CHAPTER I: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION

1.1 The morpheme

The morpheme is the minimum/minimal meaningful unit of language.
e.g. teacher = teach + -er (meaningful)
teach => /t/ + /i:/ + /ts/ (meaningless)
There are two types of morpheme: the root morpheme and the affixal or affixational
morpheme.
The root morpheme (the lexical morpheme / the root / the stem): is the primary element of
the word and conveys its essential lexical meaning. The root remains after removing all the
other elements and cannot be analyzed any further.
e.g. bookish
helpful
un kind
The root is classified into:
 Free morphemes: function independently e.g. heart/y, read/able (heart, read: free
roots).
 Bound morphemes: cannot function independently. They are especially characteristic
of loan words.
e.g. bound root:
-clude in include, conclude, exclude
French: arrog- in arrogance
char- in charity
cour-in courage
cow- in coward
The affixational morphemes are further divided into grammatical morphemes (also
inflection / ending) and derivational morpheme.
The grammatical morpheme (also inflection / ending) is used to create different forms
of the same word. It carries the grammatical meanings only, and is therefore, studied in
grammar.
e.g.
-s in teacher/s

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 -ed in work/ed
-ingin working
-erin taller
The derivational morpheme carries both lexical and grammatical meaning (also called
lexico-grammatical morpheme).
The derivational morpheme is further subdivided, according to their position, into
prefixes, suffixes, and infixes:
Prefixes: un-, im-, dis-
Suffixes: -ness, -ful, -less, -ize
Infix: -n- (in stand), spokesman, statesman, sportsman, fisherman, washerman, doomsday
Based on word structure, words are divided into three types: simple words, derived words and
compound words.
- A simple word is one that only consists of a root morpheme (no derivational
morpheme), e.g. girl, teach, work, white.
- A derived word is one that consists of a root and one or more derivational morphemes:
teacher, worker, impression, modernization.
- A compound word is one that has at least two roots, with or without derivational
morphemes: blackboard, classroom, happy-go-lucky, lady-killer, dining-room, bluebell,
mother-in-law, good-for-nothing.
1.2 Word formation
Word formation is the process of building new words from the material already existing in the
language according to certain structural and semantic patterns and formulae. Below are
common ways of forming words in English.
1.2.1. Affixation: the formation of new words with the help of affixes.
As affixes consist of prefixes and suffixes, affixation is further divided into prefixation
and suffixation.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of prefixes. This process mainly modifies the
lexical meaning of the root, and rarely forms new parts of speech:
happy (adj) – unhappy (adj)
do (v) – redo (v)
Suffixation is the formation of words by means of suffixes. The process changes the meaning
of the root, both lexically and grammatically.

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Suffixation transfers words to different parts of speech:
beautiful (adj) à beautifully (adv)
modern (adj) à modernize (v)
1.2.2. Compounding/word composition
Compounding (word-composition) is the building of a new word by joining two or more
words. As a result, a compound word is a word consisting of at least two stems (roots) which
occur in the language as free forms.
e.g. classroom, time-table, bedroom, schoolgirl, passer-by, aircraft-carrier, kind-hearted,
handwash, sunbeam etc.
-The components of a compound may be either simple or derived words or even other
compound words.
A compound word may differ from a free word group phonologically, structurally,
semantically or graphically.
a. Phonological criterion:
-There is a marked tendency in English to give compounds a heavy stress on the first element
(determinant)
‘blackboard # ‘black ’board ‘blackbird # ‘black ‘bird
‘bluebottle # ‘blue ‘bottle ‘dancing girl # ‘dancing ‘girl
b. Inseparability criteria (criterion of structural integrity)
Compounds are indivisible. Between the elements of a compound word it is impossible to
insert any other words.
Raincoat, notice-board, identity-card, text-book, tallboy
c. Semantic criterion:
A compound word only expresses a single idea despite the fact that it consist of two or more
words.
dirty work (dishonourable proceedings) (vs clean work, dry work: phrase)
blackmarket, redtape, greenhouse, bluebottle, lip-service, chatterbox, blackboard.
d. Graphic criterion (spelling criterion)
A compound is often spelt with a hyphen or with no separation at all: headmaster,
loudspeaker or head-master, loud-speaker, night-club

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1.2.3. Shortening
Shortening is a productive way of building words in English, especially in colloquial speech
and advertisement.
e.g. ad (advertisement), TV, I.O.U.
Shortening includes abbreviation and blending.
Abbreviation includes acronyms and clipping
Acronyms are words built from the initials of several words.
the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
The UN (United Nations)
The UNO (United Nations Organization)
Clipping is further classified into Initial, Final, Initio-final, Medial, Elliptico-conversional
clipping
+ Initial clipping: the first part of the word is clipped.
Phone (telephone), cute (acute), fend (defend)
+ Final clipping: the last part of a word is clipped
doc (doctor), prof (professor), uni (university).
+ Initio-final clipping: both the first and the last parts are clipped:
frig/fridge (refrigerator), flu (influenza), tec (detective)
+ Medial clipping: the medial part is clipped.
maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles)
+ Elliptico-conversional: (phrasal clipping): a combination of ellipsis, conversion and
clipping:
e.g. open on (open fire on), finals (final examinations), prelims (preliminary examinations)
Blending is one special type of shortening where parts of words merge into one new word.
Breathalyzer (breath + analyzer)
Broasted (broiled + roasted)
Transistor (transistor +receiver)
Ecotecture (ecological architecture)

1.2.4. Conversion

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(functional change/zero derivation)
Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech without adding any
element.
e.g. chair (n)  to chair
finger (n)  to finger
milk (n)  to milk
water (n)  to water
Partial conversion: the building of some nouns from verbs:
Have a look / talk / smoke / dance / wash / a chat / a swim
Give a ring / kick / blow
Give a jerk / a jump / a start
Take a ride / a walk / the lead
Make a move / a dive
Substantivation: the formation of nouns from adjectives or the transition into nouns:
private (adj)  a private
captive (adj)  a captive
conservative a conservative
criminal a criminal
female a female
+ partialsubstantivation:
the old, the young, the dead, the dying, the living, the unemployed, the wounded, the lower-
paid.

1.2.5. Sound imitation

Sound imitation is the way of forming words by imitating sounds produced by actions, things
etc.
-Words showing animals: crow, cuckoo, humming bird, cricket.
-Words showing sounds made by animals: howl, quack, croak, mew, moo.
Words showing movement of water: flush, splash, babble.
-Words showing actions made by man: giggle, chatter, grumble, murmur,

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1.2.6. Back derivation (back formation)
Definition: Back derivation is the building of new words by subtracting a real or supposed
affix from existing words.
to beg from beggar
to burgle from burglar
to cobble from cobbler
to baby-sit from baby-sitter
to force-land from forced-landing

1.2.7. Sound and stress interchange

Sound interchange: New words are built by changing the root vowel or consonant of the old
words.
Eg.food (n)  feed (v) (root vowel)
speak (v)  speech (n) (root consonant)
life (n)  live (v) (both)
Stress interchange: The new word is built by changing the place of the stress on the old one,
eg.
‘export (n)  to ex’port (v)
‘conduct (n)  to con’duct (v)
‘contrast (n)  to con’trast
‘convict (n)  to con’vict
‘digest (n)  to di’gest
‘essay (n)  to a’ssay

CHAPTER II: LEXICAL MEANING

2.1. Classification of meaning
Two kinds of meanings: Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning

 Lexical meaning is the realization of concept of emotion.

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  Grammatical meaning is what unites words with different lexical meanings. It divides
words into groups with their own grammatical features, for example:
table, chair, bed, book …  singular nouns, common case
walk, go, run, eat,… verbs
There are two components of lexical meaning: Denotational meaning (denotation)
and connotational meaning (connotation)
The denotative component expresses the conceptual (notional) content of a word. It includes
or points out things, concepts.
The connotative component shows us how things, concepts etc are indicated (denoted). It
conveys the speaker’s attitude, emotions and so on.
eg. father, dad, daddy: the same denotational meaning but different main types of
connotations are stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive or intensifying.
Lexical meaning is further classified into direct meaning and indirect meaning.
Direct meaning is the meaning that directly denotes something without comparing it or
associating with other things i.e. we do not need a context. Direct meaning is also called
literal meaning.
Indirect meaningis the meaning that indirectly denotes something. To understand it we have
to compare it or associate with other things, i.e. we need context. Indirect meaning is also
called figurative or transferred meaning
Eg. head: part of the body (direct meaning), leader (indirect meaning)
2.2. The motivation of English words
Motivation means the relationship between structure and meaning and between direct and
indirect meaning. There are 3 types of motivation: morphologic, phonetic and semantic.
Morphologic motivation: is the direct relationship between the morphologic structure of the
word and its meaning. In other words, it is the relationship between morphemes of the words:
eg.
an employer: a person that employs others
an employee: a person who works for somebody.
Phonetic motivation: is the direct relationship between the phonetic structure of the word
and its meaning. In other words, there is similarity between the sound-form of the word and
the sound produced by the object the word denotes.
eg. quack, moo, meau, giggle, bang, ping-pong, tick-tack

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Semantic motivation: is the relationship between direct and indirect meaning. There is co-
existence of literal and figurative meanings based on metaphor, for example:
The foot of the mountain
The neck of a bottle
2.3. Homonymy and polysemy
2.3.1 Homonyms (Gr. homes (similar) + onoma (name)): words identical in pronunciation
and/or spelling, but different in meaning. They are not connected semantically (They have no
semantic relation). They are quite different words.
According to form, homonymy is classified into full/perfect homonyms and partial
homonyms
Full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling. Theyare of the
same part of speech.
e.g. seal: a sea animal
seal: a design printed on paper by means of a stamp.
Partial homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and/or spelling. They are
homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms. They may be found
both within the same part of speech and in different parts of speech.
eg. to found, founded, founded – to find, found, found
pail (n) - pale (adj)
lie, lied, lied lie, lay, lain lay, laid, laid
According to meaning, there are lexical homonyms and grammatical homonyms.
Lexical homonyms: words of the same part of speech, but of different meanings and there is
no semantic relation between them.
eg. match:que diêm, trận đấu
board: tấm ván, boong tàu, ủy ban
Grammatical homonyms: words of different parts of speech.
eg. work (n) - work (v) asked (simple past) - asked (PII)
brothers - brother's light (n) - light (adj)
Homonyms are also classified into homophones and homographs:
Homophones: words identical in pronunciation, but different or coincidental in spelling.
eg. son - sun air - heir night - knight

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Homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation.
eg. tear/ti∂/ - tear /te∂/ bow /b∂u/ - bow / bau/
2.3.2Polysemy refers to the case in which a word has more than one meaning. Most English
words are polysemantic, just few words are monosemantic (mainly scientific terms).
The first meaning of a word is called “the direct or primary” meaning and the other meanings
are called “secondary or derived”
All the meanings of a word form its semantic structure and the more common the word is, the
more meanings it has.
There are two common patterns of polysemic structure, namely radial polysemy and chain
polysemy.
Radial polysemy: all the transferred meanings are formed on the basis of one literal/direct
meaning.
Chain polysemy: the second meaning is formed on the basis of the first, the third on the basis
of the second, and so on.
Polysemy and homonymy are distinguished based on a number of criteria, namely semantic
criterion, derivational criterion, criterion of synonyms and criterion of combination.

2.4. Synonymy
Synonyms are words (two or more) of the same part of speech, similar in their denotational
meaning, but different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational meaning and
combinability. There are absolute synonyms, semantic synonyms, stylistic synonyms,
euphemisms, semantic-stylistic synonyms and phraseological synonyms
+ Absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings.
This is a result of borrowing and territorial synonyms.
eg. Br E - team (in a football match) Am E - squad
luggage baggage
+ Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaning
eg. beautiful, pretty, good-looking, nice, lovely, fair
+ Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive value,
expressiveness.
eg. to begin - to commence (lit., official)

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- Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notions or
processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire not to hurt other people's feelings.
eg.
corpse - remains poor - underprivileged
crisis -recession, slow-down, depression drunk-merry, intoxicated
+ Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic aspect.
eg. house - shack, slum, pad (sl.)
to dismiss, to sack, to fire, to expel, to lay off, to kick out (sl)
+ Phraseological synonyms: words differing in their combinability.
eg. do exercises make money

2.6. Antonymy
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning.
There are two types of antonyms: antonyms proper and derivational antonyms.
Antonyms proper: words of different forms and having completely opposite meanings.
eg. tall – short, beautiful – ugly, thin – thick
Derivational antonyms: two words of the same root, one of which bearing a negative affix.
eg. lock – unlock, polite – impolite, honest – dishonest, careful – careless

5. Paraphrase the following sentences using affixes:

1. They are people who live on an island.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. There are no languages that have no grammar.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. He’s far from being polite while his wife is too polite.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. They didn’t make public what had been discussed in the talk.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. The local authorities are trying to reduce the damage caused by the fire to the minimum.

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………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. The government is trying to make imported goods legal.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Her behaviour made him mad.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. The story was made simple for the schoolchildren’s reading.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. His feelings for her made him blind to her faults.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. He’s a man whose occupation is to produce films,

II. Mark the underlined words in each pair of sentences with /P/ if they are polysemantic or
with /H/ if they are homonymous.
1. a. He is a member of the Liberal Party. P
b. The hostess gave the guests a lavish dinner party.
2. a. Where can I park my car? h
b. Have you ever been to the Cuc Phuong National Park?
3. a. She is good at languages. p
b. Is this water good to drink?
4. a. She found it hard to make up her mind. h
b. You should try hard to succeed in your business.
5. a. The criminal has got a life sentence for his murder.
b. Combine the sentences below to form a compound one.
6. a. The greater part of what you heard is only rumour.
b. He acted his part very well.
7. a. What country do you know is the biggest on earth?
b. She filled the pot with earth and planted a rose in it.
8. a. Please post this letter for me.
b. She has got a new post as secretary.

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9. a. The slow train is pulling up at the station.
b. He is slow to make a decision.
10. a. He is writing a book about Vietnamese culture.
b. Seats on trains should be booked far in advance before Tet.
III. Make compound words (with hyphens if necessary) according to the definitions, using
the word given as the first part of the compound.
Example: one who steals goods while pretending to be a customer. shop….
Answer: shop-lifter
1. made of material that will not burn fire.........
1. company or group of men that put out fires fire.........
2. person who keeps accounts (e.g. of a business) book.........
2. person devoted to reading book.........
3. printed notice circulated by hand hand.........
3. not made by machine hand.........
4. someone who often goes to the theatre play.........
4. piece of land for children to play on play.........
5. circumstance that brings enlightenment and surprise eye.........
5. one who has himself seen something happen eye.........
VI. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for True and F for
False in the blanks.
………… 1. Set expressions are characterized by the stability of their lexical components and
grammatical structure.
………… 2. Conversion is a way of coining new words in different parts of speech.
………… 3. Semantic motivation can be found in monosemantic words.
………… 4. Prefixes can be classified based on meaning.
………… 5. Antonyms are words of different parts of speech with opposite meanings.
X. Underline the metaphoric expressions and state what type of similarity they express.
Similarity of
1. a green apple; green with envy. /………………………………./
2. the wings of a bird; the wings of an aeroplane. /………………………………./

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3. the root of a tree; the root of the matter. /………………………………./
4. the neck of a girl; the neck of a bottle. /………………………………./
5. He wandered; his thoughts wandered. /………………………………./
XII. Discuss the relation in metonymy.
1. I have never read Balzac in the original. /………………………………./
2. My sister is fond of old china. /………………………………./
3. The coffee-pot is boiling. /………………………………./
4. The pit loudly applauded. /………………………………./
5. He succeeded to the crown. /………………………………./
6. She was the pride of her school. /………………………………./
7. I like sandwiches. /………………………………./
8. The dog has a good nose. /………………………………./
9. The room roared with laughter. /………………………………./
10. You should sell your brains, not your muscle. /………………………………./

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