Model Answer

B.Sc. FORESTRY (IInd Sem.)

Paper – Fundamentals of Horticulture
Question 1: Multiple choice question- (10 X 1Marks)
i. IIHR is established at-
a. Bangalore b. New Delhi c. Lucknow d. Jodhpur
ii. Planting distance of guava is –
a. 10m b. 6m c. 3m d. none of these
iii. Vegetative part of the plant separated from mother plant and become a new plant is called
a. Grafting b. Inarching c. Cutting d. Layering
iv. For jelly production what is required in fruit-
a. Protein b. Pectin c. Sourness d. Sweetness
v. Pungency in Radish is due to-
a. Solanin b. Capcisin c. Isothiocinate d. Calcium acetate
vi. Mosaic disease is caused by-
a. Bacteria b. fungi c. Nematode d. virus
vii. MAP is the study of –
a. Medicinal plant b. Fruit c. Mushroom d. Flower
viii. King of fruit is-
a. Watermelon b. Mango c. Citrus d. Grapes
ix. The contribution of horticulture in Export of Total agriculture product is about;
a. 10-12% b. 20-24% c. 35-36% d. 56-58%
x. Withania somnifera is botanical name of –
a. Sarpgandha b. Aswagandha c. Satawar d. Safed Musli

B. Write botanical names of the following: (5 X 2 marks)

a. Cauliflower –Brassica oleracea Var. botrytis
b. Guava -Psidium guajava
c. Aonla -Emblica officinalis
d. Tomato –Lycopersicon esculentum
e. Kaju -Anacardium occidentale
Question 2. Write short notes on the following. (Any three)
a. Olericulture and its protective value
b. Pomology
 c. Land Scape and floriculture
d. Export value of different horticulture crop
ANSWER
a. Olericulture- The term originated from Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning pot herb and culture meaning
raising of plants. Thus olericulture is the science of cultivating vegetable crops. India rank second in
vegetable production with 7.80 million ha area and 125.9 million tones production. Example: Tomato,
Brinjal, Chilli, Pointed gourd
Protective value – Today when all the facilities and modern amenities are easily available at
door step our food habit are also being changed. Now we are more dependent on junk food and other non
traditional Indian foods. This results into poor immunity system, deficiency of nutrients and vitamins in
our body causing many health problems.
Vegetables are chief source of nutrients and vitamins easily available to Indian. Vegetables being
rich in vitamins and minerals are known as protective food. The following vegetables are rich in vitamin
and minerals :-
Carbohydrate-Potato, Sweet Potato
Protein- Cow pea, pea, beans
Fibre- spinach, beet leaf and other leafy vegetables
Iron- Drumstick, coriander
Vitamin A- Spinach leaves, Colocasia leave, Drumstick leave, carrot
Vitamin B- Tomato, chilly
Vitamin C- Tomato, chilly, coriander leaf
Antioxidants- Tomato, chilly
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommends the use of 120g fruits and 300g
vegetables per capita per day which includes 100g root vegetables, 100g leafy vegetables and 100g
seasonal mix vegetables. Consumption of adequate amount of vegetables helps in maintaining health,
vigour of an individual and play protective role.

b. Pomology:- This is the science of production of fruit crops. The term is derived from the Latin word
pomum meaning ‘fruits’ and logy meaning science. Example: Mango, Citrus, Banana
India is the largest producer of mango, banana, grape and litchi. We have created a vast pool of
horticultural crops and varieties in the country. During 2010-11 the area under major fruit crops were
5.77 million ha with a production of 63.5 million tones. Maharastra contributes 17%, Karnataka 12.37%
and Andrapradesh contributes about 10.42% in total fruit production of India. Farmers engaged in this
enterprises getting higher income as compared to other agricultural enterprises. Fruit can be grown in
variety of land from fertile soil to poor soil and plain area to sloppy terrain. Government of India has
launched national horticulture mission in 2003 to double the production of horticulture products. Based
on climatic requirement fruit are classified as following-
1). Temperate fruits: Apple, Pear, Peach, Almond, Walnut, Apricot, Cherry etc.
2). Sub tropical fruits: Fig, guava, Ber, Citrus, Pomegranate, Bael etc.
3). Tropical fruits: Mango, banana, Pineapple, Jackfruit etc.

c. Landscape and floriculture:- Landscape is the art of gardening, beautifying a piece of land using
garden design, methods and plant materials. It is planning and arrangement of home ground, public area
etc. placement of plants according to topography and space. Landscaping has been an indispensable part
of architectural design gives aesthetic value to the area where one can relax and feel pleasant.
Floriculture is the science of flower cultivation. Examples- Marigold, Rose, Jasmine, gladiolus,
tuberose, orchids etc.
In India the area under flower cultivation is about 1.70 million ha and the production is 10.03
million tones of loose flower and 1.70 million of cut flowers. The export of flower fetches about Rs. 33
crores. The high potential state for flower production is Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Maharashtra and West Bengal. These flowers are exported to USA and other country.

d. Export value of different horticulture crops:- India is leading producer or horticultural crops its
share in global trade is merely 0.5%. The country export fruits, vegetables, processed products, flowers,
seeds and planting materials, spices, cashew nut, tea and coffee. The production of horticulture has
increased 8 times since independence. Agriculture account 25% of total export basket in which the share
of horticulture is about 58%. Apple, banana, citrus, grape, mango, walnut are major fruits while
cucumber, Okra, garlic, onion, tomato are vegetable exported by our country. In spices cardamom,
turmeric, chilli, cumin and in medicinal plants aloe, belladonna cinchona, Isabgoal and Senna fetch higher
foreign money to our country. Similarly tea, coffee and rubber also earned foreign exchange.
S.No. Attributes Export (Rs. In Crore)
1 Fruit 247.70
2 Vegetable 295.00
3 Spices 240.00
4 Plantation crop 1600.00
5 Flower 33.00
6 Medicinal and aromatic plants 171.00
Question 3. What is meadow orchard? Write the different pattern of planting methods adopted in India.
ANSWER:-
Meadow orchard- This is a ultra modern method of planting orchard originated from Israel. It consists of
planting tree at very low spacing accommodates high density of plants varying from 30,000 to 100,000
trees on a hectare basis. The plant is cut and pruned regularly to manage canopy, uses growth regulators
and drip irrigation for consistent supply of input. Example- Guava, mango

Planting methods – This is very important and desirable aspect to have the trees planted in a
systematic way because:
(1) Orchard operations like intercultural and irrigation are carried out easily.
(2) It makes possible the distribution of areas equally for each tree.
(3) It results in maximum utilization of an area according to different kinds of trees.
(4) It makes supervision more easy and effective.

There are five systems of planting of fruit trees. Tress with bigger canopy requires greater
distance between them and vice versa.
A. Square system
In square system the trees are planted in four corners of a square keeping the same distance
between row to row and plant to plant in the same row. This is the simplest and easiest system
of plantation.
Advantages
1. Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight.
2. Operations like ploughing, harrowing, cultivation, spraying and harvesting becomes easy.
3. Better supervision of the orchard is possible as one gets a view of the orchard from one end to
the other.
Disadvantages
1. Comparatively less number of trees are accommodated in given area.
2. Distance between plant to plant and row to row remains the same and , hence, certain amount
of space in the middle of four trees is wasted.

B. Rectangular system
In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in a square system except that
the distance between row to row will be more than the distance between plant to plant in the
same row. Four adjacent trees in this system make a rectangular design.
Advantages
1. Intercultural operations can be carried out easily.
2. Irrigation channel can be made length and breadth wise
3. Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter spaces between rows.
4. Better supervision is possible.
5. Intercropping is possible.
Disadvantages
1. A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if intercropping is not practiced.
2. Less number of trees is planted.

C. Quincunx or Diagonal system

Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square system except for the addition
of a tree in the center of each square. In this system, the number of trees planted in the same area
is almost double. But the distance between the trees is much reduced. For this reason, trees with
shorter life space are chosen for the center. By the time the main trees grow into full size, the
central trees will have finished their life cycle. The central trees are known as filler crop and the
others as main crop. If the filler crop hinders seriously the growth of main trees, it should be
removed Papaya, Guava, Lime, plum and peaches are a few examples of filler crops in orchards
with trees like mango jack and tamarind.
Advantages
1. Additional income can be earned from the filler crop till the main crop comes into bearing.
2. Compared to square to square and rectangular systems, almost double the number of trees can
be planted initially.
3. Maximum utilization of the land is possible.

Disadvantages
1. Skill is required to layout the orchard.
2. Inter/filler crop can interfere with the growth of the main crop.
3. Intercultural operations become difficult.
4. Spacing of the main crop0 is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue after the growth
of the main crop.

D. Hexagonal system
In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Six such
triangles are joined together to form a hexagon. Six trees are positioned at the corners of this
hexagon with a seventh in the center all arranged in the three rows. However the distance
between tree to tree in six directions from the central tree remains the same.
Advantages
1. Compared to square system 15% more trees can be planted.
2. It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.
3. Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.
4. More income can be obtained.
Disadvantages
1. Intercultural operations become difficult.
2. Skill is required to layout the orchard.

E. Contour system
Contour is an imaginary line connecting all points of equal elevation across a slope. In a hilly
area, a lot of depressions, ridges, furrows and place surface are found. But when plating is done a
line is made by connecting all the points of same elevation across the slope from a base line. This
spacing is maintained on this row. However row to row distance will not be the same since the
degree of slope varies from spot to spot. Points of equal elevation at a distance equal to plant to
plant spacing are market with the help of Dumpy level or other suitable instruments.

In this system contour lines themselves become the rows and are marked at the row to row
distance. However it is not possible to maintain the row to row distance strictly all long the rows.
Whenever distance between adjacent contour line is almost double another contour is fitted in
that space.
Advantages
1. This system can be adopted in hilly regions and in leveled land.
2. Contour system can control the soil erosion.
3. It helps simultaneously in the conservation of water.
4. Preservation of plant nutrients supplied by manures and fertilizers possible.
5. Contours from an easy path for movements on the hill slopes for carrying out various orchard
operations such as weeding, manuring, pruning, harvesting, disease and pest control.
Disadvantages
1. Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time consuming.
2. Special skill is required to layout this system.
3. Special instruments are required for making contour lines.
4. The row to row distance will not be equal and adjustments may be required in the plant to plat
distance.
5. Rows are broken in to bits and pieces.

Square Hexagonal Contour

Question 4. Write brief notes on the following: (Any Three)
a. Cutting methods
b. Wedge grafting
c. Air layering
d. ‘T’ budding

Answer:
a.Cuttings methods: This is a easiest method of asexual reproduction applies in many horticultural
crops. This method allows the production of clones or plants which are considered “duplicates” of the
parent plants genotypically, and usually also phenotypically. Just like other vegetative propagation
methods, it is advantageous where a plant does not produce seeds, the seeds are sterile, or whenever
seeds are not available.

With crops that can be easily propagated using plant cuttings, this method has numerous advantages.
Many new plants can be produced in a limited space from a few stock plants. It is simple and can be
easily applied without having to learn the special techniques in grafting or budding. It is rapid because
there is no need to produce rootstocks.

Plant cuttings may consist of segments of the root or whole leaves or portions of leaves, or segments of
stems which are used as planting materials. Depending on the plant part used, these propagules are called
by special terms such as root cuttings, leaf cuttings, leaf-bud cuttings or stem cuttings. In sugarcane, the
stem cutting is called cane cutting while in bamboo, it is culm cutting. Culm is the technical term for the
main stem of plants belonging to the grass family Gramineae (alternatively named Poaceae ).

Root cuttings are segments of the root while leaf cuttings are either entire leaves, with or without the
petiole, or portions of leaf blades. Leaf-bud cuttings consist of a leaf with petiole, and a short piece of
the stem with axillary bud. Stem cuttings are segmented parts of the stem, or entire stems detached from
the main branch. Where the stem cutting includes the tip or apex, it is called tip cutting .

Special terms are also used to classify stem cuttings such as hardwood or woody cuttings, semi-
hardwood or semi-woody cuttings, softwood cuttings and herbaceous cuttings. These are classifications
of stem cuttings based on the nature of wood and stage of growth.

Hardwood, semi-hardwood and softwood cuttings are taken from woody trees and shrubs while
herbaceous cuttings are made from succulent, herbaceous plants like chrysanthemum, coleus, tomato,
eggplant and squash.

Propagation with the use of plant cuttings is common for dicots but there are some monocots that can be
rooted by this method like bamboo and sugarcane. Compared to the other methods, propagation by stem
cuttings has the widest application.
Root cutting plants: Breadfruit (Artocarrpus altilis), blackberry (Rubus sp.), fig (Ficus carica), garden
phlox (Phlox paniculata), Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica), lilac (Syringa vulgaris), Malus sp.,
oriental pear (Pyrus calleryana), Rosa spp.

Leaf cutting Plants:- African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha), Begonia spp., Bryophyllum spp., Crassula
spp., Kalanchoe spp., lily (Lilium longiflorum and L. candidum), Oxalis spp., Peperomia spp., Sedum
spp., snake plant (Sansevieria trifasciata), sweet potato, wax plant (Hoya carnosa). Generally, these
plants have thick leaves. Jasmine or sampaguita (Jasminum sambac) and spotted dracaena (Dracaena
godseffiana) have also been propagated experimentally by leaf cuttings.

Stem cutting plants: Acerola (Malpighia glabra), bamboo, black pepper (Piper nigrum), cacao
(Theobroma cacao), cassava (Manihot esculenta), citrus (Citrus spp.), coffee (Coffea spp.), eggplant
(Solanum melongena), grape (Vitis vinifera), guava (Psidium guajava).

b. Wedge grafting: The wedge or whip graft works best when the stock and scion are of similar
diameter, preferably between 1/4 and 1/2 inch. The stock can be either a plant growing in the field or a
dormant bare root plant as in bench grafting. The stock should be smooth and straight grained. Do not
graft near a point where side twigs or branches have developed.

The scion should be one-year-old wood, preferably the same size as the stock. If the stock is larger than
the scion, contact can be made on only one side. The scion should never be larger than the stock. While
other types of grafts depend on the bark slipping well, the whip graft does not.

Preparing the stock and scion: The cuts made in both stock and scion should match. On both parts,
make a smooth sloping cut about 1 ½ to 2 inches long depending on the thickness of the material. Make
the first cut with a single, smooth cut with no waves or whittling. The beginner should practice by
cutting extra twigs. A good quality, very sharp knife is essential.

Cutting the stock and scion: The stock may be a stem and root system of a young plant or a branch on
a rootstock. Make a slanting cut about 2 inches from the butt of the young whip or leave a branch stub at
least 1 foot in length. Although grafts may be made with a simple union of two slanting cuts, the
strongest graft results from a whip-and-tongue system. To form the tongue hold the one-sided, slanting
cut facing you, and support it with your finger. About one-third down from the tip of this cut, make a
downward cut about ½ inch long as close to parallel with the grain of the wood as possible.
Fitting the stock and scion: After the cuts are made on both parts, push them together tightly enough so
that the cut surfaces match as closely as possible. The cambial area (area immediately under the bark) of
both pieces must be aligned for a union to develop. If the scion and stock are not the same size, match
the cambiums on one side only. The lower tip of the scion should not hang over the stock. If the toe of
either the stock or scion extend beyond the heel of the other, cut if off evenly.

Wrapping the graft: In most cases, it is safer and better to wrap the graft to keep it tight to prevent
drying. Wrap the graft with a rubber budding strip, grafting tape, or a plastic tape such as electrical tape;
then carefully cover the union and binding material with grafting compound. Start wrapping on the stock
and work up onto the scion. Remove wrapping as soon as the scion has started to grow to prevent
girdling of the tree.

c.Air layering: It is also called marcotting, marcottage, Chinese layering, pot layerage, circumposition
and gootee, is a vegetative method of plant propagation which involves the rooting of aerial stems while
attached to the parent plant. It is one among the various special methods of layering which also include
tip layering, simple layering, compound or serpentine layering, mound or stool layering, and trench
layering.

Examples: Bell fruit, water apple, or tambis (Syzygium aqueum), black pepper (Piper nigrum), cacao
(Theobroma cacao), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), citrus (Citrus spp.), coffee (Coffea spp.), grape
(Vitis vinifera), guava (Psidium guajava), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), lanzones or langsat
(Lansium domesticum), lychee (Litchi sp.), mango (Mangifera indica), mangosteen (Garcinia
mangostana), pili nut (Canarium ovatum), sapodilla or chico or chickle tree (Manilkara zapota),
starapple or caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica).
Factors:- The formation of adventitious roots during air layering is induced by various stem treatments.
These generally involve the girdling or wounding of a small part of the stem, resulting to the interruption
of the downward movement of organic materials such as carbohydrates, auxin and other growth factors
from the leaves and shoot tips. These materials accumulate close to the treated area and rooting follows.
Continuous moisture, sufficient aeration, and moderate temperatures in the rooting zone affect the
formation of roots on layers or marcots. These conditions can be provided by using a loose rooting
medium with high water holding capacity such as a sphagnum moss. It has been observed also that the
rainy season favors rooting rather than the hot, dry season.

The application of rooting hormone to the injured stem is sometimes effective. This can be applied in
powder form, lanolin, or as a dilute solution.

Rooting success likewise depends on the plant species. In general, plants which can be propagated using
stem cuttings will also root through air layering. Prostrate stems of some plants which naturally root at
the point of contact with the soil indicate that these plants can be easily rooted using this method, as with
stem cuttings.
Advantages
1. Rooting success is more ensured through layering, including clones which will not root easily.

2. Air layering or marcotting is relatively simple to perform. With a small number of plants, it can
produce more layers with less skill, effort and equipment.

3. Larger plants which are readily mature can be produced in faster time.

Disadvantages
1.. Air layering or marcotting is laborious and therefore expensive.

2. Only a small number of layers can be produced from a parent plant than when the same plant is used
as source of cuttings, buds, or scions.

3. A wider area is needed to grow stock plants to be able to produce a greater number of layers.

4. Bigger layers need special care to establish them independently on the potting containers.
 d. T budding: Budding is a method in which only one bud is inserted in the rootstock. This method is
very easy and fast. This method saves budwood as compared to grafting. As soon as the bark starts
slipping both on the stock and scion, this is considered to be the optimum time for budding. This shows
that the cambium, which is the tissue responsible for union, is active. This method is generally employed
during spring and rainy season. The common methods of budding are T-budding, patch budding, and
chip budding. T-Budding: This is also known as shield budding. A horizontal cut about 1/3rd the
distance around the stock (Plate 3) is given on the stock 15-20cm above then ground level. Another
vertical cut 2-3 cm in length is made down from the middle of the horizontal cut and flaps of the bark are
loosened with ivory end of the budding knife to receive the bud. After the ‘T’ has been made in the stock
the bud is removed from the bud stick. To remove the shield of bark containing the bud, a slicing cut is
started at a point on the bud stick about 1.25 cm below the bud, continuing underneath about 2.5 cm
above the bud. A second horizontal cut is then made 1.25 to 2 cm above the bud, thus permitting the
removal of the shield piece. The shield is removed along with a very thin slice of wood. The shield is
then pushed under the two raised flaps of bark until its upper horizontal cut matches the same cut on the
stock. The shield should fix properly in place, well covered by the two flaps of bark, but the bud itself
exposed. The bud union should be wrapped with polythene strip to hold the two components firmly
together until the union is completed. T budding can be performed at any time of the year provided cell
sap flows freely.
In most fruit trees it is performed either in the spring (March-April) or in rainy season (July-September)
period. This is the most common method of propagation of citrus plants.

Question 5. Define vegetable farming. Explain the types of vegetable gardening in India.
ANSWER:- The cultivation and raising of vegetables at farm or field is termed as vegetable farming. It is
the type of farming system in which vegetables are grown and cultivated for own consumption or for
selling it in the market.
It becomes customary to have vegetables in our daily diet. Realizing the value in human health
the potential in income generation, vegetable farming has been highly specialized. It is grouped into 2
groups- Home gardening and commercial gardening. Due to higher income from vegetable farming the
area of vegetable is spreading day by day.
Types of gardening
1) Kitchen gardening
2) Market gardening
3) Truck gardening
4) Forcing gardening
5) Processing gardening
6) Seed production gardening
7) Floating gardening
1) Kitchen gardening-
• Intended to supply vegetables for the consumption of own house.
• Kitchen garden supplies vegetables continuously throughout the year and save money.
• Usually backyard of the house is preferred for growing vegetables.
• House used water is used for irrigating the garden.
• Climbers, cucumber, bottle gourd should grown with boundary to have a readily available
support.
• Pots, boxes, sills, window, house roof etc are equally good for kitchen garden.
• Brinjal, tomato, chilli, okra, coriander, onion, garlic etc are good kitchen vegetables.
• Low growing perennial plants in northern direction to avoid shade in the garden.
• Vegetables are selected according to daily need of the family.
• Banana, Papaya, Lemon etc. are also given space in kitchen garden.
2) Market Gardening-
• Vegetable farming is done to supply in the market of nearby city.
• It is developed with the urbanization with easy transportation facilities.
• Practiced in suburbs of cities by small size farmer and poor people.
• Too intensive cultivation is practiced.
• Early maturing as well as off season vegetables receive priority.
• Sailing is arranged by the grower.
3) Truck gardening-
• The word truck has been derived from French word troquer meaning to’barter’.
• Site is located away from consumption market.
• Availability of suitable climate determine the site of growing.
• Land holding is large and extensive method of cultivation is practiced.
• Middleman is involved in sailing of vegetables.
• Vegetables which sustain long distance transportation are ideal.
• Examples: Potato, Tomato, Pointed gourd, Onion
4) Forcing Gardening-
• Growing of vegetables out of their normal growing season constitutes forcing garden.
• Forcing garden is very popular in western countries.
 • Highly priced and much demanded vegetables like tomato, cucumber and mushroom are very
suitable.
• River bed cultivation, green house cultivations is a type of force gardening.
• These gardens are usually set up around the cities where the expertise of skilled man power is
available.
5) Processing Gardening-
• It is intended to supply vegetables to processing units.
• Located around processing units.
• Best alternative to minimize post harvest losses which account to 25% to 30% losses of
horticultural produce.
• Requires bulk and consistent production
• Examples: Pea, tomato, potato, onion garlic etc.

6) Seed Production Gardening-

• Aims to cultivate vegetables for seed production purpose.
• It is practiced on commercially crop on large acreage.
• Highly specialized and requires special care like rogueing, maintain isolation distance etc.
• The land remains occupied for considerably long period.
• Examples: cucumber, bottle gourd, cauliflower, tomato, okra
7) Floating gardening-
• Especially practiced in Dal lake in Kashmir.
• Leaf of typha grass is used as a base for raising vegetable. The typha grass grows naturally
floating in lake.
• Vegetables are grown after composting over leaf of grass.
Question 6. Define drip irrigation. Discuss the different systems of irrigation used in horticulture.
Answer:-
Drip irrigation –Drip means drop by drop. Drip is a system of irrigation in which the water is delivered
at or near the root zone of plants drop by drop. This is most water-efficient method of irrigation and is
also the means of delivery of fertilizer.
Drip irrigation offers the following specific advantages:
• Proven water savings
• Improved crop yields
• More efficient use of fertilizers
• Used to administer pesticides, improving resistance against pests
• Reduced weed growth
• Energy savings from less pumping and reduced labour costs
• Suitable for marginal lands and those with lower water quality
• Maintained soil quality and improved land productivity as a result.
Irrigation Methods for Horticultural Crops

Methods of Irrigation in orchard:

1. Flood System: When the land is flat, the entire area is flooded by letting in water. This system
is commonly practiced in canal areas, in wet lands for banana, and other crops. This is a method
in which the water is supplied in excessive quantity. The entire area is allowed to saturate with
water and the interval between two irrigations is kept fairly long. It also causes stagnation is
shallow and ill drained soils.
2. Basin System: This system is widely practiced on large scale all over the world. A basin is a
small patch or land bounded around a tree. It is usually a square with the tree in the centre. The
soil gradually slopes down from, the base of the tree to the edge of tile basin, resulting in a
trough. Circular basins are also made sometimes. Water let in from the main water channel first
reaches the periphery, soaks the outer area and "gradually spreads towards the trunk, and thus is
prevented from coming in contact with the tree trunk. This system is useful for loamy soils.

The basins size initially keep four feet are increased in size as the trees grow and are gradually
extended to even 40 feet square, roughly corresponding to the periphery of the trees. Roots of
plants spread much farther than the above ground portion. It is, therefore, necessary to irrigate a
wide area to supply adequate moisture to the entire root zone. In very old plantation basins may
not be suitable as the root system would have gone far beyond his size of the trees and irrigation
of the entire orchard may be necessary. Basin system minimizes loss of water, and is economical.
3. Furrow System: Furrow system of irrigation is commonly practiced in orchards in Western
countries. The entire orchard is ploughed up and divided into furrows. The number of furrows
between the rows of trees depends on the age of the plantation. When trees are young, a single
furrow is sufficient. Taking the plants in the centre, an irrigation channel of 20cm depth and
60cm width is prepared.. The size of the furrow varies with the type of soil and slope of the land.
Furrow run at right angles to the slope or gradient of the land. When the land is highly slopy the
length of the furrow is reduced. Furrows are kept shallow so that water may spread quickly all
over the area. When furrows are deep the water is likely to be absorbed by deeper layers or the
soil and water intake becomes high. Thus by adjusting the depth of furrows, the quantity of water
to be applied to crops can be controlled.
4. Ring System: In this system the water is applied in a ring around the tree. The method is
recommended for citrus trees, is in this system the water is not allowed to touch the bark of the
tree thereby reducing the chances or caller rot to which the trees are susceptible. The size of the
ring will increase as the trees grow.
In applying water to crops, care should be taken to see that the optimum quantity is
applied at proper interval. The water applied should reach the entire root zone of the tree. For this
it is necessary to study the relationship between the spread of trees and root penetration. In
between two ring basins, a sub channel connecting the ring basin of the tree is prepared. The
water flows through central channel and move ahead naturally after flooding two ring basin at a
time. When the flow of water is fast, much vigilance and labour is necessary in guiding the water.
This system is therefore, uneconomical and harmful.

5. Pitcher system: This system is especially used in arid regions in view of limited water supply.
The pitcher pot filled with water is buried in the periphery of individual tree where feeding roots
 are confined. The water is released slowly and slowly with the micropores available in the wall of
pitcher. Number of pitcher is depends upon the spread of the tree.
6. Funnel system: This system is first applied by farmer of Rajasthan. In this system a funnel of
about 1 litre capacity is fixed along with the side of the plant. The water is filled in the funnel. As
the funnel is fixed in the side of plant, the applied water reaches directly to the feeding roots and
the plant survives with the use of very little water. This system is useful only for young plants
whose water requirement is less.
7. Drip Irrigation system: This system is based on the principle of supplying water to the plant
equivalent to its consumptive use. This is highly efficient system of irrigation having very less
irrigation water requirement. Water is discharged by dripper directly in root zone. The installation
of drip is costlier but it is water and labour saving can be used in hilly terrain, suppress weed
growth and increase the yield and vigour of plant.

Question 7. Prepare Lay out plan of Nursery. Write the parameters considered for site selections of
horticulture nursery.
ANSWER: A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to usable size. They include
retail nurseries which sell to the general public, wholesale nurseries which sell only to businesses such as
other nurseries and to commercial gardeners, and private nurseries which supply the needs of institutions
or private estates. Some retail and wholesale nurseries sell by mail.
Parameters for Site Selection of horticulture nursery
Proper selection of site is important. Selection may be made based on the following criteria.
• Most Important factors
- Light
- Water quality and quantity
- Access to electricity
- Freedom from ecological and political concerns
- Adequate land area
- Soil characteristics and fertility
- Problem related to disease and insects
- Market availability
• Secondary Factors
- Microclimate
- Sheltered from wind, salt spray
- Windbreaks, walls, curtains can be developed if needed
- Avoid flood-prone areas
- Gentle topography: Slope complicates irrigation and movement of material
- Road Access: All-weather road surface is important

Question 8. What is pruning. Explain different types of pruning and its important in horticulture.
ANSWER: Judicious removal of plant part to obtain better and qualitative yield is called pruning. This
practice involving the selective removal of parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, roots.

Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping (by controlling or directing growth),
improving or maintaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for
transplanting, and both harvesting and increasing the yield or quality of flowers and fruits.

The extent and intensity of pruning on the same tree varies from year to year, depending on the growth of
the tree, its bearing and season. The following are the main objectives of pruning.

Objective of pruning:

• To control flowering and fruiting.

• To augment production in plants which bear on new shoots.
• To obtain regular bearing.
• To remove diseased, damaged, insect infested and weak shoots.
• To ensure access to sunlight to bearing shoots.
• To maintain the growth and vigor f the trees and to maintain a balance between the vegetative
vigour and fruitfulness.
• To regulate the size and quality of fruit by way of proper distributions of the fruiting area.
• To spread the tree for convenience of economy in orchard management.

Principles of Pruning:

1. Excessive pruning should be avoided as it affects the growth of the plant by ‘dwarfening ‘and may
induce more of eater suckers fascination and thus effect the bearing potential.

2. Remove water sprouts.

3. Avoid bark injury while pruning. To do so the branches of bigger diameter should be cut from
downward surface.

4. Pruning of young trees should be done more carefully than they yielding trees since serve pruning of
young tree to going to delay the fruiting.

5. Each branch or part pruned should be considered as a potential bearing area and certain amount or food
prepared the plants is reduced through such removed part.

6. Apply Bordeaux paste after pruning to avoid incidence of diseases.

Methods of Pruning:
1. Thinning Out: Selective removal of the branches entirely from its base leaving no stubs.

2. Heating Back: This refers to pruning or cutting of main stem or terminal portion of shoot leaving a
basal portion. This method is often followed for hedges, ornamental shrubs, first dormant pruning and
October pruning in grapes.

3. Disbudding or Rubbing off: Here the young buds are nipped without giving then the change to sprout.
The buds may be either Vegetative or reproductive. This is practiced regularly in flowering plants to
make the terminal bud to give a bigger flower.

4. Pinching and Topping: This refers to the removal of the tip of the shoot alone with a view to stimulate
mildly the lateral growth; this is practiced regularly in coffee to remove the apical dominance and to
allow the side branches to grow vigorously.

5. Girdling: In this process, a circular ring of bark measuring about 3 cm in length is removed. It hastens
bearing by allowing greater accumulation of photosynthesis material in upward portion of the plant.

6. Notching: making a notch above a bud by removing a wedge shaped piece of bark is termed as
notching. It checks the influence of hormone and encourages growth.

7. Nicking: Making a notch below a bud by removing a wedge shaped piece of bark is termed as nicking.
This ensures accumulation of carbohydrates from the leaves to the bud and may result in the formation of
fruit bud.

Importance in Horticulture

1. Management of plant height and canopy-

2. Improve the quality of fruits.

3. Regular bearing and flowering of fruits.

4. Management of pest and diseases by regular removing of dead and diseased branches.