F - MT - 2018 - Water Quality Mindanao Island of Philippines

Chapter 12
Water Quality: Mindanao Island

of the Philippines
Angelo Mark P. Walag, Oliva P. Canencia, and Beth Ann Fiedler
Abstract The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and

inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country
and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in
agriculture. Water supply and usage for the island and the nation are identified and
discussed in relation to the scarcity of potable water. Potential threats and pollution
hotspots bring forth the various health and environmental impact attributed to the
water system accessibility, distribution, and quality. Strategies addressing water
resources problems are taken into consideration side-by-side the numerous national
laws, policies, standards, and guidelines in addressing water quality control and
management. Therefore, the legal framework for various agencies to carry out
these policies on quality control, usage, and water management are pivotal to rec-
ommendations on revision of certain provisions that rely on embedding local com-
munity involvement to lessen the environmental impact that is causal to poor
population health. The World Bank has been instrumental in prompting local activ-
ity with initiatives first established in relation to the United Nations Millennium
Development Goals that are being carried forward today in the Sustainable
Development Initiatives. This chapter extends the recent UN and World Bank ini-
tiatives to demonstrate how further community involvement can continue to
improve quality of life for Philippine citizens through education and participation.
A. M. P. Walag (*)
Department of Science Education, University of Science and Technology of Southern
Philippines, College of Science and Technology Education,
Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
O. P. Canencia
Research Division, University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, College of
Science and Mathematics, Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
B. A. Fiedler
Independent Research Analyst, Jacksonville, FL, USA
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 219

B. A. Fiedler (ed.), Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental
Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75361-4_12
220 A. M. P. Walag et al.
12.1 Introduction and Background
Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not guarantee
access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low socio-
economic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017,
para 2). However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United
Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (United Nations 2015) and
a steady flow of financial support from the World Bank at $638.1 million (United
Nations 2017, para 7; World Bank 2014) provides guidance and funding that led to
the development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions
to respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent
greater opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven develop-
ment (CDD) initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to
“make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitor-
ing development initiatives based on their priorities” (United Nations 2017, para 2).
The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initia-
tives to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships
with existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social
Welfare and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, provid-
ing community access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development
partnerships, such as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several gov-
ernments, which were instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms
and metrics based on monitoring the MDGS (United Nations 2017). These metrics
establish empirical evidence for decision-making with the long-term goals of a
healthy environment and population. “The monitoring of the MDGs taught us that
data are an indispensable element of the development agenda,” and that “what gets
measured gets done” (United Nations 2015, p.10).
Monitoring at the turn of the millennium quickly brought forth data indicating
the leading water consumers, the problem of scarcity of water resources, and other
threats to the availability of potable water that remains problematic in the nation.
The baseline established the disproportionate use of agricultural consumption for
irrigation and fisheries (Greenpeace 2007) accounting for 85.27% of the total water
supply followed by the industrial sector (7.46%) and the remaining 7.27% for
domestic consumption (World Bank 2004, p.29). Further, differentiating
groundwater and piped-water supply systems sources was instrumental in revealing
harmful practices in which groundwater extraction is done without permit. This
indiscriminate and unregulated method of withdrawal led to the enactment of
Executive Order No. 123 Series of 2012. The order mandates the transfer of National
Water Resources Board (NWRB) from the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH) to the Office of the President then to the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources’ (DENR) jurisdiction. Furthermore, the NWRB
was tasked to immediately review the implementing rules and regulations of the
Water Code of the Philippines (Barba 2004). These modifications to multiple water
agencies and the introduction of new legislation were brought into action to regulate,
monitor, and redistribute usage of water resources but distribution remains the same
12 Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines 221
Table 12.1 Total population served by different water service providers by region as of 2007
(Israel 2009)
Region Water district LGUa RWSAb/BWSAc Cooperatives Total population served
Region 9 d
135,000 109,590 7208 510 252,308
Region 10e 190,435 159,930 40,146 0 388,511
Region 11f 285,596 47,932 28,586 27,151 389,265
Region 12g 149,002 4842 0 0 153,844
ARMMh 123,455 35,740 0 0 159,195
a
Local Government Units
b
Rural Water Supply Associations
c
Barangay Water Supply Associations
d
Zamboanga Peninsula
e
Northern Mindanao
f
Davao Region
g
Soccsksargen
h
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
today. Further, the water agencies struggle with interagency integration, manpower
shortages, and lack of financial resource allocation at the local levels often rendering
their mandated efforts ineffective (Rola et al. 2015).
The success of the UN MDG targets in the Philippines were evident meeting
goals to improve access to drinking water up from 85% of the population in 1990 to
92% in 2010 (Fehr et al. 2013, p.638) but several challenges remain. Improved water
sources (e.g., bottled, regulated water refilling stations) (Israel 2009; Madrazo 2002;
Magtibay 2004; UNICEF and WHO 2012), an adequate freshwater supply and high
rate of precipitation contributed to improvements (see Table 12.1). However, several
factors such as biased geographic distribution, seasonal variations, and water short-
ages based on population distribution remain problematic (Barba 2004; Dumlao
2016; Ranada 2015). Damage to infrastructure due to civil unrest (Malapit et al.
2003) and the long history of the southern part of the Philippines being disenfran-
chised and underrepresented in the government is apparent in the lack of infrastruc-
ture projects there (Clausen 2010; Silva 2005) providing a historical basis leading to
the present conditions. Furthermore, investments and policies crafted to better pro-
vide water access have been greatly affected by these conflicts (Clausen 2010).
Earlier analysis of these political factors (e.g., institutional deficiencies, weak regu-
latory policies, lack of government leadership and political will, and lack of an inte-
grated water resources management system) (Madrazo 2002) continue to pose
additional barriers to the water crisis. Therefore, the legal framework on water qual-
ity, use and management are important factors for any proposed solutions.
The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) and Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) identified nine urbanized areas in the country, three of
which are in Mindanao Island (Davao, Cagayan de Oro City, and Zamboanga City),
facing water demand challenges in the next several years (JICA 1998). Health
hazards associated with the shortage include an increasing number of gastrointestinal
diseases caused by unpotable water and new housing developments that alter the
balance of supply of and demand (Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006; Tacio 2014).
Consequently, these areas establish the basis for a growing concern for a national
water crisis by 2025 (JICA 1998). Striking a national balance between the water
supply and demand, especially in the areas limited by infrastructures and facilities,
is vital to optimizing, producing, and distributing potable water.
This chapter unfolds the problem scope and legal framework for surface and
ground water management, the important aspects of assessing water quality, and the
health and environmental impact of contaminated water. Then, several water quality
initiatives will be discussed followed by a series of recommendations promoting
civic engagement to support local community involvement in government organized
projects. The chapter concludes with a high-level summary.
12.2 Water Scarcity Problem Scope
The scope of water scarcity in the Philippines still rests on systemic problems
brought forth at the onset of baselining the nation’s status in relation to UN MDGs
by the World Bank in 2003. Several major and tangential issues remain the foremost,
of which access to clean water is important to population health. Ranked number
5 in the overall causes of death for the nation in 2010 analysis was preventable
diarrhea attributed to unsanitary water at a rate of 354.5 per 100,000 population
(DOH 2012, p.14). Therefore, the location of natural resources in the form of
surface and groundwater provide geographic references demonstrating regional
water availability and the problem location poses to access in areas of need.
Major issues concerning the use and scarcity of water include: (1) inconsistency
of water supply and demand (Barba 2004; Madrazo 2002), (2) lack of water
allocation system and distribution formula (Barba 2004), (3) NWRB weak
regulation, permit monitoring, and enforcement of water use due to insufficient
manpower and low operating budget (Barba 2004), (4) outdated principles mandated
in the Water Code of the Philippines “first in time priority in right” and discretion is
vaguely granted to a deputized government agency to investigate violations (Barba
2004, p.2), and (5) unsustainable water pricing that does not properly reward
efficient water users with economic incentives (Barba 2004). Other threats to water
availability are linked to (1) outdated research and framework plans, and (2)
hampered policy decision-making due to insufficient data collection in certain
areas, lack of data sharing protocols governing inter-agency access, and lack of a
common integrated knowledge management database (Barba 2004).
Natural water-related disasters and environmental degradation are persistent
threats to most of the watersheds in Mindanao impacting water access and quality. A
super typhoon Bopha (Pablo) struck significant part of Mindanao in 2012 and super
typhoon Sendong (Washi) in Cagayan de Oro caused watershed damage leading to
high rates of erosion (Franta et al. 2016; Rodolfo et al. 2016). In 2015, the Butuan
City Council approved the Resolution declaring a city-wide water crisis due to low
water supply to 200,000 residents attributed to the damaged facilities and infrastruc-
tures of Butuan City Water District after onslaught of tropical storm Seniang.
Table 12.2 Water resource potential by region in Mindanao Island in million cubic meters (MCM)
(World Bank 2003)
Region Surface water Groundwater Total
Southwestern Mindanao 12,100 1082 13,182
Northern Mindanao 29,000 2116 31,116
Southeastern Mindanao 11,300 2375 13,675
Southern Mindanao 18,700 1758 20,458
However, investigation later revealed that the water crisis was a result of the neglect,
callousness, and inefficiency of the officials of the local water district (Serrano 2015).
Man-made activities, such as deforestation or denudification, also spur on water-
related disasters that degrade watersheds. DENR representatives cited three such
watersheds due to the urgent need for rehabilitation from excessive deforestation
(BusinessWorld 2011). Reducing nonrevenue water, the water that is lost from
leaks, pilferage through illegal connections, and wastage, is another aspect in the
problem scope of water scarcity.
While the problem of water scarcity spans several areas (e.g., policy, poor over-
sight, natural disasters, environmental degradation), there some are cases of emerg-
ing solutions. For example, Cagayan de Oro City and USAID partner to implement
water-saving measures by reducing the percentage of nonrevenue water. The local
water district of Cagayan de Oro estimates that they lose 53% (80,000 m3) of their
water supply as nonrevenue water and aim to reduce to acceptable levels ranging
from 20 to 30% (Jerusalem 2016). Upon completion of the project, water recovered
in the process was slated to serve areas still lacking a water service connection.
12.2.1 Mindanao Water Source Potential
The water resources of the Philippines are composed of inland freshwater, coastal,
bay, and oceanic water (Raymundo 2015). The portion of potential supply of water
both surface and groundwater of Mindanao Island per region is shown in Table 12.2
demonstrating the uneven distribution of these resources that favor the Northern and
Southern regions. Water resources differ also from province to province based on
several factors like population density, rainfall patterns, watershed quality, and the
rate of groundwater recharge (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011).
12.2.2 Mindanao Surface Water Resources
The Philippines have five principal river basins and two are found in Mindanao—
the Agusan and Pulangi River Basins (Tan et al. 2012). The surface water resource
of the nation is primarily the inland freshwater resources occupying 1830 km2 of the
Philippine area (World Bank 2003) with an estimated 262 watersheds (Tan et al.
2012). Eight of the 18 significant rivers covering an area greater than 1000 km2 are
in Mindanao (World Bank 2003) which makes up watersheds or river basins that
further drains into the bays in the north, east, and south.
12.2.3 Groundwater Resources
Mindanao houses two of the four major groundwater reservoirs in the Philippines,
the Agusan Groundwater Reservoir (8500 ha) and Pulangi Groundwater Reservoir
(estimated at 6000 ha). These groundwater resources lie beneath Mindanao’s vast
watersheds or recharging zones—the Agusan and Ligawasan Marshes (Tan et al.
2012) establishing Southeastern and Northern Mindanao as the highest potential
groundwater resources (World Bank 2003).
A 5.3% annual increase in total demand for groundwater resources (e.g., domes-
tic, industrial, and commercial) throughout the Philippines also saw a decline in
precipitation reducing recharge by an average 3.7% annually and a steady decline in
the volume of groundwater at an average annual rate of 1.4% from 1988 to 1994
(Philippine Statistics Authority 2016, para 4). This reveals that there is a continuing
trend towards depletion of the country’s groundwater resource stock making
Mindanao Island, heavily reliant on the agricultural and industrial sectors for
economic development, highly susceptible.
12.3 L
egal Framework and Policies on Quality Control,
Regulation on Water Usage, and Water Management
Understanding the existing national legal policy and framework on water use estab-
lishes important systemic factors in the existing protocols and presents an opportu-
nity to apply analysis techniques to generate novel responses to the water scarcity
problem. This section introduces government agencies, national laws, quality and
emission standards, and presents problems associated with enforcement of existing
guidelines.
12.3.1 Government Agencies
The water resources management of the Philippines is divided into several compo-
nents performed by multiple government agencies and offices (Table 12.3) man-
dated by law and their charter, to perform roles in water supply, hydropower,
irrigation, pollution, flood control, and watershed management (Dayrit 2001). The
foremost agency in water management is the National Water Resources Board
Table 12.3 Philippine regulatory agencies and their primary enacted water resource functiona
(Madrazo 2002; Dayrit 2001)
Agency Function URL
Supply and water distribution
Department of Interior and Local government unit-run water supply, http://dilg.gov.ph/
Local Government (DILG) sewerage, and sanitation systems
Department of Public Works Flood control and drainage regulation http://www.dpwh.
and Highways (DPWH) gov.ph/dpwh/
Local Water Utilities Local water districts managing water supply http://www.lwua.
Administration (LWUA)b and sewerage systems gov.ph/
Policy formulation and planning
National Economic Highest socioeconomic planning agency http://www.neda.
Development Authority and policy advisor to Congress and the gov.ph/
(NEDA) Executive Branch
National Water Resources Policy formulation, administration (water http://nwrb.gov.ph/
Board (NWRB) permits), and enforcement of the Water
Code of the Philippines
Water resource regulation
Department of Environment Watershed regulation and quality; mandated http://www.denr.
and Natural Resources to enforce environmental protection and gov.ph/laws-and-
(DENR) pollution control regulations policies.html
Department of Health Water sanitation, potability, and safety http://www.doh.
(DOH) gov.ph/
Other relevant regulatory agencies
Bureau of Soils and Water Irrigation regulation http://www.bswm.
Management (BSWM) da.gov.ph/
National Power Corporation Hydropower regulation http://www.
(NPC) napocor.gov.ph/
National Irrigation Irrigation regulation http://www.nia.gov.
Administration (NIA) ph/
a
Various local government units (LGUs) participate in each of the designated categories and are
mandated to perform regulatory functions as stipulated in the Local Government Code of 1991
(Republic Act No. 7160)
b
Also participates in Policy Formulation and Planning
(NWRB), responsible for policy formulation, administration, and enforcement of

the Water Code of the Philippines (Madrazo 2002). The overlapping duties of the
agencies and their regulatory framework can create a complex and competitive
environment hindering effective water resource management.
12.3.2 National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies
The adoption of National Water Code of 1976 (Presidential Decree of 1067) is the
first attempt by the national government to systematically manage the water
resources of the Philippines. The main purposes of this policy are to (1) provide
basic principles and structural framework for the appropriation, control, conserva-
tion, and protection of water resources to achieve optimum development and effi-
cient use to meet present and future needs; (2) determine the scope of the rights and
obligations of water users and provide for the protection and regulation of such
rights; and (3) the necessary and essential administrative machinery and systems.
Several related laws and policies are enumerated below.
• Republic Act No. 8041 or National Water Crisis Act of 1995. Water supply,
distribution, finance, privatization of state-run water facilities, conservation
and protection of watersheds, and wastage and pilferage of water including
the matters of graft and corruption in all water agencies.
• Presidential Decree No. 198 or Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973.
Mandates to create, operate, maintain, and expand local water districts
(LWDs); direct and administer economically viable and sound provincial
water supply and wastewater disposal systems.
• Presidential Decree No. 1586 or Environmental Impact Statement System of
1978. Mandates the administration of environmental impact assessment for
all investments undertaken by the government of private sectors.
• Presidential Decree No. 424 or Creation of National Water Resources
Council. Mandates the creation of a National Water Resources Council; pri-
mary duty of coordinating and regulating national water resource develop-
ment; planning and policy for social and economic development.
• Republic Act No. 7160 or Local Government Code of 1991. Mandates the
LGUs to enforce water-related laws and policies for sanitation, water supply,
and flood control (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).
12.3.3 W
ater Quality Control Laws, Classification,
and Assessment
The main document establishing and defining the basic regulatory programs (e.g.,
discharge standards, issuance of permits, monitoring of compliance) is the Philippine
Environment Code (Presidential Decree No. 1151). Several national laws have also
been passed and established defining policy on abatement, control, and water quality
management. These laws are summarized below.
• Republic Act No. 9275 or Clean Water Act of 2004. Mandates the protection,
preservation, and revival of the quality of the country’s freshwater, brackish,
and marine waters; pollution abatement; market-based instruments that
charges fees based on effluent discharge volume impacting applications for
permitting; and strengthens enforcement by imposing stiffer penalties for vio-
lations of standards.
• Commonwealth Act 383 or Anti-Dumping Law of 1934. Early legislation

addressing environmental pollution (e.g., solid waste dumping) in rivers
causing water levels to rise and/or streamflow blockage.
• Presidential Decree No. 984 or Pollution Control Law of 1976. Guideline for
water pollution control water from industrial sources; establishes penalties
for noncompliance and violation; requires industries to acquire necessary
permits before operation.
• Presidential Decree No. 856 or Sanitation Code of the Philippines. Establishes
the standards for collection and disposal of sewage, refuse, excreta covering
both solid and liquid wastes; mandates cities and municipalities the responsi-
bility to furnish efficient and proper waste disposal systems and to manage
nuisance and offensive trades and occupations.
• Republic Act No. 9003 or Ecological Solid Waste Management of 2000.
Mandates the systematic implementation of a national program that will gov-
ern the transfer, transport, processing, sorting, and disposal of the country’s
solid waste; establishes the criteria and standard for identifying landfill sites
ensuring that their operation does not affect the groundwater sources in
nearby aquifers.
• Republic Act No. 6969 or Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear
Wastes Control Act. Establishes the standards in the control and management
of the importation, manufacturing, processing, distribution, utilization, treat-
ment, transportation, storage, and disposal of toxic, hazardous, and nuclear
wastes and substances (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).
• DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 or Revised Water Usage
and Classification. Establishes the categories and classification of water bod-
ies in terms of their best usage; defines the minimum required for different
water quality parameters per type of water classification.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990 or Revised Effluent
Regulations. Stipulates the national standards for the discharge of effluents
for the different classifications of water bodies.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 26A Series of 1994 or Philippine National
Standards for Drinking Water. Establishes the national standard values for the
different water quality parameters; guidelines and methodologies accepted
for assessing the drinking water quality.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 38 Series of 1997 or Chemical Control
Order for Mercury and Mercury Compounds. Establishes the policies on
regulation and control of the importation, manufacturing, distribution, and
use of mercury and mercury compounds; defines the accepted procedures on
storage, transportation, and disposal of mercury and mercury compound
wastes.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 39 Series of 1997 or Chemical Control
Order for Cyanide and Cyanide Compounds. Establishes the requirements
and procedures for importing, manufacturing, distributing, and using cyanide
Table 12.4 Number of classified inland surface waters and the classification criteria (Environment
Management Bureau 2014)
Number
Class Beneficial use in Class
AA Public water supply class I. Intended primarily for waters having watersheds 5
which are uninhabited and otherwise protected; require approved
disinfection to meet the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water
(PNSDW)
A Public water supply class II. For sources of water supply that will require 234
complete treatment (e.g., coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection) to meet the PNSDW
B Recreational water class I. For primary contact recreation such as bathing, 197
swimming, and skin diving. (particularly those designated for tourism
purposes)
C 1. Fishery water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic 333
resources
2. Recreational water class II (e.g., boating)
3. Industrial water supply class I (for manufacturing processes after
treatment)
D 1. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering. 27
2. Industrial water supply class II (e.g., cooling)
3. Other inland waters as determined by their quality belong to this
classification
and cyanide compounds; determines protocol for the storage, transport, and
waste disposal for these compounds.
• DENR Administrative Order No. 58 Series of 1998 or Priority Chemical List/
DENR Administrative Order No. 27 Series of 2005 or Revised Priority
Chemical List. Determines the potentially harmful substances which pose
unreasonable health risks to the public and even to the environment. The
order requires companies, industries, distributors, importers, and manufactur-
ers of chemicals listed to submit reports twice a year (DENR 2017; Chan
Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).
Many of the water resource problems relate to quality rather than the quantity
(Senate Economic Planning Office 2011) as water pollution affects island marine
waters, fresh and groundwater sources. Surface water quality in the Philippines is
classified in terms of its beneficial use (Table 12.4) and different portions of a water
body can have several uses with multiple classifications. One example is the Lipadas
River in Region 11 which has four classifications; Class AA upstream, Classes A
and B midstream, and Class C downstream (EMB 2014). Notable is that two of the
five Class AA inland waters can be found in Mindanao Region 11—the Lipadas
River (upstream) and Baganga-Mahan-Ub (upstream).
Mindanao has 236 classified inland waters as of 2013 which were based on data
monitored and collected by the EMB from 2006 to 2013 as shown in Table 12.5
(EMB 2013). Based on the data available, further efforts must be employed to
Table 12.5 Number of classified inland water of Mindanao per region (EMB 2013)
Region Class AA Class A Class B Class C Class D
Region 9a 0 32 33 6 0
Region 10b 0 40 1 11 0
Region 11c 2 9 12 10 3
Region 12d 0 9 13 15 5
Caragae 0 11 1 12 9
ARMMf 0 0 0 2 0
TOTAL 2 101 60 56 17
a
Zamboanga Peninsula
b
Northern Mindanao
c
Davao Region
d
Soccsksargen
e
Caraga Administrative Region
f
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
classify the remaining inland waters to provide additional information and for fur-
ther management and rehabilitation if needed, especially in the case of Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).
The assessment of water quality is based on the number of samples taken from
the body of water meeting the DAO 1990–34 water quality criteria per parameter
(EMB 2014, p.9). Only bodies of water with at least four sampling events,
representing both the dry and wet seasons, were included (EMB 2014). Please refer
to the EMB (2014) for details on assessment methodologies used to rate water
bodies for optimum levels of various particulate matter based on DENR formulations
of ambient standards. DENR standards emphasize parameters such as dissolved
oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), total
dissolved solids (TDS), and heavy metals to assess inland water quality. The
standard value in each parameter serves as the benchmark data for monitoring and
assessing water quality in their respective classification.
12.3.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a parameter used to indicate level of water pollution and
the capacity to support aquatic plants and animal life (Greenpeace 2007). Water
movement, temperature, and pollution can also affect the concentration of DO in
a body of water. High levels of DO are observed in water bodies with these
activities.
Only 138/164 (84%) of the inland waters monitored by the EMB met the required
sampling events from 2006 to 2013 while 81/138 (59%) were deemed to have
“good” water quality (EMB 2014, p.9). Most of these are Class A or C designated
bodies of water located in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao (EMB 2014).
12.3.3.2 Biological Oxygen Demand
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed

by microorganisms in decomposing organic matter from a pollution source (EMB
2014). Higher levels of BOD manifest downstream where decomposition occurs
and not where the effluent is directly discharged (EMB 2014).
Only 75/131 (57%) if the inland waters that met the sampling requirements are
considered “good” (EMB 2014, p.11). They were from Class A or Class C water bodies
in Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao.
12.3.3.3 Total Suspended Solids
Total suspended solid (TSS) is a measure of undissolved solid in water (e.g., silt,
decaying plant and animal matter, domestic and industrial wastes) (EMB 2014). A
body of water with high TSS value has lower capability of supporting aquatic life
due to reduction of the light penetrating the body of water.
Only 40/138 (29%) Class AA and Class A water bodies met the sampling require-
ments while only 13/40 (33%) bodies of water manifested “good” quality (EMB
2014, p.12). Two out these water bodies were just shy of reaching 100% compliance
rating—(1) Mindanao, upper portion of Taguibo River (99%), and (2) Lake Mainit
(98%) (EMB 2014, p.12). Several water bodies from Mindanao received a “poor”
rating including the Davao River (upper reach) in Region 11, Lun Masla River in
Region 12, and Iponan River in Region 10.
12.3.3.4 Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids (TDS) refers to a broad array of chemical contaminants com-
ing from agricultural runoff, leaching soil contamination, and point source pollution
from industrial or domestic sewage (EMB 2014).
Only 17 (55%) bodies of water manifested “good” quality out of 30 Class AA/A
bodies of water monitored which are mostly concentrated in Region 3 and only
Marilao River in Bulacan had a “poor” quality level (Greenpeace 2007, p.16).
12.3.3.5 Heavy Metals
Heavy metal ions are soluble in water that forms toxic sediments at the bottom of
bodies of water. These are considered harmful to aquatic life and to humans who
consume seafood contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. Monitoring
heavy metals is important to maintaining healthy waterways especially in water bod-
ies that are near mining industries, electroplating, tanning, and other similar activi-
ties (Appleton et al. 1999; Baharom and Ishak 2015; Canencia et al. 2016).
Additional findings in the EMB report include results from 63 inland surface
water bodies that were monitored in terms of total mercury, cadmium, and lead from
2006 to 2013. These monitored rivers exhibited 100% total mercury compliance
except for Agno, Malaguit, Panique, and Tubay Rivers (Mindanao) (EMB 2014,
p.16). Tubay River (Class A) did not meet the criterion in two sampling events out
of 56 conducted. However, the presence of mercury there could remove the Tubay
River as potential source of potable water.
Similarly, the maximum limit of cadmium was present in 10/18 bodies of moni-
tored waters from 2006 to 2013. Of these ten, the lower part of the Davao River
(Class B) is found in Mindanao. Although this river did not completely meet the
compliance standard, notable is that of the ten rivers, the Davao River exhibited the
highest compliance rating with 93% (EMB 2014, p.17).
Lead monitoring indicates that only 7/18 bodies of water monitored met the
maximum limit demonstrating a 100% compliance rating. The Davao River in
Mindanao, both upper and lower sections did not meet the maximum limit and both
sections failed some aspect of sampling collection event (EMB 2014, p.18). These
findings are particularly alarming for the upper section of Davao River, because of
the Class A designation as a source of potable water.
12.3.4 S
tandards Overview: Ambient Water Quality,
Wastewater Emission, and Enforcement
Various Philippine legislations cover different water quality parameters. This sec-
tion provides an overview of major evaluation protocol for surface water, ground-
water used to produce drinking water, bottled water, and wastewater. Then we
present some high-level issues of enforcement relating to these standards.
12.3.4.1 Ambient Water Quality
Ambient water (e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans) quality is defined as the average water
purity distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the source of the
pollution as defined by the Clean Water Act of the Philippines (Greenpeace 2007).
DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 sets forth 33 water quality
assessment for minimum and desired levels for drinking water, water purification,
polyvinyl chloride, and bacteria. Five key parameters determine classification and
reclassification of surface water bodies: (1) pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological
oxygen demand (BOD), and total coliforms.
12.3.4.2 Drinking Water
For drinking water, the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (DOH
2007) holds criteria for bacteriological, physical, chemical, radiological, and
biological qualities across 56 parameters used to assess groundwater source quality.
Only three measures—fecal coliform, salinity or chloride content, and nitrates

(EMB 2014) are highly relevant. Chloride and nitrates constitutes the total dissolved
solids (TDS) with a maximum limit of 500 mg/L while no total coliform must be
detectable in 100 mL sample for the fecal coliform parameter (World Bank 2003).
12.3.4.3 Bottled Water
Standards for bottled water are stipulated in Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD)
Administrative Order No. 18-A Series of 1996. The BFAD stipulates assessment of
several parameters including the levels of bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers,
pesticides, hydrocarbons, detergents, phenolic compounds, heavy metals, radioactive
substances, and other soluble organic and inorganic substances. Source quality,
production processes and facilities, and handling and proper labeling are also part
of the BFAD order.
12.3.4.4 Wastewater
The protocol for wastewater effluent emission standards are gathered in DENR
Administrative Order No. 34 and 35 Series of 1990 as they apply to the different
classifications of water bodies. Several standards dictate maximum corresponding
numerical values coming from any point source for any effluent discharge but target
toxic and deleterious substances which can affect the quality of the receiving body
of water. Discharge of effluents in bodies of water categorized as Class AA is
strongly prohibited to ensure protection of public health while for other categories,
industrial discharges and effluents should not contain toxic substances greater than
the indicated value in the said order (Greenpeace 2007). Standard values on
conventional and other pollutants which affect the aesthetic and oxygen demand are
also established in these administrative orders. Some researchers have suggested
that despite the number of governing policies, standards, and guidance, these
assessment parameters appear to be relatively insensitive to the actual ambient
standards due the utilization of concentration-based standards (Luken 1999).
Current wastewater standards do not reflect the proliferation of toxic chemicals
used for and as a byproduct of modern industrial and commercial processes
especially in electronics and semiconductor industry, such as beryllium, nickel,
copper, tin, zinc, vanadium, and many other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
12.3.4.5 Enforcement
Enforcement of existing laws and regulations are another prominent issue. Several
researchers have identified the problematic nature of government institutions due to
inefficient and/or ineffective activities. For example, overlapping, or in some cases
competing, water resource management function and enacted responsibilities across

various levels of government challenging leaders to agency realignment (Rola et al.
2015). Because of this problem of variance in policy and implementation
mechanisms, consistent enforcement remains a challenge for the national and local
governments (USAID and AECEN 2004). The problem becomes transparent when
a new law is enacted but then adopts a new or different strategy, giving varied
powers and responsibilities to existing government agencies like the EMB, LGUs,
and other especially constituted multisectoral management and regulatory bodies.
Several challenges in the enforcement of existing regulations, such as an unclear
reporting structure, accountability, enforcement responsibilities, and nonstandard-
ized inspection procedures, have been identified by the EMB (2014). The EMB
faces their own challenges in reporting structure as staff in the provincial and com-
munity offices are categorized as reassigned personnel reporting to the DENR
regional offices and not directly to the EMB hierarchy as prescribed by the EMB
mandate. Additionally, these EMB personnel are in the DENR Regional offices and
depend on their resources. This crease results in the delay of submissions of reports,
determination of accountable personnel, and mandate enforcement.
Another prevailing enforcement issue is that most local government officials are
unaware of their responsibilities with regards to the enforcement of the Ecological
Solid Waste Management Act and other pertinent policies. Most of the responsibilities
and obligations LGU require significant technical capability aside from financial
investments. However, training conducted by the DENR and internal training
conducted by the LGU do not reflect this. While a good strategy to address this
challenge is for the DENR to facilitate compliance of LGUs through capacity
building activities, workshops, and penalties exacted on LGU officials that violate
or fail to meet their mandated responsibilities, DENR budgets do not currently
allocate for training or monitoring of LGUs. EMB annual budgets for training,
monitoring and inspection are annually exceeded and do not receive a steady
revenue source. This creates a challenge of allocating enough budget for the DENR
to be able to provide a comprehensive program for capacity building to prepare
LGUs for the enforcement of certain provisions of the law.
Another enforcement problem is the lack of cohesive, standardized procedures in
various EMB field offices. Instead, field agents often establish and practice their
own procedural strategy when conducting inspection and monitoring tasks. Although
several attempts have been made to produce unofficial field guides, manuals, and
checklists for the standard conduct of inspection, these items were unsuccessful.
First, they were considered impractical to actual field situations, and second, they
failed to garner support because they were not backed by official administrative
orders reinforcing their implementation.
Demand to address certain limitations of current and existing laws, standards for
water quality and effluents, and enforcement is apparent. While policies are
presumably adequate, agencies face limitations on enforcement that may only be
ameliorated by institutional influence.
12.3.5 Groundwater Quality Assessment
The country’s groundwater resources provide most of the water needs for house-
holds, agricultural activities, commercial, industrial processes, and others.
Therefore, preventing groundwater contamination and remediating contaminated
groundwater are important considerations that warrant testing and other associated
expenses.
In assessing the country’s groundwater quality, the Philippine National Standard
for Drinking Water (PNSDW) is referenced. This standard includes relevant
parameters indicating the level and degree of pollutants such as fecal coliform and
nitrates. Other common parameters (e.g., salinity, chloride content) are used to
indicate the level of seawater intrusion.
12.3.5.1 Fecal Coliform
The PNSWD prescribes that drinking water should contain less than 1.1 Most
Probable Number per 100 mL (MPN/100 mL) using the method of Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique (EMB 2014). The EMB conducted a program in 2008 to
consolidate the results of analyses on tap water samples for Total and Fecal
Coliforms submitted by different regional laboratories across the country. Under
this program, 59 shallow wells were monitored in selected areas of the country and
6 were found to be potable, 23 failed to meet the fecal coliform standard, and the
remaining 30 sites require further testing (EMB 2014). Sites found not potable in
Mindanao are in Zamboanga City and Davao City (Greenpeace 2007).
12.3.5.2 Nitrates
Environmental nitrates are found in the salts of ammonium, sodium, potassium, and
calcium from soil fertilizers during agricultural runoff, wastewater treatment,
confined animal facilities, and from sewage discharge of septic systems (EMB
2014). No major study has been conducted to determine the nitrate levels of various
groundwater sources in Mindanao except in the agricultural regions of Northern and
Central Luzon (Tirado 2007).
12.3.5.3 Salinity or Chloride Content
Excessive withdrawal of groundwater causes the natural groundwater gradient to

reverse and allow seawater to contaminate and intrude the aquifers in coastal areas
(Pinder 1981). Seawater intrusion can affect the potability of drinking water and the
quality of water in irrigation wells leaving some areas unfit for continued agricultural
activities (EMB 2014).
Table 12.6 Standard rates for evaluation of groundwater and surface water quality (World Bank
2003)
Parameter Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory
DO (mg/L)a >5 5 <5
BOD <5 5 >5
(mg/L)b
TDSc Less than 10% of wells tested did N/A 10% or more of wells tested did
not meet standard not meet standard
Coliform No wells found positive for N/A Wells found positive for coliform
coliform (0%) (>0%)
a
Dissolved oxygen
b
Biological oxygen demand
c
Total dissolved solids
No current study assessing the degree of seawater intrusion in the groundwater

resources of Mindanao Island to date. However, some studies were conducted in the
areas of Luzon (Insigne and Kim 2010) and Visayas (Scholze et al. 2002).
12.3.5.4 Pollution Hotspots
The Philippine Government maintains the quality of water bodies according to

intended and beneficial use (DENR 1990). In 2003, pollution hotspots of surface
water were assessed by the World Bank and evaluated by province using DO and
BOD criteria while groundwater sources tested TDS and coliform. Water quality
status of surface waters was categorized and rated as Satisfactory (S), Marginal (M),
and Unsatisfactory (U) while groundwater quality status was rated either Satisfactory
(S) or Unsatisfactory (U) (Table 12.6).
Results of the 3-year monitoring project conducted by the World Bank reported
on the Water Quality Scorecard for Surface Waters from Regions 9–11 and 13 are
satisfactory with marginal ratings for the Mercedes River (Region 9), Manicahan
River (Region 9) and Agusan River (Region 13) (World Bank 2003, p.36). Several
surface water bodies on the island were rated as unsatisfactory including the Saaz
River (Region 9) and the Padada, Tuganay, and Agusan Rivers in Region 11 (World
Bank 2003, p.36). There were no available data for Region 12 and ARMM.
There were further gaps in analysis. No groundwater data were available for
Regions 12, 13, and ARMM for both TDS and coliform while for Region 9 and 11,
no coliform data were available (World Bank 2003). Zamboanga del Sur (Region 9)
and Misamis Oriental (Region 10) groundwater sources were rated unsatisfactory
for TDS while Misamis Oriental (Region 10) was rated unsatisfactory for coliform
(World Bank 2003, p.37).
12.3.5.5 Point and Nonpoint Sources
Water pollution can be classified in terms of its source—(1) point source pollution,
and (2) nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution refers to any pollution
with an identifiable pollution source with a specific and known discharge point. On
the other hand, nonpoint source pollution refers to pollution with no known or
identifiable source (World Bank 2003).
Point source pollution can be categorized into three main sources—domestic
wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater discharges, and industrial wastewater
discharges. Pollution load is calculated using BOD as the measuring parameter
indicating pollution contribution from point sources is 24% from Industrial
discharges, 31% from Domestic or Municipal discharges, and 45% from Agricultural
discharges (EMB 2014, p.24) The calculations for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial BOD can be seen in the documents published by World Bank (2003),
EMB (2014), Economopoulos (1993).
Domestic discharges contain the most organic waste with suspended solids and
coliforms from common household and kitchen activities (World Bank 2003). The
problem is attributed to the lack of appropriate domestic sewage treatment system
allowing allows 90% of inadequately treated domestic sewage discharged into
surface waters (Greenpeace 2007, p.19). Major areas that generate BOD are Metro
Manila and Region 4A (18% and 15%, respectively) while only small levels of
BOD are generated in Mindanao regions (World Bank 2003, p.7). In Mindanao,
regions 10, 11, and 12 went above the 50 thousand megaton mark for BOD load
while areas within regions of 9, 13 and ARMM were below 50 thousand megaton
marks (World Bank 2003).
In terms of agricultural BOD, Regions 4 and 1 contributed the most BOD in the
country (13% and 12%, respectively). In Mindanao, region 10 is ranked fourth in
BOD attributed to active animal and vegetable farming in this region, while Region
13 and ARMM (1.2% and 3.0%, respectively) had the least agricultural BOD
contribution (World Bank 2003, p.21). Notable is that Region 13 also has the least
agricultural BOD contribution for the whole country.
Industrial BOD contribution depends on the volume and characteristics of indus-
trial effluents which vary by industry type. Water-intensive industries discharge huge
amounts of waste water (Canencia and Walag 2016; World Bank 2003). Most of the
water-intensive industries are in Luzon in the National Capital Region, Regions 3 and
4, thus having the most BOD contribution (42.5%, 9.0%, and 14.1%, respectively)
while other regions, such as 11 (6.6%), 9 (3.3%), 10 (2.2%), and 8 (1.1%), have rela-
tively smaller contributions. Finally, ARMM reports 0% BOD contribution due the
absence of or an insignificant number of large industries (World Bank 2003, p.21).
Nonpoint source pollution depends generally on the land use thus it is calculated
and estimated based on the different land uses. Several technologies are now
available to help monitor, control, and mitigate the effects of point source pollutions
but there remains difficulty in these activities for nonpoint sources (Greenpeace
2007). The difficulty in monitoring is evident in the lack of information and scarcity
of monitoring on the contribution of solid waste, a major source of nonpoint pollut-
ants (World Bank 2003).
12.4 Health and Environmental Impact
Human population and the surrounding environment are at risk when bodies of
water like rivers, streams, and lakes are polluted with wastewater or spillage. These
source bodies of water, in turn, contaminate nearby groundwater making humans
susceptible to environmentally-related illness and disease resulting in mortality and
morbidity (Cabral 2010; Grimes et al. 2015). Specifically, inadequate sanitation and
hygiene brought about by lack of clean, safe, and comfortable facilities could
promote the risk of acquiring diarrhea (Pfadenhauer and Rehfuess 2015) “which is
second to pneumonia as the leading cause of morbidity in the Philippines” (DOH
2012, p.63) in diseases related to the environment. Several studies discussed in this
section have firmly established the relationship between polluted water supply and
disease in the Philippines (WEPA n.d., para 7):
Untreated wastewater… makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens bio-
diversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water
include gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently,
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).
Water bodies in urban areas are the most susceptible to contamination due to the
direct and indirect pollution caused by unprecedented development. However, rural
surface waters are endangered due to farming, animal production, and other food
sector industries that release organic pollutants into the water system. Consequently,
the environmental impact of improper sewerage leading to unsanitary water causes
a variety of debilitating health effects on living creatures—land-dwelling animals,
aquatic life and humans.
12.4.1 Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans
Excessive levels of fecal coliform organism and E. coli indicative of surface water
contamination was detected in a recent study of Cagayan de Oro River upstream.
The contamination was attributed to improper disposal of animal wastes, human
wastes which are discarded directly to the river, and poor sewerage in nearby
communities (Lubos et al. 2013; Lubos and Japos 2010).
Several studies confirm the need for increasing attention to watershed manage-
ment and sanitation. The Labo and Clarin Rivers are considered important to the
different communities in Misamis Occidental, where both tested positive for coli-
forms; the site along the agroforest and agricultural areas had the highest total coli-
form (Labajo-Villantes and Nuneza 2014) confirming the need for increasing
attention to watershed management. Several problematic physicochemical and
bacteriological qualities were also reported in several rivers—the Aligodon,
Misamis Oriental, Daveo River, and Talomo (Ido 2016; Laud et al. 2016).
Morbidity from outbreaks of diarrhea continue to be a major health problem
stemming from groundwater contamination of wells on farmland in villages in
North Cotabato (Pelone 2014a) and the application of herbicides on cornfields that
are washed down to river systems (Bacongco 2014). One death and 32 instances of
mortality was consequent to contamination through leakage of distribution pipes in
Zamboanga City (Pelone 2014b) where 14/19 residents there later tested positive
for norovirus (Radyo Natin 2016).
12.4.2 Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences
Low DO levels in water, abrupt and abnormal shifting water temperature, and dete-
riorating water quality are common environmental conditions that kill aquatic life
(EMB 2014). Several fish kills were documented and recorded throughout the island
including the 1 km long algal bloom of Cochlodinium sp. in the coastal area Jasaan,
Misamis Oriental in 2003 (Jabatan 2004). The bloom occurs because of high sur-
face temperature, favorable transport, radiation available for photosynthesis, and
enrichment for organic nutrients (Kim et al. 2016; Lee and Choi 2009; Tomas and
Smaydab 2008).
Several fish kills were reported in the island to have been caused by oxygen
depletion due to overcrowding and harmful algal blooms Lake Sebu and Lake
Seloton in South Cotabato and Iligan bay (Fernandez 2017; Vicente et al. 2002).
Consequently, government representatives of Maguindanao took precautionary
measures to ensure the balance of environment and marine life in the Lake Buluan
by regulating the number of fish pens (Sarmiento 2017).
The health of humans and marine species are both continuously threatened by
occurrences of Red Tide. Mindanao’s affinity for red tides, shown on the data from
the Incidences of Red Tide in Coastal Areas in 2016, has been credited to northeast
monsoon-driven upwellings (EMB 2014). Balite Bay in Mati, Davao Oriental was
exposed to red tide from January to March 2016, posing significant threats to aquatic
life until finally deemed toxin free in early March (Bureau of Fish and Aquatic
Resources 2016).
12.4.3 Improper Sewerage and Sanitation
In the Philippines, 76.8% of families have sanitary toilet facilities but only less than
10% are connected to piped sewerage system while the rest rely on septic tanks, pit
latrines, or open defecation (EMB 2014, p.28). Both the existence of unsuitable
sewerage systems or absence thereof greatly impacts the quality of different bodies
of water because this type of contamination may give rise to various water-borne
diseases caused by various microorganisms (EMB 2014).
While incidents of diarrhea have been deadly several other viral infections can
result from unsanitary water. Instances of hepatitis in Surigao del Sur (Crisostomo
and Serrano 2006) and leptospirosis in Davao City (Zapanta et al. 2014) were all
attributed to poor sanitation and improperly maintained sewage system. Rural areas
are typically affected where water systems, such as traditional wells and rivers,
contain fecal matter that contaminates the source (Bain et al. 2014).
12.4.4 Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation
Several activities and sources of mercury and heavy metals that pollute water bodies
can be attributed to mercury mining, gold mining, chemical industry, metal smelting,
coal combustion, and metropolitan and agricultural runoffs (Li et al. 2009). Several
mining industries are in the eastern and western sections of Mindanao where reports
of spillages, heavy metal pollution, and siltation of nearby bodies of water have
taken place (Appleton et al. 1999; Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006).
The gold mining industry has a strong presence in Eastern Mindanao near the
Agusan River where the gold-rush town of Diwalwal has a foothold. Initial analysis
revealed that the Diwalwal drainage, evident downstream of the river system, was
characterized by extremely high levels of mercury in solution and sediments
downstream (Appleton et al. 1999) exceeding multiple international guidelines.
Different kinds of organisms were also recorded as having been contaminated
with mercury from different main tailings. Contaminations were also found in rice,
fish and mussels from Naboc River (Appleton et al. 2006; Drasch et al. 2001) and in
three species of fish in Davao del Norte (Akagi et al. 2000). Population and
biodiversity of damselflies and dragonflies in Surigao del Sur (Quisil et al. 2014)
and oyster production in Zamboanga Sibugay Province (Lim and Flores 2017) have
also been drastically affected by mine tailing ponds.
12.5 Efforts to Address Water Quality
Water quality is a physical and chemical problem. Several projects have been con-
ducted both by the government and nongovernment agencies to address recurring
and perennial challenges regarding the protection and conservation of water
resources. Programs on the enhancement of water quality in the Philippines are
spearheaded by the DENR with the support of various nongovernment organizations,
financing institutions, and development partners (EMB 2014).
12.5.1 E
nvironmental Management Bureau Projects
and Programs
The DENR is mandated, through the EMB, to be the national authority responsible
for the prevention and control of pollution and assessment of environmental impact.
Aside from the enforcement and compliance activities of EMB in 12.3, the EMB
also take part in projects and activities to enhance and rehabilitate water quality
throughout the country.
12.5.1.1 Designation of Water Quality Management Area
The Water Quality Management Area (WQMA) is established by the NWRB together
with DENR to assign water quality management areas using appropriate physio-
graphic units to protect water bodies and its tributaries (EMB n.d.b). The WQMA
follows a two-step process by first initiating an assessment followed by the develop-
ment of an agency Action Plan crafted to improve the quality of a certain body of
water. Mindanao has ten bodies of water were designated as WQMAs in 2016.
12.5.1.2 Philippine Environment Partnership Program
The Philippine Environment Partnership Program (PEPP) was created to support

self-regulation among industries towards improved environmental performance. The
voluntary industry partnerships with DENR promote mandatory self-monitoring and
compliance with environmental standards (DENR 2003). Under this program, PEPP
evaluates and classifies establishments according to tracks. Industries classified as
Track 1 are companies driven by competitiveness that go beyond compliance while
Track 2 classified industries are companies that are currently unable to comply with
regulations. Several companies have been awarded the Seal of Approval from
Mindanao, but the first honor went to the San Miguel Brewery, Inc. in Darong, Davao
Del Sur, Region 11. Other companies who received this recognition include many
food, materials, and energy suppliers from Regions 10, 11, and 12 (DENR n.d.).
12.5.2 Financing Institutions and Development Partners
Financing institutions and development partners aid various projects aiming to pro-
mote, conserve, rehabilitate, and manage water quality. While the World Bank,
Development Bank of the Philippines, JICA, and USAID all contributed to various
national projects to protect, conserve, manage and rehabilitate the water bodies in
the Philippines, we emphasize support for projects on Mindanao Island.
12.5.2.1 Land Bank of the Philippines
The Land Bank of the Philippines, together with the DENR, implemented the
“Adopt-a-Watershed Project” restoring 14 hectare (ha) total area of denuded
forestlands in six pilot areas nationwide (EMB 2014). (1 ha is equal to 10,000 m2.)
Two major watersheds in Mindanao were covered in Phase 1(2006–2011) of this

project, Lasang River in Davao Del Norte and Silway River in South Cotabato. In
Phase 2 (2012–2015) of this project, 10 ha total watershed was covered in Mindanao,
these are Paquibato, Davao City and Olympog in General Santos City. In the last
Phase (2015–2018), and additional 14 ha of Mindanao watersheds found in
Zamboanga Sibugay, Lanao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and South Cotabato will
undergo restoration (Land Bank of the Philippines 2014).
12.5.2.2 Asian Development Bank
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided technical assistance to Cebu and
Davao cities to improve access to water supply and sanitation services. The Urban
Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2011–2014) aimed to increase continuous
water supply in Cebu and Davao City by 2022 from 50 to 80% of the population
while the coverage for clean and hygienic sanitation was targeted to improve from
10 to 50%. Furthermore, marine biodiversity ecosystems in the provinces of
Cagayan de Oro and Davao Oriental were also allocated funds by ADB to enhance
coastal services and reduce poverty among fisher folks (EMB 2014).
12.5.3 Research and Development Initiatives
Various research and development initiatives and programs conducted by DENR

and Department of Science and Technology (DOST) have been reported to address
water quality problems nationwide. DENR conducted leachate characterization
study from various solid waste disposal facilities from 2005 to 2007 assessing the
impacts of leachate on groundwater and studies on toxicity testing to assess the
harmful effects of substances like cyanide, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and nitrates
with fish and invertebrate test organisms. The collected data from the tests were
used in the formulation of parameters for environmental quality assessment and
monitoring (EMB 2014).
The DOST also conducted various research and development initiatives geared
towards prevention and control of water pollution under a five-year plan from 2011
to 2016 entitled, “Science & Technology Water Environment Roadmap.” Various
programs and projects are investigating and implementing water technologies. They
include water treatment technological improvement and innovation, wastewater
treatment and remediation technologies, and space technology applications on
water resources such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology and pho-
tonics for aquatic resource assessment (EMB 2014).
12.6 R
ecommendations to Improve Quality, Control,
and Management
The environmental impact and negative health consequences elicited from water
scarcity and pollution aid in refining the existing legal framework and policies on
quality control, regulation on water usage, and water management. Major
recommendations include policy amendments to the Philippine Water Code and
Clean Air Act and various methods to further enhance local community involvement
in government organized activities.
12.6.1 Policy Amendments
Major policy recommendations include the development of an institutional frame-

work under the purview of the Philippine Water Code and amending the Clean Air
Act to eliminate the use of concentration-based standards through the introduction
of a two-tiered permit system. Suggestions include providing clarification of the
roles and responsibilities of the various enacted national and local government
units.
12.6.1.1 Centralized Regulation
A central regulatory body mandated within the main Philippine Water Code
would provide an essential reporting structure that legally defines the framework
for extraction, allocation, and management of the country’s water resources. The
transition to central control recognizes the presumably adequate existing law but
may afford the necessary opportunity to successfully address the constant chal-
lenge of policy enforcement resulting from government institutions having over-
lapping functions and responsibilities (Rola et al. 2015). Thus, an institutional
framework where all water users understand their roles and responsibilities
should be enacted under the Philippine Water Code. The NWRB, currently
enforcing the Water Code of the Philippines, is a prime candidate for transition.
The existing organizational chart of NWRB allows conferring of water right but
much of the proportion of water right is freely held by other public institutions
like DENR (watershed management), LWUA (domestic water supply), and
National Irrigation Administration (NIA) (irrigation water supply) as shown in
Fig. 12.1.
This proposal reinforces the technical capacity and administrative function of
NWRB by restructuring agency responsibilities to become the country’s water
resources management authority. Hence, a single, independent, and autonomous
regulatory board will ensure the protection of water consumers, enshrine account-
ability and transparency throughout the water resource management of the coun-
National Water Resources Board

(NWRB)
Chair: Dept. of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) Secretary
Vice Chair: Socio-Economic Planning
Secretary
Members: Dept. of Justice (DOJ)
NWRB Board
Secretary
Dept. of Science and
Technology (DOST) Executive Director
Secretary
Director, National
Hydraulic Deputy Executive
Research Center Director
Policy and Program Water Rights Monitoring and Admnistrative and

Division Division Enforcement Division Financial Division
Fig. 12.1 Current organizational chart of National Water Resources Board (National Water
Resources Board n.d., Used by Permission of Public Domain)
Core Supporting Units

- Corporate Planning
Secretary's - Information Systems Management
Office - Financial Management and Admin
Services
- Legal and Legislative Affairs Services
Assistant
Secretary
Scientific
Infrastructure Water
Data Collection Studies and Resource Economic
and Program Financing and
and Monitoring Computer Regulation Regulation
Development Economics
Modelling
Water Facilities River Basin

Planning and Stakeholder
Development Organization Regional Offices
Policy Division Relations
and Operations Development
Visayas Visayas
Luzon Regional Mindanao
Regional Office Regional Office
Office Regional Office
1 2
Fig. 12.2 Organizational chart of proposed National Water Resources Management Office (Tabios
III 2014; Rola et al. 2015, Used by Permission)
try, and implement an honest and dynamic tariff policy. Further, these steps would
streamline all projects and activities geared towards water quality improvement, sus-
tainable allocation, and distribution among all users. The proposed central agency
would carry the name National Water Resources Management Office (Fig. 12.2)
having the mandate to manage and protect the country’s water resources.
12.6.1.2 A Two-Tiered Discharge Permit System in the Clean Water Act
The current policy on effluent standards, as mandated by Republic Act 9275,

appears to be relatively insensitive to the real ambient conditions due to the use of
concentration-based standards unconsciously allowing industries to dilute their
effluent by over extraction of groundwater (Madrazo 2002). A two-tiered system for
discharge permits mandated in the Clean Water Act should alleviate this problem.
The proposed system charges industries for both the volume and concentration of
water discharged thus encouraging industries to meet water quality standards to
avoid paying higher environmental fees. Although many industries meet the stan-
dards set by law, the fees they pay will reflect the volume of effluent discharge
addressing the dilution problem (Madrazo 2002). This revision on the provision of
discharge permits has three primary benefits: (1) the Clean Water Act will become
stringent in terms of reinforcing ambient water quality and effluent standards, (2)
better water quality in receiving bodies of water, and (3) water quality improvements
to communities’ dependent on receiving bodies for livelihood and domestic
purposes. Additionally, the environmental user’s fee would produce additional
benefits when disbursed to support data enhancing local water quality research,
production of modern water treatment technology, implementation and enforcement
of local ordinances through added personnel and equipment, and special training
monitoring and inspection personnel.
12.6.1.3 C
larification of Roles and Responsibilities of National and Local
Government Units
Under the current Clean Water Act, DENR is mandated with the responsibility to
enforce various provisions under the said law. Although the agency is capable and
competent, the current budget allocation is unlikely to increase covering the cost for
additional personnel and equipment even when duties are added as prescribed by
existing and new legislations (USAID and AECEN 2004). Thus, DENR operations
will be hampered. To address this issue, a revision of the Clean Water Act must be
made to devolve some of the functions of DENR to local government units. Local
governments are in the best position to perform monitoring and inspection tasks
because of existing personnel and available budget (Rola et al. 2015). Further, they
can also more easily link monitoring to enforcement in their own new permitting
system. Nevertheless, the LGUs require technical training which the DENR can
provide. The revision for the Clean Water Act shall be based upon the reorientation
of the task of DENR from reinforcement and implementation of the act to provision
of standards, training, and oversight over LGUs. In this setup, LGUs will be empow-
ered to effectively manage their own water resources, efficiently resolve local issues
and concerns cutting the long delay of bureaucracy, and sustainably provide support
and monitoring services for industries to forward local development. Furthermore,
since LGUs are empowered they can easily identify issues and challenges and
implement programs for the improvement of water quality involving local commu-
nities and barangays.
12.6.2 L
ocal Community Involvement in Government
Organized Activities
The civil society in the Philippines is very strong and vocal particularly in respect to
the environment. National and local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are very
keen in monitoring proposed projects or activities that may pose serious deleterious
effects to the environment. For this reason, tapping local community involvement
and public participation in various government projects and activities is beneficial
to the government, environment, and population. Recommendations encompass a
series of local community involvement in government organized activities spanning
the important aspect of citizen engagement in environmental impact assessments
prior to development and community-managed services, among others.
Public participation in environmental impact assessment (EIA) activities is very
significant not only in the process of consultations but also in the process of issuance
and renewal of Environmental Compliance Certificates (ECC) (EMB 2007). Certain
provision in the EIA requires the creation of a multisectoral monitoring team
especially for major development projects. This provision allows public
participations to ensure compliance with environmental standards by companies
and industries as stipulated in the ECC.
EcoWatch Program is a private sector initiative listing and publicizing major pol-
luters. DENR has adopted this initiative and encourages public participation in
monitoring major polluters (EMB n.d.c). This system creates negative publicity for
the involved firms since they are “color-coded” according to their compliance with
environmental regulations. EcoWarch also allows public recognition and praise to
firms and companies categorized as green, silver, and gold.
The Kapitbisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of
Social Project (KALAHI-CIDSS) is a World Bank project working with different
impoverished communities in the Philippines. The project utilizes a community-
driven development approach by enabling villagers to make their own decisions in
identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives
based on their current need (World Bank 2014). Public participation was very
significant due to clearly established guidelines on participation, accountability, and
transparency. Furthermore, an impact study revealed that the income of the
household beneficiaries who participated in the project rose significantly by 12% as
measured in terms of consumption (World Bank 2014, para 4).
There are numerous waterless municipalities around the country and about 213
are found in Mindanao (Llanto 2013). SALINTUBIG Project was conceived in
2011 by the DILG, DOH, and National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC). Their
common objective is to provide water supply systems to the 455 waterless
municipalities, barangays, health centers, and resettlement sites in the Philippines.
To reach their goals community members and LGU personnel were given technical
training in terms of planning, implementation, and operation of water supply
facilities. This program emphasizes the capacity building mechanisms and the
provision of technical assistance to LGUs in the pursuit of sustainable and efficient
water supply services in the country (National Anti-Poverty Commission n.d.).
Cagayan de Oro City through the Cagayan de Oro Water District (COWD)
sought the private sector to implement a design-build-operate contract for their
septic facility. Through this setup, the private proponent will design and construct
the treatment facility, purchase and operate desludging trucks, and implement a
program for desludging septic tanks around the city. The local government on the
other hand will approve a comprehensive citywide septic management ordinance,
develop and targeted promotional campaign (USAID 2010).
The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS) assists in the creation of
institutions providing technical assistance for the effective community management
of water supply and sanitation systems. The formation of the Provincial Water and
Sanitation Center in Agusan del Sur facilitated the capacity building of the
municipal-level project implementers, providing sustainable support to community
water and sanitation associations (Asian Development Bank 2006).
Lack of access to clean, potable water and improved sanitation is still a long-
standing issue in most rural areas in the Philippines. Climate Resilience in Water
Stressed Communities (CREST) is a project funded by USAID, local governments
and communities in the Philippines to bring potable water to these areas and con-
flict-affected regions of Mindanao (USAID 2016). This project utilized a commu-
nity-based, participatory approach to bring safe and potable drinking water through
innovative water and water sanitation technologies resilient in the face of climate
change.
Finally, the Estero Program is a collaborative effort among estero community
members, local government units, private company donors, and DENR through
EMB, to clean up waterways that empty into rivers and other bodies of water (EMB
n.d.a). This is an effort to mobilize members of the community to actively engage in
clean up, planning and implementation of continued plans to keep the estero clean
in continuous projects. Immediate of their initial efforts that were observed by
residents and other locals include less flooding due to unimpeded water flow and
reduction of water-borne diseases.
12.7 Summary
Clean water is essential to improving the quality of public health. Therefore, main-
tenance and improvement of the quality of water is important to achieving this
objective. In the Philippines, several legal frameworks and policies have been
established with the mandate of quality control, regulation of water use, and water
supply management. National government agencies, taskforces, and committees
have been established in response to the implementation of laws and departmental
administrative orders. These government agencies through various consultative
meetings and research developed ambient water and wastewater emission standards
for the protection of water bodies in the country. Although these legal framework
and policies are in place, several obstacles are still presently challenging the
realization of providing clean and potable water for all Filipinos. These challenges
are apparent in the fragmented establishment of legal policies cascading into weak
reinforcement that, in turn, is ineffective in preventing pollutants from contaminating
fresh and groundwater sources that impacts public health. Efforts must be made to
address problems on water quality and pollution, shortage and scarcity of water, and
the health and environmental impacts. This could begin in the development of a
unified inter-agency and multisectoral taskforce on the management of water bodies.
The system of rewards and incentives to improve environmental compliance of
firms and industries must be further strengthened. Although several government
agencies are mandated with the task of improving the water quality, this requires a
multisectoral approach which necessitates the involvement of local government
units and communities.
Initiatives by different civic societies and community associations are crucial in
the improvement of the water quality throughout the island. Attention should also
be given in the capacity building of local communities especially in their involvement
on monitoring the compliance of different firms and industries. A good amount of
investment must also be made in locally developed and produced sanitation and
sewerage systems to introduce public accountability among every citizen. A
community association must also be encouraged to manage water distribution and
management of wastewater treatment facilities. These efforts to involve and engage
local communities would address the challenge on the financial and personnel
constraint of both the EMB and DENR. Together with the National Government, the
rights and powers stipulated by legislative policies, support from various international
and local Nongovernment Organizations, and active and responsible participation
from local community members, the dream of providing clean, safe, and accessible
water resources is possible. The rich resources of the Philippines must not be taken
for granted and action must be taken before it’s too late. The community, an untapped
resource, must be involved in the various efforts to conserve and preserve the very
foundation of life—water. Therefore, now is the time to revise and translate national
laws and policies through the involvement of community to better the environmental
condition of the Philippines.
Acknowledgment The authors would like to acknowledge the United Nations, World Health
Organization, and the World Bank for access to their outstanding resources. The authors accept
responsibility for all analysis and interpretation.
Glossary
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Amount of oxygen dissolved in water required

for the survival of microorganisms.
Coliforms Bacteria commonly found in soil, water, and in the guts of animals,
which indicate that the water supply may be vulnerable to contamination.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) Amount of diatomic oxygen dissolved in water.
Domestic Refers to the utilization of water for drinking, washing, cooking, bath-
ing, and other household chores and needs.
Effluent Wastewater discharged from a sewage treatment facility or an industrial
plant.
Industrial Utilization of water for the needs of factories, industrial plants, and
mines.
Irrigation Controlled application of water for agricultural uses through man-made
systems to supply water requirements not satisfied by precipitation.
Municipal Utilization of water for supplying the water needs of the community.
Potable water Water that is safe for consumption or food preparation with no risk
to health.
Seawater Intrusion The natural phenomenon where freshwater is contaminated
with seawater because of overdraft—extracting too much water that leads to an
unsafe imbalance in water quality.
Sewerage Collective term used for drains, canals, manholes, pumping stations, and
screening chambers for disposal of sewage and surface water.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Synthetic chemical compounds dissolved
in water which can be vaporized at low temperatures.
Wastewater Water that has been used for various purposes in homes, industries,
businesses that is not meant for reuse unless it is treated for contaminants.
Water Quality Management Area Certain water bodies and its tributaries identi-
fied by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to be
prioritized for protection and conservation.
Water Right The right granted by the government to appropriate and use water.
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F - MT - 2018 - Water Quality Mindanao Island of Philippines

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F - MT - 2018 - Water Quality Mindanao Island of Philippines

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Chapter 12

Water Quality: Mindanao Island

Angelo Mark P. Walag, Oliva P. Canencia, and Beth Ann Fiedler

Abstract The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 219

12.1 Introduction and Background

12.2 Water Scarcity Problem Scope

12.2.1 Mindanao Water Source Potential

12.2.2 Mindanao Surface Water Resources

12.2.3 Groundwater Resources

12.3.1 Government Agencies

(NWRB), responsible for policy formulation, administration, and enforcement of

12.3.2 National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies

• Commonwealth Act 383 or Anti-Dumping Law of 1934. Early legislation

12.3.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen

12.3.3.2 Biological Oxygen Demand

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed

12.3.3.3 Total Suspended Solids

12.3.3.4 Total Dissolved Solids

12.3.3.5 Heavy Metals

12.3.4.1 Ambient Water Quality

12.3.4.2 Drinking Water

Only three measures—fecal coliform, salinity or chloride content, and nitrates

12.3.4.3 Bottled Water

competing, water resource management function and enacted responsibilities across

12.3.5 Groundwater Quality Assessment

12.3.5.1 Fecal Coliform

12.3.5.3 Salinity or Chloride Content

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater causes the natural groundwater gradient to

No current study assessing the degree of seawater intrusion in the groundwater

12.3.5.4 Pollution Hotspots

The Philippine Government maintains the quality of water bodies according to

12.3.5.5 Point and Nonpoint Sources

12.4 Health and Environmental Impact

12.4.1 Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans

12.4.2 Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences

12.4.3 Improper Sewerage and Sanitation

12.4.4 Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation

12.5 Efforts to Address Water Quality

12.5.1.1 Designation of Water Quality Management Area

12.5.1.2 Philippine Environment Partnership Program

The Philippine Environment Partnership Program (PEPP) was created to support

12.5.2 Financing Institutions and Development Partners

12.5.2.1 Land Bank of the Philippines

Two major watersheds in Mindanao were covered in Phase 1(2006–2011) of this

12.5.2.2 Asian Development Bank

12.5.3 Research and Development Initiatives

Various research and development initiatives and programs conducted by DENR

12.6.1 Policy Amendments

Major policy recommendations include the development of an institutional frame-

12.6.1.1 Centralized Regulation

National Water Resources Board

Policy and Program Water Rights Monitoring and Admnistrative and

Core Supporting Units

Water Facilities River Basin

12.6.1.2 A Two-Tiered Discharge Permit System in the Clean Water Act

The current policy on effluent standards, as mandated by Republic Act 9275,

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Amount of oxygen dissolved in water required

Environmental Management Bureau (EMB). 2007. Environmental impact assessment review

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12.1 Introduction and Background

12.2 Water Scarcity Problem Scope

12.2.1 Mindanao Water Source Potential

12.2.2 Mindanao Surface Water Resources

12.2.3 Groundwater Resources

12.3.1 Government Agencies

12.3.2 National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies

12.3.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen

12.3.3.2 Biological Oxygen Demand

12.3.3.3 Total Suspended Solids

12.3.3.4 Total Dissolved Solids

12.3.3.5 Heavy Metals

12.3.4.1 Ambient Water Quality

12.3.4.2 Drinking Water

12.3.4.3 Bottled Water

12.3.5 Groundwater Quality Assessment

12.3.5.1 Fecal Coliform

12.3.5.3 Salinity or Chloride Content

12.3.5.4 Pollution Hotspots

12.3.5.5 Point and Nonpoint Sources

12.4 Health and Environmental Impact

12.4.1 Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans

12.4.2 Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences

12.4.3 Improper Sewerage and Sanitation

12.4.4 Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation

12.5 Efforts to Address Water Quality

12.5.1.1 Designation of Water Quality Management Area

12.5.1.2 Philippine Environment Partnership Program

12.5.2 Financing Institutions and Development Partners

12.5.2.1 Land Bank of the Philippines

12.5.2.2 Asian Development Bank

12.5.3 Research and Development Initiatives

12.6.1 Policy Amendments

12.6.1.1 Centralized Regulation

12.6.1.2 A Two-Tiered Discharge Permit System in the Clean Water Act