MODULE 8 : VIRTUE ETHICS

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Understand the importance of virtue in pursuit of goodness
2. Identify the golden mean and vices
3. Know the importance of wisdom in balancing the moral virtue
4. Evaluate Virtue Ethics as an approach to use in personal relationships and
professional
5. Differentiate natural law from, but also its relation to the other types of law
according to Aquinas
6. Relate with the precepts of the Natural

Three Kinds of Ethical Theories.

1. Deontological theory - puts its emphasis on the moral obligation and duty of a
person (Alexander & Moore, 2007).
2. Consequentialist theory - relates to the consequences of actions done by a
moral agent (Suikkanen, 2009)
3. Virtue-based theory centers ethics on individual character.

VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue Ethics by Aristotle fall under the Virtue-based theory. Since virtues are
moral characteristics needed by an individual to live well (De Guzman et al,. 2017),
then Virtue Ethics serves as a guiding principle with regards to what is morally right
or wrong having virtues as its basis. Who possess the virtues? Moral agents, known
to be those who are held responsible with the actions they make and the
consequences they may get (Parthemore, 2013) are the ones who have the
capability to possess and live the virtue. Therefore, Virtue Ethics relates to the moral
agent's character.

Virtue Ethics claims that a good man is someone who lives virtuously (De
Guzman et al., 2017) Aristotle said that everyone is in pursuit of goodness. Hence,
everyone should live virtuously in order to attain it. This means that if everyone is in
pursuit of goodness, then everyone should also be in pursuit of virtues. How can an
individual actually develop a virtue? Virtue is a skill or way of living since it is learned
and gained through practice (Kucukuysal & Beyhan, 2011). If a person wants to
develop a certain virtue, he/she needs to do something about it over and over again.
If there are people who want to develop a certain virtue, there are also people who
have already developed that certain virtue within themselves. They are called moral
exemplars. These people serve as the learning model for those who are in pursuit.

EXAMPLE:
Ana wants to develop a virtue of generosity. She is inspired by her mom who
unconditionally helps the poor not through financial needs because they might use it
in vices but through giving food and things to be used instead. With that, Ana first
observed and imitated her mom. As time passes by, she had already fostered the
virtue and it became one of her moral characteristics.
Upholding a virtue comes with a responsibility. Virtue should be balanced. To
be more specific, moral virtue is known to be the golden mean (Bowden, 2014)
which serves as the balanced area in a scale. On the other hand, excess (too much
and deficiency (lack of) is determinants of vices (De Guzman et al., 2017). For
example, living the virtue of honesty doesn't mean that you will spill everything you
know right there and then. It doesn't also mean that you will keep information which
everyone has the right to know. Possessing the virtue of honesty is knowing when to
speak up and when to shut up. Moral and intellectual virtues are interrelated with
each other. In order for the moral virtue to be stable, the agent needs intellectual
virtue such as wisdom which enables him/her to think rationally about a situation
he/she is into and the actions he/she makes. Wisdom balances the golden mean that
is relative to every individual.
Phronesis is translated as "practical wisdom" and is the knowledge of how
to perform morally right actions (Liang, 2017). Since wisdom is the one which
balances the golden mean, it is indeed important. How can an individual practice this
practical wisdom them? This is through fulfilling his/her telos (Ross, 1999). Aristotle
introduced four causes; material, formal, efficient, and final cause. Material cause
pertains to the physical property of the subject. Formal cause keeps its lenses on the
structure or design of a being. Efficient cause then focuses on the ability of a thing
which caused the object come into being. And the final cause is known to be the
purpose of a being (Cohen, 2018). As a human being, we are distinct from any other
living things specifically animals because of our ability to reason out and to think
rationally. Our main function or purpose then is to think and to reason out rationally.
Through this, we can be able to easily balance our mean.
But why being virtuous is very important? This is because of happiness or
eudaimonia. We undergo such process in order for us to feel or to reach the very
end or aim of human existence-happiness (Kucukuysal & Beyhan, 2011). Living a
eudaimonistic life means pushing yourself to the limits and finding success,
achieving something difficult rather than just having it handed to you, and pushing
yourself to be the very best person you could be.
Upon knowing the concept of virtue ethics by Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas was
inspired by the proponent of virtue ethics which led him to his own version of virtue
ethics. He is an Italian philosopher and theologian who rank among the most
important thinkers of the medieval period. He was born circa 1225 in Roccasecca,
Italy and died on March 7, 1274, at the Cistercian monastery of Fossanova, near
Terracina, Latium, Papal States, Italy (Biography,n.d.).
De Guzman (2017) stated that it was Thomas who revived, enhanced and
Christianized the Greek Virtue Ethics in the medieval era. He was greatly interested
and influenced by Aristotle which made him depend on Aristotle's work. Similar to
Aristotle's concept of telos. Thomas also believed that all actions are directed
towards its ends and that happiness is the final end of all creations of God. As
studied by Stancien (n.d.) Aquinas' concept of law is an example of the application of
Aristotelian teleology to the integral theory of ethics, law and governing.
What is law? The law means an ordinance of reason for the common good
promulgated by someone who has care for the community (De Guzman, 2017). This
also pertains to the human reason and the involvement of emotions and will in the
participation of the law (Stancien, n.d.). The common good is when an individual
considers what is good for himself and also to the community where he belongs.
However, promulgation means having communication to the people involved in rules
or law in order to enforce and to ensure compliance (Bulaong et al, 2018). To put it
simply the law is concerned directly for the common good because it strives to
protect the citizens through compliance it would be possible for the attainment of
universal happiness.
Moreover, there are three essential properties of law in accordance to
Aquinas' ethics: to be directed to the common good; to direct human behavior
according to the order of rightness; and to urge people to do what is juridically
prescribed (Stancien, n.d.).
An example showing the enforcement of a rule is obeying the traffic rules. As
a motorcycle driver, it is important to have limited driving speed in a particular area
or place to avoid an accident and limit the speed. On the other hand, it will also be
beneficial for the people crossing the streets because everyone complies with the
promulgated law or rule in that specific area.
Thomas had two theories and it was differentiated as the natural law theory
has become the centre of Thomas in his typology of laws. Perhaps, the divine
command theory is sometimes confused to the idea of natural law theory. As
mentioned by Rich (n.d.) natural law theory, the law of reason is implanted in the
order of nature, and this law provides rules or commands for human actions. This is
the type of law wherein people are subject by their nature to do good and avoid evil
(De Guzman, 2017). Compared to the divine command theory, an action is good
because a divine being, such as God, commands it (Rich, n.d.). This theory stimulate
is immoral if the action is against the religious precepts. In the natural law theory,
man has the capability to anticipate the law of action. On the other hand, the divine
command theory is purely based on the intended for us by the Divine being.

NATURAL INCLINATIONS
Natural law is related to the perfecting of natural inclinations which can only
be developed through the notion of an integral and socially responsible individual
(Stancien, n.d.). This is commonly found or characterized by some of the people. An
inclination is relevant in practical reason because its object is desirable, and it is
desirable because it would contribute to anyone's flourishing.
There are three major inclinations: to survive, to reproduce and educate
offspring, and to know the truth about God and to live peacefully in society. Grasping
the natural law and using practical reason is necessary to recognize which means
will direct to that ultimate end. In addition, practical reason naturally comprehends
that good is to be promoted and evil is to be avoided which is the first precept of the
natural law (De Guzman, 2017).
Thomas provided different kinds of law and as a rational being, we have free
will through our capacity of reason are able to direct us in one way or another
unknowingly that these actions are directed towards attaining our end. There are
four kinds of law namely: eternal law, natural law, human law, and divine law.
1. Eternal law
- refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is ordered (De
Guzman, 2017). As God is the supreme ruler of everything there is an already
divine plan for each and every one. All creations are governed by a divine
reason since the end of the being cannot be determined therefore it is called
eternal. Also, we are intended to return to him with the help of enforcement of
law guides them. The law of gravity as governing the motion of physical objects
is an example showing that all creations possess gravity especially those that
can be found on Earth.

2. Natural law
- is the law or order to which people are subject by their nature ordering
them to do good or evil (De Guzman, 2017). Mankind has always been a part of
the eternal order of the divine being which was also dictated by that of practical
reason. This serves as a guide to measure human action. Reason naturally
apprehends as goods those objects that satisfy man's basic inclinations which in
fact contribute to rational perfection. Also these natural inclinations An example
of this is the prohibition of artificial birth control as violating our natural tendency
toward procreation which is against the natural law considering the natural
inclinations of beings.

3. Human law
- is the application of natural law to particular societies by way of
"conclusions" and "determinations" (De Guzman, 2017). This is also called as
the positive laws wherein moral virtues are reinforced and cultivated. This
includes the civil and criminal laws that can be observed in a particular area or
community. However, this is concerned injustice by the implementation of
universality and particularity to beings. Laws regulating the traffic in a particular
city and disobedience with regard to laws that seek to destroy religious faith
(through, for example, the banning of Mass) is an example of this
abovementioned law.

4. Divine law
- is more focused on how the man can be inwardly holy and eventually
attain salvation (De Guzman, 2017). This is essential because this complements
to the other types of law. To direct us to the awaited end this is to bring back to
God. The involvement of divine revelation expressed in the Old and New
Testaments which assists man in understanding the requirements of law and
 morality. Through this sacred scripture, this would be guided to the decision
making of a rational being. An example of this would be knowledge, through
God's Grace, of our supernatural rewards (as revealed in the New Testament)

For Thomas, it is important to have virtues. It is essential to develop fully and

properly because this will lead to the shaping of moral virtues as well. An important
rule is "to love one's neighbor as oneself" which requires him one to live in the
political community.

According to the second natural inclination, homosexual affairs can be

considered as unnatural. It is because a human being is planned and ordered to
engage in a relationship wherein, they will be able to reproduce their offspring. Since
homosexual affair involve the relationship of two having the same gender then it is
impossible for them to reproduce which made it against the natural law. Suicide is
another moral issue that falls under the first natural inclination which is self-
preservation. This is against the natural law because according to Thomas we
should love one's neighbor as oneself. Human beings taking their own lives are
unjust because it is not the supposed end of a person. However, issues like terrorism
have to be taken more seriously because this can sometimes fall under all the
inclinations. This can be considered as natural if its intention is to survive. On the
other hand, it can be considered as unnatural or against the natural law if the
intention is to kill or harm the people within the particular area or community. Pre-
marital sex is also against natural law even though it falls under the natural
inclination which is to reproduce. Thomas gives emphasis that procreation should
also be made within the bond of marriage. Although procreation is a natural
inclination of a human it is not enough to be considered as an example of natural law.

HAPPINESS AS CONSTITUTIVE MORAL AND CARDINAL VALUES

According to St. Tomas Aquinas, he believes that we can never achieve
complete happiness to this life. For him, final happiness consists in Beatitude or
Super Union with God.

CONTRADICTION WITH ARISTOTLE'S THEORY OF EUDAIMONISM

Aristotle told that Happiness is about aiming the virtuous action of the person
to feel the contentment or satisfaction since Aristotle stated that all actions are not
pointless because they have aim. And some aims result to happiness. To make it
short, Eudaimonism is about contentment, fulfillment and happiness. Also according
to him, it refers to the completion, perfection and better well-being person. St.
Thomas Aquinas, stated that we cannot find the full happiness in every virtuous
action we take as long as we have beatitude or having a supernatural union with
God;
Through teachings, we are implicitly making the connection between morality and
happiness in attempts to restore an "Ethics of Good" and "Morality of
Happiness".
 Ethic of Good - state of doing good to other person, paggawa ng mabuti kasi ito
ang nararapat at kailangang gawin.
 Morality of Happiness - are the things that makes one feels good, enjoying life.
It's about doing things without restriction like et and drink, see and do whatever
one likes preferably without any negative consequences. It is what make one
happy so that one can repeat that event again and again.

We cannot achieve the final happiness as moral according to Aquinas since he

sorted it to 2: The Incomplete Happiness and Complete Happiness.
 Incomplete Happiness - It is the state that we achieve by our natural human
aptitude, or the natural things we do good to people. Through them, we can
cultivate some measure of virtues and, in turn be happier than we would be
otherwise.
 Perfect or Complete Happiness - it lies beyond what we are able to achieve in
our own. Aquinas stated that, "it is necessary for man to receive from God some
additional [habits], whereby he may be directed to supernatural happiness.

HABITS REFER TO THE INFUSED OR THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES.

They are given to us graciously by God and direct us o our "Final and perfect
good" in the same way that the moral virtues direct us to a kind of happiness made
possible by the exercise of our natural capacities.

HAPPINESS AS A CONSTITUTIVE OF CARDINAL VALUES:

The morality of happiness should be connected to our virtues in doing what is right
and good. The cardinal virtues are the four principal moral virtues: Prudence,
Justice, Fortitude and Temperance.

 Prudence - First cardinal virtue because it is concerned with the intellect.

Prudence guides the judgment of our conscience in discerning our true good and
in applying moral principles to particular circumstances. "Right Reason in an
Action" Prudence is the guide and measure for all the moral virtues.

 Justice - It is concerned with the will. Justice is the virtue that consists in giving
to God and neighbor what due to each, "Giving to them what is rightly belong to
them", to established the peace and harmony that bring together people and
allow them to prosper while living in community.
 Fortitude - Prudence and Justice are the virtue through which we decide what
need to be done, "Fortitude give us strength to do it". When we are
confronted with moral choices, fortitude allows us to remain strong and constant
in our pursuit of what is good and gives us the strength to resist temptation that
would pull us in the wrong direction.

 Temperance - while fortitude is concerned with the restraint of fear so that we

can act, restraint of our desire or passions, "Moderation in all things".
Temperance involves the balanced use of the many goods given us so that their
use remains ordered and at the service of the development of a good, well-
rounded and complete person.

References:

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/virtue
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/moralcourage
De Guzman J.M., and Peña (2016). Culture in Moral Behavior. Ethics, Principles of Ethical Behavior
in Modern Society.
Dellomos, Carl., and Enriquez (2019). Moral Courage, Ethics,. Jimczyville Publication