip to the plain of
Campaldino. There, the representatives of Italian cities, of the military and of Florence
celebrated ‘Dante soldato’, as a participant in the battle of Campaldino of 1289 between
Florence and Arezzo. At this site a ‘colonna commemorativa del servizio militare di Dante’
was inaugurated under the patronage of the Minister of War.87 Finally, 17 September was
dedicated to a celebration of the history of Florence, but this day was rendered an
occasion of more grandiose significance by a visit from the king. It was estimated that 70
000 people flocked to Florence for this regal veneration of Dante. The king, the Prime
Minister, reformist socialist Ivanoe Bonomi, various ministers, senators, deputies and city
officials, along with those who could afford tickets to the event, gathered inside the
Palazzo Vecchio for another ceremony in honour of Dante. This ritual was followed in the
afternoon by the re-enactment of a fourteenth century procession through Florence which
evoked the return of the victorious Florentine troops from Campaldino.88 This cortège was
a celebration of Florence’s own proud history, but also a victory parade for Italy’s recent
war experience. That evening, after the departure of the king, the city hosted a banquet
for the visiting delegates of other cities, and the gathering concluded with a Lectura
Dantis.89
The official celebration of the centenary of Dante’s death concluded in Rome on 20
September. Given that Dante had been firmly established as a symbol of a secular Italian
nation state during the Liberal period, it was fitting that the Roman commemoration of his
86
‘Un conflitto a Firenze tra fascisti e popolari. Due deputati popolari percossi’, Avanti!, 5 July 1921, 2.
87
‘Dante soldato celebrato nella pianura di Campaldino’, Corriere della Sera, 17 Sept 1921, 3.
88
‘Il corteo dantesco a Firenze’, Popolo d’Italia, 18 Sept 1921, 1.
89
Ibid.
210
death was combined with the remembrance of the date when the eternal city was
triumphantly seized from the papacy and united to the Italian kingdom as its capital. The
city of Rome, in addition to its recognition of the centenary of Dante’s death on 20
September, apparently planned to name a street of the capital after the poet,90 and it also
ceremoniously donated the Palazzo degli Anguillara in perpetuity to the Casa di Dante,
which had been situated there since 1914. The ceremony for the commemoration of
Dante and 20 September in Piazza del Campidoglio, at which the Prime Minister Bonomi,
various ministers, deputies and senators were present, along with the delegates of other
cities, began with the distribution of medals recognising military and civil valour.91 Then
the elite participants congregated in the Sala degli Orazi e dei Curiazi of the Campidoglio
for the official speeches given by the mayors of Ravenna and Florence, the Minister of
Education Corbino, who reportedly reminded the audience of ‘la grandezza della
concezione dantesca sulla missione di Roma nel mondo civile’,92 and finally the principal
and grandiose oration of dantista Corrado Ricci, which elaborated upon this theme.
Ricci’s speech entitled ‘Roma nel pensiero di Dante’ celebrated Rome as the capital of
Italy, and took as its focus Dante’s conception of Rome as the seat of a universal empire.
Ricci did begin by recognising the fact that, given Dante’s imperial ideas, he had not
envisaged a united Italy as a singular nation state. But he still managed to affirm the
established idea that Dante’s thought had been an instigating force in the creation of
united Italy. In his exegesis of Dante’s political philosophy, Ricci asserted that the
medieval poet had conceived of Italian unity as an important stage in a process which
would culminate in the return of Rome as the centre of a universal empire. Thus Ricci
explained that while Dante had not prophesied the rise of the Italian nation state, he had
prepared the ground for its ultimate growth:
Egli indicò i confini della nostra patria; invocò concordia fra i suoi Stati, le
sue città, le sue case; intuì che un’unica lingua avrebbe legate le famiglie
90
‘Per una via a Dante Alighieri’, Osservatore Romano, 9 June 1921, 3.
91
‘Il XX settembre e Dante commemorati a Roma’, Corriere della Sera, 21 Sept 1921, 1.
92
Ibid.
211
italiane e nel suo poema ne mostrò la potenza con parole di bronzo e d’oro.
Fissò così, se non la nazione italiana, i segni della sua nazionalità, dando il
concetto della sua unità morale, donde quello scaturì della sua unità
politica. E poichè a sede capitale dell’Impero da lui concepito designò
Roma, così virtualmente la designò capitale d’Italia.93
This passage is a good summary of the image of Dante developed by the scholars and
commentators of Dante during the Liberal period which was so often more simplisticly
equated with the aphorism that Dante was ‘the father of the Italian nation’, and which was
disseminated among educated middle class Italians. In keeping with this idea that Italian
unity was only the first step in Italy’s return to imperial glory, Ricci also went on to declare
that 20 September 1870 was the day that fulfilled Dante’s vision.94 He implied that,
because Dante’s call for the confinement of the papacy’s dominion to the spiritual realm
had been achieved in 1870, Italy was well on its way to becoming the centre of the
prophesied empire. What was perhaps most significant about Ricci’s fervent speech, and
most revelatory of the contemporary tenor of nationalist rhetoric regarding Italy’s great
destiny, was its culmination in the assertion
E nasce Gesù. Nasce Gesù per gloria dell’Impero romano; e per gloria
dell’Impero muore sotto Tiberio, poichè l’aquila romana, divenendo ministra
della divina giustizia nel sacrificio di Cristo, contribuisce alla redenzione del
genere umano.95
This gloss on Dante’s opinions offered by Ricci suggested that the medieval poet had
believed that Jesus had essentially been born for the glory of the Roman Empire. In
Paradiso VI, above all, Dante had proclaimed that the Roman Empire was merely an
instrument of divine Providence, established in order that the redemptive message of
Jesus could reach all the known world, and thus had expressed his belief that Christ had
died for the redemption of humanity, and not for the glory of the Roman Empire.96
93
Corrado Ricci, Lectura Dantis: Roma nel pensiero di Dante. Discorso pronunciato da Corrado Ricci in
Campidoglio il XX settembre MCMXXI, Florence, Sansoni, 1921, 10.
94
Ibid., 24.
95
Ibid., 20.
96
Stefano Albertini, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso ed abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia fascista’, The Italianist,
no 16, 1996, 124.
212
While it could be argued that Ricci had resorted to such egregious rhetoric under the
influence of his role as the author of a prestigious address on a solemn national occasion,
this speech was important as an example of the trend in nationalist rhetoric about Dante.
The mention of Italy’s ‘mission’ and the greatness of Rome in other speeches for the
centenary attest to this increasingly favoured interpretation of Dante’s political thought.
The speech given by the mayor of Florence, scientist, war veteran and the soon to be first
Fascist mayor of the city, Antonio Garbasso, during his city’s festivities was thus also
notable for the association it made between Dante, the victory in the recent war, and the
‘mission’ of Italy. The press reported that the mayor reviewed ‘le vicende della guerra per
dimostrare che l’Italia ha pienamente assolto il primo compito assegnatole dal Poeta’.97
He concluded his oratory with the following exhortation to his audience:
Ora incomincia il nuovo dovere. L’unificazione è, per la Patria, l’inizio di

una storia più alta. La missione di civiltà e di pace, commessa da Roma ai
suoi discendenti, sarà compiuta dall’Italia, per il cui avvenire è lecito trarre
gli auspici più fausti.98
Clearly it had become commonplace, at least in the context of nationalist rhetoric, for
Dante to be utilised to confirm that Italy was progressing along the path to future imperial
glory. The logic of these claims about Dante and his prognostications for Italy seemed to
be that because Italy had already fulfilled the poet’s supposed prophecies of its political
unity in 1860, of the end to the pope’s temporal dominion in 1870, and of more or less
complete geographical unity in 1918, it would undoubtedly also realise his prophecy of
Rome’s imperial mission. In the irredentist and empire-building climate of the early
twentieth century, even serious scholars had turned to exploring the concept of empire and
the role of Rome in the works of Dante, and how it could be read to support Italian claims
to empire.99 While in the nineteenth century the nationalist meditations upon Dante’s
political thought, offered by Mazzini, De Sanctis or Villari, had interpreted the poet’s
97
‘Le rievocazioni dantesche a Firenze tra il plauso del popolo e alla presenza del re’, Corriere della Sera, 18
Sept 1921, 1.
98
Ibid.
99
Stefano Albertini, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso ed abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia fascista’, 123.
213
prophecy of Italy’s imperial destiny as a vision of universal brotherhood and the co-
operation of nations, by the advent of the 1921 centenary the implications of Dante’s ideas
of empire were primarily being used in an expansionist and triumphalist way. Ricci’s
suggestion on this occasion that Dante had prophesied Italy’s return to universal
dominance was particularly resonant given its intimation of what was to come: the
appropriation of Dante by the Fascist regime in the service of its own vision of an Italian
Empire.
The recognition by the newly formed League of Nations of the importance of the
centenary which expressed a different interpretation of Dante’s thought, one which echoed
the hopes of Mazzini, evidenced the malleability of Dante’s ideas. A British delegate to the
assembly spoke of Dante’s relevance to the international body, proclaiming that the league
celebrated him as ‘il poeta delle visioni profetiche’ who ‘Sulla soglia di un’era nuova… ha
avuto la visione di uno Stato universale ed ha espresso l’idea della solidarietà del genere
umano’.100 Dante’s desire for universal empire, so readily employed to support Italian
claims to destined greatness, was thus also easily adapted to seem a prophecy of the
organisation dedicated to harmony between nations.
This morning of oratorical ardour in celebration of Dante and the Italian nation was
followed by a procession of the envoys of Italian cities and civic associations from Piazza
Venezia to Porta Pia.101 The Fascist presence during this ritual was notable, if not violent,
and it was reported that there marched in the procession ‘numerosi e composti arditi e
fascisti coi loro gagliardetti, cantando l’inno “Giovinezza”, a cui [faceva] coro la folla’.102 At
Porta Pia, after the procession arrived to the playing of the Marcia reale, the mayor of
Rome Giannetto Valli gave a speech about the monument, in which he relayed the history
of the breach to the crowd, and which he concluded with his thoughts upon the connection
between XX Settembre and Dante:
100
‘Dante celebrato all’Assemblea delle Nazioni’, Corriere della Sera, 15 Sept 1921, 5.
101
‘Il XX settembre e Dante commemorati a Roma’, Corriere della Sera, 21 Sept 1921 , 1.
102
Ibid.
214
Nessuna data, nessun luogo è più degno, o cittadini, per la glorificazione
del Poeta creatore del nostro pensiero civile e della nostra coscienza
nazionale. Qui l’auspicio di Dante divenne storia e qui l’Italia riprese il
posto assegnatole dal diritto, a ridivenne romana. Disgiunta affine la spada
dal pastorale, da queste mure abbattute, il principio della protesta dello
Stato laico sorse e civilmente si affermò: nella libera espansione del
pensiero, gli apostoli, i martiri, gli eroi del nostro riscatto che qui veneriamo,
dall’opera di Dante trassero gli ideali e la fede.103
This was a clear affirmation of the role attributed to Dante of not only the prophet of the
rise of the Italian state, but of a particularly secular Italian state. It was moreover an
example of the rhetoric which cast Dante as the secular patron saint of Italian nationalists.
***
A predominant characteristic of this commemoration of Dante as a father of the Italian
nation was its function as a celebration of Italy’s victory in the First World War. The place
of honour accorded to the Italian military in the rituals of commemoration of Dante’s death
in Ravenna, Florence and Rome, and the re-enacted victory parade in Florence, were
indications of this fact. The rhetoric employed in speeches and in various literary
publications for the centenary made this aspect of the festivities even more obvious.
In his speech on behalf of the military at the ceremony for the donation of the bronze
wreath to Dante’s tomb in Ravenna, an army general strove to make the poet relevant to
the war experience with the declaration that ‘L’Esercito nelle sue basi, idealità e fede, si
lega alla grande figura di Dante con due concetti che sono simbolo ad un tempo e meta:
“La coscienza nazionale” e l’idea sublime del “dovere”’.104 He elucidated this proposition
with the characterisation of Dante as the ‘maestro e donno’ of ‘dovere’, who had inspired
Italian forces in their firm sense of duty, which had thus ensured their victory.105 The
general went on to affirm the affinity of the Italian military to Dante with the claim that both
103
Ibid.
104
‘La Nazione vittoriosa tributa il suo omaggio ideale: Il vibrante saluto dell’Esercito e dell’Armata’, Il
Progresso (Bologna), 13 Sept 1921, 1.
105
Ibid.
215
were protectors of Italian national consciousness: ‘L’Esercito intero in cui palpitava l’anima
di tutto il vero popolo d’Italia quando per l’Italia, combatteva, soffriva e vinceva, ora, quale
depositario e vigile custode della coscienza nazionale, resa dalla vittoria intangibile’.106
The most notable aspect of this rhetoric was the general’s reference to the ‘vero popolo
d’Italia’, an allusion to the bitter rift between interventionists and neutralists. The comment
illuminated the fact that, even in 1921, there still lingered the belief that support for Italy’s
involvement in the war was the only attitude for a patriotic Italian to have taken. It was a
reminder that only part of the Italian nation had been victorious in the war, and it also
implied that only the victorious supporters of intervention had a true affinity with Dante.
The mayor of Ravenna, in accepting the military’s offering to Dante’s tomb, continued this
line of rhetoric with his characterisation of Dante as a patron saint of the war effort. He
asserted that, during the years of conflict, ‘nei momenti tristi e lieti il popolo di Ravenna si è
raccolto sovente attorno all’ara sacra per elevare gli spiriti, incoraggiare i dubbiosi,
rinnovare gli sforzi per la salvezza e la grandezza della Patria’.107 Whether true or not, the
sentiment of this account indicated that at least for the Italian ruling elite, Dante had
become a symbol that could be utilised by the patriotic citizen to express his or her
devotion to the nation.
The comments of some scholars regarding 1921 also developed this theme, affirming
that Dante’s thought supported the idea that the Great War had been part of Italy’s
illustrious destiny. The speech of the national president of the Società Dantesca Italiana
Isidoro Del Lungo, which was read in Florence, Pisa, Pistoia, Venice, Bologna and Rome,
concluded with the claim that Dante’s mention of the Piave in Paradiso IX:27, and the
recent significance conferred on the Piave as the place of Italy’s long awaited advance
against the Central Powers, was ‘fateful’.108 Dante’s incidental reference to the Piave was
106
Ibid.
107
Ibid.
108
Isidoro Del Lungo, Firenze e Italia nella vita e nel poema di Dante. Letto da Isidoro Del Lungo, come
presidente della Società Dantesca Italiana, nella sala di Dante in Orsanmichele pel secentenario del 1921,
Florence, Sansoni, 1921, 30.
216
recast by Del Lungo as a sign of the destiny of the Italian nation to achieve victory and
complete its territory: ‘Le “fontane di Brenta e di Piava” sono oggi termini non di “terra
italica prava”, ma di terra italiana dove la fede nei destini della patria ha fatto l’estremo
delle sue virtuose energie’.109 In his speech in Rome on 23 June 1921 for the
commemoration of the victory of the Piave, the former president of the Società Dante
Alighieri Luigi Rava, also made this connection between Dante and the important battle,
when he announced that the Società Dante Alighieri had decided to associate the
remembrance of the victory of the Piave with the name of Dante.110
The 1921 publication of an exposition of Dante’s Divina Commedia by journalist Enrico
Corradini, the imperialist and anti-liberal prophet and philosopher of Italian nationalism in
the Giolittian era, included in its preface the declaration that the true celebration of 1921,
the spiritual celebration, was of Italy’s success in war as a nation state and the completion
of its national territory.111 In his rather cloying prose Corradini also equated knowledge of
Dante with the victory of Vittorio Veneto in their supposedly nationalising effect on Italians:
In realtà noi ci sentiamo e siamo nel nostro spirito più grandi dopo Vittorio
Veneto, come più grandi furono, sono e saranno per Dante tutti gli italiani.
Nel nostro spirito le due cause di grandezza tanto diverse hanno unità. In
realtà noi sappiamo che Dante Alighieri è la suprema manifestazione, è il
nume della nostra stirpe. La sete millenaria del compimento nazionale e
della vittoria che fu nella stirpe, fu nella sua suprema manifestazione. E
oggi questa, come quella, si sazia. Tale sublime rito avviene nel nostro
spirito.112
The centenary of Dante’s death was seen by many nationalists as a celebration of the
achievements of Italy as a modern nation state, and its participation in the Great War and
its victory were held to be a rite of passage to great power status. Given this mentality, it
was not surprising that the rhetoric of the occasion painted a picture which completely
denied the reality that the military disasters of the war and the clumsy handling of the
109
Ibid.
110
Luigi Rava, Commemorazione della Vittoria della Piave, Forlì, Cooperativa editrice sindacale fra i maestri
d’Italia, 1921, 11.
111
Enrico Corradini, Tre Canti Danteschi, Florence, Le Monnier, 1921, x.
112
Ibid., ix.
217
peace settlement had conversely revealed that Italy was very much the least of the great
powers. The one true aspect of the myth of the war as a great moment for the nation was
the fact that for millions of Italians, the war had indeed been the first true collective national
experience. It had perhaps been the first time that many male Italians had felt, even if only
for a brief moment, that they were citizens of a common patria.113 But it had ultimately
been the cause of even greater division in Italy society. The vast support shown for
Catholic and socialist parties in the 1919 elections, the two groups in Italy which had
opposed intervention in the war, indicated the depth of popular opposition to the war, and
its contribution to the crisis of the Liberal state.114 Yet for many among the bourgeoisie,
the victorious war experience had been the realisation of dreams of Italian greatness, and
further fuelled their adherence to imperialist and expansionist nationalism.115
In publications for 1921 it was rare to find an account of Italy’s contemporary state that
did not perpetuate the myth of Italy’s great war experience, while employing reference to
Dante for rhetorical support. The preface to a collection of studies of Dante’s significance
for Italy written by the scholar Francesco D’Ovidio was thus refreshing, given its
acknowledgment that ‘Dopo una guerra terribile che ha dato sfogo a tante discordie e pur
troppo gettata la semente di discordie nuove, dopo tanti dolori, dopo tanti orrori, i popoli
più diversi o più avversi si son trovati a un tratto concordi nell’inchinare la grandezza e nel
compiangere le angosce del Poeta magnanimo’.116 Despite this less triumphalist appraisal
of Italy’s war experience, it is important to note that Dante was still cast as a unifying
figure. The poet was always held to be a symbol of the Italian nation, in this case one
which could supersede internal divisions.
A natural corollary of this function of the commemoration of Dante was its significance as
the celebration of the final completion of the Risorgimento. Essentially the war was
113
114
Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Introduction’, 8.
115
116
Francesco D’Ovidio, ‘Proemio’, Dante e l’Italia nel VI Centenario della Morte del Poeta 1921, Rome,
Società anonima poligrafica italiana, 1921, ix.
218
portrayed as the fulfilment of Dante’s vision of Italy as a geographical entity, given that the
war had resulted in the annexation of irredentist territories, which Dante had been used to
justify. Comparison of the 1921 centenary of Dante to that of 1865 afforded further scope
for recognition of Italy’s immense achievement. In 1865 a newly united Italy had
commemorated Dante while significant parts of the resurgent nation, namely Rome,
Venice, Trento and Trieste, remained subject to foreign domination, but in 1921 all parts of
the Italian nation were united in honouring Dante. D’Ovidio expressed this difference and
its relationship to Dante most eloquently: in 1921 ‘la celebrazione del vate divino, sorta in
ogni parte d’Italia, lungamente protratta per più mesi, penetrata, per la cresciuta coltura e
pei rinvigoriti studii sulle opere di lui, in più larga cittadinanza … è frutto dell’unità ribadita e
resa perfetta sino ai termini da lui proclamati’.117 Thus from the vantage of 1921, the
Italian nation state had seemed to have made considerable progress, which could most
happily be attributed to the completion of Italian unity as a result of the war.
While D’Ovidio surveyed the past and present, Corradini’s contemplation of the
significance of the centenary in the aforementioned work, and what it demonstrated about
the progress of united Italy, also looked to the future:
Oggi l’opera è presso al termine e, quel che più conta, la nazione italiana
ha avuto il supremo compimento morale: la vittoria. Quanto era stato fatto
prima, aveva dato alla nazione italiana l’esistenza materiale; solo dal 1918
incomincia la nuova vita storica della nazione italiana, e la vittoria ne
matura la grandezza futura.118
Clearly the nationalist ideologue was alluding to his belief that it was Italy’s national
purpose to build a great empire. Reference to Dante easily supported the dream nurtured
by Corradini of Italy’s ascension to the stature of Imperial Rome, which, according to his
radical philosophy, had finally been made possible by the spiritual renewal of Italians
achieved by victory in war.
117
Ibid., x-xi.
118
Enrico Corradini, Tre Canti Danteschi, viii.
219
It was not surprising, given the pervasive expansionist and bellicose nationalist sentiment
of the post-war years, that few commentators looked further than a nationalistic celebration
of Dante in 1921. The fact that the 1921 centenary was a globally recognised event
compared to the Florence-centred 1865 centenary, was hailed by many as yet another
sign of the progress Italy had made as a nation state and European power. The sixth
centenary of Dante’s death was indeed given considerable international attention. Italian
newspapers proudly reported the remembrance of Dante in Vienna, Paris, Berlin, Warsaw,
in the USA, and in Rio de Janeiro. The government of Brazil had even declared the 14
September a national holiday, and the festivities in Rio included the laying of the first stone
of a monument to Dante by the Brazilian president.119 Some commentators did, however,
promote the broader implications of this international prestige accorded to Dante. In an
article about the centenary, the eminent Florentine priest, scholar, and future Fascist
supporter Ermenegildo Pistelli proclaimed that ‘Nel ’65 Firenze esaltò il Vate italiano; oggi
Firenze e l’Italia e il Pontefice romano e il mondo tutto hanno esaltato il Vate veramente
“Cattolico”’.120 He was patently trying to highlight that a path to universal peace could be
forged through reverence for the universally appealing, and Christian, poet. D’Ovidio also
optimistically promoted reverence for Dante as a means to fostering universal peace and
co-operation. For him the worldwide veneration of Dante was a ‘segno di sempre
crescente fraternità fra le genti umane e della loro aspirazione al trionfo della pace e della
giustizia’.121
***
119
‘La celebrazione dantesca: Dimostrazioni e cortei in tutta Italia’, Popolo d’Italia, 15 Sept 1921, 1; ‘La
gloria di Dante ricordata nel mondo’, Popolo d’Italia, 16 Sept 1921, 3.
120
Ermenegildo Pistelli, ‘Allora e ora’, in E. Pistelli, Eroi, uomini e ragazzi, con prefazione di Benito
Mussolini, Florence, Sansoni, 1927, 138. Originally published in Il Marzocco, 15 Sept 1921.
121
Francesco D’Ovidio, ‘Proemio’, xii.
220
Comment upon the nature and significance of the centenary was not without criticism for
the Liberal establishment’s handling of the occasion by cultural figures disappointed with
Italy’s perceived incompetence. In his aforementioned publication, Corradini averred that
the contemporary government was incapable of understanding that the 1921 centenary
was above all a spiritual celebration of victory. Just as the remembrance of Dante was a
means of promoting his view of what Italy should aspire to be, so it was a pretext used by
Corradini to criticise the waning Liberal regime and its inglorious management of Italy’s
war experience:
… siamo alla mercè di politicanti ostinati a distruggere l’attesa millenaria, la

vittoria, perchè inetti a comprendere i valori immensi che emanano da essa.
Non un alito di vita morale spira da costoro, immersi in un materialismo così
gretto, cieco e stupido, che finiscono con distruggere gli stessi valori
materiali della nazione vittoriosa.122
For Corradini, Italy under the Liberal regime would not be able to achieve his dreams of a
culturally, and above all spiritually renewed Italian nation, which deserved to command a
large empire.123
Another commentator, the Florentine nationalist letterato Ugo Ojetti, who would become
the editor of Corriere della Sera in 1926 with the approval of Mussolini, also found cause to
criticise the Liberal state for its tutelage of the commemoration of Dante. He opined that
the Catholic festivities were much more widespread and well organised. The state’s
mishandling of Dante’s centenary was, for Ojetti, yet another indication of its crisis: ‘…
basta confrontare questo programma [cattolico] col programma, diremo, laico per capire in
un attimo a che conduca in Italia l’assenza eterna, sempre e dovunque, del governo’.124
D’Annunzio had expressed a similar sentiment, if more archly, in his comments on the
occasion. The poet’s refusal to attend festivities in Florence, printed by the press, and
which was echoed by the letter he issued to Ravenna’s invitation, stated that Italy was still
not the patria of Dante, and was not worthy of venerating the great figure: ‘Non sono
122
Enrico Corradini, Tre Canti Danteschi, xi.
123
124
Ugo Ojetti, ‘L’Italia non commemora Dante?’, Corriere della Sera, 30 Aug 1921, 3.
221
degno. Dopo seicento anni Dante è tutt’ora in esilio e nessuno di noi è oggi degno di
richiamarlo’.125
Such criticisms of the municipal commemoration of Dante were clearly a castigation of
the Liberal regime’s failure to represent the interests of significant sections of Italian
society; in particular, to win the allegiance of those Italians who responded to the lure of
internationalist socialism, or of those whose enthusiasm for militarist, anti-socialist and
expansionist nationalist ideas would soon cause them to embrace the Fascist version of
the Italian nation and its state.
The ways in which the Liberal establishment chose to recognise Dante were restricted to
the participation of a bourgeois, educated milieu. After its elitist ceremonies, the strongest
aspect of the Liberal celebration of Dante was the contribution made by academics, who
produced many valuable studies. These works attested to the vitality of Italian culture
following the upheaval of the war, and signified that Italy was finally at the avantgarde of
Dante studies.126 In 1865 the Italian production of enormous, often meaningless and
highly rhetorical works on Dante, had been academically superseded by the efforts of
English and German scholars. In 1921, Italian scholars were able to display the
considerable cultural progress Italy had made in a little over 50 years.127 The Liberal focus
on an erudite approach to the commemoration of Dante was notably indicated by the gift
presented to King Vittorio Emanuele III at the Florentine ritual. The volume of a critical
edition of Dante’s works was quite a contrast to the intricately crafted sword inscribed with
a verse about Dante’s Veltro offered to Vittorio Emanuele II at the 1865 centenary. Indeed
the Liberal elite seemed to have lost its vigour in representing the sacred connection
between its monarchical regime and Dante the symbol of the nation. A similarly
unimaginative scholarly effort was made by the city of Florence to honour Dante with its
competition for the writing of yet another book about Dante. The plan for this elitist contest
125
‘D’Annunzio rinunzia a commemorare Dante’, Corriere della Sera, 9 Sept 1921, 5.
126
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, Rivista storica italiana, 78(3), 1966, 573.
127
Ibid., 574.
222
was based on the idea that Italians should better know about the life, thought and art of
Dante, ‘i quali sono suprema espressione della stirpe e civiltà nostra, e simbolo perenne
d’italianità’.128
A special series of stamps was also issued to commemorate Dante, which illuminated
above all Dante’s literary contribution to Italy.129 The most fanciful activity organised in
celebration of Dante in 1921 was an excursion for school students to ‘Dantopoli’, ‘città che
esiste nella carta geografica della fantasia’.130 On 5 May 1921, 800 secondary school
students from Milan and Pavia took a special train to the imaginary city dedicated to
Dante, on the shores of the lake of Ceriano, where the students sang, danced and played
games. This activity, like the production of literary studies, and the issuing of special
stamps, exemplified the narrow, elitist focus of the Liberal maintenance of the national
myth of Dante, which had clearly not aimed to make the commemoration of Dante subject
to popular participation.
The attitude of the leading Liberal intellectual Benedetto Croce can be seen as exemplary
of the Liberal regime’s failure to grasp the importance of the centenary as a crucial chance
to reaffirm its national hegemony. As the Minister of Education in Giolitti’s final cabinet in
1920-1921, it fell to Croce to inaugurate the ‘anno dantesco’ in Ravenna on 14 September
1920. His approach to this task exhibited his personal agenda, which was based on his
desire to generate an intellectual and cultural renovation in Italy that would ultimately
reinvigorate the political life of the nation.131 At the forefront of the anti-positivist campaign
in the Giolittian era, Croce seemingly had much ideological affinity with his modernist and
right-wing nationalist contemporaries such as Corradini and Papini, given his focus upon
ideals of cultural renewal and his constant assertion of aesthetic and ‘spiritual’ values.132
Croce was, however, staunchly devoted to liberal principles and unlike Corradini or Papini,
128
‘Per il centenario dantesco’, Bullettino della SDI, XXV, fasc. 1-3, March-Sept 1919, 104.
129
‘Il sesto centenario della morte di Dante celebrato nelle città d’Italia’, Corriere della Sera, 15 Sept 1921, 3.
130
‘Gli studenti a Dantopoli’, Corriere della Sera, 6 May 1921, 4.
131
Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism, 23.
132
223
eschewed a militarist and bellicose programme for Italy, and had favoured Italy’s neutrality
in the war.
In his official speech Croce stated that it was probable that for the centenary Dante would
be celebrated by many as ‘il più ispirato apostolo della nazionalità italiana, o il maestro
della vita morale e politica’.133 He announced that this conception did not represent the
real Dante, but instead was merely ‘Dante simbolo’.134 In Croce’s view, ‘Dante, nella sua
realtà, fu e resta un poeta’, and the vital importance of poetry lay in its ability to supersede
political and social divisions and unite people.135 He expressed his belief that the Divina
Commedia needed to be read without the distraction of political, moral, biographical and
allegorical interpretations.136 It should be appreciated as poetry, rather than for its
theological or moral precepts, which would enable its reader to ‘raccogliere come in
un’immagine sintetica il carattere e l’unità della poesia dantesca’.137 In keeping with this
aesthetic approach, Croce exhorted his audience to give poetry, and Dante, to the people,
and he concluded that the most fitting way to honour Dante was to read him and re-read
him, for pleasure and spiritual elevation.138
Croce would elaborate upon these themes in his critical work La poesia di Dante
published in 1921. The reaction of one scholar to Croce’s maxim exemplified the fact that
the eminent philosopher’s treatment of Dante was not favourably received, nor perhaps
even comprehended, in the climate of rising right-wing nationalism and political and social
crisis. In his speech to the Società Dante Alighieri on 23 June 1921 for the
commemoration of the Piave, Innocenzo Cappa, a former republican who would later
produce propaganda for the Fascist regime, refuted Croce’s ‘negazione intellettuale del
valore fondamentale di simbolo per la Patria che è attribuito a Dante Alighieri’, with the
133
Benedetto Croce, Il Sesto Centenario Dantesco e il carattere della poesia di Dante: Discorso del Ministro
della Pubblica Istruzione Benedetto Croce letto nella Sala di Dante di Ravenna, Florence , Sansoni, 1920, 7.
134
Ibid.
135
Ibid., 7, 9.
136
Ibid., 10.
137
Ibid.
138
Ibid., 9, 19.
224
assertion that even in Dante’s majesty as a poet ‘egli è uno dei miracoli rappresentativi del
genio d’Italia, che possono civilmente riempirci d’orgoglio’.139 The time was clearly not ripe
for Croce’s idealism, and the adverse reaction to his dismissal of Dante as ‘simbolo
nazionale’ would endure for many years, which indicated that a political rather than an
aesthetic interpretation of the medieval poet was favoured by adherents to the Fascist
regime.
Croce’s contribution to Dante studies essentially espoused that Dante’s works needed to
be subjected to critical examination that would work to desacralise the poet.140 While such
an approach may have been valid, and did indeed herald a new era of serious Dante
criticism that was more detached from his national cult, it was politically inopportune for
Croce.141 At this crucial moment for the Italian nation and the Liberal regime, it might have
been more important for the ruling elite to recognise the influence Dante wielded as a
national symbol, rather than to appreciate his poetry. During this centenary, Croce, and
the government he represented, could have taken the opportunity it presented to use
‘Dante simbolo’ to political ends in an effort to combat the rising right-wing threat against
Italy and its culture.142 Dante, as he had been constructed as a national symbol since the
Risorgimento, was, on this occasion of national significance, the weapon employed by
contesting ideologies to win hegemony in Italian society. The Liberal regime failed to
capitalise on the potential the nationalist cult of Dante had in winning the allegiance of the
sections of society which were being swayed by the ultra-nationalism of the emerging
Fascist movement, or by the patriotic Catholic political movement.
***
139
Innocenzo Cappa, Dante e l’anima nazionale, Forlì, Cooperativa editrice sindacale fra i maestri d’Italia,
1921, 21, 24.
140
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, 573.
141
Ibid.
142
Ibid.
225
The 1921 centenary revealed the formidable claim that Catholic culture made to Dante in
contest with the Liberal, secular cult of the medieval poet. Catholic homage to Dante on
the occasion of the sixth centenary of his death in 1921 was extensive, and was planned
many years before the event. On 14 September 1913 a committee was created in
Ravenna, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Ravenna and with the approval of the
pope, Benedict XV, in order to promote among Catholics the celebration of Dante. This
committee encouraged the commemoration of Dante by Catholics abroad and within Italy,
and sponsored conferences and speeches, competitions and musical composition in
remembrance of the centenary.143 It held a competition for the production of a study on
the philosophical and theological doctrines of Dante, an initiative which mirrored a Liberal
competition for a book on Dante, except that the Catholic initiative was international in its
scope.144 The committee produced a bimonthly bulletin, entitled Il VI Centenario
Dantesco, which aimed to further the promotion of Catholic preparation for the centenary.
This publication was devoted to explicating, through a Catholic lens, all aspects of the
centennial event and the life and thought of Dante, and produced articles about Dante’s
Christianity, and his relationship to philosophy, art, the war and Catholic doctrine. It was a
Catholic version of the support offered to the cult of Dante by lay journalists and by the
many liberal publications dedicated to the poet.
Foremost among the committee’s initiatives was its project to renovate Church
monuments in Ravenna. Its centrepiece was the restoration of the Chiesa di San
Francesco, or ‘Chiesa di Dante’, so called because the Franciscans had welcomed Dante
as a guest during his exile, and had given the poet’s remains its resting place, which they
143
‘Pel sesto centenario dalla morte di Dante’, Civiltà Cattolica, vol. 3, 9 Sept 1920, 486.
144
‘Concorso internazionale per il centenario della morte di Dante Alighieri’, Il VI Centenario Dantesco:
Bollettino del Comitato Cattolico per l’Omaggio a Dante Alighieri, fasc. III, May-June 1914, ‘allegato al
fascicolo III’.
226
guarded for centuries.145 In 1914 Pope Benedict XV pledged 10 000 lire to this solemn
undertaking, and by 1921 had donated another 100 000 lire to ensure its realisation.146
Pope Benedict XV rendered even greater support to the Catholic celebration of the
centenary when he issued an encyclical upon the occasion in May 1921. This act of papal
blessing assured the participation of the Church and its faithful in the national event, and
was indicative of the diplomatic pontiff’s efforts to reconcile the Church with modern
times.147 In this address, the pope began by reminding the faithful that the Catholic
Church had ‘il diritto di chiamar suo l’Alighieri’, and announced that his purpose was to
‘dimostrare ancor meglio l’intima unione di Dante con questa Cattedra di Pietro, e come le
lodi, tributate a sì eccelso nome, per necessità ridondino per non piccola parte ad onore
della Chiesa Cattolica’.148 He stated that Dante had particular affinity with Catholics
because the medieval poet was inspired in his art by his Christian faith, and characterised
the Divina Commedia as a work which demonstrated ‘la maestà di Dio Uno e Trino, la
Redenzione del genere umano operata per il Verbo di Dio fatto uomo, la somma benignità
e liberalità di Maria Vergine e Madre Regina del cielo, e infine la suprema gloria dei santi,
degli angeli e degli uomini’.149 The pope thus suggested that by proffering homage to
Dante, Catholics were honouring their Church and its faith. Just as Dante was often cast
as a secular saint of the Italian nation state, so was the poet almost accorded the standing
of a Catholic saint on this occasion.
The pope also did not fail to address the issue which had formed the basis of so much of
both Catholic and secular intepretations of Dante since the early Risorgimento: Dante’s
opinion of the Church and of its role in political life. Benedict XV declared that Dante had
possessed great respect for the authority of the Church. The poet’s well known invectives
145
Il VI Centenario Dantesco, fasc. I, Jan-Feb 1914, 1.
146
Il VI Centenario Dantesco, fasc.VI , Nov-Dec 1914, 110; ‘Il S. Padre e la Chiesa di Dante in Ravenna’,
Osservatore Romano, 2-3 May 1921, 3.
147
Carlo Dionisotti, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, 573; David I. Kertzer, Unholy War: The Vatican’s role in the
rise of modern anti-semitism, New York, Macmillan, 2002, 240.
148
‘Diamo la traduzione italiana dell’Enciclica del S. Padre, sul Centenatio Dantesco’, Osservatore Romano,
5 May 1921, 1.
149
Ibid.
227
against the popes were simply informed by his belief that these particular ecclesiastical
figures had been allied to those who had exiled him from his patria. Thus the pope
dismissed the enduring interpretation of Dante’s thought which supported the separation of
Church and state and even anticlericalism, instead characterising Dante’s criticisms of
Church figures as politically motivated. The pope concluded by attributing to Dante the
power to convert his readers to Catholicism:
E di fatti sappiamo che alcuni, anche recentemente, lontani, ma non avversi

a Gesù Cristo, studiando con amore la Divina Commedia, per divina grazia,
prima cominciarono ad ammirare la verità della fede cattolica, e poi finirono
col gettarsi entusiasti tra le braccia della Chiesa.150
He also expressed his hope that the revelation of Dante as ‘il maestro della dottrina
cristiana’, which would be achieved by the Catholic celebration of 1921, would therefore
result in the correct reverence for Dante as above all a Catholic icon.151
The Catholic programme for the commemoration of Dante, centred in Ravenna, began on
6 September with the centenary celebration of San Rainaldo, an archbishop of Ravenna
and contemporary of Dante, and ended on 25 September with the regional convention of
Catholic youth.152 The Catholic festivities in Ravenna peaked on 14 September, and
followed a celebrative form similar to that of the municipal commemoration. They
culminated with a solemn procession to the tomb of Dante, and while the principal
ceremony of the state festivities was held in the piazza, the sacred space of the modern
nation state, the Catholic ceremony was naturally held in the recently restored Chiesa di
San Francesco. The principal speech for the Catholic commemoration was given by the
pope’s representative for the occasion, Cardinal La Fontaine, the patriarch of Venice. La
Fontaine’s oratory essentially reaffirmed the tenets expressed by the pope in his
encyclical, beginning with the declaration that Dante and his Divina Commedia were
fundamentally Christian. He refuted both Protestant and secular appropriations of Dante,
150
Ibid.
151
Ibid.
152
‘Le feste dantesche a Ravenna’, Osservatore Romano, 13 July 1921, 3.
228
with reference to his works, and clinched his argument with Carducci’s very useful maxim
that ‘Dante è veramente cristiano’.153 La Fontaine concluded his address with the
proclamation that the pope had chosen to be present in Ravenna for the occasion, via his
Venetian vicar, because ‘Dante è nostro, veramente, cattolicamente nostro’.154
These Catholic festivities also included the pilgrimage of thousands of tertiaries of the
Franciscan order to Ravenna, and a congress of the Unione Femminile Cattolica Italiana.
The latter event was significant as the first exhibition of a particularly female identification
with Dante. The members of the Catholic Union of Italian Women had come to Ravenna
from all over Italy in order celebrate Dante, and also to attend a conference on ‘La donna e
Dante’. Before participating in this scholarly event, the union publicly demonstrated its
reverence for Dante with first a mass, and then a procession of around 3000 women ‘di
ogni classe sociale’ to the tomb of Dante.155 This group, according to its president, the
Marchesa Patrizi, celebrated Dante particularly because the poet ‘portò la donna così in
alto da farne la messaggera della Sapienza e della misericordia Divina’.156 The union was
notable for its reportedly socially heterogeneous nature. The Osservatore Romano
account stated that ‘accanto al ceto più intellettuale, larghissime rappresentanze della
classe operaia, delle contadine, delle donne di ogni ceto e di ogni cultura hanno voluto
onorare nel Sommo Poeta il più Grande Cantore italiano e il più Grande Poeta
Cattolico’.157 Apparently class unity could be found in homage to Dante as a Catholic poet,
if not as a symbol of the secular nation state, which suggested that Catholicism was more
conducive to Italian unity than liberal nationalism in the fraught post-war period.
A subsequent talk given by the Contessa Prof. Elena Da Persico entitled ‘La Donna in
Dante’, indicated how Dante was put to yet another use, as a guide to being a good,
153
‘La commemorazione di Dante in Italia e all’estero: Dante commemorato a Ravenna’, Osservatore
Romano, 16 sept 1921, 1.
154
Ibid.
155
‘La commemorazione dantesca dell’unione femminile cattolica italiana’, Osservatore Romano, 9 Sept
1921, 3.
156
Ibid.
157
Ibid.
229
patriotic, Christian woman. The ‘ideale femminile dantesco’, represented by Beatrice and
other women in the Commedia, was ‘ricca di pudore, di castità, di virtù domestiche e
cittadine, illuminata e vivificata da un intelletto d’amore che è in essa il sommo pregio’. 158
This demonstration by Catholic women in Ravenna was held to represent ‘la fiamma di
fede, il patriottismo, delle donne cattoliche italiane e il loro proposito di rinnovare l’Italia
diletta facendo in essa rifiorire quelle virtù di cui Dante chiamò la donna a custode ed
ispiratrice’.159 Despite the fact that Catholic women were being encouraged to conform to
an essentially medieval ideal of womanhood, it would seem that Catholicism was more
successful in mobilising a broader social array of its followers, including women, using its
own version of the myth of Dante.
Just as the Catholic organisation for 1921 was extensive, so too was the coverage of the
occasion by the Osservatore Romano. For months before the state and Catholic festivities
took place in September, the pages of the Vatican daily were frequently marked by reports
on the commemoration of the poet, and by studies of his importance from a Catholic
perspective. Its coverage of the celebration of Dante abroad was particularly
comprehensive, in reflection of the universal scope of the Church’s interest.
The central and constant aspect of the Catholic image of Dante expressed during the
festivities in Ravenna, and in the Catholic press and publications, was that Dante was ‘un
vero e formidabile campione del Cattolicesimo’.160 And in contrast to Liberal secular
interpretations of Dante, which held his great poem to be a prophecy of, and guide for, the
Italian nation state, Catholic scholars maintained the line that ‘Tutto quello che è nella
Divina Commedia … si riferisce a Gesù Cristo e alla Chiesa’.161 In a lengthy series of
articles published in the Osservatore Romano in 1921, which dealt with various facets of
Dante’s thought, priest and professor Giuseppe Bazzarin devoted himself to defining a
Catholic Dante. Bazzarin, in keeping with other Catholic interpretations of Dante purveyed
158
Ibid.
159
Ibid.
160
Giuseppe Bazzarin, ‘L’ortodossia dantesca e la critica moderna’, Osservatore Romano, 21 July 1921, 2.
161
‘Il centro del divina poema’, Osservatore Romano, 11 June 1921, 2.
230
in 1921, gave considerable attention to combatting the image of an anticlerical Dante long
championed by the Liberal establishment. In response to the oft repreated idea that Dante
had been an enemy of the Church, he declared that ‘uno dei sentimenti che Dante
manifesta più chiaramente nella sua maggiore opera e altrove è appunto la riverenza alle
somme chiavi, cioè all’autorità pontifica; verso la quale egli professa apertamente il più
sincero e profondo ossequio’.162
In another of his articles, Bazzarin voiced his objection to the fact that many
contemporary dantisti, like Del Lungo, still accepted Foscolo’s seminal interpretation of
Dante’s thought regarding the Church as indisputable.163 Bazzarin firmly refuted Foscolo’s
exegesis of Dante’s Commedia, which had portrayed Dante as anything but an orthodox
Christian who had been charged with the divine mission of the reform of the Catholic
Church. He concluded that this interpretation, which had stretched Dante’s verse into
absurd meanings, would have been considered to be ‘una povera filza di corbellerie’ if it
had not come from the noble mind of Foscolo.164
The authors of Civiltà Cattolica, in their review of the centenary celebrations for Dante,
also defended the Catholic version of Dante as the only true interpretation of the poet, and
the Catholic festivities in honour of him as the most worthy demonstration of reverence
and patriotism. They claimed that the centenary of Dante was essentially a Catholic
festivity, in the religious and universal sense, because
Solo un più profondo sentimento, che non sia l’ammirazione letteraria,

l’orgoglio nazionale o simile, un sentimento che venera nell’Alighieri, più
che un poeta nazionale, un maestro universale di verità sublimi, di dottrine
soprannaturali cristiane, quindi un educatore di popoli, potè dare tanta
solennità e universalità alla glorificazione di lui.165
162
Giuseppe Bazzarin, ‘L’ortodossia dantesca e la critica moderna: Dante e la chiesa cattolica’, Osservaotre
Romano, 23 July 1921, 2.
163
Giuseppe Bazzarin, ‘L’ortodossia dantesca e la critica moderna: Dante riformatore del cattolicesimo’,
Osservatore Romano, 26 Aug 1921, 2.
164
Ibid.
165
‘Le feste centenarie di Dante e le gazzarre dei sovversivi in Italia’, Civlità Cattolica, vol 4, 1921, 4.
231
The Civiltà Cattolica also did not fail to criticise the rival appropriations of Dante
evidenced by the occasion. Their review of the celebration castigated the ‘masonic’
Liberal elite because ‘pretesero cacciarsi in prima fila, si pompeggiarono nei cortei, e quasi
si arrogarono di attribuire a sè i primi onori, cercando di sviare il significato dei
festeggiamenti stessi e sfruttare il nome di Dante agli intenti irreligiosi, sovversivi o
corruttori della loro insana propaganda’.166 The Civiltà Cattolica was particularly disdainful
of the celebration in Rome, which had united the remembrance of Dante to ‘la solita
gazzarra dei venti settembre’, given that it had been a celebration of the end to the
Church’s temporal power in the name of Dante.167 In Rome the Liberals had been guilty of
altering the thought of Dante, of misunderstanding its profoundly Cnristian and Catholic
spirit, and of representing it ‘anche in alcuni discorsi quasi avverso al pensiero e al
governo della Chiesa’.168
The subversive socialists also came under attack, and in particular the commentary
published in Avanti! for its misuse of Dante in ‘parodie e profanazioni stravolte ai loro fini di
corruzione’.169 But its excoriation of Fascist participation in the centenary celebration was
the most notable for its force in comparison with the vague and minimal commentary of
Fascist activity offered by the Liberal press. The Civiltà Cattolica expressed its abhorrence
that the Fascists had dared ‘rivendicare a sè le feste di Dante e farle servire ai loro biechi
interessi di setta o di partito, volgendo la glorificazione stessa del Poeta cristiano a
pretesto di persecuzione della fede e della morale cristiana’.170 The ‘gazzarre’ caused by
Fascists, particularly in Ravenna, upset the spirit and meaning of the occasion. The Civiltà
Cattolica characterised the Fascist squads and their financial backers as ‘quei malfattori
della piazza e sicarii della finanza, che fingono di opporsi e contrastare il campo ai
166
Ibid., 5.
167
Ibid., 7.
168
Ibid.
169
Ibid., 5.
170
Ibid., 7.
232
socialisti e comunisti’.171 The Fascists, like the other products of the materialist and atheist
education of modern schools and ‘civilisation’, the socialists and communists, had nothing
in common with Dante.172 While the Civiltà Cattolica was clear in its disgust for the way
the Fascists disrupted the solemn occasion with the violence of their campaign against
left-wing groups, it declared that ‘Le loro gazzarre toccarono poi il colmo dell’odiosità
quando si rivolsero contro i cattolici, i quali avevano avuto la parte maggiore specialmente
a Ravenna’.173
The Catholic image of Dante had always been a rival to that of the Liberal order first
developed during the Risorgimento. However, by 1921, Catholic scholars had embraced
the poet as a national symbol, just as Catholics had recently embraced the Italian nation, if
not the liberal and secular version of it propagated by the Liberal state. The constant
attention to Dante’s faith and beliefs about the Church demonstrated that the issue of the
role of the Church in Italian society and its relationship with the state was still very
important for Catholic scholars. By the time of this centenary celebration, the belief that
Dante had desired the separation of Church and state was generally accepted by Liberal
scholars, and no longer cause for polemical analysis. Catholics, however, still hoped for a
change in the role of the Church in Italian political and social life, as well as for the
incorporation of its faith in the definition of Italian identity, and strove to utilise Dante in
their cause. The explication of Dante’s thoughts on the Church and Christianity aimed to
demonstrate that Dante was both Italian and Catholic. It was part of a broader attempt to
show that the two characteristics were no longer inimicable. In the Giolittian era, Catholic
scholars such as Bazzarin strove to demonstrate that the Church and Catholicism had left
an indelible mark on the formation of Italian national identity, and that they had been for
centuries the foremost expression of Italian greatness.174 Dante was well suited to
promoting the idea that the Catholic faith was an essential component of patriotism and
171
Ibid., 5.
172
Ibid., 6.
173
Ibid., 6-7.
174
233
one of the foundations of Italian national identity. Thus Catholic scholars laboured to
construct their own myth of Dante as a symbol of the Italian nation, which established that
his genius and his patriotism had sprung from his Catholic faith, and that he had been
obedient to the authority of the Church. Given that Dante was entrenched as a symbol of
the Italian nation by 1921, this Catholic identification with the medieval poet aimed to
legitimise Catholicism as part of Italian national identity. The strong Catholic participation
in the 1921 centenary was an indication that the Catholic Church and its faithful sought to
make a vital contribution to the national cult of Dante, and thus to the life of the Italian
nation.
***
The planned participation of socialist groups in the centenary celebration of Dante’s
death, although thwarted by Fascist aggression in Ravenna, indicated the great
significance Dante had assumed in the public life of the Italian nation state. Despite their
dedication to internationalism and future proletarian revolution, some socialists did clearly
feel a need to show their reverence for Dante on the national occasion of 1921. While in
1912 the PSI had definitively abandoned a reformist path which could have led to
conciliation between socialism and the idea of the Italian nation, some socialists
maintained an attachment to patriotic sentiment, based on a conceptual differentiation
between the idea of patria and the idea of the nation.175 It was perhaps this vestigial sense
of patriotism which encouraged some members of socialist and other left-wing groups to
contemplate attendance at the festivities in Ravenna and Florence.
Such sentiment was clearly evidenced in the commentary of socialist intellectuals in the
pages of Avanti!, the official mouthpiece of the PSI. Although the majority of PSI members
were manual workers, both urban and rural, the party’s leadership was dominated by
175
Ibid., 77, 135.
234
middle class intellectuals who were rather different from the people they claimed to
represent.176 The ideas these professional socialists purveyed in Avanti! about Dante and
the centenary were thus not representative of all adherents to Italian socialism.
Nevertheless, they reveal something about the relationship between the socialist cause
and the myth of Dante.
In an article about the significance of the centenary, one commentator began with the
characterisation of Dante as ‘il poeta di nostra gente, il simbolo alto ed umano dell’unità
della stirpe’.177 This affirmation of Dante’s image as the revered symbol of the Italian
nation was an indication that this author, to some extent, had embraced the Liberal
national myth of which Dante was an important part. There is little in this treatment of
Dante to differentiate it from that purveyed by Liberal observers, or even by right-wing
nationalist commentators. This fact was further evidenced by this author’s subsequent
repetition of a familiar theme, that the contemporary state of political and social division in
Italy was a betrayal of the poet, and that a divided Italy was not worthy of honouring Dante.
Clearly in the opinion of this author, Dante was a representative of the Italian nation, and
Dante, like the nation, was not well served by the Liberal order.
Another critic conversely rather enthusiastically asserted that all Italians were united in
honouring Dante:
Dante ritorna – “l’ombra sua torna ch’era dipartita” – per compiere il

miracolo; per mostrare al mondo il popolo italiano senza distinzione di
regioni o di partiti, di fede o di stato, unanime nell’esaltarsi dell’opera e della
figura del suo sublime poeta.178
Such rhetoric again exhibited that the national cult of Dante, which permeated Liberal
culture, had indeed been effective among middle class intellectuals, whatever their political
persuasion.
176
177
Italo Toscano, ‘Il centenario dantesco’, Avanti!, 21 June 1921, 3.
178
QUIDAM, ‘Italia inginocchiata’, Avanti!, 14 Sept 1921, 3.
235
For the most part, the socialist movement did not concern itself with elaborating its own
national myth, as did the Catholics, the other force challenging Liberal hegemony.179 It
generally confined itself to condemning the Liberal national myth as nothing other than the
mask of the bourgeois dictatorship.180 And indeed, after 1917, the new internationalist
myth of the Bolshevik revolution made such a task unnecessary, and this invention
became the most powerful rival to the national myth.181 One reporter did, however,
attempt to explicate an ideal affinity between Dante and the socialist cause. This author
began his piece by noting that Marx had concluded his preface to the first volume of Das
Capital with a line from Dante: ‘Sequi il tuo corso e lascia dir le genti’.182 After displaying
his erudition with a correction of Marx’s misquotation (‘vien dietro a me, e lascia dir le
genti’), this critic contemplated the significance Dante held for Marx, who ‘alla pace e
fratellanza universale consacrò tutta la sua vita … doveva sentirsi attratto verso la
personalità di Dante’.183 He also gave a fervently rhetorical explanation of a socialist
identification with Dante based on a common desire for universal peace and brotherhood:
ci inchiniamo, ci raccogliamo anche noi oggi e sempre … intorno al nome

di Dante: noi che, come lui … vogliamo la fratellanza umana e lottiamo
contro le prepotenze e ingiustizie sociali, noi che lottiamo perchè anche alle
classi lavoratrici venga dischiuso il bello, di cui Dante è appunto
dispensatore inesauribile, noi che combattiamo perchè trionfino quei diritti
del popolo, che anche Dante aveva – per quanto comportavano i suoi tempi
– riconosciuti, e il riconoscimento fu tra le cause del suo esilio, della sua
miseria, della fame da lui sofferta.184
Here was yet another interpretation of the significance of Dante’s political life. In the
national myth of Dante purveyed by the Liberal elite, Dante’s exile represented the longing
for a denied Italian nationhood. In a socialist recasting of Dante’s history, the poet’s exile
was an emblem of the struggle for the rights of the working class and for universal
equality.
179
180
Ibid.
181
Ibid., 144.
182
‘genosse’, ‘Dante Alighieri’, Avanti!, 14 Sept 1921, 3.
183
Ibid.
184
Ibid.
236
This treatise on a socialist Dante was concluded with a rather zany comparison between
the medieval commune and Florence’s guilds, and the modern institutions of Soviet
Russia, in an attempt to paint Dante as a prophet of the Bolshevik Revolution. It also
aimed to bolster the identification between Dante and, in the words of the author, ‘noi
lavoratori’. The author made a point of noting that, although Dante was of noble birth, ‘Nel
suo alto senso di giustizia sociale si sentiva attratto verso il popolo. Odiava i prepotenti.
Odiava i “pescecani” d’allora’.185 The author perhaps made a stronger case for the affinity
between educated middle class socialist leaders and Dante, rather than for any similarity
between the poet and workers.
The journalists of Avanti! devoted, however, many more lines to using Dante and the
national celebrations in his honour as a pretext for criticising the Liberal order and Fascist
ascendancy. These authors criticised the Liberal and Fascist appropriation of Dante, and
the way the Fascists, above all, employed the poet as a weapon against the socialists.
In his aforementioned article, ‘Italo Toscano’ was incisive in his passionately eloquent
appraisal of Fascist participation in the commemoration of Dante. He castigated the
collusion between the Liberal establishment and the Fascists: ‘I Comitati, i Municipii, gli
uomini di strada e di governo hanno bandito e bandiscono infatti le loro adunanze con
indubbio significato partigiano’.186 This assertion also certainly applied to the relationship
between the Fascists and the establishment in the broader context of Italian society, and
was a reference to the implicit support of Liberal authorities for Fascist violence against
organised labour. The author averred that these enemies of ‘the people’ were not
celebrating a Dante ‘puro italiano’, but
Dante nazionalista e fascista. Dante nemico e lontano dal popolo, egli che
dal popolo ha tratto la nostra favella per lanciarla nell’eternità del tempo e
dello spazio come un gran raggio di giustizia, italiano nel senso settario e
cattivo che oggi questa parola vuol significare per noi o contro di noi. Dante
insomma che saluta anche lui con la sua inconscia e formidabile simpatia la
bomba o il pugnale o la bandiera tricolore del fascista. Dante che serva
185
ibid.
186
Italo Toscano, ‘Il centenario dantesco’, Avanti!, 21 June 1921, 3.
237
come una pietra di più o come un rimorso di meno per ischiacciare sotto i
piedi di tutti i borsaioli d’Italia questa ingrata genia socialista.187
An important aspect of this invective was how it revealed one of the bases of the socialist
image of the poet with its insistence that Dante was a ‘man of the people’, because he had
championed the vulgar tongue, the language of ‘the people’, as the foundation of the
Italian language. The author concluded that the Fascists and their capitalist supporters
had nothing in common with Dante, and were not worthy of him: and due to their spiritual
ignorance they could not imagine ‘il brivido di sdegno e di corruccio che scuoterebbe la
fronte e il pensiero dell’esule se potesse vederli e conoscerli’.188 This was a recurring idea
in the utilisation by all challengers to hegemony over the myth of Dante, that other groups
did not have the spiritual fortitude to really honour Dante, and by implication, the Italian
nation.
Another commentator writing in Avanti!, the philosopher and at that time a PSI deputy,
Adelchi Baratono, similarly employed the common theme of Dante’s exile to express his
criticism of Italy and its dominant regime. According to Baratono, Dante was still in exile.
Dante’s state of exile was here a potent rhetorical means for expressing discontent with
the political order of Italy:
Dante è straniero all’Italia d’oggi, che l’ha abbandonato ai saccenti eruditi

per dedicarsi ai subiti guadagni. […] l’età del ferro inesorabile non assisterà,
oggi, al ritorno di Dante dall’esilio… Soltanto la libertà del lavoro e la gioia
di creare, la fraternità dei viventi e la comprensione vicendevole e continua
che essa ci porrà dare, l’aspirazione ad ascendere infinitamente ed il
bisogno di superarsi, e , insomma, una unità sociale più profonda e quindi
più religiosa, restituiranno Dante all’Italia.189
It is easy to see that this author was metaphorically speaking of socialist workers, in exile
from the ideal social order in which they would live in equality. Dante would only return
from exile when Italy had embraced socialist values. Evidently this theme of exile was
multi-faceted, used to express affinity between socialists and Dante, and employed to
187
Ibid.
188
Ibid.
189
Adelchi Baratono, ‘L’esilio di Dante’, Avanti!, 14 Sept 1921, 3.
238
indicate the Liberal state’s disorder and failure to represent the entire Italian nation. It was
also a popular argument, seized by all parties, as D’Annunzio’s utilisation of the image of
Dante in exile had exemplified, to manifest their positions.
It was obvious that these socialist intellectuals rejected the nationalist culture that was
propagated by the state, and the even more extreme values and behaviour of the Fascists.
The reports on 1921 in Avanti! indicated, however, that some socialist intellectuals
accepted the myth of Dante. They revered the poet as the true, pure soul of Italy, of which
they claimed to be the best advocates. Above all, what this utilisation of Dante by
socialists indicated was how powerful the national cult of Dante had become. Dante as a
symbol of Italy was so entrenched that it was easy for socialists to use him to promote
their own cause, and to win the allegiance of a greater number of Italians. In their
depiction of Dante as a socialist hero, these authors painted the poet as a champion of
class solidarity, social equality, as a ‘man of the people’ and supporter of international
revolution. At the same time, they still maintained, as a fundamental aspect of his image,
his symbolism of Italy and of the true nature of Italian identity. Finally, the commentary in
Avanti!, like that of Civiltà Cattolica, also intimated that the Fascists were perhaps ahead in
the contest for Dante and the Italian nation, given that the socialist authors, and those of
Civiltà Cattolica, devoted so much passionate rhetoric to deploring what Dante was made
to represent by his association with the Fascist cause.
239
Figure 12. Front page illustration, Avanti!, 2 October 1921.
Figure 13. Front page illustration, Avanti!, 3 August 1921.
240
***
The participation of Fascist squads in the celebration of Dante was primarily
characterised by violence against other political groups as they attempted to honour the
centenary. Given this behaviour, and the consistent and visible Fascist involvement in the
commemorative rituals in honour of Dante, it was clear that Fascists were determined to
make their presence felt during the centenary celebrations, and to display the ardour of
their devotion to Dante as a national symbol. Their attacks upon republican and Catholic
groups in Florence, and upon socialist organisations in Ravenna, also indicated their
challenge to the legitimacy of the efforts of these groups to exhibit their affinity with Dante,
and thus with the Italian nation. The 1921 centenary was witness to the fact that, although
Fascism at this stage did not have a clear political programme, it was founded upon a
commitment to the absolute primacy of the Italian nation.190
The apotheosis of Fascist homage to Dante was the ‘March on Ravenna’. More than 3
000 squadristi from Bologna and Ferrara marched for 3 days to Ravenna, entering the city
on 12 September to the strains of Giovinezza.191 After their attacks on the city’s left-wing
groups, the squadristi, who paraded through the city in military formation, gathered in front
of the tomb of Dante ‘per una manifestazione di italianità e per l’inaugurazione del
gagliardetto del fascio di Ravenna’.192 This ceremony was held before ‘una folla
acclamante’, according to the reports of the Popolo d’Italia, and until late that night ‘la città
fu piena di canti fascisti’.193 This march on Ravenna was led by Italo Balbo, ex-ardito and
ras of Ferrara, who was by 1921 one of the most significant Fascist squad leaders, and by
Dino Grandi, ex-alpino and ras of Bologna.194 While the national celebration of Dante
190
191
‘Grandiosa marcia fascista a Ravenna in onore di Dante’, Popolo d’Italia, 13 Sept 1921, 6.
192
Ibid.
193
Ibid.
194
241
afforded an opportunity for the exhibition of Fascist strength and nationalism, the homage
to Dante was also a pretext for the crushing of left-wing organisations in Ravenna. When
in the later months of 1920 capitalist landowners mostly of the Po valley had realised that
the Giolittian government was not going to act on their behalf in the ongoing confrontation
with socialist unions, they had looked to Fascist squads for assistance.195 The Fascist
campaign against organised labour saw rapid success, and by May 1921, Fascist squads,
composed largely of former soldiers and students, controlled most of Venezia-Giulia, the
Po valley, Tuscany, Umbria and Puglia.196 By early 1921 Balbo’s ruthless squadristi had
destroyed the power of socialists in Ferrara and Bologna, and in the summer began to
extend their campaign to Venice and Ravenna.197 The Fascist display of patriotism before
the tomb of Dante on the occasion of his centenary can thus also be read as a celebration
of their victory over ‘unpatriotic’ socialists in the region.198
The Fascist ‘March on Ravenna’ also foreshadowed the ‘March on Rome’, which would
take place just over a year later, during which Mussolini and his Fascists assumed control
of the government of Italy. The power of agrarian Fascism, which was on triumphant
display in Ravenna, and also in Florence and Rome, was the launching pad for the Fascist
movement, and had a fundamental role in propelling Mussolini to power.199 The
ascendancy of Fascists was such that Giolitti invited them to run in the elections of April
1921, where they returned 35 deputies, and achieved legitimacy as a political
alternative.200 The month after the national celebration of Dante in September 1921, the
Fascist movement was formally established as a political party. It could be argued that
these Fascists, in their march to honour Dante, were symbolically marching upon the
Italian nation.
195
196
197
Ibid., 151.
198
Ibid.
199
200
242
The image of Dante exhibited in the pages of the Fascist organ Popolo d’Italia, a daily
which had been established in 1914 by Mussolini pledged to supporting war and
revolution, essentially conformed to that which had already been established under the
Liberal regime.201 Accordingly, the following statement was exemplary of the Fascist
appraisal of Dante: ‘Dante è l’Italia: ricordar Dante al popolo significa, oltre tutto, ricordargli
l’Italia’.202 The reports about Dante and his commemoration in this newspaper, which had
become the mouthpiece of all discontented extreme interventionists, also revealed some
of the tenets of the Fascist movement which was in the process of defining itself and
consolidating its power.203
One commentator in Popolo d’Italia welcomed the celebration of Dante as an occasion
for promoting Fascist values. This journalist suggested that, given that Dante was ‘il genio
più aguzzo e più asciutto della … razza’, he should be used to encourage the purification
of Italy, which was ‘impregnata di stranierismo’.204 Dante was thus employed to bolster
Fascist objectives, as proclaimed by Mussolini, who, at this stage, was not yet the
definitive leader of the movement:
Mussolini additava al Fascismo molti obbiettivi superbi al di sopra e al di

fuori della guerra antisocialista. Il più bello e forse il più difficile a
raggiungersi: il senso della propria grandezza.
Senza vanaglorie, senza burbanze, senza tracotanze, ma la sicurezza di
ciò che fummo e di ciò che siamo.
Dante, questo poeta venerato dal mondo, non potrebbe nella solenne
occasione del sesto centenario dare il segno per una nuova travolgente
cacciata dei barbari?205
Thus Dante was cast as a representative of an ‘ethnic’ definition of italianità, and was a
pretext for promoting a Fascist agenda of xenophobic nationalism. This passage clearly
indicated that the Fascist movement had embraced the twentieth century right-wing
201
202
‘Una cattedra popolare dantesca’, Popolo d’Italia, 13 Jan 1921, 2.
203
204
Settimelli, ‘Spunti danteschi’, Popolo d’Italia, 13 July 1921, 3.
205
Ibid.
243
nationalist concept of ethnic chauvinism which held a national community to be a
distinctive ‘race’.206
The same commentator also defended a Fascist affinity with Dante against socialist
pretensions to honour the poet. He declared that socialists ‘non dovrebbero neppure aprir
bocca su Dante’, because ‘Dante fu cattolico e monarchico. Dante fu un individuo…
Dante… ha dimostrato che se si può arrivare ad una internazionale l’unica strada è
l’affermazione di razza’.207 Accordingly he rejected any possible identification between the
poet and socialists, who were in fact ‘nemici di Dante nati sei secoli dopo di lui’.208
Capitalists were also pronounced enemies of Dante, and were guilty of hypocrisy in their
reverence for Dante:
Simpaticissimi banchottatori, emeriti chiosatori, insigni commentatori,

scalmanati laudatori, la sapete una cosa? Dante Alighieri non aveva il
becco di un quattrino. Ditemei ora un po’ voi. La società moderna è tenera
per i poveri? L’ingegno è forse incoraggiato, confortato, aiutato o deve
conquistare tutto a furia di sacrifici e di sforzi immani?209
He noted that although the big bankers and the wealthy of contemporary Italy would not
have helped Dante in his poverty and patronised his genius, they still participated in his
commemoration. According to this Fascist journalist, it was only the young people of Italy
who were worthy of honouring Dante; they were young like Dante had been when he wrote
his Commedia. Not surprisingly the author identified himself as part of the vital ‘youth of
Italy’, and expounded an ideal of ‘youth’ which was characterised by poverty and artistic
sensibility:
Perchè siamo poveri e siamo pronti per la genialità e l’individuo a dare

anche quel poco che abbiamo, perchè amiamo la poesia, perchè siamo tutti
più o meno un poco artisti, perchè valutiamo la vita nel modo che ci
consente di apprezzare le virtù dantesche?210
206
207
Settimelli, ‘Dante, vivendo oggi…’, Popolo d’Italia, 20 Oct 1921, 3.
208
Ibid.
209
Ibid.
210
Ibid.
244
This commentary, while not overly convincing in its attempt to construct an identification
between young, Fascist Italians and Dante, was significant in its expression of one of the
emerging tenets of Fascist ideology: its glorification of youth.
Fascist participation in, and commentary upon, the celebration of Dante, revealed their
determination to appear to be the best interpreters of one of Italy’s most sacred national
symbols, and to be the greatest defenders of the Italian nation. Dante was held to
represent the rapidly rising Fascist vision of the Italian nation, which was at the time still
not definitive, but clearly militarist and violent, anti-socialist, devoted to the vigour of Italian
youth, and founded upon a racial definition of italianità.
The sixth centenary of Dante’s death in 1921 was welcomed by the ruling elite and
nationalists as an occasion to celebrate Italy’s victory in war and the fulfilment of irredentist
claims, and its progress as a modern nation state. The medieval poet was honoured as a
prophet, and even patron saint, of these achievements. The anniversary can also be read
as the site of a contest in which the political forces vying for hegemony in Italy attempted
to turn the national cult of Dante to their advantage. It revealed that the myth of Dante was
malleable; his thought could be variously interpreted to support an ideal of Italy’s return to
imperial glory, to prophesy a socialist vision of a universal fraternity of workers, or to
elaborate a Catholic conception of Italian national identity. Dante was indeed a ‘realm of
memory’ where political and cultural battles were waged. Ostensibly, the matter at stake
was who was the most faithful interpreter of Dante’s true spirit. The real issue being
disputed, however, was which ideology, Catholic, Liberal, Fascist, or Socialist, offered the
most resonant version of Italian national identity, or the best vision of political organisation.
These contesting forces, despite themselves, had much in common in their utilisation of
Dante, in particular when each alleged that they were the only group to have the spiritual
fortitude to truly understand and revere Dante. Yet the 1921 centenary of Dante’s death
was ultimately significant for its intimation of what was to come. The occasion revealed
245
the growing militant, violent and overbearing presence of Fascism in Italian society, which
would soon be translated into dominance of the political life of the Italian nation. The
shadow of influence Fascists cast over the celebrations in Ravenna, Florence and Rome,
indicated the role they were soon to appropriate as the most authentic keepers of the
Italian national tradition. The occasion suggested that under a regime which would seek to
impose a definition of italianità by which italianità meant Fascism, Dante, as a potent
symbol of italianità, would be readily employed to support the Fascist vision of the Italian
nation.
246
6
The Fascist Dante
Dante il profeta della Patria, l’anticipatore del Fascismo.

Se Dante fosse ancora tra i viventi Egli avrebbe preso il suo posto all’ombra
dei gloriosi gagliardetti del Littorio. Dante, ripeto, è squisitamente fascista.
La rinascita politica e morale voluta dal Duce è quella desiderata da Dante.1
As this rather blatant propagandistic assertion indicates, the myth of Dante was readily
put to use in the legitimisation of the Fascist state. For those seeking to promote the
Fascist regime, the entrenched image of Dante as the embodiment of the Italian nation
lent itself to their cause. There was often little to distinguish the rhetorical employment of
Dante and his thought by Fascist supporters from the utilisation of the poet in nationalist
discourse of the Liberal period. Evidence can be found, however, of a representation of
Dante as a symbol of the Italian nation in its Fascist evolution, with some commentaries,
such as the one above, suggesting that it was only with the advent of Fascism that Dante’s
vision of Italian nationhood had been fulfilled. Also not original was the employment of the
poet’s ideas of empire to support calls for Italy’s imperial expansion and claims it was
destined for greatness. Yet the extreme nature of this appropriation of Dante by
propagandists of a Fascist empire was novel, since it cast the poet’s medieval dreams as
a justification of the regime’s belligerent expansionism.
With the Fascist seizure of power in 1922, Italy was subjected by its new regime to a
more intensive period of nation building. The Fascist regime ostensibly made a greater
effort to ‘make Italians’, and presented itself as dedicated to fufilling the promise of the
Risorgimento, which, it claimed, the Liberal regime had failed to realise.2 From its birth,
the Fascist movement had promoted itself as having a monopoly on patriotism, and styled
1
Domenico Venturini, Dante Alighieri e Benito Mussolini, Rome, Casa editrice ‘Nuova Italia’, 1940, 315.
2
N. Doumanis, Italy, London, Arnold, 2001,135, 150.
247
itself as the greatest defender of the Italian nation.3 At the time of its conquest of power,
the movement presented itself as the genuine avantgarde of a new Italy born from the
Great War, which was charged with the mission to guide the Italian nation to even greater
triumphs and to restore the sovereignty of the state.4 In the early years of Mussolini’s
premiership of Italy, Fascism was thus held to be the true interpreter of the will of the
Italian nation.5
Yet, just as Mussolini’s role in government altered, so did claims about Fascism’s
relationship to the concept of the Italian nation. By the end of 1926, the Fascist
government had become the Fascist regime, and many aspects of Italy’s albeit limited
liberal democracy were abandoned. All organisations which had been opposed to
Fascism were eliminated, elections were suspended, and the new authoritarian regime
established an extensive system of state control and repression, and promoted above all
conformity and social integration.6 Despite claims of a Fascist revolution, it can be argued
that Italy was not completely ‘fascistised’, given that most of its old institutions survived the
ventennio.7 The regime’s greatest assertion of its revolutionary intent was that it would
affect every facet of the lives of ordinary Italians. At least in the discourse of its exponents,
Fascism thus came to mean the totalitarian state, which could be summed up in
Mussolini’s well known aphorism ‘everything in state, nothing against it, nothing outside it’.8
Accordingly, even the idea of the nation was subordinated to the state. Fascism no longer
portrayed itself as the interpreter of the Italian nation, but as its creator. The Fascist
3
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia: Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, Milan,
Mondadori, 1997, 151.
4
Ibid., 153, 159.
5
Ibid., 165.
6
D. Thompson, State Control in Fascist Italy: Culture and conformity, 1922-43, Manchester-New York,
Manchester UP, 1991, 12, 22.
7
Martin Clark, Modern Italy1871-1995, London-New York, Longman, 1997, 239.
8
R. J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini
and Fascism, London, Arnold, 1998, 9.
248
totalitarian state proclaimed its mission to be the construction of a nation of ‘new Italians’,
the ‘Fascist nation’.9
Thus Mussolini’s dictatorship, purportedly based on a Fascist revolutionary ideology,
proclaimed that Fascism would transform politics, the economy, culture and society, and
as a consequence, Italians would be moulded into new men and women.10 Mussolini’s
motto for new, Fascist, Italians was ‘Believe, obey, fight’, and this rather vague expression
of Fascist policy reflected that the identity of Fascism and its state was above all a verbal
creation. Fascist ideology was centred upon a few concepts which related to how Italians
should live the life of a good Fascist, and these tenets were frequently repeated in the
regime’s propaganda, and distributed through all media.11 Some scholars have argued
that Fascist doctrine was not a purely theoretical construction, but rather that it was
elaborated day by day according to varying domestic and international influences.12 The
apparent contradictions of Fascism have also been identified as the result of the necessity
of reconciling the interests of various social groups which had given their support to
regime.13 The many facets of the constructed image of Mussolini ‘il Duce’, for example,
made possible different readings of the position of the dictator and of the role of Fascism.14
This malleability of Fascist doctrine was essential to the maintenance of a delicate balance
of power, and to forging a consensus for Mussolini’s dictatorship.15 Indeed the proposition
that in Fascist Italy everything that mattered lay in words, is a fitting analysis of Mussolini’s
propaganda state.16 A study of Dante’s role in Fascist culture exemplifies this rhetorical
9
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia: Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, 173.
10
R. J. B. Bosworth, ‘Dictators, Strong or Weak? The Model of Benito Mussolini’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.),
The Oxford Handbook of Fascism, Oxford, OUP, 2009, 263.
11
Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy, Ithaca-London, Cornell
University Press, 1997, 56.
12
Bruno P. F. Wanrooij, ‘Italian Society under Fascism’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy,
Oxford, OUP, 2002, 194.
13
Ibid.
14
Ibid., 194-195.
15
Ibid.
16
R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy, London, Allen Lane, 2005, 6.
249
nature of Fascist national identity, and affords an understanding of what the concept of the
Italian nation came to signify in Mussolini’s Italy.
Under the Fascist regime, Dante continued to be cast as one of the earliest and greatest
figures to recognise and promote Italian unity. Mussolini’s occasional employment of
Dante as a rhetorical reference in his speeches, spoke to this already established role of
Dante in the conception of Italian identity that had been purveyed by Italian ruling elites for
many decades. In a speech of 1921, the future dictator of Italy, who claimed he read
Dante everyday,17 declared
noi fascisti faremo in modo che tutti gli italiani abbiano l’orgoglio di
appartenere alla razza che ha dato Dante Alighieri, che ha dato Galilei, che
ha dato gli artisti sommi di tutti i capolavori dell’arte, che ha dato Verdi, che
ha dato Mazzini, che ha dato Garibaldi, che ha dato D’Annunzio e che ha
dato il popolo di Vittorio Veneto.18
Mussolini appealed to Dante as a member of the pantheon of Italian heroes, and most
significant perhaps was the association he made between Dante and the valiant soldiers
who had helped Italy to victory in the Great War, given that the Fascist mythology of the
war experience was one of its most alluring features in the early years of the movement.
This flattering connection made between great figures of Italian history and Italian soldiers
was supported by Mussolini’s reference to the Italian ‘race’, a term common to nationalist
rhetoric of the time, and which was usually interchangeable with the term ‘nation’. It
suggested a blood tie between great Italians, such as Dante, and Italians of the generation
of the Great War, and intimated that Italian soldiers were heroes who had contributed as
much to the greater glory of Italy as its cultural icons.
In a 1924 interview with the Chicago Daily News Mussolini again employed the poet in
his rhetoric. After proclaiming that ‘Il fascismo è il massimo esperimento della nostra
storia nel fare gli italiani’, Mussolini mused that

17
18
Benito Mussolini, ‘Al Popolo di Ferrara (Discorso pronunciato a Ferrara, al Prato della Marfisa, il 4 aprile
1921)’, in Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini, eds. E. & D. Susmel, Florence, 1972, vol. XVI, 248.
250
La vita italiana ha presentato per secoli il fenomeno curioso di un
disquilibrio fra l’altezza, la finezza e l’energia della nostra civiltà e
l’insufficienza della nostra educazione civile.
Questo problema … fu notato dal più puro e più grande spirito dell’Italia
moderna, da Dante Alighieri, nel momento in cui si chiudeva il Medioevo.19
While this mention of Dante was perhaps mere window dressing and not seriously
considered, it did link the poet to the Fascist cause. It elevated Dante as a glorious
antecedent to the Fascist endeavour to ‘make Italians’, suggesting the legitimacy of the
regime as a continuation of the great national history of Italy.
The anthems composed to represent the Fascist movement in its infancy also attest to
this utilisation of the well established image of Dante as a symbol of the Italian nation. The
inclusion of Dante in the songs was a means of indicating the patriotism of the Fascists,
and their exaltation of Dante was a way to exhibit their fervent commitment to the Italian
nation. Perhaps the most widely circulated employment of Dante in the Fascist cause was
to be found in the Fascist hymn, Giovinezza, which, first adopted as a squadristi marching
song, became under the regime the second national anthem after the Marcia reale.20
Penned by Salvatore Gotta, who was also the author of the most widely read children’s
book of the Fascist period, Piccolo alpino (1926), Giovinezza embodied one of the
principal Fascist myths, that of youth, and it suggested that Fascist squadristi were above
all young, virile, and courageous defenders of the national faith.21 The song made
reference to Dante in its second stanza and suggested that Dante had envisaged the great
Italy the Fascists declared they were defending:
Salve, o Popolo d’Eroi,

Salve, o Patria immortale!
Sono rinati i figli tuoi
Con la fè nell’ideale.
19
Benito Mussolini, ‘I grandi problemi italiani ed internazionali (intervista concessa a Roma, al redattore
capo del Chicago Daily News, Edward Price Bell, il 24 maggio 1924)’, in Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini,
eds. E. & D. Susmel, Florence, 1972, 284. This interview was originally published in Popolo d’Italia 27 May
1924.
20
E. R. Tannebaum, Fascism in Italy: Society and Culture 1922-1945, London, Allen Lane, 1973, 49.
21
E. R. Tannenbaum, Fascism in Italy: Society and Culture 1922-1945 , 193; Tracy H. Koon, Believe, Obey,
Fight: Political Socialisation of Youth in Fascist Italy 1922-1943, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina
Press, 1985, xvi.
251
Il valor dei tuoi guerrieri,
La virtù dei pionieri,
La vision de l’Alighieri
Oggi brilla in tutti i cuor.
Giovinezza, giovinezza
Primavera di bellezza,
Della vita nell’asprezza
Il tuo canto squilla e va!22
Dante was also nominated in the song of Fascist squadristi, San Manganello, which
exalted the terrorism and purifying violence of the squads in the evocative form of their
favoured weapon:
O tu santo Manganello
Tu patrono saggio e austero,
Più che bomba e che coltello
Coi nemici sei severo;
Di nodosa quercia figlio

Ver miracolo opri ognor,
Se nell’ora del periglio
Batti i vili e gl’impostor.
Manganello, Manganello
Che rischiar ogni cervello,
Sempre tu, sarai sol quello
Che il fascista adorerà. […]
Tu dal Brennero al Suello,

Dal Quarnaro al Ticino,
Taumaturgo Manganello
Più di Dante sei divino.23
Mention of Dante was included in the stanza in which Italy was territorially defined, with an
allusion to his medieval designation of Italy. It attested to the resonance of the myth of
Dante as a proponent of a particular geographical conception of Italy, which had been
above all propagated by supporters of the irredentist cause in the Liberal period. Despite
the rather odious comparison of Dante to a weapon of destruction and terror, the poet’s
22
A. V. Savona & M. L. Straniero (eds.), Canti dell’Italia fascista (1919-1945), Milan, Garzanti, 1979, 205-
206.
23
Emilio Gentile, Il culto del littorio: La sacralizzazione della politica nell’Italia fascista, Rome, Laterza,
1993, 48-49.
252
name was essentially used as a reverent term for the Italian nation, as it had been since
the Risorgimento.
There were some journalists and scholars who surpassed the traditional employment of
Dante as the ‘father of the Italian nation’, attributing to the poet a role as the prophet of the
Fascist version of Italy. They evidenced the fact that the regime encouraged writers to
produce works which espoused the moral and spiritual values of the Fascist ‘revolution’, as
part of its project to transform Italians into members of a Fascist nation.24 An example of
this characterisation of Dante as the precursor of a Fascist image of the Italian nation can
be found in an article about the national edition of Dante’s works in Popolo d’Italia, which
suggested that the Fascist regime was finally fulfilling Dante’s vision:
L’Alighieri, in ogni tempo … fonde in unità le anime; trova e fa trovare quella

voce più alta e serena, in cui realmente l’Italia di Dante si potenzia e si
riconosce. Tutto il Risorgimento italiano è stato animato da questo culto di
Dante; ed è proprio uno dei segni della grande rinascita della nostra nuova
civiltà – promossa e illuminata dalle idee-forza del fascismo – questo
rinnovarsi, in tutta la sua ampiezza, in tutta la sua severità, della visione
dell’Alighieri, dominante sui sacri orizzonti della Patria.25
This Fascist supporter’s rhapsody about the ‘rebirth’ of the ‘new civilisation’ to be founded
by Fascism, used Dante to legitimise such claims with the proposal that Dante had longed
for the renovation of Italy as a great civilisation. In this way the Fascist regime was given a
glorious historical precedent. The apparent contradiction in terms in this piece revealed the
inconsistency in Fascism, that it claimed to be ‘revolutionary’ while also proposing to
restore the imperial grandeur of ancient Rome to contemporary Italy.
The treatment of Dante by respected Dante scholar Francesco Ercole also exemplified
the use of Dante to promote the Fascist regime and its conception of what it meant to be
Italian. Ercole was a committed Fascist, and was a member of parliament 1929-1935,
24
Ruth Ben-Ghiat, La cultura fascista, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2000, 82.
25
Valentino Piccoli, ‘La Visione di Dante: per l’Edizione nazionale della “Vita Nova”’, Popolo d’Italia, 4
Aug 1932, 3.
253
minister for education 1932-1935, president of the Istituto nazionale di cultura fascista, and
a participant in the Salò Republic of 1943-1945. A consideration of Ercole’s studies on
Dante reveals that his scholarly endeavours undertaken prior to the rise of Mussolini and
the Fascist party to power in 1922 were sometimes subsequently tweaked to provide a
reading of the poet’s philosophy and significance to Italy that were more explicitly relevant
to the Fascist climate. It was likely that Ercole was not alone in this act of politically
expedient revision.
Ercole’s essay entitled ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, first published in 1922, was
reutilised almost verbatim in 1934, with the new title of ‘La coscienza morale di Dante e i
problemi di età nostra’, for a speech on behalf of the Associazione di Cultura Italo-
Germanica at the ‘Casa di Dante’ in Rome. What was most significant about this treatise
was the alteration of its conclusion regarding the ‘ammonimento essenzialmente morale’
that Italians supposedly received from Dante.26 This theme reflected a modernist influence
in the patriotic appreciation of Dante, and recalled the Mazzinian conception of the poet,
by which Dante’s relevance to Italy was to be found in the example of his moral
conscience rather than in his political theories.27 In 1922 Ercole concluded his dissertation
with the declaration: ‘Ascoltiamo il severo messaggio di Dante: nessuna età ne ha mai
avuto più bisogno di questa. Il messaggio non ci parla di diritti: ci parla di doveri’.28 Yet in
his speech of 1934 Ercole expanded upon his previous conclusion, proclaiming that
Italians of the Fascist era were much more disposed to heeding the fundamentally ‘moral’
message of Dante:
L’isolamento di Dante è oggi, nell’Italia del fascismo, e di Mussolini, finito.

Perchè la politica fascista è, nei presupposti e nei fini, moralità non meno di
quanto fosse moralità la politica di Dante; e l’ideale di vita che egli perseguì
pressochè solo nell’Italia del suo tempo, è oggi l’ideale di vita che tutti gli
italiani perseguono. E la risposta che egli diede alle esigenze di giustizia e
di pace del suo tempo, è in sostanza la stessa che il Fascismo dà alle
26
Francesco Ercole, ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, Dante e Machiavelli, Rome, Società editrice politica,
1922, 73.
27
Luigi Scorrano, Il Dante fascista, Ravenna, A. Longo, 2001, 95.
28
Francesco Ercole, ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, 74.
254
esigenze di giustizia e di pace del nostro: non proclamazione di diritti da
rivendicare, ma affermazione di doveri da compiere.29
For Ercole this ‘dovere’ was ‘vivere e agire … per la espansione e il trionfo della civiltà
italiana nel mondo’.30 The scholar claimed that this ‘duty’ of expansion had been Dante’s
ideal vision for Italy, and that the Fascist regime pursued the same goal. Essentially little
had altered in Ercole’s interpretation of Dante’s thought, but he had made his exegesis
relevant to the time by putting a Fascist stamp on it. This revision seemed to reflect the
allegation that Fascism was a ‘rivoluzione mancata’, made in the early 1930s by some
ardent young Fascist intellectuals, who, having been educated under the regime, were
often the fiercest critics of Fascist culture.31 For these true believers, institutionalised
Fascist culture seemed to simply perpetuate the ideas, aesthetics and hierarchy of the
Liberal era.32 As this example from Ercole indicated, even if everything had a Fascist
label, nothing was truly ‘Fascist’.
Ercole’s speech was accompanied by an oration given by the German ambassador to
Italy, Ulrich von Hassell, who claimed that Dante was not only a precursor of Fascism, but
also of Nazism. Von Hassell possessed a certain prediliction for Dante, which, according
to Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister 1936-1943 and Mussolini’s son-in-law, was cause for
suspicion. In a diary entry of 25 February 1938, Ciano expressed his dislike of the
German envoy, to which his interest in Dante only added:
Preso congedo da von Hassel(sic.). Freddo, ostile, rapido colloquio. Non

sento il minimo rimorso di aver determinato l’allontanamento di questo
individuo che serviva male il suo Paese e la causa dell’amicizia italo-
tedesca. […] Poi, von Hassel conosceva troppo bene Dante. Io diffido degli
stranieri che conoscono Dante. Ci vogliono fregare con la poesia.33
29
Francesco Ercole, ‘La coscienza morale di Dante e i problemi di età nostra’, in Conferenze tenute
in Roma alla Casa di Dante il 21 e 28 gennaio 1934-XII, Rome, 1934, 24.
30
Ibid.
31
Ruth Ben-Ghiat, La cultura fascista, 50.
32
Ibid.
33
Galeazzo Ciano, Diario 1937-1943, ed. R. De Felice, Milan, Rizzoli, 1998, 104.
255
In von Hassell’s speech, Dante became the pretext for promoting the moral affinity and
political co-operation of Italy and Germany:
Anche coloro che oggi non vogliono sapere nulla di Fascismo e

Nazionalsocialismo dovranno pur finire col riconoscere che questi due
legittimi figli del pensiero politico di Dante hanno salvato l’Europa non
solamente dalla formalistica democrazia parlamentare, bensì anche dal
comunismo. Il concetto fondamentale delle due ideologie non ha nulla a
che fare con autocrazia, ma soltanto con autorità, nulla con reazione, ma
invece con azione, cioè col rendere effettivo, efficiente lo Stato; nulla con
uniformazione, ma con unità nelle linee generali e cioè nel concetto e nella
direzione dello Stato; nulla con pacifismo, ma con pace, cioè
quell’ordinamento che, basato sulla giustizia, parità di diritti ed equilibrio, è il
solo a garantire durata e sicurezza.34
He went on to state
I nostri due paesi, che, sin dalle origini legati dal fato, formano il cuore
d’Europa, sono destinati a causa della loro disparità ad integrarsi
meravigliosamente; guidati oggi da due uomini che applicano praticamente
ai nostri tempi i pensieri politici di Dante, essi sono chiamati indubbiamente
ad assumere in questo sviluppo di cose una parte importantissima.35
In 1934, a year after Hitler’s seizure of power, and at a time when Italy had not yet joined
Germany in a fateful alliance, these words of the aristocratic German ambassador can
only be read as an attempt to find favour for his state with his elite audience, by suggesting
the affinity of the two authoritarian states. Dante was merely a prestigious rhetorical tool
for blessing his claims of an ideological union between Nazism and Fascism. While
spurious, it was yet again an example of how appealing Dante’s political thought was as a
justification for ultra-nationalism, and of how he was made to serve so many different
masters.
Emilio Bodrero, a Fascist deputy, senator, and the undersecretary of education 1926-
1928, was, like Ercole, very active in propagandising Fascism. An essay written by
Bodrero in celebration of the inauguration of the Ravennate ‘Zona Dantesca’ in 1936
evidenced the employment of Dante to support the legitimacy of the Fascist regime and its
34
Ulrich von Hassell, ‘L’importanza del pensiero politico di Dante per i nostri tempi’, in
Conferenze tenute in Roma alla Casa di Dante il 21 e 28 gennaio 1934-xii, Rome, 1934, 32. Von
Hassell’s italics.
35
Ibid., 34.
256
project of making Italy great. The scholar declared without much elaboration that ‘nel
nome di Dante troviamo la testimonianza più viva ed umana della nostra legittimità
nazionale … il nome di Dante … giustifica la nostra esistenza ed il diritto al nostro
avvenire’.36 His essay was above all striking for its utilisation of Dante’s political character
to justify the Fascist one-party state:
Ma come uomo di parte Dante è il primo e il compiuto Italiano. Il partito è

per lui attributo e complemento della personalità…
Il partito è per Dante identificazione di una verità e di una realtà secondo
una convinzione rigorosa che non ammette concessioni o deviazioni, è una
concezione totalitaria ed esclusiva. Si chiama partito solo perchè non ha
ancora raggiunto la sua pienezza vittoriosa, e perchè altre opinioni lo
contrastano, ma tale non è più quando abbia assunto la sua intiera
efficienza.
Questo è il sentire di Dante, questo è il nostro sentire di oggi. Ciascun di
noi sente nel cuore la profezia dell’Impero inteso come nuova redenzione
morale degli uomini nel nome d’Italia, adora la nazione per ciò che essa è
stata, è e diviene, ama la propria terra e la propria città perchè ciascuna
terra, ciascuna città della Patria è nota di una armonia storica, estetica e
sentimentale in cui le parti ed il tutto si equivalgono e si assorbono
reciprocamente; ma ciascun di noi è uomo di parte come Dante e non
altrimenti da come egli ha insegnato, concepisce il rapporto fra partito e
nazione. Per noi il Fascismo è l’Italia, è tutta l’Italia. 37
This piece appears to be a promotion of enrolment in the Fascist party, using Dante to
justify the fact that it was the only avenue of political organisation officially available to
Italians. In 1932 membership of the Partito nazionale fascista was opened to all, and the
party became principally an instrument of mass control.38 The encouragement of universal
participation in the PNF was also a way to encourage more people to at least label
themselves ‘Fascist’, and thus boost the totalitarian claims of the regime. This
representation of Dante as a ‘party man’ also suggested that the Fascist party was to be
equated with the Fascist state, and the Fascist state with the Italian nation. It reflected the
idea promoted by the regime that the Italian nation and the state were indivisible, and that,
as Bodrero put it, ‘il Fascismo è l’Italia’. This interpretation of Dante’s political beliefs and
36
Emilio Bodrero, ‘L’intransigenza di Dante’, Per l’inaugurazione della Zona Dantesca, Ravenna, Società
tipo-editrice ravennate mutilati, 13 Sept 1936, 12.
37
Ibid., 13-14.
38
D. Thompson, State Control in Fascist Italy: Culture and conformity, 1922-43, 22.
257
behaviour, therefore, characterised him as a supporter of the Fascist conception of the
totalitarian state, and Bodrero essentially proposed that as a ‘uomo di parte’, Dante was a
Fascist before his time.
One of the most important Fascist figures who pursued a study of Dante and his
significance to Italian national culture was the regime’s pre-eminent philosopher and
formulator of Fascist ideology, Giovanni Gentile. Although Gentile did not indulge in a
treatment of Dante which explicitly cast him as a prophet of Fascist Italy, his work on the
poet is intriguing for its utilisation of Dante to elucidate his own philosophy and theory of
the ‘ethical state’. The central importance Gentile attributed to Dante in Italian culture and
in the national education of Italians was evidenced by the reform of education he
undertook in 1923 as minister for education. This restructuring of the programmes and
organisation of secondary schools, in particular the liceo, which was an obligatory
institution for the instruction of the Italian ruling elite, did not reflect a Fascist cultural
revolution.39 The ‘Riforma Gentile’, by its architect’s own admission, was essentially an
affirmation of conservative, moderate liberal values, and the new curriculum stressed the
value of a humanist education centred on the study of Italian literature, history, and
philosophy.40 Gentile’s extensive and complicated reform, based on an elitist rationale,
remained the backbone of Italian state education for the rest of the century.41 Although in
secondary schools under the Liberal regime the study of Dante’s Commedia had been
considerable, with Gentile’s reform the great poem was accorded primacy, and study of it
was systematically extended to all secondary institutions except professional schools.42
The reading of all of the Commedia became obligatory, and was the subject of state
39
Stefano Albertini, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso e abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia fascista’, The Italianist,
no. 16, 1996, 118.
40
41
Guido Bonsaver, ‘Culture and Intellectuals’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Fascism,
Oxford, OUP, 2009, 111.
42
Stefano Albertini, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso e abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia fascista’, 117.
258
examinations for the last 3 years of secondary school.43 Gentile’s promotion of an
exhaustive study of the poem was not, however, supported by his successors at the
ministry of education. In 1926 Pietro Fedele reduced the obligatory reading of the
Commedia to one whole cantica, and no fewer than 25 canti from the other two cantiche,
and in 1936 Cesare De Vecchi made further reductions to the study of the poem.44
The idealist philosopher had been interested in Dante studies from the early 1900s, and
most of his essays upon the poet were written before the rise of Fascism.45 Like many of
his contemporaries, Gentile concluded from his exegesis of Dante’s political thought that
the poet had envisioned Italy’s return to pre-eminence among other nations as a legacy of
its imperial Roman past. In an essay of 1918 entitled ‘La Profezia di Dante’, Gentile
asserted that Dante’s concept of empire was an affirmation of the primacy of the Italian
nation:
L’idea dantesca dell’impero …[è] Idea di giustizia e di libertà. Di libertà per

tutti, ma principalmente per gli italiani … il re dei romani era imperatore:
imperatore per gli altri popoli, ma per gl’italiani, figli diretti di Roma, re.
Donde il posto eminente e affatto privilegiato, nell’universalità dell’impero,
spettante singolarmente all’Italia erede di Roma.46
Such a claim by Gentile was emblematic of the interpretation of Dante’s thought which
became common after Italy’s participation in the Great War among Liberals seeking to
legitimise their expansionist nationalism.
What was most striking about Gentile’s examination of Dante’s works was that he utilised
Dante’s thought to elaborate his theory of the state and the nation as a single, spiritual
entity. The great philosopher, who added scholarly weight and credibility to the regime,
took on the task of justifying Fascism theoretically.47 Gentile’s idea of the nation,
developed in the aftermath of the Great War, became an important element in the
43
Ibid., 119.
44
Ibid., 121.
45
Aldo Vallone, La critica dantesca nel novecento, Florence, Olschki, 1976, 49, 53.
46
Giovanni Gentile, ‘La profezia di Dante’, Studi su Dante, Florence, Sansoni, 1965, 147-148. This essay
was first published in Nuova Antologia, 1 May 1918.
47
Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, 356; Guido Bonsaver, ‘Culture and Intellectuals’,
111.
259
definition of the relationship between the Fascist state and the idea of the Italian nation.48
Gentile rejected the naturalistic and deterministic characteristics of the concept of the
nation, such as common language, territory, customs and history.49 Instead he proposed
that the decisive defining element of a nation was the conscious desire of a people to be a
nation.50 He thus conceived of the nation as Mazzini did, as a spiritual entity, not as a fact
of nature. He ascribed to Mazzini’s mystical conception of the nation as a community of
faith and as an expression of popular will.51 From this idea of the nation, Gentile
constructed his concept of the state. He assigned the state the role as the creator of the
nation, because, he claimed, the state, by giving the nation political form, made it
concrete.52 By the time the Doctrine of Fascism was published in 1932, Gentile had
refined his theory to explain the inextricable links between the nation, the state, and the
individual. In his idealistic vision, national consciousness was engendered by the mystical
identification of the individual with the state.53 He thus theorised that the state created the
nation by giving a people, conscious of its moral unity, a will, and therefore, an effective
existence.54 The idealist philosopher essentially tried to present the Fascist regime as the
realisation of the political theology of Mazzini, proposing that the totalitarian state would
effect the moral regeneration of Italians, and thus create a new Italian nation.55
Already in a publication of 1904 Gentile had proposed that in Dante’s calls for the reform
of the Church and for a return to universal empire, there lay an affirmation of the ‘valore
assoluto, intrinseco dello Stato’.56 But it was in his aforementioned essay of 1918 that
Gentile’s consideration of Dante’s thought regarding Church and empire occasioned him to
define his conception of the state:
48
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia: Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, 166.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid., 168.
52
Ibid., 167-168.
53
Ibid., 170.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid., 169.
56
Giovanni Gentile, ‘Dante nella storia del pensiero italiano’, Studi su Dante, Florence, Sansoni, 1965, 21.
260
Che cosa è lo Stato? Si chiami impero con Dante, o si chiami altrimenti, lo
stato è quello a cui Dante mira con la sua universale monarchia … È quello
che nell’inidividuo si dice carattere, che è l’unità e la realtà effettuale della
persona. La vita comune è allargamento della vita spirituale della persona,
la quale viene a trovarsi nella necessità di instaurare un più alto e più
spirituale carattere, una più concreta unità interiore; e crea così lo Stato. Il
quale tuttavia avrà sempre lo stesso valore assoluto che la personalità
individuale, giacchè sarà l’ampliamento di essa e la sua vera
realizzazione.57
Thus, according to Gentile, Dante had been the first to conceive of the secular state as an
absolute and spiritual entity which was the expression of the collective will of the people it
represented. Gentile clearly read into Dante his own belief that the individual needed to
found his identity in the nation and the state.58
***
The most prominent aspect of the myth of Dante during the Fascist regime was the
utilisation of the poet as an authoritative advocate of the restoration of an Italian empire.
Such a reading of Dante was not, however, unique to treatments of the poet undertaken
during the years of Fascist dictatorship. An explication of Dante’s political philosophy
which focused on its implications for Italian dreams of national greatness and expansion
had already found increasing favour in the last decades of the Liberal regime, fuelled by
rising right wing nationalism and the albeit limited success of Italy’s colonial endeavours. It
was above all Italy’s victory in the Great War which seemed to many commentators to
confirm Italy’s great destiny, and in the European context, great meant imperial.
Just as an imperial reading of Dante was not new, the cult of romanità which became
such an important feature of the Fascist regime had developed from an existing tradition of
patriotic appeals to Italy’s Roman past, which had been an element of the political ideology
57
Giovanni Gentile, ‘La profezia di Dante’, 171.
58
Emilio Gentile, La Grande Italia: ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo secolo, 167.
261
of educated right wing Italians in the Liberal period.59 The Fascist cult of romanità found
expression in a semiotic language which included the Roman salute and so called passo
romano, and Roman symbols, rhetoric, architecture and sculpture.60 Intended as an
encouragement to widespread enthusiasm for Fascism, this language of images and
allusions permeated state-sponsored culture.61 This myth of Italy’s prestigious classical
past most importantly suggested that there was historical and ideological support for
Fascist expansionist aims.62 The claims that Fascism was continuing a Roman tradition
legitimised the regime as a representaive of the Italian nation, and was a means for it to
establish its deep historical roots. The central importance of this myth was that it looked to
the future, and was intended to inspire the Italian population to believe that the spiritual
and historical destiny of Italians would be achieved through Fascism.63
The Fascist myth of Rome was indeed a ‘flexible’ construct, given that the meanings and
uses of romanità changed as the political and cultural conditions varied from 1922 to
1943.64 Different characteristics of the Roman empire were stressed according to the
regime’s needs, and gave form to such ideas as demographic urgency, economic
autarchy, the cult of the Duce, Italian military prowess, as well as Fascist Italy’s imperial
destiny and civilising mission.65 The myth of romanità was also intended to appeal to
different sections of society in different ways. While the uneducated were probably
impressed by the opportune and grandiose use of romanità, in order to persuade educated
Italians to support the Fascist regime’s imperial pretensions a ‘scientifically’ established
romanità was needed.66 The use of the existing cultic and patriotic approach to romanità,
which often represented the empire as the final stage of the Risorgimento, was also the
59
Romke Visser, ‘Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of the Romanità’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 27,
1992, 9.
60
Ibid., 6.
61
Marla Stone, ‘A flexible Rome: Fascism and the cult of romanità’, in Catherine Edwards (ed.), Roman
Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture 1789-1945, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1999, 205.
62
Patrizia Dogliani, L’Italia Fascista 1922-1940, Milan, Sansoni, 1999, 290.
63
Marla Stone, ‘A flexible Rome: Fascism and the cult of romanità’, 205.
64
Ibid., 205-206.
65
Ibid.
66
Romke Visser, ‘Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of the Romanità’, Journal of Contemporary History, 9.
262
most plausible means of attracting intellectuals to accept Fascist doctrine.67 To this end,
some Fascist scholars strove to elaborate the historical precedents for, and necessity of, a
Fascist empire.68 Prominent academics, such as Ercole, Bodrero and Arrigo Solmi,
contributed to a Fascist rewriting of Italian history.69 They also applied their Fascist lens to
an understanding of Dante’s ideas of empire, and their reading of Dante’s ideas as an
endorsement of Italy’s universal mission became a part of the intellectual cult of romanità.
The aforementioned essay by Ercole entitled ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, first
published in 1922, while probably not influenced by particularly Fascist ambitions, offered
an interpretation of Dante’s political ideas which held them to be a prophecy of Italy’s
imperial destiny. Ercole propounded that, although Dante’s concept of universal empire
made it impossible to characterise his political philosophy as a precursor to contemporary
nationalism, it was possible to discern in it a conception of national statehood, as a
necessary stage in Italy’s progress to becoming an empire:
ma è pur certo che la sua Monarchia universale si risolve, attraverso la

identità, sempre da Lui, con latino orgoglio, sentita e affermata, tra il popolo
romano e il popolo italiano, fra Roma e l’Italia, in un diretto primato della
nazione italiana sulle altre nazioni del mondo.70
For Ercole, Dante’s concept of universalism precluded any interpretation of it which held it
to support ‘internazionalismo pacifista’ because it had ‘come presupposto storico e
sentimentale, una esigenza di carattere nazionale’.71 Thus those who proclaimed Dante a
prophet of a socialist fraternity of nations, or of the newly formed League of Nations were
in error. In this reading of Dante, Ercole maintained that the primacy of Italy among other
nations was based on an ethnic affinity between the ancient Romans and Italians. Such a
contention reflected what was to become a major theme of Fascist propaganda, that
67
Ibid., 6, 12.
68
Ibid., 12.
69
Pier Giorgio Zunino, L’ideologia del Fascismo. Miti, credenze e valori nella stabilizzazione del regime,
Bologna, Il Mulino, 1985, 83.
70
Francesco Ercole, ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, 56.
71
Ibid.
263
contemporary Italians were the racial descendents of the Romans.72 When Ercole
repeated these conclusions for his speech of 1934, he did not alter them. This fact
indicated the substanstial continuity that existed between the rationale of Italian imperial
pretensions of the Liberal era and that of the calls for empire which came to permeate
Fascist culture.
An article by Emilio Bodrero entitled ‘Dante, L’Impero e noi’ published in Nuova Antologia
in 1931 provides clear evidence of the appropriation of Dante as a prophet of the rise of a
Fascist empire. Bodrero proclaimed that, finally, with the advent of the Fascist era, and
thanks to the imperial project of Mussolini’s regime, Dante was truly understood:
Solo oggi che, conseguita la libertà, l’indipendenza, quasi tutta l’unità della
Patria, abbiam chiare le visioni delle possibilità della nostra potenza, solo
oggi noi possiamo comprendere Dante Italiano e Imperiale, perchè tale è il
Fascismo di Benito Mussolini, Italiano e Imperiale; solo oggi possiamo
veramente riconoscere in Dante il profeta del nostro destino.73
For Bodrero, Dante was to be hailed as the greatest poet of humanity because he had
envisioned the rebirth of imperial Rome, the ‘Terza Roma’, which would guarantee peace
for all nations. The poet had demonstrated the possibility of the ‘coesistenza in un’anima
sola, di queste due parole, la nazionale e la imperiale, in funzione di una civile redenzione
che ha bisogno di entrambe e delle quali il mondo per la terza volta attende da Roma il
suono solenne’.74
Bodrero went on to explicate how the imperial vision developed by Dante, and to be
fulfilled by Fascism, was the best political order for European nations. He identified two
other possible avenues for achieving universal peace and unity in the contemporary world;
an imperialism based on racial superiority to which the British Empire supposedly adhered,
or socialism, promoted by Bolshevik Russia:75
La concezione dantesca non vuol sopprimere le nazioni, ma utilizzare le

loro qualità, le loro emulazioni, le loro virtù in modo che teleologicamente
72
Marla Stone, ‘A flexible Rome: Fascism and the cult of romanità’, 209.
73
Emilio Bodrero, ‘Dante, l’impero e noi’, Nuova Antologia, 60, 16 May 1931, 198.
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid., 199.
264
servano concordi ad un’idea superiore. Solo oggi possiam comprendere
l’idea di Dante coincidente con l’idea imperiale che l’Italia sogna. Si sente
oggi da noi la possibilità di una doppia cittadinanza, quella della nazione e
quella dell’impero.76
The Fascist version of imperialism, apparently first proposed by Dante, which held that
each nation should maintain its unique character while submitting to the preordained
authority of the Italian nation, was, in Bodrero’s opinion, a more psychologically
appropriate concept. He averred that this version of imperialism contrasted favourably
with the universalist notion of socialism and the imperialist ideal of the British Empire,
because both these forms of political organisation tended to encourage the standardisation
of men and nations.77
Bodrero explained that, within his dream of a return to Empire, Dante had charged Italy
with the mission of being the ‘popolo eletto’, a divine mission inherited from its Roman
antecedents.78 This focus on the idea of the ‘primato della nazione italiana’, while not new,
was essential to a reconciliation of Dante’s political vision with Fascist Italy.79 Bodrero
claimed that it was only with Fascism that Italians were finally ready to take up their
responsibility as the governors of Empire: ‘Nell’unità fascista onde l’autorità del Duce ci ha
fatto vincere tutte le fazioni, è già il principio dell’attuazione di quel sogno che Dante
vagheggia nei tre sesti canti delle tre cantiche e Roma è pur sempre al centro del
mondo’.80
A similar representation of Dante’s concept of empire can be found in an article by
Giovanni Forte entitled ‘L’ideale di Dante nella sua realtà storica’, published in 1940 in the
political review L’idea di Roma. This propagandist essay found justification for an Italian
empire in Dante because, as the poet’s political thought had suggested, the renewal of
empire necessitated the rise of the nation state. The creation of the Italian nation state
76
Ibid., 200.
77
Ibid.
78
Ibid.
79
Luigi Scorrano, Il Dante fascista, 95.
80
Emilio Bodrero, ‘Dante, l’impero e noi’, 202.
265
had come to pass, and thus the rise of a new Roman empire was prefigured. This
argument echoed the tortured logic of an interpretation of Dante’s calls for empire to which
Corrado Ricci most notably ascribed in his speech at the 1921 centenary celebrations in
Rome. Like Ricci, Forte affirmed that Dante was ‘il Padre della Nazione italiana, il
Revendicatore della tradizione politica e imperiale romana. In Lui l’idea universale
racchiude e sovrasta quella nazionale, ritenuta l’Italia giardino dell’Impero. Quando
decade l’una, decade anche l’altra; così il risorgere di questa preannunzia il risorgere di
quella, essendo unica la missione di Roma e d’Italia nel mondo’.81 Forte thus suggested
that Dante’s prophecy was in the process of being fulfilled by the Fascist regime.
Accordingly, with the rise of Fascism, Forte proposed that the Italian nation had finally
achieved its destiny, its divine mission to restore the Roman empire: ‘risorge col Fascismo
lo spirito eroico moderatore di Roma, per indicare al mondo la via della salvezza dei popoli
mediante il ritorno a quei principî universali di autorità, di ordine e di giustizia, già invocati
da Dante’.82
Just over a year before the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943, Arrigo Solmi, a professor of
legal history, undersecretary of education 1932-1935, and minister of justice 1935-1939,
made a contribution to a conference on Dante organised by the Milanese Società
Dantesca Italiana which employed the poet’s political ideas to support the imperial
ambitions of not only Fascist Italy, but also of Nazi Germany. Solmi had produced many
studies on the topic of Dante’s concept of empire, both before and during the Fascist era,
which focused on using the poet to validate the primacy of the Italian nation and its
imperial destiny. This speech, given on the 18 January 1942, attested to the grandiose
hopes some Fascist leaders still had that the international conflict, and the alliance with
Germany, could result in the realisation of Italian imperial domination. Solmi utilised Dante
81
Giovanni Forte, ‘L’ideale di Dante nella sua realtà storica’, L’idea di Roma: rivista politica, no 24, Oct-
Nov 1940, 370.
82
Ibid., 397.
266
to justify Italian and German aggression, casting the poet’s imperial idea as the inspiration
for their aims:
… dall’idea dell’Impero nasceva, tra le nazioni d’Europa, un vincolo ideale e

astratto, eretto sulle fondamenta del diritto comune italiano, il quale
presiedeva a quel sistema d’equilibrio tra le nazioni libere d’Europa,
dibattuto fra tante guerre, ma rimasto saldo e rispettato, su cui si fonda
anche oggi il principio dell’unità europea, che, difesa dall’Italia a dalla
Germania, si afferma oggi contro la sopraffazione anglo-sassone, e contro
la minaccia bolscevica.
Dante ha sentito, nel suo alto e sereno spirito, queste esigenze, che egli
legava alla romanità della Chiesa e dell’Impero, e che avrebbe voluto
affidare, non già ad una autorità astratta, ma ad una forza concreta capace
di realizzare, contro ogni contrasto e contro ogni rebellione, un ordine
superiore di giustizia e di pace.83
Solmi presented the war as a struggle by the ‘civilised’ European nations, Italy and
Germany, represented respectively by ‘il Fascio romano e la Croce uncinata, simboli di
ideali civili’,84 to establish an empire that would ensure the reign of justice and peace in
Europe, against ‘l’egoismo e la minaccia dei grandi Imperi oceanici, detentori di tutte le
ricchezze e decisi a negare ogni respiro ai popoli che non si pieghino alle loro esigenze
sfruttatrici’.85 Solmi’s reading of Dante rather deftly cast Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy as
the heirs of the civilising and peaceful imperial mission conceived of by Dante:
abbiamo veduto sorgere in armi le due nazioni, che, per oltre un milennio,
erano state congiunte nel vincolo del Sacro Romano Impero, e … da
questo vincolo avevano ricevuto gli stessi benefici e avevano sofferto gli
stessi sacrifici, e le vediamo affiancate fraternamente in una immane
guerra, che non conosce confini, ma che intende finalmente a dare unità e
saldezza all’Europa, per garantire a questo continente certezza di vita ed
equità di risorse e per farlo immune dalle frequenti competizioni e dalle
periodiche guerre, il nostro pensiero si volge più intensamente a Dante,
che, nell’Impero e nella Chiesa, creati da Roma e fortunatamente estesi,
per varie vicende, al popolo germanico, riconobbe le forze direttrici e
salvatrici della civiltà, e in esse si affisò come al presidio più sicuro della
pace e della giustizia nel mondo.86
83
Arrigo Solmi, ‘L’idea imperiale di Dante’, in G. Galbiati (ed.), Studi su Dante, VII, Milan, Hoepli,
1944, 29.
84
Ibid., 31.
85
Ibid., 29.
86
Ibid., 29-30.
267
This attempt to paint Germany’s partnership in Italy’s imperial destiny as a fact historically
ordained by Dante reflected the belief that by 1939 and Mussolini’s involvement of Italy in
the ‘Pact of Steel’, the Fascist regime needed the risky alliance with Germany, if it were to
have any hope of achieving its aim of the domination of the Mediterranean.87 Solmi’s
valiant assertions in the face of Italy’s succession of military disasters and the devastation
wreaked on the Italian population by Allied bombings and wartime deprivations, was a
defiant attempt to justify Italy’s involvement in the conflict for his elite audience with his
appeals to Dante’s imperial vision.
***
The creation of a ‘Zona Dantesca’ in Ravenna in 1936 can be seen as a manifestation in
urban space of the Fascist appropriation of Dante as a patron saint of the regime, and at
its inauguration, as the prophet of the Fascist empire. This homage to Dante, which
entailed the creation of a ‘zona del silenzio’ around the tomb of the poet, in order to bathe
it in a suitably ‘spiritual’ atmosphere, had first been proposed by the municipal
administration of Ravenna in 1928, before being approved and sponsored by Mussolini in
1932.88 Apparently, the ruling elite of Ravenna felt that the site of Dante’s tomb was
‘assolutamente indecoroso per la Nazione’, and planned to close the streets around the
tomb to vehicular traffic.89 The Franciscan cloisters next the tomb, occupied by an order of
nuns, also needed to be claimed as part of the sacred space devoted to Dante because
they formed ‘un prezioso documento storico per le vicende delle ossa e del sepolcro’.90
The ‘Zona Dantesca’ was undoubtedly envisaged as a sacralisation of the public space
around the tomb of Dante, and in the opinion of one journalist, it would prepare ‘meglio di
87
Davide Rodogno, ‘Fascism and War’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Fascism,
Oxford, OUP, 2009, 247.
88
‘La “Zona Dantesca” sarà sistemata per volontà del Duce, Popolo d’Italia, 6 Sept 1932, 3.
89
Ibid.
90
Ibid.
268
ogni altro emblema il visitatore a degnamente compiere il rito di omaggio’, and enable the
devotee to spend an entire day at the tomb ‘fantasticando, piangendo, pregando’.91 One
contribution to a special publication produced for the inauguration attested to this
attribution of a sacred character to the tomb of Dante by its Fascist promoters. This author
suggested that the admiration for the poet and veneration of the father of the Italian
language was not enough to explain ‘il senso di fervore e di sbigottimento che invade non
soltanto le creature più elette, ma anche le folle varie e multanimi, nell’avvicinarsi all’urna
di Dante’.92 Clearly he hoped to promote the idea that in the presence of Dante’s remains,
even those ignorant of Dante’s important contribution to Italian culture would be able to
feel the supernatural power that emanated from the national saint.
The rest of the article was devoted to detailing the purported mystical ‘auspici e presagi’
that great Italian figures had received, at vital moments in the history of the Italian nation,
at the tomb of Dante. According to the author, on 2 October 1860, ‘mentre tuonava il
cannone sul Volturno, Vittorio Emanuele II, raccolto l’auspicio sull’ara di Dante,
s’imbarcava nella darsena di Ravenna, per raggiungere lungo l’Adriatico la costa
d’Abruzzo, ed essere salutato a Teano Re d’Italia da Garibaldi’.93 During the Great War,
on 18 May 1918, a month before the battle of the Piave which signalled a reverse in Italy’s
miserable fortunes in the conflict, Vittorio Emanuele III had visited Dante’s tomb, at which
he supposedly received ‘il presagio infallibile’ of Italy’s future victory.94 And in 1921 with
the Fascist ‘March on Ravenna’, which anticipated the much mythologised ‘March on
Rome’, ‘la generazione della guerra e della rivoluzione fascista’ bowed before the tomb of
Dante ‘per intenderne ‘l’ammonimento e confortarsi nel presagio’.95 Thus, in this author’s
revisioning of the past, Dante could be considered the patron saint of Italy, at whose tomb
91
‘La maschera di Dante’, Popolo d’Italia, 15 Sept 1933, 3.
92
Giuseppe Frignani, ‘Auspici e presagi presso la tomba di Dante’, Per l’inaugurazione della Zona Dantesca,
Ravenna, tipo-editrice ravennate mutilati, 13 Sept 1936, 3.
93
Ibid., 5.
94
Ibid., 8.
95
Ibid.
269
a blessing was sought by kings and Fascists alike at the decisive moments of Italian
national history.
This characterisation of Dante as a Fascist saint whose tomb was to be revered as a
sacred space confirms the proposition made by historian Emilio Gentile that Fascism can
be viewed as an attempt to institute a secular religion. In this understanding of the Fascist
regime, symbols, cults and festivals are held to be the necessary instruments of Fascism’s
sacralised version of politics.96 Gentile has argued that Fascist myths and rituals were
aimed at instilling in Italians a faith in a Fascist religion which sacralised the state, and
which was an essential part of Fascism’s goal to transform the mentality, character and
customs of Italians.97 This Fascist religion was an instrument in the regime’s quest for
consensus, and a means by which its totalitarian ambitions could be made real.98
According to this argument, the myth of Dante as a Fascist saint can thus be seen as one
of the many aspects of a Fascist religion.
In the event of the inauguration of the ‘Zona Dantesca’ on 13 September 1936, this
homage to Dante as a patron saint of Fascist Italy also became an occasion to celebrate
the recently established Fascist Empire. The opportunity was not lost to unite the names
of Dante and Mussolini in the glorification of the renewed Roman Empire. In honour of the
inauguration, the Ravennate association of ‘Mutilati’, or war wounded, organised the
collection of written testimonies from the podestà of all the cities of Italy which declared
their veneration for Dante and their ‘esaltazione delle recenti glorie imperiali volute dal
Duce del Fascismo’.99 These professions of faith in the Fascist empire were to be
gathered into an album to be perused by the public on the day of the unveiling of the zone,
before being donated to the Museo Dantesco ‘a perenne testimonianza dei sentimenti di
96
R. J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship, 24.
97
Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, trans. Keith Botsford, Harvard, Harvard
University Press, 1996, ix.
98
Ibid., 29.
99
‘La “Zona Dantesca” a Ravenna’, Popolo d’Italia, 5 Sept 1936, 3.
270
ammirazione e di venerazione del popolo italiano verso il vaticinatore e verso il forgiatore
dell’Impero’.100
On the day of the inauguration it indeed seemed that veneration of Dante took second
place to the glorification of the Duce and his imperial proclamations. The festooned
streets of Ravenna were strung with banners displaying Mussolini’s declarations, and
apparently hundreds of effigies of the Duce adorned the ancient walls of the city.101 The
creation of the ‘Zona Dantesca’ also included the construction of the ‘Casa Oriani’, a
cultural centre for the promotion of the thought of the imperialist idealogue of the Liberal
era, Alfredo Oriani, who was hailed as a prophet of Fascism, and which more importantly
was to house the ‘Biblioteca Mussolini’, devoted to collecting all works written about
Fascism.102 Reduced train fares to Ravenna were offered for the national day of
celebration, and many activities were organised which catered for both elite and popular
tastes. According to a report in Corriere della Sera, for ‘intellettuali’ there were
conferences on Dante, bibliographical and painting exhibits; and for ‘il popolo’, there were
concerts, choruses, public readings of Dante, and agricultural exhibits.103 These last
promoted the superior cattle stock and fruit varieties of the Romagna.104 At a time when
economic sanctions had been imposed on Italy by the League of Nations following the
Fascist invasion of Ethiopia in 1935-1936, this exhibit can be read as an attempt to
promote Italy’s self sufficiency.
Yet the Duce did not attend this event which had been heralded as ‘una grande
affermazione della fede italiana fascista nella città imperiale’, sending in his stead the
Minister of Justice Arrigo Solmi.105 Solmi’s speech made it clear that the occasion was
primarily a celebration of the new Fascist empire, which, having been triumphantly
100
Ibid.
101
‘La “Zona Dantesca” a Ravenna solennemente inaugurata con un discorso di S. E. Solmi’, Popolo d’Italia,
14 Sept 1936, 3.
102
Ibid.
103
‘Il silenzio per la tomba di Dante’, Corriere della Sera, 9 Sept 1936, 3.
104
‘La “Zona Dantesca” a Ravenna’, Popolo d’Italia, 5 Sept 1936, 3.
105
‘La “Zona Dantesca” sarà sistemata per volontà del Duce’, Popolo d’Italia, 6 Sept 1932, 3.
271
established in only a few months, was necessary ‘allo sviluppo del suo popolo e alla
affermazione della sua sana e vitale potenza nel mondo’.106 Solmi also hailed Mussolini
as the great figure who had finally fulfilled Dante’s dreams of a renewal of the Roman
Empire:
l’idea imperiale di Dante nata da Roma, confermata in Ravenna, trova una

storica continuazione adatta ai nuovi tempi, nell’idea fascista, ispirata dalla
gloria di Roma e accesa dal genio di un figlio di questa terra feconda e
prodigiosa; idea che, realizzando nelle linee emergenti il sogno dantesco,
ha risanguato l’Italia e l’ha ricondotta all’antica potenza, per renderla
capace di salvare ancora una volta i tesori dello spirito e le forme della
civiltà.107
Solmi’s words indicated that this occasion was welcomed as an opportunity for the regime
to reaffirm its links with ancient Rome in the wake of Mussolini’s proclamation of empire in
May 1936.108
Solmi’s concluding declaration exemplified the belligerent and triumphalist rhetoric the
conquest of Ethiopia had engendered, and implied that Dante should be revered as a
patron saint of Fascist endeavours to make Italy a great power. He proposed that the cult
of Dante
non è soltanto un ossequio dovuto al Sommo Poeta … ma è una passione

viva che rinnova le virtù della stirpe e le appronta ai più alti prodigi. L’aspra
lotta che dilania oggi gran parte dell’Europa, impegna la salvezza o la
rovina della civiltà occidentale. L’Italia ha il suo posto segnato ed è salda
nei suoi baluardi, sotto il segno di Roma, finalmente rinnovato nello spirito e
nelle istituzioni, con la sua disciplina consapevole, col suo assetto forte e
guerriero. L’Italia vuole la pace, ma è pronta ad ogni cimento. Nella pace e
nei cimenti essa ha i suoi Numi tutelari e tra questi Dante ha da secoli
altissimo luogo.109
This passage reflected the view common at the time that only the most able of nations
could expect to survive in a world governed by ruthless competition and imperialist
106
‘La “Zona Dantesca” solennemente inaugurata con un discorso di S. E. Solmi’, Popolo d’Italia, 14 Sept
1936, 3.
107
Ibid.
108
S. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, Berkeley, University
of California Press, 1997, 93.
109
‘La “Zona Dantesca” solennemente inaugurata con un discorso di S. E. Solmi’, Popolo d’Italia, 14 Sept
1936, 3.
272
impulses, and this Darwinian theory was used to justify the rise of the all powerful Fascist
state which possessed the means and will to marshal the nation’s resources to meet the
challenge of modern war.110 Solmi’s words also evidenced the fact that the Roman
tradition constituted a strong and necessary point of reference in the Fascist regime’s
efforts to present an image of Italy as an aggressive and powerful nation state.111
The greatest manifestation of the characterisation of Dante as the prophet of the Fascist
Empire can be found in the planned, yet never realised, Danteum. The idea of this
monument to Dante and Fascist Italy was proposed by the Milanese lawyer Rino
Valdameri, president of the Milanese section of Società dantesca italiana, with funding to
be provided by Milanese steel magnate Count Alessandro Poss. The chief architect of the
project was Giuseppe Terragni, who had designed the Casa del Fascio in Como,
completed in 1936. An adherent of architectural rationalism, Terragni saw as the object of
his design as the interpretation of the spirit of the age.112 As a committed Fascist, Terragni
thus believed that his architecture had a role in building the Fascist state.113 His Casa del
Fascio was designed to reflect Mussolini’s maxim that Fascism was a ‘casa di vetro’, and it
was an architectural metaphor for the idea that under the Fascist regime there was
supposedly no barrier between the political hierarchy and the people.114 This temple to the
Fascist religion attested to the fact that, under the Fascist regime, buildings were good
publicity for its grandiose ambitions, and can be seen as part of the attempt to sacralise
the Fascist state.115
Although the plans for the Danteum were reportedly enthusiastically received by
Mussolini in 1938, its priority was subordinated to the huge demands placed on the regime
110
111
S. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, 92.
112
Jeremy Tambling, ‘Terragni, fascism, and allegory: Reading the Danteum’, The Italianist, 17, 1997, 124.
113
Ibid., 123.
114
T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the Architecture of Literature, Princeton, Princeton UP, 1985,
18.
115
273
by Italy’s entry into the Second World War. The Danteum was to have been built in time
for the ostentatious celebration of 20 years of Fascist rule, the Esposizione universale
romana of 1942, which, again, due to the war, was never realised. The Danteum was, in
effect, intended to be a symbol of Dante’s political aspirations for Italy, and to be a
celebration of the words of Dante which, its proponents claimed, were a source of
inspiration for Mussolini.116 The Danteum was to house a complete library of Dante’s
works and studies dealing with them, and all related iconography. The building was also
to be the centre of yet another national organisation which would work to promote, in Italy
and abroad, the study of Dante, and furthermore, ‘to suggest and aid those initiatives that
foster and attest to the character of Imperial Fascist Italy’.117
The Danteum was to be situated on the Via dell’Impero, now Via dei Fori Imperiali, at the
intersection with Via Cavour, a location which was originally meant to host the Palazzo
Littorio. This strategic position on the Via dell’Impero would have been difficult to miss; it
marked the passage from the Colosseum, symbol of the ancient Roman Empire, to Piazza
Venezia, the site of Mussolini’s office and so the centre of the new Fascist Empire. It
would also have been placed opposite one of the largest remaining Roman imperial
structures, the Basilica of Maxentius, which, having been dedicated to Constantine the
Christian emperor, represented the unity of Church and empire in Fascist thought.118 The
positioning of the monument was thus intended to be highly significant, marking Dante’s
role in linking the new Fascist empire to the ancient Roman empire, and the poet’s
perceived importance to the issue of relations between Church and state.
The design for the Danteum made allegorical use of the Divina Commedia, and the
building would have allowed the visitor to replicate, to some extent, the journey of the
pilgrim Dante in the great poem. This passage through the Inferno, Purgatorio and
Paradiso would also have been a metaphor for Italy’s progress from disorder to the
116
T. L. Schumacher, The Danteum: A Study in the Architecture of Literature, 155.
117
Ibid.
118
Jeremy Tambling, ‘Terragni, fascism, and allegory: Reading the Danteum’, 127.
274
‘heavenly’ state instituted by Fascism with its empire. One would enter the building
through a narrow corridor, which represented the ‘difficult journey’; the courtyard, in
architectural terms a wasted space, would be filled with a ‘forest’ of 100 marble columns,
and in Terragni’s conception, was to represent Dante’s life at the beginning of the
Commedia.119 From the courtyard, entrance would be gained to the room of the Inferno,
which was to be composed of 7(rather than 9) descending levels in spiral, representing the
moral divisions of Hell, and whose atmosphere was to be generally oppressive. The room
of the Purgatorio would be reached by ascending 9 steps (3 groups of 3 steps, symbolising
the three cantiche), and was again to be composed of levels, yet this time in ascent, to
symbolise the climb up the mount of Purgatory. The ceiling of this room was also to have
several glass windows or skylights, evoking a more hopeful, positive atmosphere. Again
by ascending 9 steps, the room of the Paradiso would be reached, which was to contain
33 glass columns, with a roof open to the sky, with the purpose of signifying the transition
from a material to a spiritual realm.120 The use of glass in the room of the Paradiso was to
symbolise the transparency of Fascism, as it had in Terragni’s Casa del Fascio.121 The
journey through the Danteum was to culminate in the room of the Impero; a rectangular,
corridor-like space, at the end of which there would hover the imposing design of an eagle.
This imperial chamber was to be ‘intepreted as the nave of a temple’.122 The
interdependency of the rooms of the Paradiso and of the Impero – the latter only being
reached through the former – was to symbolise the interdependency of Church and
Empire in Dante’s thought.123 On exiting the Danteum, one would be confronted by a
statue representing the Veltro, which would reside next to the façade which was to be
119
120
121
Ibid., 130.
122
123
Ibid., 33.
275
resplendent with 100 marble blocks, each inscribed with all allusions to empire contained
in the Divina Commedia.124
In the Danteum, the visitor would be able to move in one direction only, guided by the
architecture, which attempted to recreate the pilgrim Dante’s experience in the Commedia.
The fact that the visitor would have been channelled by the building also represented the
relationship of the individual Italian to the Fascist state; just as the visitor’s movement was
governed by the structure of the building, so in Fascist Italy was the individual subject to
the will of the state.125 This ambitious project was planned to be the supreme symbolic
manifestation of Fascist Italy’s fulfilment of Dante’s imperial vision. Had it been built, the
Danteum, a temple not just to Dante, but more importantly to the Fascist Empire, would
have stood in elegant testimony to the regime’s considerable pretensions.
124
Ibid., 28.
125
276
Figure 14. Danteum, view to Colosseum.
Figure 15. Danteum, front view.
277
Figure 16. Danteum, view of courtyard.
Figure 17. Danteum, room of the Inferno.
278
Figure 18. Danteum, room of the Purgatorio.
Figure 19. Danteum, room of the Paradiso.
279
Figure 20. Danteum, room of the Impero.
280
***
The apotheosis of the Fascist appropriation of Dante was the utilisation of his prophecies
of the Veltro to support the deification of Mussolini as Italy’s omnipotent leader. This
aspect of the myth of Dante in Fascist Italy saw the cult of Dante meet the cult of the Duce.
In the regime’s symbolic world, the characterisation of Mussolini as the Duce came to
occupy a central role, and it was the most powerful and pervasive Fascist myth.126 The
regime’s propaganda attributed to Mussolini superhuman and supernatural powers, and he
was idealised as the the personification of the values the regime attempted to promote as
essential to the character of the new Fascist man.127 As the Duce, Mussolini was cast as
the embodiment of the qualities of virility, patriotism, youthfulness and martial valour.128
The supposed omnipresence of Mussolini was to some extent rendered a reality given the
constant representation of him in urban centres of Italy, through posters, inscriptions,
cinema, and via radio broadcasts.129 The words and images of the myth of the Duce were
not original, however, often adopting the traditional discourse of the Church, in an effort to
make the regime more comprehensible and acceptable to the majority of Italians who were
influenced by Catholic culture.130
For some writers striving to display their devotion to Mussolini and their faith in Fascism,
or perhaps just to find favour with the regime, Dante’s prophecies of the allegorical Veltro
who would rescue Italy from its disorder were an eloquent and reverent means of
confirming the image of the Duce as the saviour of the Italian nation. An example of this
fanciful endeavour can be found in the aforementioned essay by Giovanni Forte, ‘L’ideale
di Dante nella sua realtà storica’, published in 1940. Forte claimed that Mussolini, with his
126
R .J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship, 67.
127
128
129
S. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy , 78.
130
R. J. B. Bosworth, ‘Introduction’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Fascism, Oxford,
OUP, 2009, 5.
281
Fascist revolution, had transformed Italy and established the new Roman empire in
fulfilment of Dante’s vision:
Benito Mussolini può dirsi il creatore di questo novus ordo, di questa

ordinatio ad unum, con la fondazione di uno stato unitario, autoritario,
totalitario e corporativo, che non annulla il diritto di libertà, anzi lo potenzia e
lo sviluppa in ossequio alla sovranità delle leggi. Se nell’avvento della
nuova Europa lo Stato Fascista servirà di modello e di esempio agli altri
Stati per garantire la pace e la giustizia del mondo, Benito Mussolini potrà
ben dirsi il Veltro Dux, profetizzato dal Divin Poeta, che con sapienza,
amore e virtude ha saputo ricostruire il nuovo Impero di Roma mediante la
vera controriforma politica, morale e sociale del Fascismo, mettendo in atto
quelle stesse teorie enunciate da Dante nella “Monarchia”.131
As this passage indicates, Dante’s Veltro of Inferno I was often equated with the allegorical
figure of the DXV, or ‘Dux’, of Purgatorio XXXIII, whom Dante had prophesied would come
to reform the Church in Italy. This author found proof of his proposition that Mussolini was
the personification of Dante’s ‘Dux’ in the fact that he had achieved ‘coordinazione in
Roma dei due poteri, lo Stato e la Chiesa, ormai definitivamente avvenuta mediante i Patti
Lateranensi dell’11 febbraio 1929’.132 The Lateran Pacts of February 1929, which
established a dialogue between the Fascist state and the pope, and which elevated
Catholicism as the state religion and made the instruction of Catholic doctrine in schools
obligatory, were thus painted by Forte as the final fulfilment of Dante’s vision of the ideal
political and religious organisation of Italy.
While numerous publications which exalted Mussolini as Dante’s prophesied Veltro can
be found, one monograph on the poet by Russian author Demetrio Merejkowski devoted
several pages to a comparison between Mussolini and Dante himself. In this ingratiating
attempt to find favour with the Duce and promote his work, the author gushed that
Mussolini was similar to Dante in character, thought, and even in physical appearance and
mannerisms, based on Boccaccio’s description of Dante. Following an interview with
Mussolini, Merejkowski reflected that the medieval poet and the Fascist dictator were
‘originariamente affini, complementari l’uno dell’altro. Dante nella contemplazione, in
131
Giovanni Forte, ‘L’ideale di Dante nella sua realtà storica’, 397.
132
Ibid., 398.
282
speculando, ci fa comprendere Mussolini; Mussolini nell’azione, in operando, ci farà
comprendere Dante’.133
Among these works which utilised Dante and his prophecies to propagandise the cult of
the Duce, the monograph by poet Domenico Venturini entitled Dante Alighieri e Benito
Mussolini, first published in 1927 and revised in 1932, is impressive for its detailed and
systematic approach to the task. The simple language and structure of the text suggest
that it was intended as a popular divulgation of the topic, and given that it was published
as one of the ‘opere per l’incremento della letteratura fascista’, it may even have been
distributed in Dopolavori.134 The tenuous nature of Venturini’s thesis is offset, at least for
the purposes of this examination, by the audacity of its attempt to find support for every
aspect of the Fascist political order in Dante’s works. As Amilcare Rossi, national
president of Associazione Nazionale Combattenti, opined in his preface to the work,
Venturini had undertaken his study ‘con coscienza di erudito, eleganza di letterato, e, quel
che più conta, con entusiasmo di fascista. Il suo volume ha un valore d’Italianità oltre che
di storia e di letteratura’.135 This assertion that the study was important because it was
above all an expression of Fascist fervour, indicated that, as some would say of
Mussolini’s regime itself, what counted most was style, not content.
Venturini’s basic aim was to reveal that ‘Dante ha vagheggiato gli stessi ideali politici,
morali, religiosi messi in essere dall’Era Fascista’.136 He began by demonstrating how the
Fascist state was the realisation of Dante’s ideal political system. Dante’s
recommendation that there be ‘l’unità di comando e la continuità di governo’ found its
fulfilment in the totalitarian state where ‘non esiste alcuna forza politica fuori dello Stato; la
sovranità risiede nello Stato; il governo è unitario, diretto da un “Capo”’.137 He maintained
that the poet would have approved of the suppression of political rivals to Fascism,
133
D. Merejkowski, Dante, trans. by R. K. Küfferle, Zanichelli, 1938, 12.
134
Stefano Albertini, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso e abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia fascista’, 126.
135
Domenico Venturini, Dante Alighieri e Benito Mussolini, 5.
136
Ibid., 315.
137
Ibid., 50.
283
because ‘Dante riteneva dannoso alla continuità del potere non solo le lotte dei partiti, ma
l’esistenza ancora di essi. Ed il Fascismo non ha operata la soppressione dei partiti?’.138
Venturini even found in Dante support for the institution of the Fascist Gran Consiglio; for
Venturini’s Dante, ‘unità di comando’ meant ‘la cooperazione de’ più alti intelletti’ with the
‘Capo’.139
The central theme of Venturini’s work was that all Dante’s political ideals could be fulfilled
with the Fascist regime, because Mussolini was in fact the allegorical Veltro incarnate.
The author compared the disorderly condition of Italy in Dante’s time, which had prompted
him to call for the ‘Veltro’ to save Italy, to the volatile state of Italy prior to the rise of
Fascism:
‘E all’Italia, afflitta dalle crisi ministeriali in periodi specialmente che

precedettero l’avvento del fascismo si poteva dire ciò che a Firenze diceva
Dante:
… fai tanto sottili
provvedimenti, che a mezzo novembre
non giunge quello che d’ottobre fili.
[…] Coloro adunque che ai nostri giorni si succedevano al potere a

brevissimi intervalli, erano della stessa natura degli animali ai quali si
ammogliava la Lupa a’ tempi danteschi, animali che al presente, come
allora, furono infesti alla salute e alla prosperità d’Italia’.140
And of course it was Mussolini who had saved contemporary Italy from the ‘Lupa’: ‘E la
grande missione di liberatore e di riparatore fu solo compiuta ai nostri tempi dal Duce
Magnifico della nuova Italia, che ritenendo, conformemente a Dante, essere indispensabile
alla prosperità della patria, unità di comando, continuità di governo, abbatteva per sempre
la Lupa e gli animali ai quali, bramosi di sobbarcarsi al potere, si rivelavano sempre nemici
al bene del popolo’.141
In addition to this circumstantial evidence of the Duce’s providential role as Dante’s
Veltro, Venturini elucidated how Mussolini resembled in character the prophesied saviour
138
Ibid., 50-51.
139
Ibid., 50.
140
Ibid., 109-110.
141
Ibid., 110.
284
of Italy. Given that Dante had designated that the Veltro be in possession of ‘ardire,
franchezza, sapienza, amore, e virtute’, the author of course averred that the ‘Duce
Magnifico’ was the most exemplary exponent of these qualities.142 ‘Ardire’ and
‘franchezza’ were evidenced by Mussolini’s ‘March on Rome’, one of the fundamental
events of Fascist mythology.143 Mussolini exhibited his ‘sapienza’ because in just four
years he had allegedly achieved the reform of all areas of national activity.144 The Duce’s
‘amore’ was to be seen in his generous budgets for the arts and science, and also in the
cult he promoted of the glories of ancient Rome.145 And finally, this twentieth century
Veltro displayed his great ‘virtute’ because he possessed all the virtues that every true
follower of Fascism was encouraged to develop: ‘la franchezza, la lealtà, il disinteresse, la
probità, il coraggio, la tenacia’.146
Finally, Venturini found much evidence for this portrayal of Mussolini as the saviour of
Italy prophesied by Dante in the Fascist dictator’s handling of the relations between the
Church and the state. Mussolini’s success in winning the endorsement of the Church with
the Lateran pacts was, as this work indicates, a great propagandistic triumph for the
regime. Mussolini was hailed as the figure who had solved the ‘Roman question’ after
many decades of political impasse, and most importantly, the regime was sanctified by the
Church’s alliance. Mussolini could accordingly be painted as the personification of the
Veltro and Dante’s ‘Messo di Dio’, or ‘DXV’, often referred to as the ‘Dux’. Venturini
defined the ‘Dux’ as the figure who would ‘riconduce le due alte potestà, ecclesiastica
l’una, civile l’altra, nell’ambito della propria giurisdizione tornando l’ecclesiastica a
sopraintendere alle cose divine, la civile alle terrene, riconoscendo al tempo stesso e
142
Ibid., 115.
143
Ibid., 116.
144
Ibid.
145
Ibid., 117-118.
146
Ibid., 120.
285
difendendo i diritti della Chiesa’.147 Mussolini, as Venturini triumphantly declared in
conclusion, ideally conformed to this characterisation of the Dux:
… il confronto tra il nostro Duce Magnifico e il Dux, Messo di Dio, vaticinato

da Dante appare inoppugnabile. Egli è veramente l’uomo predestinato
dalla Provvidenza a recare a compimento la tanto attesa riconciliazione dei
rapporti tra la Chiesa e lo Stato.
Se i vaticini dell’Alighieri intorno al Veltro, al Dux, al Messo di Dio, non si
avverarono ai tempi dell’Alighieri, e l’Italia attese invano il Veltro, il Dux, il
Messo di Dio, la data memorabile del 28 ottobre 1922 e del 11 febbraio
1929 annunziarono alle genti attonite che il Veltro, il Dux, il Messo di Dio,
erano finalmente individuati in Benito Mussolini che s’apprestava ad
operare per la salute e grandezza d’Italia, per la difesa e il prestigio della
Chiesa’.148
Venturini’s exposition was yet another example of how Dante’s medieval thought could be
manipulated to support almost any eventuality of modern Italian politics. In this case, the
poet was an ideal tool for a Fascist supporter in his attempt to present Mussolini’s regime
as the revelation of a glorious national Italian history, for which Dante was held to have
provided an important and enduring template.
In their cultural endeavours to promote the legitimacy of Mussolini’s dictatorship, some
advocates of a Fascist version of Italian national identity capitalised upon the
characterisation of Dante established during the Liberal era as a symbol of the Italian
nation, and as the prophet of the renewal of an Italian empire. This appropriation of Dante
as a symbolic and even ideological bolster to the Fascist cause became part of an attempt
to confirm the idea that the Fascist state was the embodiment of the Italian nation.
Although the Fascist idea of the nation was based on several of the same myths which
had underpinned the Liberal concept of the nation, such as that of Italy’s ‘primato’ and
mission, and the need for the regeneration of Italians, it discarded the essential notions of
the Italian nation born during the Risorgimento. By divorcing it from its connections with
147
Ibid., 299.
148
Ibid., 299-300.
286
liberty and equality, Fascist ideology impoverished the idea of the Italian nation.
Accordingly, the reconstruction of Dante as an icon of Fascism denuded the myth of the
poet as a symbol of the Italian nation of its original connotations of national liberty and
fraternity, and Dante was reduced to little more than a representative of Fascist
imperialism.
287
Conclusion
This analysis of Dante’s role in the evolution of the idea of the Italian nation from the
period of the Risorgimento to the Fascist era has revealed how pliable and valuable the
medieval poet was in the imagining and creation of what it meant to be Italian. For those
who sought to craft a national history for the Italian nation state, Dante and his works were
employed to provide evidence that the Italian nation possessed ideological roots
embedded in the remote past, and to suggest that there existed a prestigious precedent
for national unity. In effect, the image of the poet constructed by nationalist ideologues
and patriots helped to render the abstract concept of the Italian nation more tangible. The
elaboration of this nationalist myth of Dante also served the purpose of legitimising the
idea of the Italian nation, as well as its political expression as an independent, secular
nation state.
In his function as a national symbol Dante was primarily and consistently held to be an
emblem of an Italian linguistic, cultural, and geographical identity. He was also cast as a
representative of an ideal Italian character, a champion of lay political culture, an icon of a
Catholic Italian political tradition, and as a stimulus to the achievement of Italy’s great
national destiny and its universal mission, or right to empire, depending on the political
persuasion and historical context of those who turned to the poet for ideological support.
Indeed, Dante was both a fixed and a flexible symbol; while the fundamental aspects of
this invention of the Florentine poet as the epitome of italianità remained fairly static
throughout the period under study, the interpretation and instrumentalisation of them
altered according to the political and cultural objectives of the time. This mutability of the
myth of Dante reflected the fact that the idea of the nation which he was held to represent
also changed over time. As a potent ‘memory place’ of modern Italy, the poet’s many
layered image provided a figurative tool with which to debate the cultural and political
issues of the Italian nation.
288
The various permutations of the image of Dante as a national symbol thus indicates that
there was more than one way of being Italian. Yet all those Italians who turned to the poet
as a symbol of their aspirations, despite their contrasting political and ideological
affiliations, were evidently united by the belief that to love and revere Dante was to be
Italian. The use of Dante in giving substance to the idea of the Italian nation essentially
spoke to the sensibilities of those figures and groups actively engaged in the making of
Italians. It revealed that their self-identification as Italians was based on their use of the
national language and their knowledge of, and emotional connection with, a literary and
cultural tradition of which the Florentine poet was held to be the greatest icon. Dante’s
construction and deployment as a symbol of italianità thus confirms that Italian language
and culture were fundamental and inviolable elements of the idea of the nation.
On the basis of the evidence considered in this study, it would seem likely that the myth
of Dante as an archetype of Italian national culture in its highest form had minimal
influence in the lives of the peasants and workers who made up the majority of the Italian
population during the period in question. As an icon of the Italian nation conceived by elite
groups, for the benefit of an educated audience, Dante was of little assistance in bridging
the enduring gulf between state and society, between official, intellectual culture and
popular culture. Yet this analysis has revealed that knowledge of this nationalist Dante,
and the worship of him as one of the secular saints of the Italian nation state, was a badge
of belonging for the intellectual elite, and for those ever increasing sections of the middle
classes who responded to, and embraced the process of nation-building pursued by
successive ruling groups of Liberal and Fascist Italy.
For Villari and Mussolini, Mazzini and Pope Benedict XV, Dante possessed a vital
significance in their often conflicting yet comparable attempts to capture the hearts and
minds of Italians. These important political protagonists of the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, along with many other prominent nationalist ideologues and less
renowned Italian patriots, employed Dante as a national symbol with the intention of
289
shaping the history of Italy. In the promotion of many of the decisive aspects of Italian
national identity, Dante was co-opted as an authoritative and reliable collaborator. It is
without doubt that the Florentine poet, as he was imagined in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, can be considered not just a founding father of the Italian nation, but
also a defining element in the development of Italian history.
The demise of the Fascist regime prompted, at least temporarily, the abandonment of
Dante in his guise as ‘padre della nazione italiana’. The insistent promotion of the
identification of the idea of the Italian nation with Fascism during Mussolini’s dictatorship
had led to a decline in the potency of the Italian national myth. As a result, the myth of
Dante as the embodiment of the Italian nation was tarnished by its association with Fascist
nationalism. However, in recent times, the rise of the Lega Nord and other separatist
movements throughout the peninsula has signalled the possible fragmentation of the
Italian nation state. Will these developments necessitate a redeployment of Dante as a
symbol of national unity in yet another permutation of his myth? Whatever unfolds, it is
most probable that Dante, medieval poet and symbol of italianità, will once again become
an essential and evocative reference point in Italian nationalist discourse.
290
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Alighieri, Dante, La Divina Commedia, in 3 vols., Natalino Sapegno (ed.), Florence, La

Nuova Italia, 1955-1957. My citations are taken from this edition.
Archival Material
Archivio centrale dello stato (Rome): Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione: monumenti e
onoranze, 1860-1894 (selected buste)
Journals, newspapers and periodicals
Atti della Società “Dante Alighieri” per la diffusione della lingua e della coltura italiana fuori
del Regno (Rome, 1891-1907). The journal was subsequently renamed Bollettino della
Societa` Dante Alighieri (1908), Atti della Societa` Nazionale Dante Alighieri (1909-1923),
and Le Pagine della Dante Alighieri (1924-1942).
Avanti! (Milan, 1896-)
Bullettino della Societa` Dantesca Italiana (Florence, 1890-1920). Renamed Studi
danteschi (1921-).
Civiltà Cattolica (1850-)
Corriere della Sera (Milan, 1876-)
Giornale del centenario di Dante Alighieri (Florence, Feb1864 - June1865)
Il VI Centenario Dantesco: Bollettino del Comitato Cattolico per l’Omaggio a Dante
Alighieri (1914-1916)
La festa di Dante: letture domenicali del popolo italiano pubblicate per cura del ‘Giornale
del centenario’ (Florence, Cellini, 59 issues, 1 May 1864 – 11 June 1865)
La Nazione (Florence, 1859-)
La Perseveranza (Milan, 1860-)
La Voce (Florence, 1908-1914)
Nuova Antologia (Florence, 1821-)
Osservatore Romano (Vatican, 1861-)
Popolo d’Italia (Milan, 1914-1943)
Strenna Dantesca compilata da Orazio Bacci e G.L. Passerini (Florence, 1902, 1903)
291
Books and articles
Andriani, Giuseppe, ‘Il Confine dell’Italia sul Quarnaro secondo Dante’, Bollettino della
Reale Società Geografica Italiana, vol. 9, no. 7-10, July-October 1920, 213-227.
Balbo, Cesare, Delle speranze d’Italia, 2nd edition, Capolago, Cantone Ticino, n.p.,1844.
___________ ‘Sommario della Storia d’Italia: libro 6’ (1846), in Maria Fubini Leuzzi (ed.),
Storia d’Italia e altri scritti editi e inediti di Cesare Balbo, Turin, Unione tipografico-
editrice torinese, 1984, 333-786.
___________ Vita di Dante, Turin, Dall’unione tipografico-editrice torinese, 1857.
Barlow, Henry Clark, The Sixth Centenary Festivals of Dante Alighieri in Florence and at
Ravenna. By a Representative, London-Edinburgh, Williams & Norgate, Florence-
Turin, Loescher, 1866.
Bellezza, Paolo, Curiosità dantesche, Milan, Hoepli, 1913.
Bragagnolo, Giovanni & Bettazzi, Enrico, La Storia d’Italia per le Scuole Tecniche secondo
i vigenti programmi, vol III: Storia moderna 1492-1900, Turin, Casa Editrice G. B.
Petrini di Giovanni Gallizio, 1912.
Bruers, Antonio, ‘Dante nel Pensiero del Risorgimento’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la
Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June- 30 September 1917, 53-59.
Campi, L., ‘L’Italianità del Trentino’, Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, XI Ottobre MDCCCXCVI:
Ricordo dell’Inaugurazione del Monumento Nazionale a Trento, Trento, Giovanni
Zippel Editore, 1896, 29-34.
Cappa, Innocenzo, Dante e l’anima nazionale, Forlì, Cooperativa editrice sindacale fra i
maestri d’Italia, 1921.
Carducci, Giosuè, ‘Ad Adriano Lemmi’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione nazionale,
Rifiuti e grazie, vol.XXV, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1938, 275-277.
______________ ‘Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Giambi ed Epodi e Rime Nuove,
vol. IX, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1908, 189.
______________ ‘Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Juvenilia e Levia Gravia, vol. VI,
Bolgna, Zanichelli, 1909, 123-129.
______________ ‘Epigraph’ to Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, XI Ottobre MDCCCXCVI:
Ricordo dell’Inaugurazione del Monumento Nazionale a Trento, Trento, Giovanni
Zippel Editore, 1896, ii.
______________ ‘In morte di Giovanni Cairoli’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione
nazionale, Giambi ed Epodi, vol. III, 47-52.
292
______________ ‘La Divina Commedia col comento di P. Fraticelli, Firenze, G. Barbera,
1860’, Opere di Giosuè Carducci, vol. V: Ceneri e faville, serie prima, 1859-1870,
Bologna, Zanichelli, 1908, 314-316.
______________ L’Opera di Dante: Discorso di Giosuè Carducci tenuto in Roma a dí VIII
gennaio 1888, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1888.
______________ ‘Nel sesto centenario di Dante’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Juvenilia
e Levia Gravia, vol. VI, 1909, 376-378.
______________ ‘Niccolini e Cavour’, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: edizione nazionale,
vol. XXVI, Ceneri e Faville, serie prima(1848-1868), Bologna, Zanichelli, 1938, 315-
317.
______________ ‘Sunto di tre letture pubbliche fatte da Stefano Bissolati per incarico del
Municipio di Cremona (Estratto dal Corriere Cremonese, maggio 1865)’, Cremona,
Ronzi e Signori, 1865, and ‘Per il sesto centenario di Dante, ricordo al Popolo’,
Firenze, Bettini, 1865, in Opere di Giosuè Carducci: Ceneri e faville, vol. V, Bologna,
Zanichelli, 1908, 323-332.
Ciano, Galeazzo, Diario 1937-1943, ed. R. De Felice, Milan, Rizzoli, 1998.
Conti, Romolo, Della scoperta delle ossa di Dante: relazione con documenti per cura del
Municipio di Ravenna, Ravenna, Tip. di G. Angeletti, 1870.
Corradini, Enrico, Tre Canti Danteschi, Florence, Le Monnier, 1921.
Crispi, Francesco, Carteggi politici inediti di Francesco Crispi (1860-1900), Rome,
L’Universelle, 1912.
Croce, Benedetto, Il Sesto Centenario Dantesco e il carattere della poesia di Dante:
Discorso del Ministro della Pubblica Istruzione Benedetto Croce letto nella Sala di
Dante di Ravenna, Florence, Sansoni, 1920.
Dante e il suo secolo XIV Maggio MDCCCLXV, Florence, Cellini, 1865.
Del Balzo, Carlo (ed.), Poesie di mille autori intorno a Dante Alighieri, raccolte ed ordinate
cronologicamente con note storiche, bibliografiche e biografiche da Carlo Del Balzo, 15
vols., Rome, Forzani & Co., Tip. del Senato Editori, 1889-1909.
Del Lungo, Isidoro, ‘Dante e la Dalmazia’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9,
30 June – 30 September 1917, 69.
_______________ Firenze e Italia nella vita e nel poema di Dante. Letto da Isidoro Del
Lungo, come presidente della Società Dantesca Italiana, nella sala di Dante in
Orsanmichele pel secentenario del 1921, Florence, Sansoni, 1921.
Del Vasto Celano, Maria, ‘Il Monito di Dante’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-
9, 30 June-30 September 1917, 5-7.
293
De Sanctis, Francesco, ‘Il pensiero di Dante’, in Scritti politici di Francesco De Sanctis, 2nd
edn, Naples, Antonio Murano, 1890, 32-36.
__________________ ‘La monarchia nazionale’, in Scritti politici di Francesco De
nd
Sanctis, 2 edn, Naples, Antonio Murano, 1890, 75-78.
__________________ ‘L’uomo del Guicciardini’, Saggi critici, vol. 3, Bari, Laterza, 1963,
1-23.
__________________ ‘Onorate L’Altissimo Poeta!’, Scritti politici di Francesco De
Sanctis, 2nd edn, Naples, Antonio Murano, 1890, 27-31.
__________________ Storia della letteratura italiana, 2 vols., Bari, Laterza, 1964.
D’Ovidio, Francesco, ‘Proemio’, Dante e l’Italia nel VI Centenario della Morte del Poeta
1921, Rome, Società anonima poligrafica italiana, 1921.
Engels, F., ‘Preface to the Italian Edition of 1893’, in Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The
Communist Manifesto with an Introduction by A. J. P. Taylor, London, Penguin, 1967,
74-76.
Ercole, Francesco, ‘Ciò che Dante dice all’età nostra’, Dante e Machiavelli, Rome, Società
editrice politica, 1922, 55-74.
_______________ ‘La coscienza morale di Dante e i problemi di età nostra’, in
Conferenze tenute in Roma alla Casa di Dante il 21 e 28 gennaio 1934-xii, Rome,
1934, 3-24.
Forte, Giovanni, ‘L’ideale di Dante nella sua realtà storica’, L’idea di Roma: rivista politica,
no 24, Oct-Nov 1940, 370-398.
Foscolo, Ugo, ‘A Parallel between Dante and Petrarch (Essays on Petrarch 1823), in
Franco Gavazzeni (ed.), Ugo Foscolo: Opere, vol. II, Milan-Naples, Riccardo Ricciardi,
1981, 1755-1810.
___________ ‘Dei Sepolcri (1807)’, in F. Pagliai, G. Folena & M. Scotti (eds.), Edizione
nazionale delle opere di Ugo Foscolo, vol. 1: Poesie e carmi, Florence, Le Monnier,
1985, 125-142.
___________ ‘Discorso sul testo e su le opinioni diverse prevalenti intorno alla storia e
alla emendazione critica della Commedia di Dante’, in G. Da Pozzo (ed.), Edizione
nazionale delle opere di Ugo Foscolo, vol. IX: Studi su Dante I, Florence, Le Monnier,
1979, 147-582.
___________ ‘La chioma di Berenice (1803)’, in Franco Gavazzeni (ed.), Ugo Foscolo:
Opere, vol. II, Milan-Naples, Riccardo Ricciardi, 1981, 1247-1280.
___________ ‘Orazioni e lezioni dalla cattedra di Pavia 1809’, in Emilio Santini (ed.),
Edizione nazionale delle opere di Ugo Foscolo: Lezioni, Articoli di critica e di polemica
1809-1811, vol. VII, Florence, Le Monnier, 1933, 3-164.
294
___________ ‘Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis’, in G. Gambarin (ed.), Edizione nazionale
delle opere di Ugo Foscolo: Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis, vol. IV, Florence, Le
Monnier, 1970.
Gentile, Giovanni, Studi su Dante, Florence, Sansoni, 1965.
Gioberti, Vincenzo, Del Primato morale e civile degli Italiani, 2nd ed., Brussels, Meline,
Cans & Co., 1845.
Guida officiale per le feste del centenario di Dante Alighieri, Florence, Cellini, 1865.
‘La celebrazione del secentenario dantesco’, L’Alpe, no.6, June 1921, 11-16.
‘La Nazione vittoriosa tributa il suo omaggio ideale: Il vibrante saluto dell’Esercito e
dell’Armata’, Il Progresso (Bologna), 13 Sept 1921, 1.
Leopardi, Giacomo, ‘Sopra il monumento di Dante che si preparava in Firenze’, in Walter
Binni (ed.), Tutte Le Opere, vol. 1, Florence, Sansoni, 1983, 4-6.
Manfroni, Camillo, La Patria Lontana: libro di lettura per gli Italiani, Livorno, Raffaello Giusti
Editore, 1898.
Mantovani, Dino, Il poeta soldato: Ippolito Nievo, 1831-1861, da documenti inediti, Milan,
Treves, 1900.
Mazzini, Giuseppe, ‘Ai poeti del secolo XIX’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol. 2,
Lugano, Tip. della Svizzera italiana, 1847, 106-133.
_______________ ‘Dante’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol. 1, Lugano, Tip.
della Svizzera italiana, 1847, 125-138.
_______________ Dei doveri dell’uomo: Fede e avvenire, Milan, Mursia, 1972.
_______________ ‘Dell’amor patrio di Dante’, in Scritti letterari di un italiano vivente, vol.
1, Lugano, Tip. della Svizzera italiana, 1847, 149-170.
_______________ ‘On the genius and tendencies of the writings of Thomas Carlyle’, in
William Clarke (ed.), Essays: selected from the writings, literary, political and religious,
of Joseph Mazzini, London, Walter Scott Publishing, n.d., 109-149.
_______________ ‘On the minor works of Dante’, in William Clarke (ed.), Essays:
selected from the writings, literary, political and religious, of Joseph Mazzini, London,
Walter Scott Publishing, n.d., 177-223.
Mazzoni, Guido, ‘Dante nell’inizio e nel vigore del Risorgimento’, Dante e l’Italia nel VI
Centenario della morte del poeta MCMXXI, Rome, Società Anonima Poligrafica
Italiana, 1921, 347-380.
Merejkowski, Demetrio, Dante, trans. by R. K. Küfferle, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1938.
Missirini, M., Delle Memorie di Dante in Firenze e della gratitudine de’ fiorentini verso il
divino poeta: commentario di Melchior Missirini, 2nd edn, Florence, Tip. Calasanziana,
1830.
295
Mussolini, Benito, Opera Omnia, in 44 vols, eds. E. & D. Susmel, Florence, La Fenice,
1951-1980.
Negri, Gaetano, ‘Prefazione’ to Con Dante e Per Dante: Discorsi e Conferenze Tenuti a
cura del Comitato Milanese della Società Dantesca Italiana, Milan, Hoepli, 1898, i-
xxxiii.
Omaggio a Dante Alighieri offerto dai Cattolici italiani nel maggio 1865, sesto centenario
dalla sua nascita, Roma, Tip. Monaldi, 1865.
Panella, Antonio, ‘Pasquale Villari: Discorso commemorativo letto il 22 dicembre 1918
nella sala di Luca Giordano in Firenze’, Archivio storico italiano, vol. 2, 1918, 7-36.
Papini, Carlo, Il Monumento a Dante per la Città di Trento del Prof. Cesare Zocchi,
Florence, Tip. Bonducciana, 1893.
Papini, Giovanni, ‘Per Dante e Contro Il Dantismo’, Eresie Letterarie: Opere di Giovanni
Papini, vol. 13, Florence, Vallecchi, 1947, 13-23.
Parodi, E. G., ‘Dante, Poeta Nazionale’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30
June- 30 September, 1917, 83-85.
Passerini, G. L., ‘Ricordi Danteschi nel Trentino e nella Venezia Giulia’, Nuovo Convito:
Dante e la Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June - 30 September, 1917, 20-23.
Per il Sesto Centenario di Dante(MDCCCLXV): Ricordo al Popolo, Florence, Tip. di A.
Bettini, 1865.
Per l’inaugurazione della Zona Dantesca, Ravenna, Società tipo-editrice ravennate
mutilati, 13 Sept 1936.
Pistelli, Ermenegildo, ‘Allora e ora’, in E. Pistelli, Eroi, uomini e ragazzi, con prefazione di
Benito Mussolini, Florence, Sansoni, 1927, 137-141.
Ranzi, Guglielmo, ‘Il Monumento a Dante in Trento’, Il Trentino a Dante Alighieri, XI
Ottobre MDCCCXCVI: Ricordo dell’Inaugurazione del Monumento Nazionale a Trento,
Trento, Giovanni Zippel Editore, 1896, 72-96.
Rava, Luigi, Commemorazione della Vittoria della Piave, Forlì, Cooperativa editrice
sindacale fra i maestri d’Italia, 1921.
Ricci, Corrado, ‘Il Monoteismo Dantesco: due lettere’, La Critica: Rivista di letteratura,
storia e filosofia, I, no. 3, 20 May 1903, 230-232.
____________ Lectura Dantis: Roma nel pensiero di Dante. Discorso pronunciato da
Corrado Ricci in Campidoglio il XX settembre MCMXXI, Florence, Sansoni, 1921.
Ricci, Vittore, ‘D’una causa remota del monumento a Dante Alighieri a Trento’, Il Trentino
a Dante Alighieri, XI Ottobre MDCCCXCVI: Ricordo dell’Inaugurazione del Monumento
Nazionale a Trento, Trento, Giovanni Zippel Editore, 1896, 35-43.
296
Rossetti, Gabriele, Sullo spirito antipapale che produsse la Riforma, e sulla segreta
influenza ch’esercitò nella letteratura d’Europa, e specialmente l’Italia, come risulta da
molti suoi classici, massime da Dante, Petrarca, Boccaccio. Disquisizioni di Gabriele
Rossetti, prof. di lingua e letteratura italiana nel collegio del Re in Londra, London,
Gabriele Rossetti, 1832.
Scherillo, Michele, ‘Dante il Simbolo della Patria’, La Patria, no.2, February 1912, 93-104.
Sella, Emanuele, ‘La Religione di Dante negli anni di Guerra’, Nuovo Convito: Dante e la
Guerra, II, no. 6-9, 30 June- 30 September 1917, 95-124.
Sesto Centenario di Dante: inno, cori e cantata in onore di Dante Alighieri eseguiti nei
giorni 14, 15, e 16 maggio in Firenze, Florence, Tip. Cellini, 1865.
Solmi, Arrigo, ‘L’idea imperiale di Dante’, in G. Galbiati (ed.), Studi su Dante, VII,
Milan, Hoepli, 1944, 1-31.
Turri, Vittorio, Lectura Dantis: Italia nel libro di Dante: Conferenza pronunciata da Vittorio
Turri nella ‘Casa di Dante’ in Roma 26 febbraio 1918, Florence, Sansoni, 1918.
Venturini, Domenico, Dante Alighieri e Benito Mussolini, Rome, Casa editrice ‘Nuova
Italia’, 1940.
Villari, Pasquale, ‘Dante e la letteratura in Italia’, Saggi critici di Pasquale Villari, vol. 1,
Lanciano, G. Carabba Editore, 1919, 1-148.
_____________ ‘Dante e l’Italia’, Nuova Antologia, 253, 16 February 1914, 563-573.
_____________ ‘Francesco De Sanctis e la critica’, Nuova Antologia, 73, Feb 1884, 393-
417.
_____________ ‘Il “De Monarchia” di Dante Alighieri’, Nuova Antologia, 235, 1 Feb 1911,
385-404.
_____________ L’Italia, la civiltà latina e la civiltà germanica, 2nd edn, Florence, Società
toscana per la storia del Risorgimento, 1989.
Von Hassell, Ulrich, ‘L’importanza del pensiero politico di Dante per i nostri tempi’, in
Conferenze tenute in Roma alla Casa di Dante il 21 e 28 gennaio 1934-xii, Rome,
1934, 25-35.
Zippel, Giuseppe, Lectura Dantis: Dante e il Trentino. Conferenza letta da Giuseppe
Zippel nella Sala di Dante in Orsanmichele 8 Gennaio 1920, Florence, Sansoni, 1920.
297
Secondary Sources
Absalom, Roger, Italy since 1800: A nation in the balance?, London, Longman, 1995.
Adamson, Walter L., Avant-Garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism, Cambridge,
Mass., Harvard UP, 1993.
_________________ ‘The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth-Century Italy:
Rhetorical Continuities between Prewar Florentine Avant-Gardism and Mussolini’s
Fascism’, Journal of Modern History, 64, March 1992, 22-51.
Albertini, Stefano, ‘Dante in camicia nera: uso ed abuso del divino poeta nell’Italia
fascista’, The Italianist, no 16, 1996, 117-142.
Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of
Nationalism, London, Verso, 1983.
Antolini, B. M., ‘La musica nelle celebrazioni del sesto centenario dantesco’, in Guido
Salvetti (ed.), Il mito di Dante nella musica della nuova Italia, 1861-1914, Milan, Guerini
Studio, 1994, 33-51.
Arpaia, Paul ‘Constructing a national identity from a created literary past: Giosuè Carducci
and the development of a national literature’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 7(2),
2002, 192-214.
Asor Rosa, Alberto, La cultura, in Storia d’Italia, vol. 4, Dall’unità a oggi, part 2, Torino,
Einaudi, 1975, 821-1664.
_______________ Sintesi di storia della letteratura italiana, Florence, La Nuova Italia,
1972.
Banti, Alberto M., La nazione del Risorgimento. Parentela, santità e onore alle origini
dell’Italia unita, Turin, Einaudi, 2000.
Barbi, Michele, Life of Dante, trans. & ed. Paul G. Ruggiers, Berkeley-LA, University of
California Press, 1954.
Battaglia, Salvatore, ‘L’idea di Dante nel pensiero di G. Mazzini’, Filologia e letteratura, 12,
1966, 113-123.
Ben-Ghiat, Ruth, La cultura fascista, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2000.
Berezin, Mabel, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy, Ithaca-
London, Cornell University Press, 1997.
Bonsaver, Guido, ‘Culture and Intellectuals’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford
Handbook of Fascism, Oxford, OUP, 2009, 109-126.
Bosworth, R. J. B., ‘Dictators, Strong or Weak? The Model of Benito Mussolini’, in R. J. B.
Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Fascism, Oxford, OUP, 2009, 259-278.
298
_______________ ‘Introduction’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
Fascism, Oxford, OUP, 2009, 1-10.
_______________ Italy and the Approach of the First World War, London, Macmillan,
1983.
_______________ Italy, the Least of the Great Powers: Italian foreign policy before the
First World War, London-New York, Cambridge UP, 1979.
_______________ Mussolini, London, Arnold, 2002.
_______________ Mussolini’s Italy, London, Allen Lane, 2005.
_______________ The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the
Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism, London, Arnold, 1998.
_______________ The opening of the Victor Emanuel Monument’, Italian Quarterly, XVIII,
1975, 78-87.
Carsaniga, Giovanni, ‘Foscolo’, in P. Brand and L. Pertile (eds.), The Cambridge History of
Italian Literature, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1996, 412-417.
Chabod, Federico Italian Foreign Policy: the statecraft of the founders, trans. by William
McCuaig, Princeton, Princeton UP, 1996.
Chiari, Alberto, ‘Dante e il Foscolo’, in G. Galbiati (ed.), Studi su Dante, VI: Dante nel
Risorgimento, Milan, Hoepli, 1941, 119-162.
Ciccarelli, Andrea, ‘Dante and Italian culture from the Risorgimento to World War I’, Dante
Studies, 119, 2001, 125-154.
______________ Dante and the culture of Risorgimento: Literary, political or ideological
icon?’, in Albert Russell Ascoli & Krystyna Von Henneberg (eds.), Making and
remaking Italy: the cultivation of national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford-New
York, Berg, 2001, 77-102.
Clark, Martin, Modern Italy 1871-1995, London-New York, Longman, 1996.
Corner, Paul, ‘State and Society, 1901-1922’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist
Italy, Oxford, OUP, 2002, 17-43.
Croce, Benedetto, ‘Introduction’, to F. De Sanctis, History of Italian Literature, trans. by
Joan Redfern, vol. 1, London, OUP, 1930, v-viii.
Cunsolo, Ronald S., Italian Nationalism: From Its Origins to World War II, Malabar, Florida,
Robert E. Krieger, 1990.
Da Pozzo, Giovanni, ‘Dante e Fosoclo’, Belfagor, 33, 1978, 653-679.
Davis, Charles T., ‘Dante and Italian Nationalism’, in W. de Sua & G. Rizzo (eds.), A Dante
Symposium in Commemoration of the 700th anniversary of the Poet’s birth (1265-
1965), Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1965, 199-213.
299
_______________ Dante and the Empire’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion
to Dante, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1993, 67-79.
_______________ Dante and the Idea of Rome, Oxford, Clarendon,1957.
_______________ ‘Dante, Machiavelli and Rome’, Dante Studies, 106, 1988, 43-60.
_______________ Dante’s Italy and Other Essays, Philadelphia, University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
Davis, John A., ‘Economy, society, and the state’, in John A. Davis(ed.), Italy in the
Nineteenth Century, Oxford-New York, OUP, 2000, 235-263.
Della Torre, Renato, Invito alla lettura di Giosuè Carducci, Milan, Mursia, 197, 1985.
Di Donna Prencipe, Carmen, ‘L’exul immeritus nell’opera del Foscolo’, Letture Classensi,
27, 1998, 57-68.
Dionisotti, Carlo, ‘Varia fortuna di Dante’, Rivista Storica Italiana, 78 (3), 1966, 544-583.
Dobbs, B. & J., Dante Gabriel Rossetti: An Alien Victorian, London, Macdonald & Jane’s,
1977.
Dogliani, Patrizia, L’Italia Fascista 1922-1940, Milan, Sansoni, 1999.
Doumanis, N., Italy, London, Arnold, 2001.
Drake, Richard, Byzantium for Rome: the politics of nostalgia in Umbertian Italy, 1878-
1900, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
Duggan, Christopher, ‘Francesco Crispi, “political education” and the problem of Italian
national consciousness, 1860-1896’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 2(2), 1997,
141-166.
_________________ ‘Politics in the era of Depretis and Crispi 1870-96’, in John A. Davis
(ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford-New York, OUP, 2000, 154-180.
Falasca-Zamponi, S., Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy,
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1997.
Ficcadenti, Bruno, ‘L’ “Apostolato dantesco”’, Rassegna storica del Risorgimento, 74(4),
1987, 441-476.
Galletti, Alfredo, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, in Giovanni Galbiati(ed.), Studi su Dante VI: Dante nel
Risorgimento, Hoepli, Milan, 1941, 27-49.
Gellner, Ernest, Nations and nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1983.
Gentile, Emilio, La Grande Italia. Ascesa e declino del mito della nazione nel ventesimo
secolo, Milan, Mondadori, 1997.
____________ Il culto del littorio: La sacralizzazione della politica nell’Italia fascista,
Rome, Laterza, 1993.
____________ The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, trans. Keith Botsford, Harvard,
Harvard University Press, 1996.
300
Giannantonio, Pompeo, ‘Le esegesi dantesche del Foscolo e del Mazzini’, Convivium, 37,
1969, 552-563.
Grab, Alexander, ‘From the French Revolution to Napoleon’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in
the Nineteenth Century, Oxford, OUP, 2000, 25-50.
Grew, Raymond, ‘Culture and society 1796-1896’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the
nineteenth century, Oxford, OUP, 2000, 206-234.
Haddock, Bruce, ‘State, nation and Risorgimento’, in G. Bedani & B. Haddock (eds.), The
politics of Italian national identity, Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 2000, 11-49.
_____________ ‘State and nation in Mazzini’s Political Thought’, History of Political
Thought, 20(2), Summer 1999, 313-336.
Hobsbawm, Eric, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality,
Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1990.
Hobsbawm, E. & Ranger, T. (eds.), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge, Cambridge
UP, 1983.
Irace, Erminia, Itale glorie, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2003.
Kaufman, Peter I., ‘Foscolo, Dante and the Papacy’, History of European Ideas, 12 (2),
1990, 211-220.
Kelikian, Alice A., ‘The Church and Catholicism’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and
Fascist Italy, Oxford, OUP, 2002, 44-61.
Kertzer, David I., ‘Religion and society, 1789-1892’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the
Nineteenth Century, Oxford-New York, OUP, 2000, 181-205.
_____________ Unholy War: The Vatican’s role in the rise of modern anti-semitism, New
York, Macmillan, 2002.
Koon, Tracy H., Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialisation of Youth in Fascist Italy 1922-
1943, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1985.
Landucci, Sergio, Cultura e ideologia in Francesco De Sanctis, Milan, Feltrinelli, 1964.
La Porta, Cristina, ‘History and the poetic vocation in Sopra il monumento di Dante’,
Rivista di Studi Italiani, 16 (2), Dec 1998, 359-375.
Laven, David, ‘The Age of Restoration’, in John A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth
Century, Oxford, OUP, 2000, 51-73.
Levra, Umberto, Fare gli italiani: memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento, Turin,
Comitato di Torino dell’Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano, 1992.
Luzzi, Joseph, ‘Literary Lion: Alfieri’s Prince, Dante, and the Romantic Self’, Italica, 80 (2),
Summer 2003, 175-194.
Lyttelton, Adrian, ‘Creating a national past: History, myth and image in the Risorgimento’,
in Albert Russell Ascoli & Krystyna Von Henneberg (eds.), Making and remaking Italy:
301
the cultivation of national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford-New York, Berg,
2001, 27-74.
______________ ‘An Old Church and a New State: Italian Anticlericalism (1876-1915),
European History Quarterly, 2, 1983, 225-248.
______________ ‘Introduction’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy, Oxford,
OUP, 2002, 1-16.
Mack Smith, Denis, ‘Francesco De Sanctis: the politics of a literary critic’, in John A. Davis
& Paul Ginsborg (eds.), Society and Politics in the age of the Risorgimento,
Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1991, 251-270.
_______________ Mazzini, New Haven – London, Yale UP, 1994.
_______________ Modern Italy: A Political History, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan
Press, 1997.
_______________ The making of Italy 1796-1866, London, Macmillan, 1988.
Mancusi-Ungaro, D., Dante and the Empire, New York, 1987.
Mattalia, Daniele, ‘Dante Alighieri’, in Walter Binni (ed.), I classici italiani nella storia della
critica, vol. 1: Da Dante a Marino, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1960, 1-94.
Mattesini, Francesco, Per una lettura storica di Carducci, Milan, Vita e Pensiero, 1975.
Mazzotta, G., ‘Life of Dante’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dante,
Najemy, John M., ‘Dante and Florence’, in R. Jacoff (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to
Dante, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1993, 80-87.
Nora, Pierre (ed.), Realms of Memory; the construction of the French past, 3 vols., trans.
A. Goldhammer, New York, Columbia UP, 1996.
Papenheim, Martin, ‘Roma o morte: culture wars in Italy’, trans. by C. Clark, in C. Clark &
W. Kaiser (eds.), Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth –Century
Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 2003, 202-226..
Pazzaglia, Mario, Lungo l’Ottocento, Modena, Mucchi, 2000.
Pisa, Beatrice, Nazione e politica nella Società “Dante Alighieri”, Rome, Bonacci Editore,
1995.
___________ ‘Pasquale Villari e la Dante Alighieri: considerazioni su sette anni di
mandato presidenziale’, Storia contemporanea, 23(3), 1992, 427-465.
Porciani, Ilaria, La festa della nazione: Rappresentazione dello Stato e spazi sociali
nell’Italia unita, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1997.
Riall, Lucy, Garibaldi: invention of a hero, London, New Haven, Yale UP, 2007.
Ricci, Corrado, ‘Il culto e la lettura di Dante’, Figure e fantasmi, Milan, Hoepli, 1931, 155-
178.
302
Rizi, Fabio Fernando, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism, Toronto, University of Toronto
Press, 2003.
Rodogno, Davide, ‘Fascism and War’, in R. J. B. Bosworth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
Fascism, Oxford, OUP, 2009, 239-258.
Roush, Sherry, ‘Dante as Piagnone Prophet: Girolamo Benivieni’s “Cantico in laude di
Dante” (1506)’, Renaissance Quarterly, LV, no. 1, 2002, 49-80.
Sabbatucci, Giovanni, ‘Il problema dell’irredentismo e le origini del movimento nazionalista
in Italia’, Storia Contemporanea, 1, 1970, 467-502.
_________________ ‘Irredentismo e movimento nazionalista in Italia’, Storia
Contemporanea, 2, 1971, 53-106.
Salomone, A. William, ‘Prophet in the Waste Land: Mazzini as cultural critic’, Italian
Quarterly, 36(139-140), 1999, 25-45.
Salvatorelli, L., ‘Il pensiero politico del Foscolo’, in Walter Binni (ed.), Foscolo e la critica:
storia e antologia della critica, Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1966, 200-207.
Sansone, Mario, ‘Dante e Mazzini’, Cultura e Scuola, 45-46, 1973, 40-54.
Savona, A. V. & Straniero, M. L., Canti dell’Italia fascista (1919-1945), Milan, Garzanti,
1979.
Schumacher, T. L., The Danteum: A Study in the Architecture of Literature, Princeton,
Princeton UP, 1985.
Schulze, Thies, ‘Dante nel Risorgimento’, Rassegna storica del Risorgimento, 88, 2001,
97-108.
Scorrano, Luigi, Il Dante fascista, Ravenna, A. Longo, 2001.
Smith, Graham, The Stone of Dante and later Florentine celebrations of the poet,
Florence, Olschki, 2000.
Soldani, S. & Turi, G., ‘Introduzione’, to S. Soldani & G. Turi (eds.), Fare gli italiani: scuola
e cultura nell’Italia contemporanea: I, la nascita dello stato nazionale, Bologna, Il
Mulino, 1993, 9-33.
Springer, Carolyn, The Marble Wilderness: Ruins and Representation in Italian
Romanticism, 1775-1850, Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 1987.
Stone, Marla, ‘A flexible Rome: Fascism and the cult of romanità’, in Catherine Edwards
(ed.), Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture 1789-1945,
Talmon, J. L., Romanticism and Revolt: Europe 1815-1848, London, Thames & Hudson,
1967.
Tambling, Jeremy, ‘Terragni, fascism, and allegory: Reading the Danteum’, The Italianist,
17, 1997, 123-144.
303
Tannebaum, E. R., Fascism in Italy: Society and Culture 1922-1945, London, Allen Lane,
1973.
Thompson, D., State Control in Fascist Italy: Culture and conformity, 1922-43,
Manchester-New York, Manchester UP, 1991.
Tobia, Bruno, L’Altare della Patria, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1998.
__________ ‘La statuaria dantesca nell’Italia Liberale: Tradizione, identità, e culto
nazionale’, Mélanges de l’Ecole Française de Rome: Italie et Mediterranée, 109 (1),
1997, 75-87.
__________ ‘Urban Space and Monuments in the “nationalisation of the masses”’, in
Stuart Woolf (ed.), Nationalism in Europe, 1815 to the Present: a reader, London-New
York, Routledge, 1996, 171-191.
__________ ‘Una cultura per la nuova Italia’, in G. Sabbatucci & V. Vidotto (eds.), Storia
d’Italia II: Il nuovo stato e la società civile, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1995, 427-530.
__________ Una patria per gli italiani: spazi, itinierari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870-
1900), Rome-Bari, Laterza, 1991.
Toscano, Mario, Alto Adige-South Tyrol: Italy’s frontier with the German World, Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins UP, 1975.
Vallone, Aldo, La critica dantesca nel novecento, Florence, Olschki, 1976.
__________ La critica dantesca nell’ottocento, Florence, Olschki, 1958.
__________ ‘L’interpretazione dantesca di Francesco De Sanctis’, Cultura e Scuola,
22(86), 1983, 46-57.
Verucci, Guido, L’Italia laica prima e dopo l’unità 1848-1876: anticlericalismo, libero
pensiero e ateismo nella società italiana, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 1981.
Visser, Romke, ‘Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of the Romanità’, Journal of Contemporary
History, vol. 27, 1992, 5-22.
Wanrooij, Bruno P. F., ‘Italian Society under Fascism’, in Adrian Lyttelton (ed.), Liberal and
Fascist Italy, Oxford, OUP, 2002, 175-195.
Williams, P., An introduction to Leopardi’s Canti, Leicester, Troubador, 1997.
Woolf, Stuart J., A History of Italy 1700-1860: the social constraints of political change,
London-New York, Routledge, 1979.
_____________ ‘Introduction’ to Stuart Woolf (ed.), Nationalism in Europe, 1815 to the
Present: a reader, London-New York, Routledge, 1996, 1-39.
Zunino, Pier Giorgio, L’ideologia del Fascismo. Miti, credenze e valori nella stabilizzazione
del regime, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1985.
304
305

Finn Sarah 2009

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Finn Sarah 2009

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Finn Sarah 2009

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

European Languages and Studies (Italian Studies)

Sarah Finn B.A. (Hons.)

and circumstances of the present.

3. The ‘Ghibelline’ Dante in Liberal Italy 86

4. The irredentist Dante in Liberal Italy 141

6. The Fascist Dante 247

1. Portrait of Dante by Adolfo De Carolis (from Rassegna d’arte antica e moderna, 9,

2. Dante’s cenotaph, Church of Santa Croce, Florence, inaugurated 1830 (accessed

4. Monument to Dante in Piazza Santa Croce, Florence, erected 1865 (accessed

5. Monument to Dante in Trento, erected 1896 (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org,

6. First level of pedestal of monument to Dante in Trento, depicting Minos (accessed

8. Third level of pedestal to monument of Dante in Trento, depicting Beatrice (accessed

10. Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna (accessed http://commons.wikimedia.org, 22/7/09. Image by

11. Inside Dante’s mausoleum, Ravenna (accessed http://commons.wikipedia.org, 22/7/09.)

12. Front page illustration from Avanti!, 2 October 1921.

13. Front page illustration from Avanti!, 3 August 1921.

Dante … un altro e più fiero modo di dire Italia.1

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries aids considerably in an understanding of the

conceptualisation of the Italian nation, of the issues engendered by the establishment of

The various images of Dante revealed by this investigation of his instrumentalisation in

the Angevins of France led by Charles of Anjou.4

Despite this resolution, Florence continued to be plagued by internal discord, as a result,

ché questa bestia, per la qual tu gride,

constructing the Italian nation.

He proposed that nationalist ideologues invented national traditions as part of an attempt

self-identification of a particular group as ‘the nation’, it is subject to transformation.20 As

was held to imply, altered over time.21

Of particular relevance to this study of the construction of Dante as a symbol of Italian

objects of nationalist propaganda, can be rather difficult to discern.23 Accordingly, this

characterisation of the nation as an ‘imagined’ political community offered by political

to languages which assisted in constructing an image of immutability and antiquity that

monuments, form the basis of this examination of the representation of Dante as a

metaphor for the Italian nation.

memory of a population is formed by symbolic sites, or ‘lieux de mémoire’.28 These

identity.29 In the context of Nora’s endeavour, ‘memory’ is to be understood as the ways in

were defined or constructed, can be scrutinised in order to come to an understanding of

contemplation of its original, ‘factual’ function and significance. According to this

approach, Dante can indeed be considered a lieu de mémoire, a constructed symbol

into a mutable yet enduring symbol of italianità.

voice to an Italian historiography which employs a culturalist approach, by which the

scrutiny of the narratives, metaphors and tropes of nationalist discourse is held to be a

means to understanding the developments of Italian nationalism. The engaging work by

how national-patriotic discourse manipulated and modelled itself on existing symbols,

national hero, Umberto Levra’s study of the nationalist memorialisation of Vittorio

been influential in the conceptualisation of this dissertation.31

better understanding of the appeal, popularity, successes and weaknesses of Italian

Accordingly, this study of the instrumentalisation of Dante in the construction of Italian

establish cultural hegemony in Italy, to his employment as a symbol of the irredentist

nationalist imagining of Dante. In 1865, commemoration of Dante offered a pretext for

were welcomed as an opportunity to rejoice at the supposed confirmation of Italy’s

origins to its exhaustion on the eve of the Second World War.

Ahi serva Italia, di dolore ostello,

for the ‘resurgence’ of an independent Italy. It is important to highlight the innate

contradiction of such an aspiration, as it reveals much of the impetus behind Dante’s

elevation as a national symbol. Despite general acceptance of the term ‘Risorgimento’ to

rule had made them well aware.

Italian nation and in their instrumentalisation of Dante in fashioning it.6

existing state system, by deposing ruling dynasties, abolishing ecclesiastical and

as well as conscripts from other European states, prompting an awareness of a ‘national’