Cad Module 4

Republic of the Philippines
APAYAO STATE COLLEGE

San Isidro Sur, Luna, Apayao, Philippines 3813
asc.edu.ph,www.facebook.com/asceduofficial.
Prof Ed 11
Child and Adolescent:
Learning and Learner Principles
MARK NEIL A. GALUT

Instructor
MODULE 4: WEEK 10 -13
PROF ED 11: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT: LEARNERS AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES
Module 4: Week 10 – 13
Unit 4 – Social and Emotional Development

A. Socio-emotional Development
B. Development of Self and Social Understandings

1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)
2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation

1. Content Theories - Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
- ERG Theory (Alderfer)
- Theory of Needs (McClelland)
- Two Factors Theory (Herzberg)
- Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
- Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
- Goal Setting Theory (Locke)
- Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)
Intended Learning Outcome:
o Discuss the concepts and theories related to the socio-emotional

development of children and adolescents;
o Make connections, using knowledge on current research literature,

between socio-emotional development theories and
developmentally appropriate teaching approaches suited to
learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences.
markneilg1488@gmail.com (09753244738) 2
PRINCIPLES
Unit 4 – Social and Emotional Development
- The area of emotions and social relations among learners is an
interesting area to explore and study.
A. Socio-emotional Development
- Social-emotional development is a child’s ability to understand the
feelings of others, control their own feelings and behaviors, and get
along with peers. In order for children to attain the basic skills they need
such as cooperation, following directions, demonstrating self-control
and paying attention, they must have social-emotional skills. Feelings of
trust, confidence, pride, friendship, affection and humor are all a part
of a child’s social-emotional development. A child’s positive
relationship with trusting and caring adults is the key to successful social
and emotional development.
- Social and emotional development involves the acquisition of a
set of skills. Key among them are the ability to:
• Identify and understand one’s own feelings
• Accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others
• Manage strong emotions and their expressions in a constructive
manner
• Regulate one’s own behavior
• Develop empathy for others
• Establish and sustain relationships
- A child’s social-emotional development is as important as their
cognitive and physical development. It is important to know that
children are not born with social-emotional skills. It is the role of the
parents, caregivers, and teachers of children to teach and foster these
abilities.
- A child’s social-emotional development provides them with a
sense of who they are in the world, how they learn, and helps them
establish quality relationships with others. It is what drives an individual
to communicate, connect with others, and more importantly, helps
resolve conflicts, gain confidence and reach goals. Building a strong
social-emotional foundation as a child will help the child thrive and
obtain happiness in life. They will be better equipped to handle stress
and persevere through difficult times in their lives as an adult. How do
we, as parents, support the social-emotional development in our child?
PRINCIPLES
In the past, educators have stressed academic skills to determine
success in a child. Those archaic days are long gone and now we know
the importance of social-emotional development.
- The approach to teaching social-emotional development is
vaguer than physical or cognitive development, but there is an
increasing amount of research available to support it. This being said,
we as parents and educators must learn to read our child’s emotional
cues so that we can help them identify their emotions; model the
behavior for our children; consistently interact with our child
affectionately; show consideration for their feelings, desires and needs;
express interest in their daily activities; respect their viewpoints; express
genuine pride in their accomplishments with meaningful comments;
and provide encouragement and support during times of stress.
B. Development of Self and Social Understandings
1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)
• Sigmund Freud ‘s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that
human behavior is the result of the interactions among three
component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.
• This “structural theory” of personality places great importance on
how conflicts among the parts of the mind shape behavior and
personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious.
• According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is
critically shaped through a series of five psychosexual stages,
which he called his psychosexual theory of development.
• During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between
biological drives and social expectations; successful navigation of
these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental
stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality.
• Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because
of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human
personality development.
PRINCIPLES
The Id
- The id, the most
primitive of the three
structures, is concerned
with instant gratification
of basic physical needs
and urges. It operates
entirely unconsciously
(outside of conscious
thought).
The Superego Conflict within the mind: According to Freud, the
- The superego is job of the ego is to balance the
concerned with social aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with
the moral control of the superego.
rules and morals—similar
to what many people call their ”conscience” or their “moral compass.”
It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and
wrong.
The Ego
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the
rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id
and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud
considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the demands of
the id and superego in the practical context of reality.
STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Oral Birth to 1 Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of
½ y/o gratifications and exploration)
Primary need: security
Anal 1 ½ to 3 Source of pleasure: anus and bladder (sensual
y/o satisfaction and self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training
Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child’s genital
(masturbation)
Major conflict: Oedipus and Electra complex
Latency 6 y/o to Energy directed to physical and intellectual
puberty activities sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex
PRINCIPLES
Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity
onwards and function and development of skills to
cope with the environment
2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) embraced the idea of unconscious conflict, but
emphasized the psychological and social aspects of conflict, rather
than the biological and sexual aspects. In his theory, development
consists of a sequence of stages. It includes 8 stages.
CENTRAL (+) (-)
STAGE AGE
TASK RESOLUTION RESOLUTION
Infancy Birth to Trust vs Learn to trust Mistrust,
18 Mistrust others withdrawal,
months estrangement
Early 1 ½ to 3 Autonomy Self-control Compulsive,
Childhood y/o vs. Shame w/o loss of self- self-restraint
and Doubt esteem Ability or
to cooperate compliance
and express willfulness
oneself and defiance
Late 3 to 5 Initiative vs. Learns to Lack of self-
Childhood y/o Guilt become confidence
assertive Pessimism,
Ability to fear of
evaluate one’s wrongdoing
own behavior Over-control
and over-
restriction
School Age 6 to 12 Industry vs. Learns to Loss of hope,
y/o Inferiority create, sense of
develop and being
manipulate mediocre
Develops Withdrawal
sense of from school
competence and peers
and “Those who
perseverance ignore, rebuff,
PRINCIPLES
“Parents, deride their
teachers who effort are
support, strengthening
reward and feelings of
praise children inferiority
are
encouraging
and helping
children
develop their
sense of
industry
Adolescence 12 – 20 Identity vs. Coherent Feelings of
y/o Role sense of self confusion, in-
Confusion Plans to decisiveness
actualize and possible
one’s abilities anti-social
“seeking to behavior
find an “when the
identitiy, adolescents
adolescents fail to
try on many develop a
new roles. If sense of
they identity,
experience he/she
continuity in experiences
their role confusion
perception of or a
self, identity “negative
develops identity”
Young 18 – 25 Intimacy vs. Intimate Impersonal
Adulthood y/o Isolation relationship relationships
with another Avoidance of
person relationship,
Commitment career or
to work and lifestyle
relationships commitments
PRINCIPLES
“Center to “Failure to
intimacy is the establish
ability to share close and
with and care intimate
for others relationship
results to a
feeling of
isolation
Adulthood 25 – 65 Generativity Creativity, Self-
y/o vs. productivity, indulgence,
Stagnation concern for self-concern,
others lack of
interests and
commitments
Maturity 65 y/o Integrity vs. Acceptance Sense of loss,
to Despair of worth and contempt for
death uniqueness of others
one’s own life
Acceptance
of death
3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

- Albert Bandura is a Canadian-born American psychologist who is best
known for the Social Learning Theory, which was later published in book
form by Englewood Cliffs in 1977. He revised it in 1986, calling the new
Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive Theory. He is also known for his
famous Bobo experiments.
- When he graduated from high school, his parents gave him the option
to stay and work in a small town or achieve and make every effort for
further education. While studying biology at the University of British
Columbia, he accidentally stumbled on psychology. He was working at
a woodwork plant in the afternoon and attended class in the morning.
He was commuting with other students who had classes earlier in the
morning. Bandura chose psychology as a filler course to bide time.
Within three years, he graduated with the Bolocan Award in
psychology.
PRINCIPLES
Bandura’s theory was based on three main ideas.
✓ People learned through observing role models. He identified the
three types of models in his experiment: a live model physically
demonstrating an action, a live model using language to display a
behavior verbally, and a symbolic model showing behaviors in
online media, movies, television programs, and books.
✓ Internal psychology influences the learning process. Intrinsic
reinforcements satisfy the psychological needs like a sense of
accomplishment, satisfaction, a form of success, or pride.
✓ Learning a behavior doesn’t automatically mean the person will
execute it. Changing or applying a new behavior must be of value
to the person to want to apply what they’ve learned.
PRINCIPLES
What are the Two Types of Social Learning?
The Social Learning Theory combines or acts as a bridge between two
types of learning theories. Behavioral learning believes that learning is
based on how the individual responds to environmental stimuli.
Cognitive learning, however, assumes that psychological factors
determine to learn.
Behaviorist Model
Behaviorism is the traditional theory social learning models use to
explain the way people learn. It was assumed behavior is learned when
a person observes the behavior of someone, the model, and then
replicate it. The theory is based on external stimulus-response to the
environment but does not consider internal human behavior.
Bandura’s social theory of learning overlapped, including some of the
behaviorist learning theories, he also included principles from the
cognitive understanding of the learning processes.
Cognitive Theory
Thought, understanding, and perception are cognitive functions that
influence the intrinsic reinforcement of learning. The cognitive theory
attempts to understand the relationship between mental activities and
physical actions of behavior. Theorists believed that existing knowledge
in memory might guide and help students to make new knowledge
meaningful.
C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation
Motivation theories
- We can distinguish between content and process motivation
theories.
- Content theories are the earliest theories of motivation. Within the
work environment they have had the greatest impact on
management practice and policy, whilst within academic circles
they are the least accepted.
- Content theories are also called needs theories: they try to identify
what our needs are and relate motivation to the fulfilling of these
needs. The content theories cannot entirely explain what motivate
or demotivate us.
PRINCIPLES
- Content theories focus on WHAT
- Process theories are concerned with “how” motivation occurs, and
what kind of process can influence our motivation.
- No single motivation theory explains all aspects of people’s motives
or lack of motives. Each theoretical explanation can serve as the
basis for the development of techniques for motivating.
Maslow – hierarchy of needs

- This is the earliest and most widely known theory of motivation,
developed by Abraham Maslow (1943) in the 1940s and 1950s.
- This theory condenses needs into five basic categories. Maslow
ordered these needs in his hierarchy, beginning with the basic
psychological needs and continuing through safety, belonging
and love, esteem and self-actualization (Figure 2). In his theory, the
lowest unsatisfied need becomes the dominant, or the most
powerful and significant need. The most dominant need activates
an individual to act to fulfil it. Satisfied needs do not motivate.
Individual pursues to seek a higher need when lower needs are
fulfilled.
PRINCIPLES
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often shown in the shape of a
pyramid: basic needs at the bottom and the most complex need
(need for self-actualization) at the top. Maslow himself has never
drawn a pyramid to describe these levels of our needs; but the
pyramid has become the most known way to represent his
hierarchy.
1. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

- It includes the most basic needs for humans to survive, such as air,
water and food. Maslow emphasized, our body and mind cannot
function well if these requirements are not fulfilled.
- These physiological needs are the most dominant of all needs. So
if someone is missing everything in his/her life, probably the major
motivation would be to fulfil his/her physiological needs rather than any
others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love (also sex) and esteem,
would most probably hunger for food (and also for money, salary to buy
food) than for anything else.
- If all the needs are unsatisfied, and the organism is then overruled
by the physiological needs, all other needs may turn into the
background. All capacities are put into the attendance of satisfying
hunger. Any other things are forgotten or got secondary importance.
2. Safety and security (secure source of income, a place to live, health
and well-being)
- If the physiological needs are relatively well contented, new
needs will appear, the so-called safety needs.
PRINCIPLES
- Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for security or protection.
Basically, everything looks less important than safety and protection
(the physiological needs even sometimes). The healthy and fortunate
adults in our culture are largely satisfied in their safety needs. The
peaceful, sure, safety and unwavering society makes us feel in safety
enough from criminal assaults, murder, unbelievable natural
catastrophes, and so on. In that case people no longer have any safety
needs as first-line motivators.
- Safety and security needs include: Personal security; Financial
security; Health and well-being; Safety mesh against accidents, illnesses
and their adverse impacts.
- To tell the truth, in real dangers and traumas – like war, murder,
natural catastrophes, criminal assault, etc. -, the needs for safety
become an active, first-line and dominant mobilizer of human beings.
3. Belongingness and love (integration into social groups, feel part of a
community or a group; affectionate relationships)
- If both the physiological and the safety needs are fulfilled, the
affection, love and belongingness needs come into prominence.
Maslow claimed people need to belong and accepted among their
social groups.
- Love needs involve giving and receiving affections (love is not
synonymous with sex – sex is a physiological need). When they are
unsatisfied, a person will immediately eliminate the lack of friends, peers
and partner. Many people suffer from social nervousness, loneliness,
social isolation and also clinical depression because of the lack of this
love or belongingness factor.
4. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful, honorable human being)
- In our society most people long for a stable and high valuation of
themselves, for the esteem of others and for self-respect or self-esteem.
- Esteem means being valued, respected and appreciated by
others. Humans need to feel to be valued, such as being useful and
necessary in the world. People with low self-esteem often need respect
from others.
- Maslow divided two types of esteem needs: a ‘lower’ version and
a ‘higher’ version.
PRINCIPLES
a. The ‘lower’ version of esteem is the need for respect from others:
for example, attention, prestige, status and loving their opinion.
b. The ‘higher’ version is the need for self-respect: for example, the
person may need independence, and freedom or self-
confidence.
- The most stable and therefore the healthiest self-esteem is based
on respect from others. External fame or celebrity and unwarranted
adulation won’t cause self-esteem, although you feel better for a while.
5. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow and develop to his or
her fullest potential)
- ‘What humans can be, they must be.’ (Maslow, 1954)
- Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire to grow and
develop to his/her fullest potential. People like opportunities, choosing
his/her own versions, challenging positions or creative tasks. Maslow
described this level as the ‘need to accomplish everything that one
can, to become the most that one can be’. Maslow believed that
people must overcome their other needs – described above -, not only
achieve them. At this level, individual differences are the largest.
- As each level is adequately satisfied, we are then motivated to satisfy
the next level in the hierarchy, always new and higher needs are
coming. This is what we mean, when the basic human needs are drawn
like a pyramid, a hierarchy. Life experiences, including divorce and loss
of job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the
hierarchy. These five different levels were further sub-categorized into
two main groups: deficiency and growth needs.
Deficiency needs – The very basic needs for survival and security.
These needs include:
• physiological needs
• safety and security needs
• social needs – belongingness and love
• esteem needs
Growth needs – Personal growth and fulfilment of personal potential.
These needs include:
• self-actualization needs
- This hierarchy is not as rigid as we may have implied. For example,
there are some humans for whom self-esteem or self-actualization
PRINCIPLES
seems to be more important than love or belonging. The popularity of
this theory of motivation rooted in its simplicity and logic.
Alderfer – ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth
needs
- Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) distinguished three steps or classes of
needs: existence, relatedness and growth. Maslow’s physiological and
safety needs belong together to existence needs. Relatedness can be
harmonized to belongingness and esteem of others. Growth is the same
as Maslow’s self-esteem plus self-actualization. Both Maslow and
Alderfer tried to describe how these needs, these stages of needs
become more or less important to individuals.
• Existence needs: These include needs for basic material necessities. In
short, it includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
• Relatedness needs: Individuals need significant relationships (be with
family, peers or superiors), love and belongingness, they strive toward
reaching public fame and recognition. This class of needs contain
Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs.
• Growth needs: Need for self-development, personal growth and
advancement form together this class of need. This class of needs
contain Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of
esteem needs.
- Alderfer agreed with Maslow that unsatisfied needs motivate
individuals. Alderfer also agreed that individuals generally move up the
hierarchy in satisfying their needs; that is, they satisfy lower-order before
higher-order needs. As lower-order needs are satisfied, they become
less important, but Alderfer also said: as higher-order needs are satisfied
they become more important. And it is also said that under some
circumstance’s individuals might return to a lower need. Alderfer
thought that individuals multiply the efforts invested in a lower category
need when higher categorized needs are not consequent.
McClelland – Need for achievement, affiliation and power
- In the early 1960s McClelland – built on Maslow’s work –
described three human motivators. McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005)
claimed that humans acquire, learn their motivators over time that is the
reason why this theory is sometimes called the ‘Learned Needs Theory’.
PRINCIPLES
He affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, and it does not
depend on our gender or age. One of these drives or needs will be
dominant in our behavior.
- McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s and Alderfer’s,
which focus on satisfying existing needs rather than creating or
developing needs. This dominant motivator depends on our culture and
life experiences, of course (but the three motivators are permanent).
The three motivators are:
• achievement: a need to accomplish and demonstrate
competence or mastery
• affiliation: a need for love, belonging and relatedness
• power: a need for control over one’s own work or the work of
others
- These learned needs could lead to diversity and variety between
employees. More precisely, prioritization and importance of these
motivational needs characterizes a person’s behavior. As we wrote,
although each person has all of these needs to some extent, only one
of them tends to motivate an individual at any given time.
Achievement motivation – a need to accomplish and demonstrate
competence or mastery. It pertains to a person’s need for significant
success, mastering of skills, control or high standards. It is associated with
a range of actions. Individual seek achievement, attainment of
challenging (and also realistic) goals, and advancement in the school
or job.
This need is influenced by internal drivers for action (intrinsic
motivation), and the pressure used by the prospects of others (extrinsic
motivation). Low need for achievement could mean that individuals
want to minimize risk of failure, and for this reason people may choose
very easy or too difficult tasks, when they cannot avoid failure. In
contrast, high need for achievement means that humans try to choose
optimal, sufficiently difficult tasks, because they want to get the chance
to reach their goals, but they have to work for it, they need to develop
themselves.
- Individuals with high need for achievement like to receive
regular feedback on their progress and achievements; and often like to
work alone; seek challenges and like high degree of independence.
PRINCIPLES
- Sources of high need for achievement can be: praise for
success, goal setting skills, one’s own competence and effort to
achieve something, and it does not depend only on luck; of course
positive feelings and also independence in childhood. McClelland said
that training, teaching can increase an individual’s need for
achievement. For this reason, some have argued that need for
achievement is not a need but a value.
Affiliation motivation – a need for love, belonging and relatedness
- These people have a strong need for friendships and want to
belong within a social group, need to be liked and held in popular
regard. They are team players, and they may be less effective in
leadership positions. High-need-for-affiliation persons have support
from those with whom they have regular contact and mostly are
involved in warm interpersonal relationships. After or during stressful
situation individuals need much more affiliation. In these situations,
people come together and find security in one another. There are times
when individuals want to be with others and at other times to be alone
– affiliation motivation can become increased or decreased.
Individuals do not like high risk or uncertainty.
Authority/power motivation – a need to control over one’s own work or
the work of others. These persons are authority motivated. There is a
strong need to lead and to succeed in their ideas. It is also needed to
increase personal status and prestige. This person would like to control
and influence others. McClelland studied male managers with high
need for power and high need for affiliation and found that managers
with a high need for power tended to run more productive departments
in a sales organization than did managers with a high need for
affiliation.
- It is important to speak about gender differences in need for
power. It is said that men with high need for power mostly have higher
aggression, drink more, act in sexually exploitative manner, and
participate in competitive sports, and also political unrests. At the same
time women with higher need for power show more socially acceptable
and responsible manner, are more concerned and caring. These types
of people prefer to work in big, multinational organizations, businesses
and other influential professions.
PRINCIPLES
- McClelland argues that strong need for achievement people
can become the best leaders – as we wrote it above. But at the same
time there can be a tendency to request too much of their employees,
because they think that these people are also highly achievement-
focused and results-driven, as they are. Think about your teachers and
professors! I am sure they all want the best for you, they would like to
develop you, but I do not think you feel the same every time.
McClelland said that most people have and show a combination of
these characteristics.
Herzberg – Two factor theory
- It is also called motivation-hygiene theory.
- This theory says that there are some factors (motivating factors)
that cause job satisfaction, and motivation and some other also
separated factors (hygiene factors) cause dissatisfaction (Figure 3). That
means that these feelings are not opposite of each other, as it has
always previously been believed.
- Opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no
satisfaction. According to Herzberg (1987) the job satisfiers deal with the
factors involved in doing the job, whereas the job dissatisfiers deal with
the factors which define the job context.
PRINCIPLES
- If the hygiene factors, for example salary, working conditions,
work environment, safety and security are unsuitable (low level) at the
workplace, this can make individuals unhappy, dissatisfied with their
job. Motivating factors, on the other hand, can increase job satisfaction,
and motivation is based on an individual's need for personal growth. If
these elements are effective, then they can motivate an individual to
achieve above-average performance and effort. For example, having
responsibility or achievement can cause satisfaction (human
characteristics) (Dartey-Baah, 2011).
- Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not
dissatisfied.
- Motivation factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction
and to motivate an employee to higher performance.
Table 1. Herzberg's Two Factory Theory (Source: Author's own table)
Dissatisfaction (low level)
No dissatisfaction (high Hygiene factors
level)
No satisfaction (low level)
Motivating factors
Satisfaction (high level)
Herzberg’s five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors):
• achievement
• recognition
• work itself
• responsibility
• advancement
- Only these factors can motivate us. But at the same time, we need
the lack of dissatisfactions (we need hygiene factors, "workpeace") to
achieve more efficient work.
Herzberg’s five factors of job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors –
deficiency needs):
• company policy and administration
• supervision
• salary
• interpersonal relationships
• working conditions
PRINCIPLES
Can we motivate with money, with higher salary?
What did Herzberg and Maslow say?
Is it just the same or something different?
- Herzberg addressed salary not a motivator in the way that the
primary motivators are, just like achievement and recognition. Salary
can be a motivator, if you get always higher and higher salary, but we
cannot say that it is an incentive. Maslow said, money or salary is
needed to buy food to eat, to have some place to live and sleep, etc.
It can be a physiological need. Some differences between Herzberg
and Maslow theory are described in Table 2.
Table 2. Differences between Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theory (Source: Author's own table)
Points of View Maslow’s theory Herzberg theory
Date of the theory In 1940’s In 1960’s
Study Group Ordinary American Well-situated American
people people
About needs Every level of needs Not every type of needs
gives us satisfaction can give us satisfaction,
and give the just motivating factors.
opportunity to move on
to the next level of
needs.
Limitations of this theory:
• This theory oversees situational variables.
• Herzberg supposed a correlation, linear between productivity,
performance and satisfaction.
• The theory’s reliability is uncertain.
• No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used.
• The theory ignores blue-collar workers; only white-collar men’s
opinion was discussed.
- However, Herzberg tried to bring more humanity and caring into
companies’ life. His intention was not to develop a theory that is used
as a 'motivational tool’, but to provide a guidance to improve
organizational
performance.
Table 3. Summary of Content Theories of Motivation (Source: Author's own table)

PRINCIPLES
MASLOW ALDERFER MCCLELAND HERZBERG
Physiological
Safety & Existence
Security Hygiene
Belongingness & Need for
Relatedness
Love Affiliation
Self-esteem Need for power
Self- Growth Need for Motivators
actualization achievement
There are some critics for all need theories. Although, there is a
consensus for the general concept: human behavior is motivated by
the strong wish for fulfilling a human need. Critics are:
• Universality: they do not care about gender, age, culture,
religious or other factor differences.
• Research support and methodology problems: these theories
were not based on reliable and creditable research results.
• Work focus: individuals have needs only at their workplaces, but
not at any other places of their life.
• Individual differences and stability over time.
• Process simplicity.
Skinner's reinforcement theory

The Reinforcement theory, based on Skinner's operant conditioning
theory, says that behavior can be formed by its consequences
(Gordon, 1987).
Positive reinforcements
for example, praise, appreciation, a good mark/grade, trophy,
money, promotion or any other reward can increase the possibility of
the rewarded behaviors' repetition.
If a student gets positive verbal feedback and a good grade for his
test, this reinforcement encourages the performance of the behavior to
recur. If the teacher doesn’t tell precisely what he expects, then the
positive reinforcements can drive the behavior closer to the preferred.
For example, when a student who is usually late to class gets positive
feedback when he arrives on time, the student becomes more and
PRINCIPLES
more punctual. Positive reinforcement motivates to get the anticipated
reinforcement of required behavior.
We use:
Negative reinforcement when we give a meal to a hungry person if he
behaves in a certain manner/way.
- In this case the meal is a negative reinforcement because it
eliminates the unpleasant state (hunger).
Contrary to positive and negative reinforcement
Punishment can be undesired reinforcement, or reinforce undesired
behavior.
For example, if a student is always late to class and thus he gets
negative verbal feedback and also always has to tidy up the classroom
at the end of the day, in this case the undesirable behavior is reinforced
with an undesirable reinforcer. The punishment declines the tendency
to be late.
According to the theory, positive reinforcement is a much better
motivational technique than punishment because punishment:
• tries to stop undesirable behavior and does not offer an alternative
behavior
• creates bad feelings, negative attitudes toward the activity, and
the person who gives the punishment
• suppresses behavior, but does not permanently eliminate it.
Once certain behavior has been conditioned through repetitive
reinforcement, elimination of the reinforcement will decline the
motivation to perform that behavior. Therefore, it is better not to give a
reward every time. Reinforcement in the workplace usually takes place
on a partial or irregular reinforcement schedule, when reward is not
given for every response.
The reinforcement theory is included in many other motivation
theories. Reward must meet someone's needs, expectations, must be
applied equitably, and must be consistent. The desired behavior must
be clear and realistic, but the issue remains: which reinforcements are
suitable and for which person?
PRINCIPLES
Vroom's Expectancy theory
The expectancy theory places an emphasis on the process and on
the content of motivation as well, and it integrates needs, equity and
reinforcement theories.
Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to explain how people
choose from the available actions. Vroom defines motivation as a
process that governs our choices among alternative forms of voluntary
behavior. The basic rationale of this theory is that motivation stems from
the belief that decisions will have their desired outcomes.
The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising
three factors. These three factors are the following (Figure 4):
• Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success.
If you work harder, it will result in better performance.
In this case the question is: "Am I capable of making a good grade
on a math test if I learn more?" Appraisal of this factor is based on the
effort to learn math, on knowledge of math, on the previous experience
of math test results, on self-efficacy and specific self-rated abilities.
• Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection
between activity and goal. If you perform well, you will get reward.
In this case the question is that: "Will I get the promised reward (a
good mark) for performing well on a math test?" Appraisal of this factor
is based on the accuracy and consistency of marking. If one day I get
a good grade and another day I get a bad grade for the same
performance, then the motivation will decrease.
• Valence – the degree to which a person values the reward, the
results of success.
In this case the question is that: "Do I value the reward that I get?"
Appraisal of this factor is based on the importance of its subject (math),
the good mark, and the good performance in general.
- Vroom supposes that expectancy, instrumentality and valence are
multiplied together to determine motivation. This means that if any of
these is zero, then the motivation to do something will be zero as well.
PRINCIPLES
A person who doesn’t see the connection between effort and

performance will have zero expectancy. A person who can’t perceive
the link between performance and reward will have zero
instrumentality. For a person who doesn’t value the anticipated
outcome, reward will have zero valence.
For example, if I think:
- that no matter how hard I’m studying I can’t learn math due to lack
of necessary skills or
- that no matter how good I perform on the test I don’t always get
good mark so the reward is unpredictable, not dependent on my
success or
- the good mark from math is not important for me, and I’m not
interested in math, so the reward is not attractive, then I won’t be
motivated to learn for the exam.
The expectancy theory highlights individual differences in motivation
and contains three useful factors for understanding and increasing
motivation. This theory implies equity and importance of consistent
rewards as well (Konig & Steel 2006).
Adams' equity theory
The equity theory states that people are motivated if they are treated
equitably, and receive what they consider fair for their effort and costs.
The theory was suggested by Adams (1965) and is based on Social
Exchange theory.
PRINCIPLES
At the workplace the workers put inputs into the job, such as
education, experience, effort, energy, and expect to get some
outcomes such as salary, reward, promotion, verbal recognition, and
interesting and challenging work each in equal amounts (Figure 6)
INPUT OUTPUT
Experience, skills, knowledge, Safety, reward, bonus, security,
effort, energy, time, recognition, promotion, Learning
responsibility, flexibility, work and development opportunities,
characteristics, dangerous, good working conditions, work
monotonous, complex, too characteristics, interesting,
much, bad working conditions: challenging, complex job,
physical environment, working achievement
tools.
Figure 6. Examples for the inputs and outcomes in the equity theory (Source: Author's own figure)
PRINCIPLES
The equity theory works not just in the workplace, but at school as
well. For example, when for the same oral exam performance two
students get different marks, then inequity exists. In this case, the student
who gets the worse mark may lose his/her motivation to learn (reduce
his/her efforts), or persuade the teacher to give him/her a better mark,
or change the perception of the reference person's performance ("I did
not know everything, but my classmate could answer all the questions").
At the school it can demotivate students if someone who never studies
or who never performs better than the others always get good mark.
The greater the inequity the greater the distress an individual feels,
which will motivate the endeavor to make the outcomes and the inputs
equal compared to the reference person.
When inequity exists, a person might…
• reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of his/her work
• try to increase his/her outputs (ask for better mark, or pay raising)
• adjust his/her perception of reference person or his/her outcomes
or inputs (re-evaluate his/her or the reference person's effort or
outcome)
• change the reference person
• quit the situation.
The problem with equity theory is that it does not take into account
differences in individual needs, values, and personalities. For example,
one person may perceive a certain situation as inequitable while
another does not. Nevertheless, ensuring equity is essential to
motivation.
Locke's goal-setting theory

Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative model of
motivation just like the expectancy theory.
It emphasizes that setting specific, challenging performance goals
and the commitment to these goals are key determinants of motivation.
Goals describe a desired future, and these established goals can drive
the behavior. Achieving the goals, the goal accomplishment further
motivates individuals to perform.
We can distinguish goals according to specificity, difficulty and
acceptance. A specific goal can be measured and lead to higher
PRINCIPLES
performance than a very general goal like “Try to do your best!” A
difficult, but realistic goal can be more motivational than easy or
extremely difficult ones. The acceptance of the goal is very important
as well, therefore involvement in the goal setting is recommended.
For example, if I decide to pass a medium level language exam in
German in six months – this goal is specific and difficult enough –
because I want to work in Germany – this goal is very important for me,
therefore the goal commitment is high – then I will be motivated to
learn, and to pass the exam.
The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting (Figure
7):
• Set challenging but attainable goals. Too easy or too
difficult/unrealistic goals don’t motivate us.
• Set specific and measurable goals. These can focus toward what
you want, and can measure the progress toward the goal.
• Goal commitment should be obtained. If people don’t commit to
the goals, then they will not put effort toward reaching the goals, even
specific, or challenging ones. Strategies to achieve this could include
participation in the goal setting process, use of extrinsic rewards
(bonuses), and encouraging intrinsic motivation through providing
workers with feedback about goal attainment. Pressure to achieve
goals is not useful because it can result in dishonesty and superficial
performance.
• Support elements should be provided. For example,
encouragement, needed materials, resources, and moral support.
• Knowledge of results is essential – so goals need to be quantifiable
and there needs to be feedback.
Goal-setting is a useful theory which can be applied in several fields,
from sport to a wide range of work settings. Sports psychology in
particular has adopted its recommendations. The concept of goal-
setting has been incorporated into a number of incentive programs and
management by objectives (MBO) techniques in a number of work
areas. Feedback accompanying goal attainment may also enhance a
worker’s job performance and ability to become more innovative and
creative on the job through a trial-and-error learning process. Since
PRINCIPLES
goal-setting is a relatively simple motivational strategy, it has become
increasingly popular.
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

- Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is an important theory of
motivation that addresses issues of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation .
People have innate psychological needs:
• Competence
• Relatedness
• Autonomy
PRINCIPLES
- If these universal needs are met, the theory argues that people
will function and grow optimally. To actualize their inherent potential,
the social environment needs to nurture these needs.
• Competence
- Seek to control the outcome and experience mastery.
• Relatedness
- Is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and
experience caring for others.
• Autonomy
- Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one’s own life and
act in harmony with one’s integrated self; however, Deci and
Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of
others[4].
Motivation has often been grouped into two main types:

Extrinsic motivation, a person tends to do a task or activity mainly
because doing so will yield some kind of reward or benefit upon
completion.
Intrinsic motivation, in contrast, is characterized by doing something
purely because of enjoyment or fun.
PRINCIPLES
ACTIVITY:
1. What is social and emotional development theory?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What are the theories of emotional development?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What is the social and emotional development of a child?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. What are the four main theories of adolescent development?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. What are the three criteria on which developmentally appropriate

practices (DAP) are based?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
PRINCIPLES
6. Define what is meant by "developmentally and culturally
appropriate practice" (DCAP).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
SCORING RUBRIC
POINTS SCORING CRITERIA
The student answers the questions correctly and
completely.
4 Students incorporates information from the text or class
notes into the answer.
Students shows some prior knowledge and may use
terminology to answer the question. Student does not
3 use appropriate information from the text or lecture
notes to answer the question. (May be partially correct
but still incomplete)
Student try to answer the question but does not show
evidence of any previous knowledge to assist in
2 answering. Student may reveal misconception from the
text or lecture notes to answer the question. (Incorrect
answer)
Student says he/she does not know how to answer the
1 question.
Source: https://serc.carleton.edu/download/images/25074/jitt_scoring_rubric_12774786
PRINCIPLES
REFERENCES:
Brawner, D & Leus, M. (2018) “Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching”, ADRIANA
Publishing Co., Inc.
Rungduin, T., & Rungduin, D. (2019) Child and Adolescent: Learners and Learning
Principles. ADRIANA Publishing Co., Inc
Sigelman and Rider, 2009
Mortera, M., Pila, R., Soto, C.(2011) Advanced LET Reviewer and Practice with
Legal Guide Book 1
Online Sources:
www.cengage.com/psychology/shaffer
http://www.studocu.com
https://www.rsd.k12.pa.us/Downloads/Development_Chart_for_Booklet.pdf
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/physical-and-
motor-development-in-child/1898
https://earlychildhoodeducationgroupone.weebly.com/biological-
beginnings.html
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/dev.html
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Republic of the Philippines

APAYAO STATE COLLEGE

MARK NEIL A. GALUT

Unit 4 – Social and Emotional Development

B. Development of Self and Social Understandings

C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation

Intended Learning Outcome:

o Discuss the concepts and theories related to the socio-emotional

o Make connections, using knowledge on current research literature,

2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Maslow – hierarchy of needs

1. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

Table 3. Summary of Content Theories of Motivation (Source: Author's own table)

Skinner's reinforcement theory

A person who doesn’t see the connection between effort and

Locke's goal-setting theory

Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

Motivation has often been grouped into two main types:

2. What are the theories of emotional development?

3. What is the social and emotional development of a child?

4. What are the four main theories of adolescent development?

5. What are the three criteria on which developmentally appropriate

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