ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR - CONFLICT

People with divergent personalities, perceptions, attitudes and values occupy the
positions in organizations. These positions often have differing or contrasting job charts;
different levels of status attached to them and also foster competition. People of
different divisions in organizations have to compete for scarce resources in order to
achieve their targets/objectives. In every human endeavor conflicts exist.

Conflict exists wherever there is social interaction. It emerges as an outcome of

interdependencies and interactions between and among people. Conflict is as old as
human existence itself. Historical evidences indicate that conflict existed even in
prehistoric times Then man was at the stage of Homo erectus evolving to be
Homosapien, oh the path to become a modern man.

As man developed himself into a hunting society, there are proofs of feuds among
tribes for cattle, precious stones and women. Feuds also existed within the tribe,
between clans.

Over several thousands years man evolved into agrarian society where the feuds took
place for land and water. In Indian epics there are several instances quoted of having
conflict especially in Ramayana and Mahabharata. In modern industrial society, in
organizations we come across several kinds of conflicts sprouting out of number of
sources.

Individual experience conflict due to many pressures exerted on him by many groups
to which he belongs and demands of various roles he must play. Socialization process
of individual itself also viewed as conflict.

Conflict is a struggle between two or more forces that creates a tension that must be
resolved (although in some stories, as in real life, it isn't). The traditional breakdown of
conflict is:

• Man vs. man (external)

• Man vs. nature (external)
• Man vs. self (internal)
Conflict is important to literature because it provides the basic materials for the
construction of the plot. Without conflict nothing would happen. Also, the conflict
within a piece may be central to the author's view of life or the point he or she is trying
to make.

What is Conflict?

In simple words, conflict may be understood as collision or disagreement. The conflict

may be within an individual when there is incompatibility between his own goals or
events; may be between two individuals, when one does not see eye to eye with
another, and in the process tries to block or frustrate the attempts of another; or
between two groups in an organization.

Chung and Megginson define conflict as "the struggle between incompatible or

opposing needs, wishes, ideas, interests, or people. Conflict arises when individuals or
groups encounter goals that both parties cannot obtain satisfactorily." Though intra-
personal conflict is not made explicit in the definition, the first sentence implies intra-
individual conflict as well.

Reichers (1986) defined conflict as the perceived incompatibility between one goal,
value or need and another goal, value or need. This definition shows that conflict may
exist within the same persons or between a person and another entity.

Reasons of Conflicts

Robins (1983) believes that people are aware of the factors that generate conflicts such
as scarcity, obstruction and incompatible interests or goals. Resource scarcity, either
monetary, job, prestige or power, encourages the obstruction of behavior and conflict
arises. Conflict can also be broken out when one party avoids the goal achievement of
the other one.

Reiterating these ideas, Jung (2003) declares that conflict is clearly associated with
power and can emerge when goal achievement of an organization is avoided. However,
according to Pondy (1966), in situations of routine behavior where procedures are well
defined and environment is stable, it is probable that causes for conflicts are not highly
correlated with goal and objective achievement. In these circumstances, conflict
variables are probably more related to personality, autonomy reasons, functional
interdependence and status.

Gordon (1987) cites some reasons that justify conflict escalation in organizations: (i) as
departments grow, people lose contact with other departments, or yet, members of a
department start to think differently from other areas; (ii) the increase of emphasis in
the financial measures as a tool for motivation for managers and the establishment of
different profit centers inside an integrated business system end up creating many
conflicts; (iii) the increasing rise of emphasis in functional specialization, politics of
promotion and recruiting reinforce the isolation of departments, generating conflicts;
(iv) today there is more room for workers to show criticism among each other, while
this freedom of speech can be beneficial for society as a whole, in organizational context
can be transformed into conflicts and; (v) consumers demand lower prices, better
quality in products and services, creating pressures so that departments work more
effectively which can result in conflicts among departments.

Another reason pointed out in literature for the occurrence of conflicts is the
asymmetric degree of interdependence, that affects the level of trust and commitment of
the groups (Kumar, Scheer, and Steenkamp, 1995). Asymmetric interdependence occurs
when parties have different levels of dependence among each other. That is, in one
same group some individuals can depend on people that, in turn, show independence
in relation to them. In total interdependence, on the other hand, individuals are totally
dependent on one another. Kumar, Scheer and Steenkamp (1995) state that relationships
with total interdependence have less conflict than the ones with asymmetric in-
terdependence. For Jung (2003), conflict is smaller in highly dependent relationships
because, in general, the dependent party conforms itself that it can not alter the
situation and accept the leader’s power.

The reason of conflicts can also lay in relationship conflict, that is the perception of
animosities and personal incompability. According to Peterson and Behfar (2003), the
negative impact of relationship conflict in the group performance occurs in three ways.
First, it limits the ability to process information, because the group members spend their
time and energy focusing on one another, rather than in group problems. Second,
because it limits the cognitive functioning of the group members by increasing the level
of stress and anxiety. Third, because it encourages accusations and antagonisms
regarding the behavior of the other group which can create a predisposition to hostility
and conflict escalation.

Individuals that manage conflicts effectively in organizations are perceived as

competent communicators and leaders whereas those individuals incapable of
managing conflicts effectively may have problems not only in reaching organizational
goals, but also in keeping positive and consistent relationships and solving problems.
Individuals that have difficulty in dealing with conflicts also have greater probability to
be dissatisfied with work (Gross and Guerrero, 2000).

Previous theoretical reviews outlined definition, vertical and horizontal conflicts in

organizations and reasons of conflicts. To check how organizational conflict occurs in
Brazilian organizations and in the marketing area a field survey was developed. The
method and result analysis are presented as follows.
Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict

Functional conflict refers to confrontation between two ideas, goals and parties that
improve employees and the organization's performance. Well-managed conflict helps
workers anticipate and solve problems, feel confident, strengthen their relationships,
and be committed to the organization. Constructive conflict is crucial for effective
functioning of organizations. Specifically, potential benefits of conflict are the following:

Conflict increases awareness of what problems exist, who is involved, and how to solve
the problem.

Conflict motivates organizational members to consider problems. They are energized

and psychologically focused on the problems and motivated to put plans into action.

Conflict promotes change. Persons are more aware of injustices, inefficiencies, and

frustrations, and see the need to correct them. :

Conflict enhances morale and cohesion. Organizational members deal with and clear up
their frustrations and resentments. They conclude that their relationships are strong
enough to withstand stress and to handle difficulties. They also learn about each other's
needs, styles, and values through conflict.

High quality decisions result when persons express their opposing views and'
perspectives. They share their information and check each other's reasoning to develop
new decisions.

Conflict stimulates interest and creativity. Being in conflict often sparks curiosity and
stimulates viewing problems from several perspectives and combining the best of these
positions to form a creative solution. Conflict is exciting as people learn about what
makes them and others angry, frustrated, £nd willing to fight.
Conflict adds to the fun of working with others when not taken seriously. Many people
find conflict enjoyable to compe^itiye_sports, games, movies, plays, books, and in
teasing.

There is a close relationship between conflict and organizational performance.

Organizational performance is low when conflict is extremely high or extremely low,

while moderate or optimum level conflict contributes to high organizational
performance. When the level of conflict is low, such as at point A on the curve,
performance suffers because of a lack of arousal and stimulation. Employees find the
environment too comfortable and they become complacent.

When they are not challenged and confronted, they fail to search for environmental
changes. On the other hand, when the level of conflict ig extremely high (Point C),
performance suffers- because of inadequate coordination and cooperation. The
organization is in a state of chaos because of disruption and cooperation. The
organization is in a state of chaos because of disruption and interference to critical
activities. Individuals spend more time defending themselves or attacking others than
accomplishing productive work.

Maximum organizational performance occurs somewhere between these two extremes,

where there is an optimal level of conflict. In this situation, at point B on the curve, there
is sufficient conflict to stimulate new ideas and a creative search for solutions to
problems.

Dysfunctional Conflict

True, conflict is inevitable in organizations and also desirable. But without an effective
means for handling it, conflict can tear_ relationships apart and interfere with the
exchange of ideas, infomiatign and resources in groups and between departments.
Dysfunctional conflicts hinder and prevent organizational goals from being achieved.

Sources of Conflict

Money, of course! How to spend it. What to do with it? The single most common
conflict of all.

The second most common conflict is roles and responsibilities. It may sound silly but it
becomes important when it comes down to little things, like, who is going to take the
cockroach off the window? Whose job is that? Whose job is it to see that the socks are
clean and the underwear is ready to go? Whose job is it to see to it the garbage gets put
out in time for the garbage pickup? Or that the house is clean? Or that the dishes are
washed? Or that food is cooked? Whose job is it to do the grocery shopping? Whose job
is it to discipline children or to make rules or major decisions?

Third most common source, power struggles. We tend to want to win arguments. When
it comes down to roles and responsibilities, we want to win it. This is my job! That is
your job! You have got to win. It does not even matter what you start arguing over,
what you are getting down to is who is the boss and who is not. If you have to win
every argument you will probably lose your marriage. That is something to think about.
If you always have to win, chances are you will lose your marriage. If it is a source of
chronic disagreement, you have a real problem.

Fourth most common source of disagreement, sexual difficulties. Sexual difficulties can
be all sorts. They can be from what type of sex you want to do, to how frequently you
want to do it. In fact, frequency of sex is at times a source of conflict in a marriage. And
that at times in itself becomes a sexual difficulty. It is nice if you can talk to your partner
up front concerning this. Positions, experimentation, fantasy. All of these things that are
part of the sexuality of the marriage can also be a source of difficulty. You have got to
talk about it. Once again, choice becomes a part. You have to sit down and discuss. Talk
about your sex life together. That is how you will make the best sex life you will ever
have.

The next area is jealousy and possessiveness. Jealousy and possessiveness is lack of
trust and strong feelings of inadequacy and insecurity. A certain amount of jealousy
and possessiveness should be there.

Types of Conflict

Conflict has been classified in different ways: Following are the some of the
classifications.

Realistic and Non-Realistic

Realistic conflict arises when participants clash in the pursuit of claims and expectation
of gain. It is viewed as a means towards the achievement of specific goals, a means that
might be abandoned if other means appear to be more effective.

Non-realistic conflict arises from aggressive impulses that seek expression no matter
what the object, allows no functional alternative of means. Since it is not aimed at the
attainment of concrete result but at the expression of aggressive impulses. Ex. Scope
gloating i.e. the object of attack is secondary to the dispositional need for attack.

Inter Psychic and Psychosocial Conflicts

Inter-psychic conflict exists within an individual when he feels drawn to "two or
divergent desires or actions. (Ex: Alcohol and be healthy) Psychosocial conflict exists
between people or between a person and a group and is present when a person must
choose in favor of one course of action, at the expense of an equally desirable course of
action (Ex. Personal goals at the expense of groups goals)

Conflict of Interest and Conflict of Understanding

Conflict of interest is present when parties involved in conflict share the same
understanding of the situation but prefers a different and incompatible solution to
problem.

Conflict of understanding occurs when parties involved in conflict do not share the
same conceptualization of the situation This may occur because divergent ideologies
cultures, values or cognitive structures.

Infra-Personal, Interpersonal, Organizational, Inter Organizational and

Revolutionary Conflict

Intra-individual Conflict involves frustration, goal conflict, and role conflict and
ambiguity. Frustration occurs when goal-directed behavior is blocked. Goal conflict
occurs when a goal has both positive and negative features or when an individual has
two or more competing goals thus blocking, one another. Three types of goal conflict
are generally identified.

Approach - approach Conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach two or

more positive but mutually exclusive goals.

Approach - avoidance Conflict, where a single goal has both positive and negative
characteristics and individual is motivated to approach and avoid it at the same time.
This has relevance to the analysis of organizational behavior.

Avoidance - avoidance Conflict, where the individual is motivated to avoid two or

more negative but mutually exclusive goals.

Role conflict and ambiguity arises as individual is expected to play various roles and a
clash there from.

Interpersonal Conflict arises from personal, differences, information deficiency, role

incompatibility and environmental stress.8

Organizational Conflict Intra-individual, inter personal and inter group conflicts are all
inherent in organizational conflict the very nature of structure of organization also give
rise to conflict. In classical organization there are four types of structural conflict.

Hierarchical Conflict – Exists between various levels in the hierarchy of the

organization like board of director and top management, middle management with
supervising personnel, and management vs. Workers.

Functional Conflict - exists between various functional departments like marketing,

personnel, financial, etc.

Line - Staff Conflict

Formal - informal conflict exists between formal and informal organizations. In

modern organization also this structural conflict exists, example may be project and
matrix organizations. In projects, managers are given responsibility but no authority,
leading to conflict while a manager in matrix organization may have a project boss and
a functional boss leading to conflict.

Inter Organizational Conflict arises from the macro business environment when
organizations compete for market share.

Revolutionary Conflict is the most dramatic form of conflict in complex organization

and has its generous in revolutionary movements that challenge the very legitimacy of
the organization. This is different from other kinds of conflict that it does not ask for a
greater share of the scarce resources but they demand that all the resources be
redistributed to new organization and that the old systems cease to exist.
Bargaining, Bureaucratic and Systems Conflict

Bargaining conflict among the interest groups in competition for Scarce resources, this
is appropriate for the analysis of labor - management relations, budgeting processes and
staff-line conflicts.

Bureaucratic conflict between the parties to a superior, subordinate relationship,

particularly concerned with the problems caused by institutional attempts to control
behavior and the organization's reaction to such control. Systems conflict among parties
to a lateral or working relationship or a functional relationship. Analysis of the
problems of coordination is the special province of this model.

Perceived, Latent and Manifest Conflicts

Perceived conflict exists in person when they perceive that there is a conflict in the work
environment, which may truly be existing or not. Perceived conflict may give rise to
real conflict.

Latent conflict is one that does not emerge in open i.e. individuals involved in conflict
do not show it openly although the conflict exists. Manifest conflict is open conflict
where in parties involved in conflict recognize and openly explicitly express the
conflict.

Organized and Unorganized Conflict

Organized and unorganized conflict exits in organizations. When parties involved in

conflict express it in organized manner like strike or lock out it is organized conflict
while unorganized conflict is expressed through absenteeism, late coming etc. While
there are different kinds of conflicts explained above, all conflicts in organization fall
within one of six categories mentioned below :

1., External conflicts related to competition, the marked place, regulation, or on

adversarial take over.
2. Management process and style conflicts stemming from leadership style, the
decision-making process, or organizational structure.

3. Strategic direction conflicts over the company's mission direction, objectives and
strategies.

4. Operational conflicts related to issue such as "quality verses schedule' or "design to-
production transition.

5. Interdepartmental conflicts that occur when divisions compete with themselves

rather than with other companies.

6. Value system conflicts over business philosophy.

Levels of Conflict

There are three levels of conflict in organizational life:

1. Intra-individual conflict.

2. Inter-individual conflict.

3.Inter-group conflict.

INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

Although most role conflict occurs when an employee's supervisor or peers send
conflicting expectations to him or her, it is possible for intrapersonal role conflict to
emerge . from within ~ an individual, as a result of competing roles taken. For example,
Sabrina may see herself as both the manger of a team responsible for protecting and
enlarging its resources and as a member

of the executive staff' charged with the task of reducing operating costs. . •

INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Interpersonal conflicts. are a serious problem to many people because they deeply affect
a person's emotions. There is a need to protect one's self image and self esteem from
damage by others: When self-concept is threatened, serious upset occurs and
relationships deteriorate.
Sometimes the temperaments of two persons are incompatible and their personalities
clash. In other instances, conflicts develop from failures of communication or
differences in perception.

An office employee was upset by a conflict with another employee in a different

department. It seemed to the first employee that there was no way to resolve the
conflict. However, when a counselor explained the different organizational roles of the
two employees as seen from the whose organization's point of view, the first employee's
perceptions changed and the conflict vanished.

INTERGROUP CONFLICT

Intergroup conflicts, for example, between different departments, also cause problems.
On a major scale such conflicts are something like the wars between juvenile gangs.
Each group sets out to undermine the other, gain power, and improve its image.
Conflicts arise from such causes as different viewpoints, group loyalties, and
competition for resources. Resources are limited in any organization and are
increasingly tight as organizations struggle to be competitive. Since most groups feel
that they need more than they can secure; the seeds of intergroup conflict exist
wherever there are limited resources. For example, the production department may
want -new and more efficient machinery while, at the same time, the sales department
wants to expand its sales force, but there are only enough resources to supply the needs
of one group.

SOME PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF CONFLICT IDENTIFIED:

• communication failure » personality conflict
• value differences
• goal differences
• methodological differences
A-substandard-performance^ _
• lack of cooperation
• differences regarding authority
• differences regarding responsibility
• competition over resources
• non-compliance with rules