Educators must achieve system development competencies

so that comprehensive instructional systems can be created and tested . . .

Instructional Systems
—Magic or Method?

JOHN W. LOUGHARY
URS Corporation, San Mateo, California
On part-rim* leave of abtonc*
from the University of Oregon, Eugene
during the 1967-68 academic year

THE term "instructional sys bottles, and many professional educa

tems" first began appearing with some tors and laymen alike wonder whether
noticeable regularity around 1960. Dur instructional systems are another case,
ing the intervening years it has come to so to speak. The question is espe
be a part of the "new education" jargon, cially important, it seems to me, in light
along with other words such as input, of the many claims, both stated and im
output, monitor, and de-bug. A growing plied, made for the systems approach in
number of instructional systems com education. These claims include: indi
panies have been founded and many es vidualized instruction responsive to dif
tablished firms have created instruc ferences in pupil background, interests,
tional systems departments. and ability; decreased clerical tasks for
More and more, school districts refer teachers; better use of facilities and ma
to their instructional systems, and it is terials; more precise measurement of
no longer uncommon to find the position achievement; and, in many instances,
of systems analyst listed in school dis increased relevancy of instruction to the
trict personnel classifications. Perhaps real world of the learner. Let us take
the clearest evidence that "instructional another look at the reality of instruc
systems" refers to something real are tional systems.
the employment advertisements for edu
cational systems specialists placed in Characteristics of
many metropolitan newspapers. Several Instructional Systems
years ago such ads were unheard of. One should begin, I suppose, by ask
Nevertheless, there is sufficient his ing, "What is an instructional system?"
torical reason to justify skepticism re and "What is new or unique about its
garding the validity and uniqueness of construction and operation?" Usually,
the instructional systems concept. Edu such a system involves a complexity of
cation has a history of old wine in new procedures, several media, and has rela-

730 Educational Leadership

tively specific objectives. It seems obvi many other kinds of instruction by the
ous that a temporal reference point is field test (de-bugging) which precedes
needed, as is some statement of scope. large-scale use.
School systems of one hundred years Another common feature is the op
ago would fit the general definition just erational concern for student motivation
stated, but this is a different use of the via active student participation in the
term. learning process. In the practice set, as
Instructional systems, in the current in current instructional systems, the
sense, are almost without exception con student must do more than read. Most
cerned with a particular body of knowl instructional systems are based, among
edge suggested by what has been his other things, on the "principles" of pro
torically labeled a course. There are grammed instruction, and an obvious
certainly innovations in subject matter question is: do the authors of practice
organization, but in some general man sets and similar exercises, without stat
ner an instructional system is concerned ing so explicitly, use the same con
with a subject matter content which is cepts? These are usually stated as: (a)
something less than the total subject organize materials in small units of in
matter of a greater curriculum. struction, (b) provide for active student
In my opinion, the traditional course participation, (c) provide constant
consisting of a single text, supplemen feedback for the student, and (d) pro
tary reading, lectures, possibly a work vide immediate positive reward. At least
book, and several examinations is not a the practice sets which I completed
fair point of comparison. I can recall, when I was a student and similar exer
however, something which at least at cises which I later used as a high school
first look appears similar to modern in teacher seemed consistent with such
structional systems, and is illustrated principles.
by the bookkeeping practice sets which I conclude that the instructional sys
many of us did in high school, in my tems being developed are not entirely
case during the mid 1940's. These exer new. Whether they are an outgrowth or
cises and current instructional systems refinement of earlier materials, I cannot
have several similar aspects. say. But it is clear that some teachers
One thing which the procedures illus of at least a generation ago used in
trated by the practice set and recent in structional procedures much more com
structional systems have in common is plex and dynamic than textbooks and
the integration of a number of specific lectures.
skills and competencies into a compre What, then, are the distinctive char
hensive and systematic package, includ acteristics of instructional systems? It
ing some representation of the real seems to me that a distinction needs to
world environment. In other words, both be made between instructional systems
use simulation as a teaching-learning in the sense of teaching-learning pack
procedure. Both also require careful ages, and instructional systems as a set
planning and coordination in the devel of procedures for developing and im
opment of the materials and procedures plementing curriculum and materials.
involved, and can be distinguished from In the first case, instructional systems

May 1968 731

seem to be extensions of earlier learning the substance and materials of a defined
exercises, as we have seen above. There area of study. While such a system
are, however, some important differ might be developed and conceptualized
ences. Instructional systems in the sec as a set of modules, it would be closely
ond sense involve what I think can jus coordinated.
tifiably be called a scientific approach Another difference which would ap
to education. At least in theory, it is an pear to be important is the multi-media
attempt to design curriculum and de characteristic of new instructional sys
velop instructional procedures and ma tems. The concept goes beyond using
terials which reflect what research has several media in a given unit of instruc
revealed about the teaching-learning tion. Some instructional systems at
process. For purposes of convenience, I tempt to provide the pupil with a choice
have considered the two kinds of in of media for each "lesson" in a unit. To
structional systems separately. the extent that people differ in the ca
pacity to learn from different media,
Instructional Packages and to the extent that media differ in
Instructional packages which I have effectiveness with certain kinds of
looked at recently emphasize individ- learning tasks, the multi-media aspect
ualization. There is an attempt to. ac of instructional systems can be a major
count for differences in pupil learning innovation.
rate, past achievement, interest, and Two additional characteristics of re
aptitude. When systems developers are cent instructional systems are especially
successful, pupils need only be con imnortant. First, some systems are de
cerned with what they do not know, and veloped to minimize the dependence on
are given credit, and more important, the teacher for their operation. While
respect for prior learning. In the older not totally teacher-independent, they
systems all pupils were expected to are to varying degrees capable of being
complete all of the procedures. Usually operated by the pupil himself. The sig
there was no choice. The instructional nificance is in the changed role of the
package could not be modified, and it teacher, whose function as a presenter
was an all or nothing proposition. of information is lessened considerably.
Another difference is in regard to the Ideally, he is then free to give greater
comprehensiveness of systems. The emphasis to instructional planning,
earlier instructional exercises usually troubleshooting, and enrichment for in
were intended to be supplementary in dividual pupils.
structional materials. It was expected Second, it is clear that in one way or
that students would learn the "basics" another the instructional systems char
by the textbook-lecture route, and use acteristics noted so far all aim at in
the exercise to practice what was creasing individualization of instruc
"learned." While many instructional tion. Individualized instruction results
packages or systems still are intended in the need for current and responsive
as supplementary materials, there is a instructional management systems. Two
growing interest in developing compre important functions that such a system
hensive systems which encompass all of must perform are monitoring pupil

732 Educational Leadership

learning behavior and coordinating in system (for example, instructional ma
structional personnel facilities and ma terials and routines, physical plant,
terials. Historical reporting of pupil training of personnel); (e) system de
achievement and once-a-term schedul bugging (i.e., a trial run and necessary
ing of facilities, personnel, and materi corrections); and (f) system implemen
als are totally inadequate for an individ tation and evaluation.
ualized instruction system. Sometimes How much of this is educational non
daily flexibility of scheduling and real sense and how much a useful approach?
time information about pupil behavior This probably depends on whether two
are essential for comprehensive individ major conditions are met. First and
ualized instruction systems. It is be most essential is the careful defining of
coming apparent that at least with large learner objectives in behavioral or per
groups, nothing short of a computer-as formance terms, and the second is the
sisted management system can meet careful and imaginative work which
these requirements. Several such sys must go into system design.
tems are under development, including The difficulty in preparing perform
one at the U.S. Naval Academy in An ance objectives differs immensely, of
napolis ; another being developed by the course, with both the nature of the sub
American Institutes for Research; and ject and the kind of learning involved,
a joint Duluth, Minnesota Schools-URS e.g., facts versus learning to apply a
Corporation project, to name only three. concept. Nevertheless, those who have
When operating, the management sys attempted writing performance objec
tem would provide for on-line instruc tives in the humanities for example,
tional management as well as being a find they can increase the specificity of
research and evaluation vehicle. objectives. Without carefully defined
The instructional packages or sys objectives, the use of a systems ap
tems, it seems to me, do represent some proach is likely to be educational non
thing new in education. In theory their sense, and one had better limit instruc
attention to individualization, percep tion to textbooks and lectures.
tion, and specificity of learning goes But given adequate performance ob
beyond anything in the past. jectives, there is still no guarantee that
an effective instructional system will
Educational Research and emerge. A superficial and unimaginative
Development approach to systems development
The second meaning of instructional results in a mechanical-like system with
systems refers to the use of systems which learners usually become bored
concepts and procedures as both tools quickly, or in a set of procedures which
and as a model for developing instruc have questionable relevancy to the ob
tional programs. The general steps in jectives.
volved are: (a) defining learning objec There is nothing magical about the
tives; (b) determining specifications for instructional systems concept. A sys
a system which would meet the objec tems approach to education, whether it
tives; (c) designing a system based on be used to design instructional packages,
the specifications; (d) developing the or as a basis for operating instructional

May 1968 733

programs, is neither easy nor does it essential difference between using this
guarantee effective learning. Not infre particular tool and others in education
quently, both the ardent supporters and is the multi-functional nature of sys
severe critics ignore the latter point. tems analysis, and the difference is one
There are too many instances of in which should not be overlooked. A
dividualized instruction which differ screwdriver, for example, can be used in
from traditional instruction only in re a clumsy manner and still be of some
gard to more machines and brightly value. In contrast, the minimum level
colored boxes of what are essentially of efficiency needed to render a wood
cut-up textbooks. A disappointing pro lathe useful is considerably greater.
portion of what are labeled behavioral Analogously, multiple choice exams, for
objectives fail to qualify, and much of example, are useful to most teachers,
what is claimed to be flexible in the new even when they possess only the crudest
education actually appears to increase of test construction skills. In contrast,
the rigidity of schools. the point where a systems approach will
Excluding (but not discounting) the be useful entails both a more complex
important early work in programmed set of skills and a higher level of profi
instruction, a systems approach to edu ciency in their use.
cation was first used by researchers, In conclusion, my chief concern at
who began to borrow this tool developed this point is not whether educational
by industry and the military. In brief, systems represent a new and useful de
the systems approach was first used in velopment. I think they do, at least po
education as a research procedure, and tentially, and the experiences to date
it is probably still used with greater justify a major effort to find out. What
skill and understanding primarily by is most important is for educators, espe
researchers. There are, of course, ex cially those in teacher education, to
ceptions. achieve the necessary system develop
I would suggest, then, that the even ment competencies so that comprehen
tual contribution of instructional sys sive and precise instructional systems
tems depends on how well educators can be developed and tested in a num
learn to use a systems approach. The ber of areas. «*§

TOWARD PROFESSIONAL MATURITY

OF SUPERVISORS AND CURRICULUM WORKERS
Prepared by the AXD Commiaion en
Problem of Supervitora ana* Curriculum Waiters

Harold T. Shafer, Chairman Roy Patrick Wahle, Editor

Price: $1.50 Pages: 40
(Orden mult be accompanied by caih.)

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA

1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036

734 Educational Leadership

Copyright © 1968 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. All rights reserved.