Research Methodology - Methods & Techniques
Research Methodology - Methods & Techniques
Research Methodology - Methods & Techniques
EDITION
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
RESEARCH
C R KOTHARI
METHODOLOGY Former Principal, College of Commerce
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
FOURTH
EDITION
GAURAV GARG
Primary
Research
Associate Professor
Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Price : 399.00
C R KOTHARI • GAURAV GARG
Pub Date : 2020
Format : Paperback
Extent : 480 Pages
Contents:
About the Book: • Research Methodology:
This fourth multi colour edition has been made better equipped to make the learning more An Introduction
systematic. More details are added to old chapters keeping in mind the need of advanced data • Defining the Research
analysis in social science research. The usage of popular statistical package SPSS has also Problem
been shown through many examples. • Research Design
It is important to adopt an appropriate methodology in quality research. The present book • Design of Sample Surveys
provides the basic and advanced level discussion on research methodology so that the • Measurement and Scaling
researchers may become familiar with the art of using research methods and techniques. • Data Collection
• Data Preparation
The book is intended to serve as a textbook for social science students at graduate and
• Descriptive Statistics
postgraduate level. The book can be taken as a well-organised guide for researchers in social
science and other areas. • Sampling and Statistical
Inference
About the Authors: • Testing of Hypothesis
Dr. C R Kothari was the Principal, College of Commerce and Associate Professor in the • Chi-Square Tests
Department of Economic Administration and Financial Management, University of • Analysis of Variance
Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. • Other Nonparametric Methods
Dr. Gaurav Garg is an Associate Professor in Decision Sciences Area, Indian Institute of • Linear Regression Analysis
Management, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. • Factor Analysis
• Discriminant Analysis
• Cluster Analysis
• Other Multivariate Techniques
Click Here to Buy the Book Online • Interpretation and Report
Writing
Readership and Market Potential: Undergraduate/postgraduate students and faculties of Research Methodology, Commerce, Management and Social Science
• University and college libraries • Researchers and Professionals.
Committed to Educate the Nation NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
LONDON • NEW DELHI • NAIROBI
•
IN INDIA
NEW AGE
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
FOURTH
EDITION
Primary
Research
ta
In- osit
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Re
Da
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ho or
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p
atio
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Va
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In
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360o Research
So esea
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Re con
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Se
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Competitors
Sources
FOURTH
EDITION
C R KOTHARI
Former Principal, College of Commerce
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
Rajasthan (India)
GAURAV GARG
Associate Professor
Indian Institute of Management
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (India)
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ending process, we present this fourth edition to you. In this edition, we corrected some mistakes and
added some new problems along with the datasets. No new topic has been added and no change has
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(i) Go to www.newagepublishers.com
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It has been great working with New Age International Publishers. It is good to see that they
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GAURAV GARG
(vii)
2.5 An Illustration 27
2.6 Conclusion 28
Problems 28
3. Research Design 29
3.1 Meaning of Research Design 29
3.2 Need for Research Design 30
3.3 Features of a Good Design 31
3.4 Important Concepts Relating to Research Design 31
3.4.1 Dependent and Independent Variables 32
3.4.2 Extraneous Variable 32
3.4.3 Control 32
3.4.4 Confounded Relationship 32
3.4.5 Research Hypothesis 33
3.4.6 Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis-Testing Research 33
3.4.7 Experimental and Control Groups 33
3.4.8 Treatments 33
3.4.9 Experiment 34
3.4.10 Experimental Unit(s) 34
3.5 Different Research Designs 34
3.5.1 Research Design in Case of Exploratory Research Studies 34
3.5.2 Research Design in Case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies 35
3.5.3 Research Design in Case of Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies 38
3.6 Basic Principles of Experimental Designs 38
3.7 Important Experimental Designs 39
3.7.1 Before-and-After Without Control Design 40
3.7.2 After-Only with Control Design 40
3.7.3 Before-and-After with Control Design 41
3.7.4 Completely Randomized Design (C.R. Design) 41
3.7.5 Randomized Block Design (R.B. Design) 44
3.7.6 Latin Square Design (L.S. Design) 45
3.7.7 Factorial Designs 46
3.8 Conclusion 51
Problems 51
6. Data Collection 89
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Experiments and Surveys 89
6.3 Collection of Primary Data 91
6.3.1 Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule 100
6.3.2 Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire/Schedule 101
6.3.3 Some Other Methods of Data Collection 102
6.4 Collection of Secondary Data 107
6.5 Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection 108
6.6 Case Study Method 109
Problems 113
Appendix 433
Selected References and Recommended Readings 449
Index 455
some pressing practical problems, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
CHAPTER 1
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the quantitative
measurements of some characterstics. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed
in terms of quantities. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we
are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do
certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative
research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires,
using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel
or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse
the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply for qualitative
research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research,
one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to
get facts at firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must
first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then
works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned
so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments
or empirical studies are considered to be the most powerful support possible for testing a
given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factors. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research
either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is
confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over
CHAPTER 1
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of research
can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates
scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking
and organisation.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and governance has focussed attention on the use of research in solving operational
problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for governance
and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet those needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to
probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can
devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of the
policy maker. Government has to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the country’s
various operations and most of these are related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The
plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade
union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of defence services are matters
requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s
resources. Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the
economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the
economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is by no means a
routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems. These days nearly all governments
maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of
government, research as a tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz.,
(i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events
that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the
prediction of future developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research,
are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of
formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the
application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of
cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems. Motivational
research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.
In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market)
behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for
taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in
business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry
to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become
an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a
projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn depends on
business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment programmes
can be set up around which are grouped as the purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus,
replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a
few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know
for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in social
sciences is concerned with (i) the development of a body of principles that helps in understanding
the whole range of human interactions, and (ii) the practical guidance in solving immediate problems
of human relations.
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work; and
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the development of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of
formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a better way.
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
CHAPTER 1
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical
tools of research.
At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research
techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as
making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods
refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique. For
instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood
from the details given in the following chart:
Type Methods Techniques
1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening and
Research records analysis.
(ii) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and abstract
guides, contents analysis.
2. Field (i) Non-participant direct Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards, etc.
Research observation
(ii) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photographic
techniques.
(iii) Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent observers in
public places.
(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of respondents.
(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of sociometric scales.
(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed questions.
(vii) Focussed interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience and its effects.
(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed simultaneously.
(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and for discerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life history Cross-sectional collection of data for intensive analysis, longitudinal
collection of data of intensive character.
3. Laboratory Small group study of random Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc.
Research behaviour, play and role analysis
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the method
that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and
when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their
compass.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques
but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests,
how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to
apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,
are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate. Researchers also need to
understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by
which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems
and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design a methodology for
his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs
a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on
what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses
particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the
research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and
precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology
we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use
in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken,
how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated,
what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique
of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we
talk about research methodology concerning a research problem or study.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships, if any, among
CHAPTER 1
variables. However, sometimes the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data may be
misleading for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments
or faulty interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the
experimental design and drawing inferences. The purpose of survey investigations may also be to
provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, the scientific method encourages a rigorous, method wherein the researcher is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and
a method that implies internal consistency.
EDITION
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
RESEARCH
C R KOTHARI
METHODOLOGY Former Principal, College of Commerce
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
FOURTH
EDITION
GAURAV GARG
Primary
Research
Associate Professor
Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
ta
In-h osit
rn nt
Re
Da
te Clie
Validatio
Data
p
al
ou
n
se
ory
In
360o Research
Soc esea
arc ry
R
ial rch
se da
h
Re con
Med
Competitors
Sources
Price : 399.00
C R KOTHARI • GAURAV GARG
Pub Date : 2020
Format : Paperback
Extent : 480 Pages
Contents:
About the Book: • Research Methodology:
This fourth multi colour edition has been made better equipped to make the learning more An Introduction
systematic. More details are added to old chapters keeping in mind the need of advanced data • Defining the Research
analysis in social science research. The usage of popular statistical package SPSS has also Problem
been shown through many examples. • Research Design
It is important to adopt an appropriate methodology in quality research. The present book • Design of Sample Surveys
provides the basic and advanced level discussion on research methodology so that the • Measurement and Scaling
researchers may become familiar with the art of using research methods and techniques. • Data Collection
• Data Preparation
The book is intended to serve as a textbook for social science students at graduate and
• Descriptive Statistics
postgraduate level. The book can be taken as a well-organised guide for researchers in social
science and other areas. • Sampling and Statistical
Inference
About the Authors: • Testing of Hypothesis
Dr. C R Kothari was the Principal, College of Commerce and Associate Professor in the • Chi-Square Tests
Department of Economic Administration and Financial Management, University of • Analysis of Variance
Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. • Other Nonparametric Methods
Dr. Gaurav Garg is an Associate Professor in Decision Sciences Area, Indian Institute of • Linear Regression Analysis
Management, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. • Factor Analysis
• Discriminant Analysis
• Cluster Analysis
• Other Multivariate Techniques
Click Here to Buy the Book Online • Interpretation and Report
Writing
Readership and Market Potential: Undergraduate/postgraduate students and faculties of Research Methodology, Commerce, Management and Social Science
• University and college libraries • Researchers and Professionals.
Committed to Educate the Nation NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
LONDON • NEW DELHI • NAIROBI
•
IN INDIA