Effectiveness of Ashtanga and Vinyasa Yoga Combating Anxiety de
Effectiveness of Ashtanga and Vinyasa Yoga Combating Anxiety de
Effectiveness of Ashtanga and Vinyasa Yoga Combating Anxiety de
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and Sleep Quality.. Theses and Dissertations Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/3816
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Effectiveness of Ashtanga and Vinyasa Yoga:
Combating Anxiety, Depression, Stress and Sleep Quality.
by
Kati Street
Arkansas State University
Bachelor of Science in Psychology, 2010
University of Arkansas
Master of Science in Counseling, 2016
July 2020
University of Arkansas
____________________________
Bart Hammig, Ph.D.
Dissertation Director
___________________________
Ed Mink, Ed.D.
Committee Member
___________________________ ___________________________
Dean Gorman, Ph.D. Timothy Eichler, Ph.D.
Committee Member Committee Member
Abstract
Purpose: The lack of rigor in yoga research methodology hinders the understanding of
yoga components and best practices. This study implements two yoga interventions with
recommended adequate structure, one more physically demanding (Ashtanga Vinyasa) and a less
physically demanding (slow flow vinyasa). The instructor, who is also the lead researcher,
developed a slow flow vinyasa sequence and modified the set sequence of Ashtanga Vinyasa for
beginners. Both yoga interventions cover domains suggested by Sherman (2012) for meticulous
Methods: This study implements two styles of yoga with university students over the
course of eight weeks, meeting twice a week. The courses in this study are academic electives
offered through the university, the treatment group consisted of four individual classes. The
control group consisted of other elective classes that did not include yoga, such as women’s
health and resilience & thriving. Effects were measured over time within groups and between
groups through pre and post assessments for sleep, stress, anxiety, and depression. Sleep is
measured in two ways, sleep quality and amount of sleep. This study also implements a newly
developed assessment for yoga intervention fidelity, The Essential Properties of Yoga
Questionnaire (EPYQ).
Using Sherman’s (2012) domains, the yoga interventions are articulated and implemented
with intention to meet the medical standard of study replicability. Sherman’s domains are the
followings: style of yoga, dose and delivery of yoga, home practice, yoga intervention
components, deep relaxation, asana, pranayama, specific class sequences, dealing with
modifications, selection of instructors, and intervention fidelity. The instructor completed the
.035), stress (p = .015), and anxiety (p = .049). Significant differences were found between the
two yoga styles at post assessment in amount of reported sleep (p <.001) and stress (p = .042).
Yoga groups showed positive improvements over the course of the intervention in
amount of sleep (p <.001), stress (p <.001), and anxiety (p = .014). There were no significant
differences between the two styles of yoga, Ashtanga and slow flow vinyasa, in this study. As
expected, data analysis from the EPYQ showed a difference between the two styles only in the
Conclusions: The high standards for yoga interventions serve as a major step towards the
integration of yoga and modern medicine. Much is still unknown about the different yoga
intervention components and their effects. This study can be template for researchers and
instructors to replicate and adjust appropriately to strengthen the methods of yoga interventions
Keywords: yoga, university students, best practices, programing, sleep, health behavior
Acknowledgments
I would like to give my sincere appreciation to the professors, staff, and peers who
attributed to this endeavor through guidance, advocacy, and sharing resources. To my advisor
and committee chair, Professor Bart Hammig, who was available when needed to offer
instruction and guidance. Without his grace and accountability, this project would not have been
realized.
Dean Gorman, Professor Timothy Eichler, and Ed Mink. The genuine interest, receptibility, and
work in the field of health and wellness and develop skills and understanding that were
foundational to the development of the interventions in this study. The experience furthered into
Throughout this project I consulted informally with colleagues, Brook Bouza, Hannah
Coffman, Asher Morgan, Susan Rausch, Emery Gower, and Aaron Myers. Each one of these
people gave me guidance that helped me navigate this process in various ways ranging from
The influence of each person mentioned is invaluable to this work and the professional
This work is possible because of the patience, acceptance and support from different
people. My parents have been my biggest supporters and it’s hard to think where I would be
without their generosity and encouragement. Mark Cain, Louise Ellis, and Kristen Albertson
have influenced my life as a yogi through being a teacher and providing community.
I have been blessed with many friends, who have been there through the good and bad
times. CJ has surpassed expectations of a supporter with his patience and willingness to help
This work is dedicated to all the close friends, family and teachers who have influenced
I.Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
Purpose ............................................................................................................................ 1
Research Aims and Hypothesis ...................................................................................... 2
II.Literature Review............................................................................................................. 3
The Problem .................................................................................................................... 3
Yoga Research ................................................................................................................ 4
Sherman’s Interventions Domains .................................................................................. 6
Style of Yoga ............................................................................................................ 6
Dose and Delivery of Yoga ...................................................................................... 7
Home Practice .......................................................................................................... 8
Yoga Intervention Components ............................................................................... 9
Mindfulness ....................................................................................................... 9
Deep Relaxation ............................................................................................... 11
Asana ................................................................................................................. 12
Pranayama ......................................................................................................... 12
Specific Class Sequences ........................................................................................ 14
Dealing with Modifications .................................................................................... 16
Selection of Instructors ........................................................................................... 16
Intervention Fidelity ............................................................................................... 19
III. Methods ….................................................................................................................. 21
Sampling Procedures ….......................................................................................... 21
Data Collection …................................................................................................... 22
Treatment Group ….......................................................................................... 22
Control Group ….............................................................................................. 22
Coding …................................................................................................................ 23
Population .............................................................................................................. 23
Treatment Groups …........................................................................................ 23
Ashtanga Vinyasa …............................................................................ 24
Slow Flow Vinyasa ….......................................................................... 24
Control Groups …............................................................................................. 24
Mindfulness …................................................................................................... 24
Instrumentation ….............................................................................................. 25
Sleep …................................................................................................... 25
Stress …................................................................................................... 25
Depression …........................................................................................... 26
Anxiety …................................................................................................ 26
Intervention Fidelity …............................................................................ 27
Analysis …................................................................................................................. 28
Data Screening .......................................................................................................... 28
Missing Data & Sample Size .............................................................................. 28
Multivariate Normality …................................................................................... 29
Data Distribution …............................................................................................ 29
Outliers …............................................................................................... 29
Normal Distribution …............................................................................ 30
Model Assumptions ….............................................................................................. 30
Multicollinearity …............................................................................................. 30
Linear Relationship …........................................................................................ 31
Homogeneity of Variance & Covariance …....................................................... 31
Sphericity …....................................................................................................... 32
Between Groups MANOVA …................................................................................ 32
IV.Results…....................................................................................................................... 34
Between Group Post Comparisons …............................................................................ 34
Amount of Sleep ….................................................................................................. 34
Stress ….................................................................................................................... 34
Anxiety …................................................................................................................. 35
Comparing Styles of Yoga ……..................................................................................... 35
Within Groups Repeated Measures ANOVA ................................................................ 36
Sleep Disturbances ................................................................................................... 36
Yoga …............................................................................................................... 36
Control …............................................................................................................ 37
Amount of Sleep ….................................................................................................. 37
Yoga ................................................................................................................... 37
Control …............................................................................................................ 37
Stress ......................................................................................................................... 38
Yoga …................................................................................................................ 38
Control …............................................................................................................ 38
Anxiety …................................................................................................................. 38
Yoga …............................................................................................................... 38
Control …............................................................................................................ 38
Depression…............................................................................................................. 39
Yoga …............................................................................................................... 39
Control …............................................................................................................ 39
Essential Properties of Yoga Questionnaire ……................................................................. 40
Breathwork …................................................................................................................. 40
Physicality ….................................................................................................................. 41
Modifications …................................................................................................. 42
V.Discussion ….................................................................................................................. 43
Introduction …................................................................................................................ 43
Limitations …................................................................................................................. 43
Discussion ….................................................................................................................. 45
Implications and Conclusions ........................................................................................ 49
References ….................................................................................................................. 51
Appendices …................................................................................................................. 67
Appendix A. Ashtanga Asana Sequence ............................................................ 75
Appendix B. Slow Flow Asana Sequence .......................................................... 76
Appendix C. Ashtanga Sequence Verbal Prompts …......................................... 78
Appendix D. Slow Flow Verbal Prompts ........................................................... 92
Appendix E. Essential Properties of Yoga Questionnaire Likert Items …......... 103
Appendix F. Alternative Route Weekly Assignments Example ........................ 108
Appendix G. Alternative Route Yoga I Final Assignment ................................ 109
Appendix H. Demographic Questions …........................................................... 110
Appendix I. Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index ........................................................ 112
Appendix J. Perceived Stress Scale …............................................................... 113
Appendix K. Beck Depression Inventory-II ….................................................. 114
Appendix L. Beck Anxiety Inventory ................................................................ 118
Appendix M. IRB Approval ….......................................................................... 119
List of Tables
Yoga, an ancient but perfect science, deals with the evolution of humanity. This evolution
includes all aspects of one’s being, from bodily health to self-realization. Yoga means union –
the union of body with consciousness and consciousness with the soul. Yoga cultivates the ways
of maintaining a balanced attitude in day to day life and endows skill in the performance of one’s
actions.
– B.K.S. Iyengar
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Mental health disorders are a growing concern in the United States. The effects of
depression and anxiety pose an entangled problem in higher education. An annual student
experience survey conducted by the University Partnership Program (UPP) found twenty-two
stress (Wakeford, 2017). Anxiety, depression, and suicide among college students have reached
alarmingly high rates with no indication of decreasing (Beiter, et al., 2014;2015; Sutton, 2012).
Stress is a risk factor in mental and physical illness, academic performance, college attrition,
unhealthy relationship behaviors, and heavy episodic drinking (American College Health
Association [AHCA], 2014; Chen, Xiang et al., 2017; Hartley, 2012; Iarovici, 2014;
Lewondowski et al., 2014; Mackay & Pakenham, 2011; Stallman & Hurst, 2016).
Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation offers one-credit hour elective
courses in Wellness, Assertiveness Training and Yoga. Whether or not participation in yoga
classes can be empirically demonstrated to improve self-reported physical and mental well-being
is the focus of this study. The principal investigator has been teaching yoga classes at the
University of Arkansas for six semesters and is intent on discovering whether quantitative
protocols can be developed to measure the effects of two different types of classes: gentle and
advanced yoga. It is expected that the conclusions of this study will have broad implications for
Purpose
This study draws heavily on the work of Karen Sherman (2012), who described the seven
domains that need to be guidelines for random controlled yoga interventions. Sherman (2012)
2
described the following domains that need to be addressed in yoga research: style of yoga, dose,
components, specific class sequences, instructors, modifications, intervention fidelity over time,
and facilitation of home practice. The purpose of the proposed study is to compare effects in two
different yoga styles while developing replicable methodology aligned with Sherman’s proposed
domains. The underlying goal for covering Sherman’s domains is to have enough rigor so that
the yoga interventions may be replicated by other researchers and/or yoga instructors. The
1. Can a beginner’s slow flow vinyasa yoga intervention be created and implemented that
2. Can a beginner’s Ashtanga Vinyasa yoga intervention be created and implemented that
3. Are there changes in reported sleep quality, amount of sleep, perceived stress, symptoms
of anxiety and depression over time in participants participating in two 50-minute weekly
4. Are there differences between effects from Ashtanga Vinyasa and slow flow vinyasa in
reported sleep quality, amount of sleep, perceived stress and symptoms of anxiety and
The Problem
Depression is the leading source of disability, with over 350 million adults suffering
worldwide (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018; Pascoe & Bauer, 2015; Shyn & Hamilton,
2010). Psychological strain heightens in people affected with depression, resulting in high
comorbidity with conditions such as addictions (Lai et al., 2015), increased inflammation
(Silverman & Sternberg, 2012), and neurogenerative diseases (Herbert & Lucassen, 2016;
Riccelli, et al., 2016; Cramer, Anheyer et al., 2017). The strongest predictor of depression is
anxiety (Pascoe & Bauer, 2015; Mathew et al., 2011). Although there are differences between
anxiety and depression, the overlapping symptomology, aetiology, and neurobiology proposes a
continuum for the disorders (Pasco & Bauer, 2015; Davidson, 2003; Neale & Kendler, 1995;
The transitional time of college potentially heightens intervention impact; this influential
time can be used to promote positive coping skills, decreasing the chances of developing a
mental illness. Prevention and treatment strategies are imperative, regardless of college
attendance because three quarters of mental illnesses surface by age 24 (Knowlden et al., 2016).
Stress and sleep are environmental factors known to induce physiological and psychological
symptoms associated with depression and anxiety (Iwata et al., 2012; 2013; Tsuno et al., 2005;
Breslau et al., 1996). These environmental factors are common struggles of college students
(Cohen & Janiki‐Deverts, 2012). According to the UPP annual survey, 87% of university
students found it difficult to cope with social and academic aspects of university life (Wakeford,
2017), and reported low sleep quality (Regenstein et al., 2008; 2010), especially in women (Lund
et al., 2010).
4
depression (Leichsenring et al., 2016), but these therapies have low success rates (Pigott et al.,
2010; Mathew & Charney, 2009) and 40% of patients do not experience significant relief in
symptomology (Papakostas & Fava, 2007). Some studies suggest that yoga interventions are
(Dayalan et al., 2012; Chen, Berger et al., 2012; Cramer et al., 2013), warned that the
medicalization of yoga faces shortcomings (Patwardhan, 2017a; 2016; Sherman, 2012). Research
and policy of yoga limit the ability to bring yoga into medical practice (Patwardhan, 2017a;
2016).
Yoga Research
A search in the PubMed database for “yoga” and “interventions” resulted in 2,767 articles
assessing the effects of yoga in a variety of health conditions ranging from cardiovascular
disease (Chu et al., 2016; Innes et al., 2005) to lymphoma (Kaur et al., 2018). A more complete
list of conditions positively affected by yoga can be seen on Table 1. For this study, majority of
the information on yoga research is from systematic reviews and meta-analysis on yoga in
healthcare and yoga’s effects on depression, anxiety, stress, and sleep. Although research is
extensive, lack of rigor stunts the medicalization of yoga (Uebelacker & Broughton, 2016;
Sherman, 2012; Patwardhan, 2016; 2017a; 2017b; Smith et al., 2019; Elwy et al., 2014; Pascoe
& Bauer, 2015). Reviews find that majority of yoga articles do not mention the style (Cramer et
al., 2013; Elwy et al., 2014; Cramer et al., 2013; Cramer et al., 2017; Pascoe & Buer, 2015;
Pascoe et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019), or other crucial information, such as dosage and context,
Broughton, 2016). Incorporating yoga into medical treatments and preventative programs
Rigor and practicability in yoga research is difficult due to multiple styles, components,
and even definitions of yoga. Yoga is a Sanskrit word that often is translated as “union”
(Turlington, 2005; Stern, 2020; Swenson, 1999), but yoga’s less literal meanings are to yoke or
harness (Turlington, 2005), concentration or relation (Stern, 2020), a path (Jois, 2002; Stern,
2020). In the Yoga Sutras, the foundation of yoga theory and practice (Satchidananda, 2010),
Patanjali defines yoga as “the restraint of the modifications of the mind-stuff" (p. 3); a modern
translation of this sutra is “uniting of consciousness in the heart” (Devi, 2007, p.12). A range of
techniques, philosophies, and practices dating back thousands of years in India are considered
yoga. Yoga was, and still is by some, used as an umbrella term equivalent to “mind-body
A bibliography of random control trials (RCTs) analyzed more than 40 different yoga
styles, but almost half of the RCTs did not define the style of yoga (Cramer et al., 2013). Hatha
yoga is the style predominantly studied in research. The Harvard Medical School defines Hatha
yoga as a general term indicating physical postures and describes up to 15 different styles of
yoga (Stanten et al., 2016). The lack of a clear definition of yoga impedes an understanding of
intervention methodologies, and key components of yoga interventions are missing in the
literature (Smith et al., 2018). Although Cramer et al., (2013) claimed yoga as an intervention is
unlikely to be standardized, Sherman (2012) explains eight domains for robust protocol in yoga
6
treatments that are generally recognized as critical for rigorous studies but are not commonly
seen in current yoga research. Sherman’s domains were critical in formulating this research.
Style of Yoga
Most modern yoga is a physical practice in the form of postures (asana) and breathing
techniques (pranayama). Syncing breath and movement results in a rhythmic dance (Swenson,
1999). A serpentine flow is developed by linking asanas, this rhythmic dance is termed vinyasa
(Swenson, 1999). Vinyasa yoga stems from Ashtanga, emphasizing flow, but without the
structured sequencing, resulting in variation among teachers. Vinyasa classes range from
vigorous to gentle, depending on the teacher and age and ability of the yoga practitioners
(Emerson & Hopper, 2011), but the physically demanding structured practice of Ashtanga
postures is the most important aspect of vinyasa yoga (Turlington, 2002). Strom (2010)
compares movement in vinyasa to waltz dancing with a partner, but in vinyasa, the two dancers
are a person’s breath and movement. The breath is leading the movement just as one of the
dancers in the waltz leads. It is claimed that vinyasa flow produces an internal heat, but further
describing this process is beyond the scope of this study. Vinyasa is commonly used to refer to
three specific postures linked together in a specific order, Chaturanga Dandasana, Urdhva Mukha
Svanasana (upward facing dog), and Adho Mukha Svanasana (downward facing dog). These
three postures synched together are in all styles and lineages of vinyasa yoga but is arguably
The decision to evaluate the two different styles of flow yoga, Ashtanga and Vinyasa,
was rooted in the emphasis on movement and breathing due to the positive effects on targeted
symptomology and physical activity (Nosrat et al., 2016; Strohle, 2009; Wennman et al., 2014;
Carek et al., 2011; Chen, Xiang et al., 2017). American College Health Association (2013) found
that only 19% of all college students engage in enough physical activity to meet national
guidelines. Although specific components of classes are undefined, vinyasa and Ashtanga yoga
are commonly used in studies that evaluate the effects on stress (Gaskins et al., 2014;
Uebelacker, Tremont, Epstein-Lubow et al., 2010; Javnbakht et al., 2009; Jarry et al., 2017).
Ashtanga yoga is a holistic practice with emphasis on all eight of Patanjali’s limbs
(Swenson, 1999). The physical aspect of Ashtanga is a vigorous asana practice consisting of six
progressive flow sequences emphasizing a specific breathing technique, ujjayi (Maehle, 2008).
Ujjayi breathing is used in a vast range of vinyasa yoga classes (Telles et al., 2016; Brown &
Gerbarg, 2005), but this technique was not taught in the slow flow vinyasa class in this study.
In the present study, yoga treatments will consist of two weekly classes lasting 50-
minutes each. The intervention will last eight weeks, but the first meeting will include reviewing
study and class criteria and a short yogic breathing and mindfulness session, leaving a total of 15
yoga classes lasting 50-minutes. The participants enrolled in a one-credit academic class labeled
“Yoga I.”
A systematic review of yoga intervention components and study quality found that the
most common yoga sessions in research were 60 minutes (24%); out of the 465 articles evaluated
for this review, only six had 50-minute interventions (Elwy et al., 2014). Gaskins et al., (2014)
8
found significant effects on stress and mood in healthy college students from two weekly classes,
each lasting an hour, in an eight-week intervention of yoga. A Delphi study on yoga for reducing
depression and anxiety concluded at least fifteen minutes for any benefit and 30 to 40 minutes
A similar study focusing on yoga for musculoskeletal conditions found that eight-week
interventions with at least eight total hours of instructor-led yoga as a minimum recommendation
(Ward et al., 2014). Yang (2007) reviewed yoga studies evaluating common physical health
benefits (overweight, high cholesterol, etc.) and found that many studies consisted of 2 to 3
sessions per week for 8 to 12 weeks. A meta-regression analysis on yoga interventions for
adjuvant therapy for breast cancer found improvements of fatigue, anxiety, and depression with
interventions ranging in time spans from 5 to 16 weeks (Carayol et al., 2014). Another review
finds that yoga interventions range in frequencies of one single session to six sessions per week
and intervention durations lasting from 1 session to 2 years (Elwy et al., 2014).
The intention for this study is to examine the degree yoga can work in healthy college
students and the decision for vinyasa yoga classes is because of the prevalence of this style in the
yoga studios and gyms. In the community settings, classes are often 60 minutes in length. 60-
minute classes would be preferred for this study, but the dose is pre-determined through the
academic scheduling for the University offering the class for academic credit to students. The
pre-determined dosage surpasses the average requirement for maximum benefits and thus is
Home Practice
Home practice is one of Sherman’s domains (2012) and is considered an aspect of dose in
protocols for yoga interventions for depression (Uebelacker, Tremont, Gillette et al., 2017), low
9
back pain (Saper et al., 2014), and smoking cessation (Bock et al., 2018). However, “home
practice” has yet to be explicitly defined (Uebelacker, Feltus et al., 2019), and the connections
between amount of prescribed practice, the degree to compliance, and clinical outcome are
independent practice, and others claim potential safety issues without proper supervision,
especially for beginners and vulnerable populations (Ward et al., 2014). Parsons et al. (2017)
note that a home practice may pose a burden on participants and could lead to less compliance
and more participants and clients dropping out of research and clinical treatments.
Even without a concrete definition and controversy, literature indicating home practice is
important for yoga benefits continues to grow (Saper et al., 2014; Uebelacker, Anheyer et al.,
2017; Brock et al., 2018). In the United States, 89.5% of people who practiced yoga did so
outside of class (Ross et al., 2014) and 61% reported practicing yoga at home on a regular basis
This study does not include home practice in the intervention dosage. Participants are
asked to continue their routines per-usual outside of the interventions for the study. Students
There are eight limbs associated with a holistic yoga practice (Swenson, 1999; Maehle,
2008; Stone, 2008). This comprehensive foundation, presented in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras,
includes ethical principles and self-observances (Satchidananda, 2010). This intervention does
not formally include all eight limbs, but almost all eight limbs are embedded in the four
deep relaxation, and meditation (Stanten et al., 2016). These four components are expected to be
the foundation of yoga’s broad range of benefits (de Manicor et al., 2015).
(Brisbon & Lowery, 2011; Knight et al., 2014; Salmon et al., 2009; Butterfield et al., 2017), and
is essential for deducing both depression and anxiety (de Manicor et al., 2015). Mindfulness is a
form of meditation, intentionally focusing and observing the present moment without judgement
or reactivity (Hart, 1987; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2011;2012; Falsafi, 2016).
Mindfulness requires objective engagement in all five senses (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). There are
different techniques used when attention becomes consumed with forms of thought; the simplest
is to stop the thinking and re-direct to feeling and experiencing the present moment (Gunaratana,
2011). Immersion in the present moment is the essence of mind-body practices, such as yoga and
tai chi, and are often termed mindful movements or “mindfulness in motion” (Salmon et al.,
multiple aspects of mood (Uebelacker & Broughton, 2016; Hofmann et al., 2010), stress (Khoury
et al., 2015), depression (Falsafi, 2016; Jain et al., 2007; Preddy et al., 2013) and anxiety in
college students (Bamer & Schneider, 2016; Bamber & Morpeth, 2019). Mindfulness is a
bottom-up approach, suggesting that relaxing the body, such as tense muscles, can ease mental
stress and anxiety as well (Stanten et al., 2016). Greeson (2009) suggests mindfulness precedes
“important shifts in cognition, emotion, biology, and behavior that may work synergistically to
improve health” (p.15). It should be noted, neuroscience of mindfulness techniques and key
In this study, the instructor prompted students to notice and/or observe their mental and
physical states throughout each class. Common suggestions by the instructor included “be kind
to yourself” (non-judgment) and “notice where your attention goes as you would notice a cloud
passing” (objectivity). The intervention took place in a room without mirrors, subtracting a
potential distraction and music was used to drown out potential background noises.
Deep relaxation. Mindfulness and other forms of meditation are frequently simplified or
even equated to relaxation and the elimination of stress or relaxation (Brazier, 2016), but deep
meditations (Davis & Thompson, 2015; Seema et al., 2019). Relaxation techniques are
embedded throughout many yoga classes with verbal prompts, and the final pose at the end of
yoga classes, savasana – also written as shavasana- is often considered the component of deep
relaxation and essential to the yoga practice (Swenson, 1999; Maehle, 2008). The Hatha Yoga
Pradipika, an ancient text foundation to Hatha Yoga practices and philosophy (Michelis, 2004),
describes savasana as “lying down on the ground, like a corpse” (Muktibodhananda, 2013, p.
37). It is claimed that savasana “gives rest to the mind” (Muktibodhananda, 2013, p. 37)
Savasana, also known as corpse pose, is the time to “take rest” at the end of every asana
practice (Swenson, 1999; Maehle, 2008). This is more than the lack of movement in the body,
but an act of surrender by the practitioner (Stephens, 2012). The cessation of activity, both
physical and mental, in savasana is believed to give rise to “the calming, centering, and soothing
effect of yoga practice” (Maehle, 2008, p. 129). It is customary that all yoga asana classes end
with 5-10 minutes of savasana, an asana for opening and “integration following the practice”
(Stephens, 2012, p. 425). Research on the effects of this specific posture was not found in
In this intervention, the instructor consistently cued students to take full breaths and
relax muscles, especially muscles in the face and shoulders. During savasana, the instructor
asked students to “let go of effort” in different ways while spraying an essential oil blend in the
room. Every class consisted of at least five minutes of the final resting pose; the longest savasana
Asana. Asana is one of the eight limbs of practice according to yoga philosophy
(Turlington, 2002; Maehle, 2008; Stone, 2008; Stern, 2019). Asana is a Sanskrit word, literally
translated as “seat” or “to sit” (Turlington, 2005; Stern, 2020; Stone, 2008). This term references
the physical postures in a yoga practice, and commonly translated as “posture” (Khalsa et al.,
2016; Swenson, 1999; Saraswati, 1999; Weintraub, 2004). Asanas are intended to “prepare the
body and mind for pranayama and meditation” (Saraswati, 1999, p. 5) through purifying the
body (Maehle, 2008). The asanas are necessary as the body is considered the manifestation of the
mind (Stern, 2020) and constructs of the past are stored in the body (Maehle, 2008). Once
comfort and ease are achieved in asana, one’s true self is experienced (Devi, 2007). Asana is
often described as steady and comfortable (Satchidananda, 2010), and some lineages consider
The described interventions for this intervention mostly consist of asana. There is a wide
range of yoga poses in terms of difficulty and require capabilities, such as flexibility and
strength. This intervention controls for potential varying effects of different postures by keeping
consistency throughout the intervention and between the two different styles implemented.
Pranayama. Pranayama is one of the eight limbs in yoga philosophy and the most
frequent emphasis used in hatha yoga research supplementary to asana (Elwy et al., 2014). This
Sanskrit term is an umbrella term for breathwork or breathing exercises (Feuerstein, 1998). The
13
term prana denotes the omnipresent force of life that vitalizes all things (Telles et al., 2016;
Stone 2008; Devi, 2007; Satchidananda, 2010; Yogani, 2006; Swenson, 1999), but prana is most
often interpreted as the breath (Maehle, 2006; Telles et al., 2016; Stern, 2020) and illustrated as
an internal energy flow (Stone, 2008). Yama translates to as restraint or extension (Strom, 2010).
Pranayama is a vehicle for extending prana through breath control. It is argued that without
focused breath there is no yoga (Weintraub, 2004; Telles et al., 2016) as the breath is what unites
There are a numerous variety of pranayama practices (Jois, 2010); many are done while
sitting and stable (Strom, 2010). Ujjayi is a pranayama technique based off vinyasa yoga (Stone,
2008; Schmalzl et al., 2018; Maehle, 2008) and is routinely emphasized in hatha yoga research
(Brown & Gerbarg, 2005). Ujjayi breath means victorious breath (Maehle, 2008; Brown &
Gerbarg, 2005; Turlington, 2002; Birch, 1995) and is characterized by a soft audible sound that
has coined the technique additional names such as Darth Vader and ocean breath (Swenson,
The audible sound of ujjayi breathing is a soft restriction of the glottis, which is the upper
opening of the larynx. This restriction on the back of the throat partially closes the epiglottis,
which works as a lid on the throat that closes when drinking and opens when breathing (Maehle,
2008). The audibility of ujjayi breathing is from the chest, not the vocal cords as the nostrils are
used for this breathing technique (Maehle, 2008). A wave motion occurs in the diaphragm as the
ribs expand and contract freely throughout the breath cycle (Brown & Gerbarg, 2005). One of
the most important features of this pranayama is maintaining a slow and rhythmic breath while
progressing to deeper breaths to increase vitality (Maehle, 2006). Each inhale and exhale are
1999; Telles et al., 2016; Brown & Gerbarg, 2005a, 2005b; Cowen & Adams, 2005), serving as a
mantra for concentration (Swenson, 1999). The autonomic nervous system is affected in multiple
ways by slow, rhythmic ujjayi breaths via vagal somatosensory afferents (Telles et al., 2016;
somatosensory vagal afferents to the brain and aids in developing lung capacity with elongated
inspiratory and expiratory phases (Brown & Gerbarg, 2005). Slow and rhythmic breathing
normalizes baroreflex sensitivity (Brown & Gerbarg, 2005) and is thought to promote
parasympathetic dominance (Telles et al., 2016). The restriction in ujjayi is expected to build an
internal heat that aids in an internal cleansing while regulating the central nervous system, thus
promoting an inner cleanse for the practitioner (Maehle, 2006; Swenson, 1999).
Both classes focused on breath as often as asana with consistent prompts to employ deep,
slow, rhythmic breathing, while synching the breath and the movement. The only difference was
the instructions of ujjayi pranayama in the Ashtanga group. The ujjayi breathing technique was
taught without movement the first class first class and prompts for using the ujjayi technique
were continued through the asana intervention. Ujjayi is more common in physically demanding
yoga classes and the choice to not incorporate in the slow flow sequence was to maintain the
Specific Class Sequences. Both class sequences (Ashtanga and Vinyasa) were intended
for beginners. The level of cardiovascular exercise varies in the two chosen yoga styles. The
Ashtanga sequence represents a power flow, more physically demanding with more standing
postures. Additionally, the Ashtanga class is taught a specific breathing technique (pranayama),
15
Ujjayi, to incorporate into the practice. The Vinyasa class is a gentle, slow flow with no
pranayama technique. Both classes emphasize following the breath with movement, a practice
Ashtanga first (primary) series in this intervention is adjusted for beginners. David
Swenson (1999) developed a 45-minute Ashtanga sequence evaluated for the study, but his
sequence is intended for regular practitioners, containing asanas difficult for beginners.
Traditionally, beginners do a fraction of the set sequence and the teacher gives the student more
poses as student abilities develop, thus a practice could take months before lasting 50-minutes.
This is an uncommon method in the West where students of all capabilities attend a class that
generally lasts an hour. The shortened and modified sequence in this intervention has minor
modifications from that were developed by the world-renowned teacher, Eddie Stern (Jeter et al.,
2015).
The Ashtanga class begins standing, with sun salutations as a warm-up. Sun-salutations
are the best-known yoga flow (Stanton et al., 2016) consisting of two short sequences moving
with each breath except for five breaths in downward facing dog. Sun-salutations allow
practitioners to find their breathing rhythm and set the pace for the rest of the sequence
(Swenson, 1999). A series of standing asanas follows sun salutations, each asana is held for five
seconds and both the left and right sides of the pose are completed before moving to the next
asana. After standing postures, a few forward folds, backbends are followed by savasana.
Asana sequences are listed in Appendix A (Ashtanga) and Appendix B (slow flow vinyasa). For
a more detailed description of sequences, Appendix C (Ashtanga) and Appendix D (slow flow
The vinyasa class sequence “slow flow,” is a gentle sequence, beginning with a seated
posture (sukhasana) focusing on breath with small movements, such as neck rolls, and building
to bigger movements, such as standing poses. The vinyasa class begins with small movements,
such as neck rolls, and builds intensity to standing postures, ends with seated postures. Figure 1
shows the class structure of both yoga sequences used in this study.
Dealing with Modifications. Modifications are subjective by nature and potentially the
most difficult aspect of yoga asana practice to standardize. Generally, yoga teacher training
includes learning modifications. This study utilizes healthy college students, diminishing demand
for modifications. In this intervention, verbal instructions for asanas convey students to move
slowly and halt once they feel the sensation of a stretch. Students were given individualized
instruction when deemed appropriate. In this study, modifications were accounted for after each
class and reviewed in the results section of this paper and in sequence outlines.
Selection of Instructors. Systematic reviews of the literature find more than half of
studies do not provide any information on instructors for yoga interventions (Cramer, Lauche,
Langhorst, & Dobos, 2013; Elwy et al., 2014). Yoga is not a licensed profession (Sherman,
17
2012). A small portion of studies describe the yoga teacher as “certified”, “trained”, or
“experienced” in yoga, but do not include any further information on the teacher’s training or
experience (Elwy et al., 2014). Yoga Alliance (YA) is a national registry for yoga teachers but is
often criticized for its for lack of governance (Stephens, 2017). YA registration requires
completion of a 200-hour training from an approved school and teachers with higher level of
certification (mostly 500-hour certifications, but experienced 200-hour teachers are allowed as
well).
Yoga Alliance [YA] does not oversee schools and there is no verification of competence
for yoga teachers (Stephens, 2017), leaving standards for yoga instructors in research and
YA has opposed efforts to standardize yoga teacher competence (Stephens, 2017). There is a
standard outline of how many hours are spent on subject matter in 200-hour yoga teacher
trainings. For example, twenty hours must be dedicated to anatomy and physiology in YA
defining yoga and related terms. Due to the multiple components of yoga, it can be argued that
there is not an ideal standard for all teachers. Specific certifications in styles or lineages of yoga
have rigorous trainings. Iyengar yoga certifications has rigorous standards with multiple levels
(2017) required Iyengar level II certification, at least two years of practice and five of teaching
experience. Teachers in this study also participated in manual development and attended staff
The International Association of Yoga Therapists has extensive standards for accredited
yoga therapists, ranging from a defined scope of practice (International Association of Yoga
Therapists [IAYT], 2016b), to educational standards (IAYT, 2017), to an ethical code (IAYT,
2016a). Yoga therapy is grounded in the practices and principles of the ancient tradition of yoga
(Sullivan et al., 2017) and is considered a sister science of Ayurveda (IAYT, 2016b). When yoga
is being used as a part of treatment for a mental and/or physical condition, yoga therapy is
recommended (de Manincor et al., 2001; Mohan & Mohan, 2004). Gary Kraftsow (2014)
explains a yoga class as instructional and yoga therapy as educational. 200-hour teacher training
in Vinyasa yoga.
Sherman (2012) lists five factors for selecting instructors, these factors are the following:
• Additional qualifications
• Personal yoga practice that includes all elements of the yoga protocol.
Selecting an instructor widely depends on the population of interest, styles of yoga, and
protocol of yoga intervention. Yoga instructors and/or yoga therapists with related and adequate
training and experience to the intervention and desired outcomes is imperative for yoga
intervention appropriateness and fidelity. The current study is not measuring effects in people
with ailments, leaving an experienced 200-hour yoga teacher acceptable for this study. The yoga
instructor is the lead researcher and developer of intervention protocol. The instructor being the
lead instructor is not common, but does occur at times (Cowen & Adams, 2004). All of
19
Sherman’s factors to consider except the observe teaching is met in this study. The qualifications
Pattabhi Jois
analysis articles focusing on intervention fidelity. This extensive work consists of twenty-four
reviews states research interventions must have the following four required components: design,
training, monitoring of intervention delivery, and intervention receipt. The current study covers
almost all factors listed in review, but one element in monitoring of intervention delivery,
intervention receipt. Intervention receipt focuses on “whether the participants received the
treatment” (Gearing et al., 2011, p. 83). Daily sign-in and attendance documentations strengthens
least two raters (Gearing et al., 2011) and this study only has one.
Intervention fidelity could be strengthened or weakened in this study because the yoga
instructor is also the researcher. In addition to fully understanding the research questions and
implementation, the instructor has years of experience teaching in this setting with this
population and created the slow flow sequence and the modifications for the Ashtanga. This
level of engagement and ownership could make it less likely that the instructor deviates from the
20
described intervention. The instructor being the researcher may also be a problem due to the
possibility of bias in desire to maintain consistency for the sake of the study.
After each session, the instructor completed 62 Likert-scale items derived from the
Essential Properties of Yoga Questionnaire (EPYQ), shown in Appendix E (Park et al., 2018).
Deviations from the created sequence were recorded as well. The deviations in this study
included skipping postures and holding postures for longer/shorter than the standard five-breaths.
The EPYQ was designed for observers to complete during/after watching a yoga intervention
and has fourteen different components (Park et al., 2018). Components of interest and number of
items on assessment are shown in Table 2. It is impractical to expect all fourteen components to
be addressed (Park et al., 2018), and different yoga styles/lineages vary on the focus and
inclusion of components (Park et al., 2018). The five components of focus in this study are the
meditation.
21
Chapter 3: Methods
course. Classes began the third week in August, (26th, 2019) and continued until the middle of
the semester (October 16, 2019). The treatment group consisted of four academic Yoga I classes;
two classes were assigned to each style of yoga. Two classes met on Monday/Wednesday and
two on Tuesday/Thursday. Class times were consistent, one started at 1:00 p.m. and the other at
2:00 p.m. The Monday and Wednesday classes were the Ashtanga group; the Tuesday and
Thursday classes were the slow flow yoga group. The researcher explained the components of
the study and alternative route option in the first scheduled class meeting. The pre-assessment
was sent electronically to consenting students after the first meeting. Students were given the
option to complete surveys in hard-copy form, but all chose online format.
The control group consisted of students enrolled in one-credit hour courses offered
through the same department as the Yoga I classes. The control classes consisted of the
following: women’s health, resilience and thriving, university perspectives and mindfulness.
University Perspectives (UP) consisted of only freshman and was assessed for differences with
other control groups. In areas of significant difference between the UP are discussed in the
results. The mindfulness class was assessed independently throughout the study since
Sampling Procedures
Arkansas. The elective academic classes in this study were not promoted nor are they required to
obtain a degree. Enrollment to the course was open to all undergraduate students until the
capacity was met. Classes were catalogued with the academic department for Health, Human
22
Performance and Recreation department, but students from all departments enroll. Reasons to
enroll in the classes are assessed in the demographics. There were no exclusion criteria, but
Data Collection
Treatment Group
Assessments were administered through Qualtrics and sent to students via email. to all
groups the first week of school (pre) and during the eighth week of school (post). Only the
treatment groups were given a full week to complete each assessment. Participants who did not
complete an assessment in the given time and/or missed more than two yoga classes over the
Students opting or dropping out of study were not penalized in the course. The
coursework was consistent with previous sessions of the same class. Weekly papers regarding
yogic concepts (Appendix F) and a written final project (Appendix G) were requirements and
were submitted online. Attendance was part of student grades regardless of whether students
Control Group
Control groups consisted of students from other one credit hour academic classes. The
researcher visited the classes the first (pre-assessment) and last day (post-assessment) of the
term. During both visits, students were informed of the study and voluntary participation was
emphasized. Data was collected by hand during the visits to each class. There was no exclusion
with numbers once data is recorded. Students in the treatment group started at one and counted
consecutively, and control group was numbered the same way, starting at 100.
Population
The three main groups are the following: yoga, control, and mindfulness. There are two
subgroups of yoga participants, Ashtanga and slow flow vinyasa. The UP group discussed
previously was kept as a sub-group of control. Since mindfulness is a major component of yoga
interventions a class covering mindfulness techniques is kept separately from the rest of the
control group. Many demographic questions were obtained in this study, but the lack of diversity
in groups impeded most demographic analysis. Table 2 shows group demographics and
Treatment Groups. There were forty-eight participants in the yoga group. The majority
were female (88%) and only three were non-Caucasian. Students were enrolled in 11-18
academic hours during the time of the study, 58% were enrolled in fifteen hours. The majority of
students lived off campus (79%) and 40% had three roommates. More than half reported interest
Thirty-three students in treatment group had previously done yoga, 58% of those students
did not know the style of yoga they have done. None of the students claimed Hatha yoga, which
is the style seen most often in yoga research. 58% of the students reported exercising on a regular
basis, cardio and resistance were most common types of exercise. Almost half indicated a
previous mental health diagnosis, Table 3 lists out the frequencies of diagnosis. Only four were
freshman.
24
Ashtanga Vinyasa group had twenty-six participants, only two of these were males. The
majority of the students were twenty years old (38.5%) and enrolled in fifteen academic hours
(61.5%). There were two freshman, 11 sophomores, 10 juniors and 3 seniors in this group.
80.8% practiced yoga in the past. 53.8% reported exercising on a regular basis.
Slow Flow Vinyasa had twenty-two students, four of which were males. The majority of
these students were nineteen years old (40.9%) and enrolled in fifteen academic hours (54.5%).
There were two freshman, seven sophomores, six juniors and seven seniors. 54.5% had done
Control. There were forty-six participants in the control group. The control was
congruous the treatment group in many ways, almost all female (83%), Caucasian (85%), and
enrolled in fifteen academic hours (39%). Only 44% lived off campus and most claimed only one
roommate (28%). There was more freshman in the control group (16 total) because a University
Perspectives (UP) class participated in the study. This class was evaluated independently as well
as with other classes in control. 70% of control had done yoga before, once again, nobody
claimed experience in Hatha yoga. 67% of control reported exercising on a regular basis with
Mindfulness. There were 12 participants in the mindfulness group. All were Caucasian
and 83% were women. Most students were enrolled in fifteen hours of academic credit (50%),
67% lived off campus, and 33% reported three roommates. 75% had experience in yoga and 58%
Instrumentation
Sleep
Sleep was included due to the high comorbidity of insomnia with anxiety, depression
(Lohitashwa et al., 2015), and stress (Lund et al., 2010). The Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index
(PSQI)measures the sleep disturbances and was used in this study to measure sleep quality. The
PSQI is the most widely used sleep assessment in both non-clinical and research settings
(Manzar et al., 2018). A meta-analysis of mind-body interventions effect on sleep found the
PSQI used more than any other sleep assessment (Wang et al., 2019). The PSQI has internal
consistency and a reliability of α = .83 for its seven components (Smyth, 2008). Internal
consistency of the PSQI is consistent across multiple languages for college students (Kim, 2017).
Stress
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) is a common stress assessment (Lee, 2012) consisting
of ten questions scored on a Likert scale. This assessment was designed to measure “the degree
to which individuals appraise situations in their lives as stressful” (Cohen, Kamarck, &
Mermelstein, 1983, p.77-79) by asking the degree to which people find life overloaded,
unpredictable, and uncontrollable (Kopp et al., 2010). PSS shows high psychometric properties
in English and nine other languages and college students are the most common cohort in PSS
evaluations (Lee, 2012). Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein (1983) show an internal consistency
above the .70 cutoff in college student samples. In a more recent study with a large sample
consisting of college students from the United States, Spanish adults, and Hungarian adults find a
Cronbach’s alpha ranged from α = .78 to .85 (Kopp et al., 2010). The scoring of the PSS consists
26
of five ranges, from very low health concern to very high health concern. The Perceived Stress
Depression
The Beck Depression Inventory - Second Edition (BDI-II) is considered one of the best
measures of depressive symptoms (Joiner et al., 2005) and is the most widely used instruments
for evaluating depressive symptomology (Whisman et al., 2000). Most recent assessments of
internal consistency of the BDI-II with college students show high internal consistency with
Cronbach α = 0.90 (Storch et al., 2004) Regression analysis show BDI-II has high internal
consistencies across different races (Sashidharan et al., 2012; Whisman, et al., 2013).
negative attitudes towards self, performance impairment, and somatic disturbance (Beck, 1961;
Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996). This scale is recommended for assessing severity in depressive
symptomology in clinical settings and with healthy populations (Lee et al., 2018). The scoring
consists of 4 groups, ranging from minimal to severe depression. Since the BDI-II is often used
for diagnosis in clinical settings, severe scores of the BDI-II were going to be approached by the
yoga instructor/researcher to ensure student safety and refer to the counseling services on
campus. There was no student with alarming scores for in this study. The Beck Depression
Anxiety
The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) was developed to distinguish reliability between
symptoms of anxiety and depression (Beck, Epstein et al., 1988). Similarities to BDI-II in
format, number of items (21) and scoring allows for simplicity in data analysis (Arthur &
Hayward, 1997). BAI is well-established (de Oliveira et al., 2015) with a high internal
27
consistency reliability coefficient α = .91 to .94 (de Ayala et al., 2005). BAI inquiries about
physical and mental aspects of anxiety (Lee et al., 2018). This assessment is common in
treatment (Kamaradova et al., 2015), healthy populations (Oh et al., 2018), and yoga research
(Lia & Goldsmith, 2012). Scoring for the BAI has four groupings, ranging from minimal to
severe anxiety. Since this assessment is often used in clinical settings, researchers were prepared
to approach any students ranking severe anxiety to ensure student safety and refer to campus
counseling services, but no students were deemed at risk and none of the participants were
Intervention Fidelity
The yoga instructor completed all Likert items on the Essential Properties of Yoga
Questionnaire (EPYQ), after each yoga class. This new and extensive questionnaire was recently
developed for researchers to objectively characterize yoga interventions of types and styles (Park
et al., 2018). The EPYQ’s development underwent multiple stages starting with focus groups and
completed with reliability and validity of the final EPYQ items and factors (Park et al., 2018).
Internal consistency reliability showed most Cronbach’s alphas above .80 with none below .70.
Test re-test correlations were satisfactory for all scales except the category of health benefits.
Confirmatory factor analysis showed reasonable fit with a root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) of .064 and a standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) of .068.
The EPYQ consists of two sections with almost one-hundred items. In this study, only the
first section of the EPYQ completed daily and analyzed. This section consists of sixty-two Likert
style items regarding the fourteen components of yoga interventions and can be reviewed in
Appendix E. The second section records information that is covered in different areas of the
28
study such as style and physical space of the yoga intervention. The EPYQ’s four components of
interest in this study are the following: breathwork, physicality, meditation, and mindfulness.
Analysis
Three groups were analyzed on four validated scales. Multivariate analysis of the
variance (MANOVA) was used to evaluate potential contrasts between the three groups at
different time points. Potential differences within each group over the course of the study was
test statistical model. The repeated measures ANOVA is the analysis used on the treatment group
because there are three measures, pre-mid-post. The control and mindfulness groups only have
the pre and post assessments, it is more appropriate to use a paired-sample t-test when only two
time points. The analysis is divided in the following three sections: data screening, model
assumptions, then results of both repeated measures ANOVA (within group analysis), and
Data Screening
Missing data patterns were evaluated and deemed minimal and missing at random. Mean
imputation was the chosen method for dealing with missing data. No dataset showed monotone
missing data, indicating that participants completed each survey. The amount of data missing
was so minimal that the standard deviations in variables were barely detectible; stress was the
most affected variable with a standard deviation decrease of .41 after removing outliers.
Adequate sample size is often dependent on the number of dependent variables and
groups in the study (Cohen, 1988; Kirk 2013). There were 67 individual items in this pre and
post assessment and less than fifty participants in each group, violating the assumption. A sum
29
for each scale was used in the analysis for this study to meet this assumption and simplicity of
results. There were two measurements for sleep, amount of sleep and a sum of Likert items on
the PSQI. The assessments are often used in research and clinical practice with the sum,
Multivariate Normality
Evaluation of continuous and categorical variables range, realistic means (x̅) and standard
deviations (), evaluation of missing data and identifying extreme outliers. Some scales showed
high standard deviations, but a two-way MANOVA indicated that there were no differences
between groups at the pre-assessment, F(10, 198) = 1.509, p = .138; Wilks' Λ = .86; partial
η2 = .071.
Data Distribution
Lack of criteria for participation in the study increased the chances for outliers.
Moderators leading to variations in mental health factors in university students are imaginably
endless. The irregular data points in this study were deemed random, not due to systematic or
error.
Outliers. Outliers were present only in the post assessment. Multivariate Outliers were
found using the Mahalanobis Distance from the mean vector () for each measurement scale
used. Identified outliers were removed in attempts to meet the assumption of normally
distributed data (discussed in following section). There were six multivariate outliers at post
Univariate Outliers were found through scatterplots. The control group’s depression
scores and the yoga group’s stress and sleep scores showed univariate outliers. ANOVA is robust
to deviations from normality (Scott & Delaney, 1990). Thus, the three univariate outliers were
30
noted, but kept in the analysis. These outliers appear to skew the data distribution slightly,
discussed next.
marginally skewed. MANOVA and ANOVA are robust to modest skewness (Rencher &
transformations or adjustments were made because with relatively small sample sizes, ANOVA
(Lantz, 2013).
The stress scores distribution in yoga group were positively skewed with a skewness of
1.095 (σx̅ = .343), resulting in a skewed z-score of 3.19. This is interesting to note considering
the yoga group was still the lowest mean with a significant difference between the yoga and
other groups. The control’s depression scores were positively skewed at 1.132 (σx̅ = .350),
resulting in Z = 3.23. The mean (x̅ = 9.99) and standard deviation ( = 7.68) of control group
Model Assumptions
Multicollinearity
Stress, anxiety, and depression were all highly correlated with each other, indicating
multicollinearity. This is not surprising as we know these factors are highly related from
previous research (Song et al., 2017; Benham, 2019; Doğan & Doğan, 2019). Peculiarly, sleep
quality scores and amount of sleep were not highly correlated (r = -.052, p = .6).
Multicollinearity has no impact on the overall model and associated statistics, but rather an issue
in effects of individual predictors (Baguley, 2012). Principal components analysis was not
31
conducted in response to the multicollinearity among factors because this analysis is looking at
effects from yoga on the variables, not the relationship between the variables of interest.
Linear relationship
There was a linear relationship in the different groups for all variables and groups, except
the mindfulness group, as assessed by scatterplot. In the mindfulness group, the Pittsburg Sleep
Quality Index (measuring sleep quality) did not have a linear relationship with any other
variables and the Perceived Stress Scale only had a linear relationship with the Beck Anxiety
Index. Combining the mindfulness group with the other control groups resulted linear
relationships, indicating small sample size may be to blame for this violation of assumption.
No data was transformed and the less power in the mindfulness group was accepted. It is
suspected that the MANOVA’s power is not significantly affected because the shape of this
distribution is not curvilinear (Cole et al., 1994). The mindfulness class was found when
searching for controls and was not an intended part of the study. The results from this class are
supplementary and not included in the overall analysis or conclusion of this study.
determined by Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of Variance (p > .05), the closest violation of this
assumption was in anxiety (p = .073). In post analysis, sleep showed significance, (p = .047). In
response, Pillai’s Trace (V) is used instead of Wilk’s Lambda (Λ) in analysis of amount of sleep
Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices has adequate power for small sample sizes
(Cohen, 2008; Hahs-Vaughn, 2016), but the individual groups have a sample size that is slightly
less than the minimum of 30 participants for an adequate sample size. A smaller alpha level was
32
used (p < .001) because of the test’s sensitivity and in response to this issue of power. There
were no violations in covariance homogeneity, the closest two violation was anxiety (p =.075) in
Sphericity
regarding variances of different scores (Phakiti, 2015) as well as variances and covariances of
orthogonal contrasts (Stevens, 2000; Lane, 2016). Assumption violation is checked with
Mauchly’s significant test statistic (p <.05). Violation results in an inflated Type I error rate
(Lane, 2016). Assumption of sphericity is violated in yoga group’s sleep and anxiety data.
Greenhouse-Geisser adjustment is used in cases where sphericity is violated, and this adjustment
affects the degrees of freedom for both time and error effect (Greenhouse-Geisser, 1959).
A MANOVA with pre-assessment data was conducted to ensure that the groups were the
F(5,88) = .706, p = .620, Wilk’s Λ = .961; partial η2 = .039. The post assessment was significant
between groups F(5,88) = 5.760, p < .001, Λ = .753; partial η2 = .247 and Box’s M was not
violated, p = .099. The mindfulness group was not included in any omnibus assessments because
ANOVA and Tukey analysis were conducted to further evaluate results. ANOVA showed
amount of sleep, perceive stress, and anxiety were all significant between the three groups at post
assessment. Significant ANOVAs were followed with Tukey post hoc for pairwise comparisons.
Table 4 shows pre and post group means. Only pairwise comparisons were made with the
33
mindfulness group data and results are presented as supplemental information; due to lack of
significance, depression (BDI-II) and sleep disturbances/quality (PSQI) between groups are not
Chapter 4: Results
Amount of Sleep.
Amount of sleep is an item in the PSQI but is analyzed independently due to the
difference in measurement to other items. The sleep quality index consists of Likert scale items
and the amount of sleep is a raw number of hours. Pairwise comparisons showed significant
differences between control and yoga at the post assessment. The control group reported less
amount of sleep (x̅ = 6.69, = .836) than the yoga group (x̅ = 7.16, = 1.23), with the
differences being significant at p = .025. The mean increase of the yoga group relative to the
control group was .457, 95% CI [.025, .882]. The amount of sleep reported in the mindfulness
group (x̅ = 7.542, = .865) also differed significantly relative to control by .843, 95% CI [-
1.509, -.176], p = .014, but there was no significant difference between the mindfulness and yoga
Stress.
(x̅ = 19.92, = 4.519) and control (x̅ = 21.97, = 3.477), with the control group reporting more
perceived stress with a mean increase of 2.052, 95% CI [.415, 3.689], p = .016 compared to the
yoga group. The mindfulness group scored highest on the stress scale (x̅ = 22.42, = 3.63) with
a 2.5 mean increase compared to the yoga group. Despite the contrast between mindfulness and
yoga, the difference was not significant, 95% CI [-5.061, .061]. This lack of significance is likely
Anxiety.
The lowest mean score was in control (x̅ = 8.606, = 7.221). The difference in anxiety
between control and yoga (x̅ = 12.063, = 9.773) was nearly significant at .05. The control mean
was less than the yoga group by 3.46, 95%CI [-.075, 6.989]. In comparison, mindfulness scores
(x̅ = 14.417, = 8.140) were significantly higher (p = .039) by 5.811, 95% CI [.302, 11.320].
Further analysis on the control group’s low anxiety scores can be found in the repeated measures
ANOVA section.
Between group statistical analysis evaluated the two vinyasa yoga styles in study,
Ashtanga and slow flow. Groups were small, with moderate demographic differences. There
were twenty-six students in Ashtanga and twenty-two students in slow flow; no demographics
>.018. MANOVA is robust against violations if sample size is greater than 30 (Rencher, 2012).
There are less than thirty participants in each yoga group, thus an alpha of .001 would be
considered significant. An omnibus analysis comparing the two styles of yoga showed no
Mean pairwise comparisons of Ashtanga and slow flow vinyasa are shown on Table 5.
Ashtanga group scored lower on all measures, except stress. Ashtanga post stress scores in were
slightly lower than the slow flow group. The largest difference between yoga groups is seen in
anxiety scores. The slow flow yoga group anxiety mean was higher (x̅ = 13.46, = 10.47) than
the Ashtanga group (x̅ = 10.89, = 9.18) by 2.57, 95%CI [-8.279, 3.139] with relatively similar
standard deviations.
36
improvements over time in stress for both groups, but only Ashtanga showed significant decrease
(p = .003) for sleep disturbances over the course of the eight weeks. When the two yoga styles
were evaluated as one yoga group, all measures except for depression showed significant
improvements over the course of the eight weeks. The lack of significance in the analysis for
individual yoga styles could be due to small sample size after dividing the yoga group into two
separate groups. Due to lack of significance and to maintain analyses power, both yoga styles are
Repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess changes in reported sleep quality,
perceived stress, symptoms of anxiety and depression over time in participants in two weekly
yoga classes for eight weeks. The yoga group was assessed at three different time points,
pre/mid/post, but the final analysis give focus to pre and post assessments. Repeated measures
ANOVA was also conducted for pre and post assessments in the control and mindfulness groups
for comparison. Table 7 displays within group repeated measure ANOVA results.
Sleep Disturbances
Yoga. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and reported amount of sleep were
measures used in assessing effect of sleep. Only the yoga group showed significant changes over
time in measures of sleep. Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was not violated in PSQI data,
χ2 (2) = 1.954, p = .376. Within subject’s effects showed significant changes quality over time,
F(1, 47) = 11.847, p = .001, partial 2 = .201. Mean scores of each time point show a steady
improvement in sleep quality from pre assessment (x̅ = 14.21, = 5.59), decreasing significantly
37
at post assessment (x̅ = 11.9, = 5.87). Comparison from pre to post assessment means show a
Control. There were no significant changes in sleep scores over time for the control
group F(1,45) = .009, p = .926, partial η2 = .014. The control group showed almost exact same
scores at pre assessment (x̅ = 13.21, = 5.57) and post assessment (x̅ = 13.11, = 5.48), with a
mean decrease of .095, 95% CI [-1.94, 2.13]. The mindfulness group showed no statistically
significant changes in quality of sleep over the course of the study, M = .148, 95% CI [-4.383,
Amount of Sleep
Yoga. Amount of sleep is a part of PSQI but is analyzed separately to lesson potential
error due to the difference in measurement in comparison to other PSQI items. Mauchly’s Test of
Sphericity was violated in amount of reported sleep χ2 (2) = 33.25, p <.001. Therefore,
significant increase in yoga group’s amount of reported sleep, F(1, 47) = 5.3, p = .026, partial
2 = .101. Mean scores of post assessment (x̅ = 7.16, = 1.23 hours), decreased from pre-
assessment (x̅ = 6.62, = 1.06 hours), indicating more amount of sleep over course of yoga
p = .026.
Control. The control group showed slight decreases in amount of sleep over time in
amount of sleep, M= .238, 95% CI [-.168, .64], but none of the changes in control were
significant changes over time F(1,45) = 1.834, p = .246, partial 2 = .03. The Mindfulness group
showed slightly less sleep from pre assessment (x̅ = 7.75, = 1.14) to post assessment (x̅ = 7.53,
38
= .865), but there was no significance in the mindfulness group and reported amount of sleep,
Stress
Yoga. Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity not violated x2(2) = 1.741, p = .419. Tests within-
subjects effects showed significant results F(2, 47) = 13.471, p <.001, partial 2 = .26. Stress
scores post scores (x̅ = 22.92, = 3.61) decreased M= 3.0, 95% CI [1.513, 4.487], p <.001 from
Control. The control group showed no statistically significant changes in perceived stress
over the course of the study, M = .173, 95% CI [-1.36, 1.706], F(1,45) = .228, p = .821, partial 2
= .001. Stress in the mindfulness group were slightly higher than the control, M = -.50, 95% CI [-
4.298, 3.298], but the changes were not significant F(1,11) = .084, p = .777, partial 2 = .008.
Anxiety
Yoga. Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was violated x2(2) = 8.366, p =.015. Therefore,
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied (ε = .857). The yoga intervention elicited significant
results F(1, 47) = 6.175, p = .017, partial 2 = .116. The averaged reported symptoms of anxiety
dropped at post intervention (x̅ = 12.06, σ = 9.77) by 3.162 points, 95% CI [6.13, .826], p =.017
Control. Anxiety is the only measure with significant changes over time in the control
group F(1,45) = 3.37, p = .002, partial 2 = .202. The control group’s mean anxiety scores
decreased by .407, 95% CI [1.637, 6.499]. A subgroup of freshman in the control showed a
significant mean decrease of anxiety scores over the course of the study. The post assessment
scores (x̅ = 10.87, σ = 7.92) were lower than pre assessment scores (x̅ = 6.99, σ = 5.99) by 3.0,
95% CI [3.797, 10.185]. This drop in scores was significant, F(1,15)= 2.44, p = .028, partial 2 =
39
.61. Although not significantly, the freshman subgroup post anxiety scores were less than the rest
The mindfulness group showed no significant changes over the course of the study in
anxiety F(1,11) = -1.182, p = .262, partial 2 = .113. This was the smallest group, consisting of
only twelve participants, lack of significance may be due to small sample size. However, it
should be noted that this is the only group in study with increased anxiety scores overtime, with a
mean increase of 3.833 from pre (x̅ = 10.75, σ = 6.05) to post (x̅ = 14.42, σ = 8.14) assessment.
Depression
Yoga. Depression was the only assessment without significant results in any of the three
groups. The depression scores decreased by 1.25 from the pre-assessment (x̅ = 12.23, σ = 9.365)
to the post assessment (x̅ = 10.98, σ = 9.362), but not significantly F(1, 47) = 1.082,
p = .304, partial 2 = .022. Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity not violated x2(2) = 4.971, p =.083.
Future studies should work with participants meeting criteria for a depressive disorder in order to
scores over the course of the study, M = .41, 95% CI [-1.99, 2.81], F(1,45) = .118, p = .732,
depression over the course of the study, F(1,11) = 1.59, p = .233, partial 2 = .126. This mean
depression scores increased by 3.833 from pre (x̅ = 8.67, σ = 1.7) to post (x̅ = 12.5, σ = 2.58),
95% CI [-10.524, 2.857]. Mirroring anxiety results, the mindfulness group is the only group with
After every class, the yoga instructor completed sixty-four Likert items regarding
fourteen different domains of yoga. Six of these domains were emphasized in this study. The
postures, body awareness, and mindfulness meditation. Items for these components of interest
are shown on Table 8. Breathwork and physicality were expected to vary between the two styles
in this study, but acceptance/compassion, body awareness, and mindfulness meditation were
Descriptive statistics showed both interventions, Ashtanga and slow flow vinyasa,
homogeneity of variance (p < .001) and showed significance, F(6, 47) = 5.118, Wilks = .605,
p < .001, partial η2 = .395. As anticipated, the only components with significant differences
between the two styles of yoga were breathwork and physicality. No further analysis was
component means for the two styles of yoga are shown in Table 9.
Breathwork
The five items in the breathwork domain were analyzed closer to best understand the
F(3, 50) = 5.528, p = .002, Λ = .751, partial η2 = .249. Two of the five breathwork items showed
significant differences between styles. “Instruction of pranayama” was significantly higher in the
Ashtanga group (x̅ = 3.462, = 1.029) with a mean difference of 1.140, 95% CI [.560, 1.720] to
the slow flow group (x̅ = 2.321, = 1.090). This variable’s significance, F(1,52)= 15.559,
41
p < .001, partial η2 = .230, indicates intervention fidelity was met because only the Ashtanga
The item “why pranayama is important” was significant between styles F(1, 52)= 5.224,
p = .026, partial η2 = .091. Ashtanga group (x̅ = 3.55, = 1.21) with a mean difference of 2.344,
95% CI [-.219, 4.908] to the slow flow group (x̅ = 1.21, = .418). The Ashtanga group was
exposed to a specific pranayama; it is assumed that the instructor mentioned its importance
Physicality
There were eight items on physicality. An omnibus comparison of only physicality items
did not show an overall difference between groups F(8, 45) = 1.642, p = .140, Λ = .140,
partial η2 = .226. However, mean comparison showed significant differences on two of the
individual items. This lack of significance in the omnibus analysis could be due to the additional
F(1, 52) = 8.747, p = .005, partial η2 = .144. Ashtanga’s mean (x̅ = 3.423, = .758) was higher
by .423, 95% CI [.136, .710] than the slow flow’s mean (x̅ = 3.0, = .000). Many of the
individual postures were purposefully aligned in both interventions, and the reasoning for this
difference is unclear.
“Vigorous activity or physical exertion” was the other item with a significant difference
between groups, F(1, 52) = 5.997, p = .018, partial η2 = .103. Once again, Ashtanga was higher
(x̅ = 2.62, = .496) than the slow flow intervention (x̅ = 2.21, = .686). The mean difference
was .401, 95% CI [.072, .730]. This was also an expected difference due to Ashtanga sequencing
42
being more physically demanding and starting off at an accelerated pace in comparison to the
modifications. These two students started the class with minor knee injuries and wore a knee
brace. Both students were given special attention and appeared to take extra precaution
throughout the course. These students moved slowly throughout the asana flow and skipped one-
leg balancing. The instructor gave a block to these students to support the lumbar spine during
backbends, relieving required strength in the legs to hold the postures. The student chooses a
Chapter 5: Discussion
There are a multitude of factors affecting anxiety, depression, stress and sleep. There are
just as many potential elements in a yoga intervention. Additionally, university life is endlessly
complex. This chapter discusses findings and recommendations for future research on this topic.
Introduction
This study was conducted to assess yoga classes as a mental health prevention strategy
for healthy college students. The interventions were not designed to be therapeutic, but still had
characteristics common in therapeutic yoga interventions such as a focus on the breath and
mindfulness meditation skills. Yoga positively affecting mental health has been well
documented, but research is needed in the components and best practices of yoga for desired
effects.
Limitations
This study uses a convenience sample that is small and limited in diversity. It is argued
that “samples only need sufficient variability along key characteristics, enough to provide
adequate leverage on the question being asked” (Kelley et al., 2017, p. 1341). The sample
reflects predictors of yoga practitioners (Cramer, Lauche, Langhorst & Dobos, 2016), yet this
convenience sample interfered with restrictions on participants and harder to control for potential
effect mediators, and the small sample size made controlling for these potential mediators
obsolete. Future studies are needed with different and diverse populations.
There are strengths and weaknesses to the yoga instructor selected. The yoga instructor
was also the lead researcher. This could be viewed as positive as the yoga instructor was
immersed with components and protocol of interventions. On the other hand, chances of
experimenter bias, where the scientist(s) performing the research influence the results (Strickland
44
& Mercier, 2014), is higher as the researcher plays multiple roles in this study. Comparing two
different yoga styles with the same teacher allows to control for the teacher influence, but then
questions the degree of difference between the two different interventions. There are reports of
lead researchers also instructing the yoga intervention (Cowen & Adams, 2004). Future studies
should compare interventions designed and utilized in this study with different teachers to better
The researcher is the only one who completed the Essential Properties of Yoga
Questionnaire (EPYQ). It is suggested that a trained expert completes this questionnaire (Park et
al., 2018). Ideally, there would be more than one rater due to personal perception of properties
and implementation. For example, the instructor, a person who has practiced yoga for years, may
consider a class difficulty level mild, but a student may consider the class moderately difficult.
Completion of the EPYQ after every class session strengthens intervention fidelity,
enabling averages to show presence of components throughout the intervention. It’s important to
note the purpose of using EPYQ in this study is to describe the intervention. Each individual
session tends to vary slightly (Groessl et al., 2015). This study assessed the effects of an
Data collection was not consistent between groups. Control participants completed
assessments in person while treatment group used an online format. Although all assessments
inquired about experiences in the last month, the treatment groups could have been more at ease
while completing the assessments at their own convenience instead of during class time of a
Self-report measures carry their own bias and limitations as participants may respond
with answers deemed more socially acceptable (Gallagher, 2012; Credé & Niehorster, 2012;
45
Much & Swanson, 2010), and subject responses are dependent on self-awareness. Additionally,
all measures used in this study inquire about the past month, which could be difficult for anyone.
Future studies should use smart watches to track biomarkers such to best evaluate sleep and
Self-report measures are commonly used in research and clinical settings (Williamson,
2007), but self-report measures are fundamentally susceptible to bias due to their subjective
and different denotation of answers will always be a concern (Eisenberg, 1941). Naturally, recall
bias is a concern when self-report measures inquire for experience over time as the ones used in
this study (Waganaar, 1986). This study approached the biases of self-report measures by using
Discussion
This study indicates university students may experience positive effects in sleep, stress,
and anxiety from a short, eight-week vinyasa yoga intervention. The assorted properties and
components in yoga classes are vast, leaving much unknown about what works best for different
people and conditions. This study shows that these components within yoga classes can be
researched and better understood. Replicability of interventions are imperative in research and
There were no significant effects or differences found in sleep quality through the PSQI
for the yoga group. However, when dividing the yoga group into two sub-groups for different
styles, Ashtanga and slow flow vinyasa, the Ashtanga group did show significant improvements
in sleep quality over the course of the eight weeks. The relationship between sleep quality and
46
components of a yoga intervention is in its infancy, but it could be that a more physically
demanding yoga asana intervention renders more positive effects in terms of sleep quality.
Although there were not significant changes in reported sleep quality in the yoga, there
was a significant difference between the amount of reported sleep. Over the course of this
intervention, the yoga group reported significantly more hours of sleep (p <.001); all other
groups reported less sleep at post than the pre assessment. The slow flow yoga group reported
the most sleep, significantly more than the Ashtanga yoga group (p = .016). There are many
factors that affect sleep and future research is needed to better understand yoga’s effects on
sleep.
It has been well established that yoga can help people feel less stressed (Gaskins et al.,
2014). Even with completion of the post assessment falling during midterms, students
participating in the yoga intervention reported less stress than they did the first week of school.
The two styles, Ashtanga and a slow flow vinyasa, showed no significant differences. The
differences in anxiety scores between styles could be indicative that Ashtanga, a more physically
vigorous yoga practice, is more effective in treatments of anxiety while a slow flow vinyasa may
This could be because Ashtanga is the more challenging yoga class and students could
feel overwhelmed or distressed. The modified Ashtanga sequence in this class omits almost all
vinyasas to make it more accessible to all students and vinyasa is considered a foundational part
of the Ashtanga yoga practice (Jois, 1999). It could be that there is less of a flow experience with
syncing the breath and movement once vinyasas are not practiced. Fifteen of the twenty-one
items on the Beck Anxiety measure relate physical effects, such as “sweaty palms” and
47
“numbness or tingling” (shown in Appendix L). Perhaps the more physically challenging yoga
Results from the EPYQ confirm that the Ashtanga yoga class was more physically
challenging, but that pranayama was more present in the Ashtanga class as well. All yoga classes
emphasized the synching of breath and movement, but only the Ashtanga class was prompted to
engage in a specific yogic breathing technique, ujjayi. It could be that ujjayi breathing is more
There were mixed results for anxiety. Only the mindfulness group reported more anxiety
at the post assessment. The yoga group reported significantly less anxiety symptoms
significantly (p = .014) after the intervention, but there was not a significant difference between
the yoga styles. Cowen and Adams (2005) conducted a similar study with university students.
Students did yoga twice a week for eight weeks and the two yoga styles implemented were
Ashtanga and Hatha. Both yoga groups showed an increase in anxiety symptoms at the end of
the eight weeks, and it was proposed that the increase was due to midterms happening at the time
of the post assessment. Research is needed to better understand the components of yoga
The control group also reported significantly less symptoms of anxiety at post assessment
(p = .002). This improvement could be from the larger proportion of freshman in the control
group because when analyzed individually, freshman decreased the most in anxiety, scoring
lower than all other groups (x̅ = 6.99). It was initially assumed that freshman would increase in
anxiety because navigating university level midterms for the first time, but perhaps there is more
anxiety at the beginning of the semester due to the new setting and initial adjustments.
48
Although yoga positively affecting depression symptomology has been shown through
past studies (Butterfield et al., 2017), there were no notable changes in depression symptoms in
this study. Perhaps depression symptoms did not show significant improvements over the course
of the intervention due to the students reporting so few symptoms at the start of the intervention.
The yoga group mean decreased by 1.25 and the control group only decreased by .51, indicating
yoga may help alleviate depressive symptoms for people who do not meet diagnostic criteria.
Longitudinal data is required to know if yoga can help prevent depression symptomology.
The mindfulness class gave the most conflicting results. The students in the mindfulness
class did worse on all measures than the other groups. There is no information on the
mindfulness class besides the name of the instructor; nothing is understood about the content or
structure of the course. Research has shown that instructors with a personal mindfulness practice
and a strong theory have more positive results in students than teachers who do not (Seema &
Sare, 2019). This may indicate that teaching the concepts is not enough, which could also be the
Although researchers have indicated that selection of yoga instructors is important, there
practice, and personal character of the instructor may all affect the experience of a class and
outcomes in participants. Researching effects of various instructor traits and training is less
instructors need to be identified and researchers should be able to give that information as a
The current study gives insight between two different styles of yoga. Both styles showed
positive impacts over the course of eight weeks in university students, but the more physically
demanding style could produce more positive effects in this population. Both styles were
implemented by the same instructor, in the same location, at the same times of day and with
many of the same components emphasized. The major differences were the movement pace and
pranayama instruction. More research is needed to understand the effects of pranayama and
breathing technique (p <.001) and instruction of why breathing is important (p = .026) were both
higher in the Ashtanga group. This difference is expected due to the usage of ujjayi breathing in
Ashtanga. Physiological markers related to stress, such as blood pressure (Mahour & Verma,
2017), cardiorespiratory efficiency (Gopal et al., 1973), and basal parasympathetic activity (Pal
et al., 2004), have shown improvement after pranayama interventions. However, not much has
been assessed on phycological markers such as stress and anxiety; there is a lack of studies
comparing breathing exercises used with yoga postures such as vinyasa. It could be that ujjayi
breathing helps regulate physiological symptoms but does not do enough to adjust the state of
mind. Future studies need to compare yoga classes with identical physicality and sequences but
Yoga teachings acclaim ujjayi breathing as a technique to build an internal heat that
cleanses the body as one practices with asanas. This specific breathing technique may act as a
stimulant, thus not aiding practitioners to reach the relaxation benefit of yoga. Ujjayi may not be
a beneficial technique for persons with anxiety but might be good for people with moderate
50
more than eight weeks to develop and benefit, and more controlled studies with specific
Yoga research is ahead in terms of number of studies, but behind in terms of definitive
understanding of components, protocol, and methods. This study implements needed structure to
yoga interventions while assessing common mental health ailments claimed to be helped through
yoga. This methodology can serve as a template to researchers, instructors, and mental health
professionals to better establish yoga protocols, treatment plans, and prevention strategies.
This research gives insight on potential differences on yoga styles and the vary effects
from differing styles. The questions answered in this project lead to more questions in terms of
yoga interventions, targeted populations, and varying mental health effects. As yoga research
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Appendices
Table 1
Health Conditions with Positive Effects from Yoga Interventions
Cardiovascular disease Chu et al., 2016
Lymphoma Kaur et al., 2018
Hypertension Tyagi & Cohen, 2014
Asthma Freitas et al., 2013
Multiple Sclerosis Oken et al., 2004
Irritable Bowel Syndrome Schumann el at., 2018
Osteoarthritis Kuntz et al., 2018
Arthritis Haaz & Bartlett, 2011
Inflammation Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010
Immune Function Falkenberg et al., 2018
Menstrual Disorders Oates, 2017
Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease Fulambarker et al., 2012
Cancer Culos-Reed et al., 2012
Eating Disorders Carei et al., 2010
Body Image Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2018
Drug Addiction Posadzki et al., 2014
Diabetes Mondal et al., 2018
Obesity Bernstein et al., 2014
Depression Cramer, et al., 2017
Anxiety Liu et al., 2014
Stress Singh, 2018
Sleep Cohen, Warneke et al., 2004
Mood He et al., 2018
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Duan-Porter et al., 2016
68
Table 2
Group Demographics
Yoga Control
Number of Participants 48 46
Caucasian Ethnicity 94% 85%
Female Gender 88% 83%
Full Time Student 59% 41%
Off-Campus Living 79% 44%
Prior Yoga Experience 69% 70%
Regular Exercise 58% 67%
Table 3
Mental Health Diagnosis & Treatment
Yoga Control
Depression 20% 20%
Anxiety 40% 22%
Sleep Disorder 6% 4%
Mood Disorder 0 0
ADHD 15% 17%
Prior Counseling 29% 22%
Current Counseling 25% 7%
Prior Psychiatric Care 13% 13%
Current Psychiatric Care 10% 7%
69
Table 4
Between Groups Post Comparison
x̅ Std. 95% CI
x̅ SD p
Group Difference Error Lower Upper
Sleep Disturbances
Yoga 11.9 5.87
1.22 1.15 0.302 -3.548 1.112
Control 13.11 5.48
Amount of Sleep
Yoga 7.16 1.23
0.457 0.218 0.039 0.025 0.882
Control 6.7 0.84
Stress
Yoga 19.92 4.52
2.05 0.834 0.016 0.415 3.689
Control 21.97 3.48
Anxiety
Yoga 12.06 9.77
-3.46 1.778 0.055 -0.075 6.989
Control 8.61 7.22
Depression
Yoga 10.98 9.36
0.984 1.771 0.58 -2.5 4.5
Control 10 7.68
70
Table 5
Pairwise Comparisons of Ashtanga and Slow Flow Vinyasa
Pre Post x̅ Std.
p 95% CI
Difference Error
Group x̅ x̅ Lower Upper
Sleep Disturbances
Ashtanga 6.57 1.12 11.4 6.37
1.031 1.713 0.55 -4.48 2.416
Slow Flow 6.68 1 12.5 5.32
Amount of Sleep
Ashtanga 14.15 5.43 6.96 1.17
-0.425 0.355 0.24 -1.14 0.289
Slow Flow 14.27 5.88 7.39 1.29
Stress
Ashtanga 21.04 3.33 20 3.5
0.182 1.323 0.89 -2.48 2.845
Slow Flow 22.82 4 19.82 5.58
Anxiety
Ashtanga 14.73 11.2 10.89 9.18
-2.57 2.836 0.37 -8.28 3.139
Slow Flow 15.93 12.5 13.46 10.47
Depression
Ashtanga 11.92 8.27 10.23 8.8
-1.633 2.73 0.55 -7.13 3.864
Slow Flow 12.59 10.7 11.86 10.13
71
Table 6
Within Group Mean Comparison
Yoga
Pre Post x̅ Std. 95% CI
Factor x̅ x̅ Difference Error Lower Upper
Sleep Disturbances 14.2 5.59 11.9 5.87 2.313 0.672 0.961 3.664
Amount of Sleep 6.62 1.06 7.16 1.23 0.535 0.233 -1.003 -0.068
Stress 22.9 3.61 19.92 4.52 3 0.739 1.513 4.487
Anxiety 15.3 11.7 12.06 9.77 3.162 1.296 6.13 0.5826
Depression 12.2 9.37 10.98 9.36 1.25 1.202 -1.168 3.668
Control
Pre Post x̅ Std. 95% CI
Factor x̅ x̅ Difference Error Lower Upper
Sleep Disturbances 13.2 5.57 13.11 5.48 0.095 1.012 -1.944 2.133
Amount of Sleep 6.93 1.04 6.7 0.836 0.238 0.201 -0.168 0.64
Stress 22.1 5.58 21.97 5.48 0.173 0.761 -1.359 1.706
Anxiety 12.7 9.42 8.61 7.22 0.407 1.207 1.637 6.499
Depression 10.4 8.02 10 7.68 0.41 1.19 -1.988 2.807
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Table 7
Within Group Repeat Measures ANOVA
Yoga
Hypo Error
F p η2 Power
Factor df df
Sleep Disturbances 11.847 1 47 0.001 0.201 0.921
Amount of Sleep 5.3 1 47 0.026 0.101 0.616
Stress 16.48 1 47 < .001 0.26 0.978
Anxiety 6.175 1 47 0.017 0.116 0.682
Depression 1.082 1 47 0.304 0.022 0.175
Control
Hypo Error
F p η2 Power
Factor df df
Sleep Disturbances 0.009 1 45 0.926 0 0.051
Amount of Sleep 1.834 1 45 0.246 0.03 0.21
Stress 0.052 1 45 0.821 0.001 0.056
Anxiety 11.357 1 45 0.002 0.202 0.909
Depression 0.118 1 45 0.732 0.003 0.063
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Table 8
EPYQ Items of Interest
Acceptance/Compassion
Setting intentions or goals for the class
Acceptance of your body while doing yoga
General thoughts of gratitude, love, kindness, etc.
Self-Compassion
Acceptance of things as they are
Breathwork
Placing one's focus on the breath
Deep breathing (full inhalation and exhalation)
Linking breathing with movement
Instruction of a breathing technique (pranayama)
Instruction about why breathing is important
Placing one's focus on the breath
Physicality
Physical balance
Physical flexibility
Physical strength Vigorous activity/physical exertion
Being in constant motion (vinyasa or flow)
Challenging one's physical balance
Challenging one's physical strength
Body Awareness
Body awareness/paying attention to one's body
Asking students to concentrate on postural alignment
Asking students to concentrate on bodily sensations
Meditation & Mindfulness
Quieting the mind
Mindfulness (nonjudgmental awareness)
Meditation during the session
Meditation (dhyana)
Withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara)
Concentration (dharana)
74
Table 9
Appendix A
Standing Sequence
Stand Tall (Tadasana/Samastitihi)
Forward Bend (Padangusthasana)
Triangle (Trikonasana)
Side Angle (Parsvakonasana)
Kneeling Revolved Side Angle (Parivrtta Parsvakonasana - modification)
Wide-Legged Bend (Prasarita Padottanasana A & C)
Hand-to-Big-Toe Pose (Utthita Hasta Padangusthasana - modification)
Tree (Vrksasana)
Chair (Utkatasana)
Warrior I (Virabhadrasana I)
Warrior II (Virabhadrasana II)
Seated Sequence
Staff Pose (Dandasana)
Seated Forward Bend (Paschimottanasana)
Reverse Table (Purvottanasana - modification)
Seated Figure Four (Arda Baddha Padma Paschimottanasana - modification)
Seated Tree (Janu Sirsasana A)
Marichyasana A & C
Boat Pose (Navasana)
Wide-Legged Bend (Kurmasana -modification)
Bound Angle Pose (Baddha Konasana A)
Reclining Hand-to-Big-Toe Pose (Supta Padangusthasana -modification)
Closing
Bridge (Setu Bandha Sarvangasana) Up to 3 times, 5 Breaths Each
Knees-to-Chest (Apanasana)
Happy baby (Ananda Balasana)
Side twists (Supta Parivartanasana) 1 Minute Each
Savasana (5-10 minutes)
76
Appendix B
Standing Sequence 1:
Crescent High Lunge (5 breaths) (Ashta Chandrasana)
Warrior I (Virabhadrasana I)
Warrior II (Virabhadrasana II)
Reverse Warrior II
Triangle Pose (Utthita Trikonasana)
Extended-Side Angle (Utthita Parsvakonasana)
Vinyasa 1
Chaturanga Dandasana
Baby Cobra (Bhujangasana variations)
Adolescent Cobra
Cobra 1 Hover the hands above the floor
Cobra 2 Using strength of arms and shoulders
Table-Top
Downward Facing Dog (Adho Mukha Svanasana)
Vinyasa 2
Chaturanga Dandasana
Shalabhasana 1 Hands reaching back
Shalabhasana 2 Hands in cactus
Shalabhasana 3 Repeat B with Superman arms
Table-Top (Bidalasana)
77
Standing Sequence 2:
Chair Pose (Utkatasana)
Standing-Forward-Bend (Uttanasana)
Rag Doll
Wide-Legged Forward Fold (Prasarita Padottanasana A & C)
Wide-Leg fold - Twist (Parivrtta Ardha Prasarita)
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
Stand tall (Tadasana)
Tree (Vrksasana)
Eagle or Eagle Prep (Garudasana)
Vinyasa 3
Chaturanga Dandasana
Roll over each shoulder
Grab arms without lifting chest
Grab arms with lifting chest
Bhujangasana
Bhujangasana with tucked toes and lifted thighs
Seated Sequence
Wide Diamond
Close Diamond (Baddha Konasana)
Dandasana
Seated-Forward-Bend (Paschimottanasana)
Janu Sirsasana A
Marichyasana C
Wide-Leg-Bend (Upavistha Konasana)
Wide-Leg-Bend Side Stretch (Parivrtta Janu Sirsasana)
Appendix C
2-3 Breaths
*Modification
- Bring knees to floor, creating a slanted table shape
- Maintain a strong and straight spine
- Bend elbows back, as close to torso as possible without strain
- Lay flat on floor
79
Inhale – Step left leg towards the hands, keep left knee bent
One-breath-one-movement outline:
Mountain pose
Inhale – Chair pose
Exhale – Forward Bend (Uttanasana)
Inhale – Halfway lift, “L” shape
Exhale – Step left leg back
Inhale – Warrior I (Virabhadrasana I) - Right side
Exhale – Downward facing dog (Adho Mukha Svanasana)
Inhale – Step left leg towards the hands, keep left knee bent
Exhale – Place right leg at 45-degree angle (or modified version)
Inhale - Warrior I (Virabhadrasana I) – Left side
Exhale – Chaturanga Dandasana
Inhale – Up dog (Urdhva Mukha Svanasana)
Exhale – Downward facing down (Adho Mukha Svanasana)
5 Breaths
Inhale – Step/hop both feet to front of the mat
Exhale – Forward bend (Uttanasana)
Inhale – Chair (Utkatasana)
Exhale – Mountain (Tadasana/Samastitihi)
83
Standing Sequence
Each pose is held for 5 breaths
Movement in and out of the poses are synched with breath
Triangle (Trikonasana)
Step left leg about 3 feet back, parallel to the right
Square hips toward left side of the mat
Right foot is at a 90-degree angle and left foot is at a 5-degree angle
Keep knees straight, but not locked
Exhale – Reach forward and then down with right arm, towards the thigh, shin, or foot
- Attempt to keep the torso from moving forward, aiming for shoulders to align
with the right let – as if body is fitting through a toaster or two planes of glass
- Avoid putting weight into the extended leg, torso stays strong
5 Breaths
Repeat on Left
Inhale – Left hand to left hip and raise right leg, knee aligned with hip
Two options:
OR
- Bend the right knee and place right hand under thigh for support
Advanced version:
- Straighten the right leg and reach further down the leg (towards the
toes) for more difficulty
5 Breaths
Repeat on left
Chair (Utkatasana)
Feet either hip-width distant apart OR have toes touching and heels slightly apart
Exhale – Fold Forward, stretching the backs of the legs and releasing the spine
Inhale – Rise to standing
Warrior 1 (Virabhadrasana I)
Inhale – Left leg steps 3 feet back, foot at a 45-degree angle (right foot 90-degree angle)
Exhale – Bend right knee, similar to Parsvakonasana, but with hips facing forward
- Reach arms above the head, palms facing
5 Breaths
Inhale – Straighten left leg & reverse pose, bend the right knee
5 Breaths
Exhale – “Cartwheel” hands to the front of the mat, squaring hips & shoulders to the floor
Inhale – High plank
Exhale – Chaturanga
Inhale – Up dog
Exhale – Down dog
Inhale – Step or hop feet forward
Exhale – Sit on floor with legs in front
Seated Sequence
Vinyasas between sides are skipped completely
Vinyasas between poses are replaced with Purvottanasana
Repeat on left
Inhale – Lift torso
Exhale – Release pose & place bottom of feet and palms on floor
- Set up for a short Purvottanasana
Inhale – Lift hips and chest, Purvottanasana
Exhale – Lower hips
88
Repeat on Left
Inhale – Lift torso
Exhale – Release pose & place bottom of feet and palms on floor
Inhale – Purvottanasana
Exhale – Release
Repeat on Left
Inhale – Lift torso
Inhale – Lift hips into Purvottanasana
Exhale – Release Purvottanasana, place sit bones on floor
Repeat on Left
89
5 Breaths
Closing
Bridge (Setu Bandha Sarvangasana)
Inhale – Bend knees, press bottom of feet on floor
Exhale – Pull heels as close to glutes possible, slightly on the outside of hips
- Reach towards feet, grabbing ankles if available
- If ankles are not available, press palms and shoulders down
- Arms are touching the floor regardless if holding the ankle
Inhale – Press firmly into the floor with the feet and lift the hips towards the ceiling
- Creates a slanted mini-table top position
- Keep legs and glutes strong
- Clasp hands together under glutes if available
- Learning opposite movements here, hips lifting, limbs pressing
5 Breaths
Repeat on Left
5-10 Minutes
92
Appendix D
○ Adjusting posture/breath:
- Take slightly bigger breathes, while noticing any changes in your body
- Imagine a string on the tip of your head and one in middle of chest, both
giving soft little tugs towards the ceiling, like a puppet
- Let ribs get wide (left-to-right) with each breath
- Get thicker (forward and back) with each breath
- Taller (up and down) with each breath
- Breathe utilizing the full 360-dimension capabilities of your lungs. Think
of your lungs as balloons, the air goes evenly into all sides
Warm up (5-7 minutes)
Neck:
- Bring right ear towards the right shoulder
o Soften face/shoulders
o Stretch opposite arm as if touching the floor, furthering the stretch into
shoulder
o Move head as if saying “yes”, soft movement can massage the areas
being stretched
o Softly pull head towards right shoulder with right hand
Repeat on Left
- Bring chin towards your chest. Bring hands behind you, fingers touching the
floor – this is to keep chest lifted, as if trying to touch the sternum and chin.
o Keep chest lifted, bring hands to top of the head, elbows stay wide,
apply slight pressure to the head, furthering the stretch into the
shoulders.
- Head drops back, chin lifting towards the ceiling.
- Hands come back behind you, fingertips on floor and leaning torso back a few
inches.
93
Slowly move next in wide circles (big circles), try to feel each aspect of
the movement. Can slowly pick up the pace if you’d like. Starting to link
the movement with the breath.
Inhale - Head is up
Exhale - Head is down
Shoulder Circles
Start slowly, listen to your body and move in way(s) that feel good in your
shoulders.
Straight Spine
- Press the shoulder blades together, feel the chest drop –
- Zip up tight pants, feel the lumbar spine lift, balancing out the spine “flat
table”
- While maintaining the straight spine, lift the right-arm and left-leg.
94
- Flip wrists opposite direction (with opposite hand or press backs of hands
against floor) “wrist therapy”
Walk hands back, coming into a forward bend at the back of your mat.
- Place hands behind the head and apply light pressure.
Rag doll to standing- while inhaling, lifting torso up to a standing posture, shoulders and
head come up last
Standing Sequence 1:
Mountain – (Tadasana or Samastitihi)
*Base pose of all other yoga postures
- Waist up - lift and lengthen through spine, shoulders & face
soft
- Waist down - Knees softly bent – feet either hip width
distance wide, or toes touching w/ heels slightly apart
o Press firmly into the floor, as if leaving
footprints. – Trying to catch a ball
- Lift toes and feel the 4-corners of feet, evenly distribute the
weight into both feet
5 Breaths
- Notice your weight shifting as you move through the other postures and
rebalance to as close as this posture (Samastitihi) as you can
Repeat on Left
- Do again, this time adding the left (opposite) arm reaching over head
as you fold, furthering the stretch
Repeat on Left
- Clasp hands together behind back, lift chest towards the ceiling and
slightly lean back.
- Shoulders lift as the arms reach down
One sided sequence begins, do all postures on one side before going to other side.
3 options for arms, at hips, in prayer position, or reaching towards ceiling with palms facing.
Warrior I (Virabhadrasana I)
- Everything stays the same, but back foot is placed at 45-degree angle,
externally rotating the hips
Reverse Warrior II
- Bottom half stays the same (hips and legs)
- Back arm drops & reach the front arm over your head and towards the
back wall
- Bend strongly in the front leg & try to keep the shoulders squared towards
the wall
Return to Warrior II for transition
Chaturanga Dandasana
- Elbows pressing into the torso, bring your belly all the way to the floor
- Keep torso flat, bend knees onto floor if needed (knees, chest, chin)
Adolescent Cobra
- Pull arms back, hands are under the shoulders
- Keep elbows pressing against the torso
- Lift upper back, only going a little taller than the previous pose - elbows
stay bent
Cobra 1
- Hover the hands above the floor OR raise palms, leaving fingertips on
floor
- Using the strength of the torso, lift the chest off the floor
Cobra 2
- Hands back to floor
- Tuck the toes and engage the legs, most of legs off the floor
- Using strength of arms and shoulders (torso goes heavy), lift upper back
off the floor
Table-Top
- Widen knees, tuck toes
- Press down with hands, lifting torso off the floor
Walk hands back, coming into a forward bend at the back of your mat.
- Place hands behind the head and apply light pressure.
97
*Vinyasa 2
Shalabhasana 1
- Hands reaching back, on side, palms facing up
- Lift upper back, arms, and feet off the floor
- Actively reaching arms back
- Gaze at ceiling, relax forehead
Shalabhasana 2
- Hands in cactus - elbows parallel to shoulders and bent
- Palms facing the floor, fingers pointing forward
- Lift upper back, arms, and feet off floor
- Press shoulders together
- Gaze at ceiling, relax forehead
Shalabhasana 3
- Repeat B
- Once lifted, reach arms in front, like Superman
Table-Top (Bidalasana)
- Widen knees, tuck toes
- Press down with hands, lifting torso off the floor
Walk hands back, coming into a forward bend at the back of your mat.
- Press weight into feet, lift toes and feel the 4 corners of feet
2 - 3 Breaths
- Softly sway from left to right, feeling weight in your feet shifting
98
3 - 5 Breaths
- Softy sway forward and back
3 – 5 Breaths
- Softly sway in circles, feeling the weight going in and out of the corners of
your feet
3 – 5 Breaths
- Holding still, Press firmly into the 4 corners of the feet.
Standing Sequence 2:
Chair Pose (Utkatasana)
- Bend knees as you lift your torso, reach arms over-head, palms facing
- Sitting in an imaginary chair, or barstool
- Lengthen through spine, minimize the curve in the lumbar
Rag doll to a standing posture, lift torso - shoulders and head come up last (inhale)
Mountain Pose – Tadasana and/or Samastitihi (base pose of all other yoga postures)
Waist up - lift and lengthen through spine, shoulders & face soft
- Arms mirror the legs, if right leg is crossed over the left, right arm
crosses over the left
○ Cross at elbows and wrists
100
- Press the palm of the top arm (right) into the fingers of the
left arm
- Once arms are in place, start reaching arms towards ceiling
- Gaze at the fingers
Repeat on Left
*Vinyasa 3
Chaturanga Dandasana (all the way flat on the floor)
Roll over each shoulder
Interlace the fingers
With arms behind the person, interlace the fingers, palms facing each other
(The hands are typically aligned with lumbar spine or pelvis)
If you don’t already Pull arms away from your lumbar spine without lifting chest
Interlace the fingers
Repeat the last posture, but if you want, lift the chest off the floor as well
Bhujangasana
Bhujangasana with tucked toes and lifted thighs
Seated Sequence
Wide Diamond
- Bottoms of feet together
- Feet as far away from torso possible while keeping bottoms of feet
touching
- Fold torso forward (as if trying to touch the head and feet)
Dandasana
- Press palms into the floor, fingertips touching glutes
(can be further away from torso)
- Press shoulder blades together, lifting the chest
- Start to lower shoulders and bring them far behind you
- Lengthen through the spine, reaching towards the ceiling
Bring the chin in towards the chest for more difficult version
Seated-Forward-Bend - Paschimottanasana
- Legs either together or about hip with distance apart
1st - fold without worrying about the spinal alignment
2nd - place palms on floor, either side of legs and fold leading with chest
- As soon as back starts to curve in, pause there and take 5 breaths
Marichyasana C
- Bottom of right foot on floor, bending knee towards ceiling
- Either pull right leg towards chest OR bring left arm to the outside of leg
- Twist towards the right
- Gaze over right shoulder (furthering the twist through the neck)
Apanasana
Hold knees into chest, rock from side-to-side a couple of times
Appendix E
Appendix F
Instructions
All weekly assignments must be at least two pages long and in APA format (no cover page
required). Each weekly assignment is due Sunday night by midnight. Please submit through
Blackboard.
Week 1
Describe at least 3 different styles of yoga. Please indicate how they may be similar and different
from each other.
109
Appendix G
The articles you are covering for this presentation MUST be approved ahead of time. Nobody
can do an article that has already been chosen by a classmate. Points will be deducted if a student
does not get approved in time and presents on an article/book that has already been chosen.
Present a Review from Research: 2 Research articles related to yoga (any of the topics related:
mindfulness, pranayama, yoga, etc.). MUST get approved by professor.
2 T: 4 T: 2 T: 10 T: 10 T: 10 T:4
Total 8 4 20 20 20 8
=80
110
Appendix H
Demographic Questions
Please indicate the number of academic hours in which you are currently enrolled:________
What best describes your current living situation? (Please select all that apply)
___ On campus dormitory
___ Off campus apartment
___ With parents/caretakers
___ With roommates
If you have roommates, please indicate how many ________________
What best describes your racial/ethnic background? (check all that apply)
___ White/Caucasian
___ Black/African American
___ Hispanic/Latino
___ Asian American
___ Asian
___ Native American
___ Pacific Islander
___ African
___ Other (please indicate) _________________________
Please indicate your reasoning for enrolling in the PBHL 2101: Yoga I class
(check all that apply)
____ Depression
____ Anxiety
____ Sleep Disorder
____ Mood Disorder
____ Attention Deficient Disorder
____ Psychiatric
If yes, do you currently receive Psychiatric care? (circle one) YES / NO
____ psychological and/or counseling
If yes, do you currently receive these services? (circle one) YES / NO
If you have any additional health concerns (physical and mental) that may affect your day-to-day
life, please indicate:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
112
Appendix I
Instructions: The following questions relate to your usual sleep habits during the past month
only. Your answers should indicate the most accurate reply for the majority of days and nights in
the past month. Please answer all questions.
During the past month,
1. When have you usually gone to bed? ______________
2. How long (in minutes) has it taken you to fall asleep each night? ______________
3. When have you usually gotten up in the morning? ______________
4. How many hours of actual sleep do you get at night? (This may be different than the
number of hours you spend in bed) ______________
Not Less than Three or
Once or
5. During the past month, how often have you had during once a more
twice a
trouble sleeping because you… the past week times
week (2)
month (0) (1) week (3)
Appendix J
The questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case,
you will be asked to indicate how often you felt or thought a certain way. Please circle your response.
1. In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?
0 1 2 3 4
2. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your
life?
0 1 2 3 4
3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed”?
0 1 2 3 4
4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal
problems?
0 1 2 3 4
5. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?
0 1 2 3 4
6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to
do?
0 1 2 3 4
7. In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life?
0 1 2 3 4
8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things?
0 1 2 3 4
9. In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of
your control?
0 1 2 3 4
10. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not
overcome them?
0 1 2 3 4
114
Appendix K
Sadness
0. I do not feel sad.
1. I feel sad much of the time.
2. I am sad all the time.
3. I am so sad/unhappy that I can't stand it.
Pessimism
0. I am not discouraged about my future.
1. I feel more discouraged about my future than I used to.
2. I do not expect things to work out for me.
3. I feel my future is hopeless and will only get worse.
Past Failure
0. I do not feel like a failure.
1. I have failed more than I should have.
2. As I look back, I see a lot of failures.
3. I feel I am a total failure as a person.
Loss of Pleasure
0. I get as much pleasure as I ever did from the things I enjoy.
1. I don't enjoy things as much as I used to.
2. I get very little pleasure from the things I used to enjoy.
3. I can't get any pleasure from the things I used to enjoy.
Guilty Feelings
0. I don't feel particularly guilty.
1. I feel guilty over many things I have done or should have done.
2. I feel quite guilty most of the time.
3. I feel guilty all of the time.
115
Punishment Feelings
0. I don't feel I am being punished.
1. I feel I may be punished.
2. I expect to be punished.
3. I feel I am being punished.
Self-Dislike
0. I feel the same about myself as ever.
1. I have lost confidence in myself.
2. I am disappointed in myself.
3. I dislike myself.
Self-Criticalness
0. I don't criticize or blame myself more than usual.
1. I am more critical of myself than I used to be.
2. I criticize myself for all of my faults.
3. I blame myself for everything bad that happens.
Crying
0. I don't cry any more than I used to.
1. I cry more than I used to.
2. I cry over every little thing.
3. I feel like crying, but I can't.
Agitation
0. I am no more restless or wound up than usual.
1. I feel more restless or wound up than usual.
2. I am so restless or agitated, it's hard to stay still.
3. I am so restless or agitated that I have to keep moving or doing something.
Loss of Interest
0. I have not lost interest in other people or
activities.
1. I am less interested in other people or things than before.
116
Indecisiveness
0. I make decisions about as well as ever.
1. I find it more difficult to make decisions than usual.
2. I have much greater difficulty in making
decisions than I used to.
3. I have trouble making any decisions.
Worthlessness
0. I do not feel I am worthless.
1. I don't consider myself as worthwhile and useful as I used to.
2. I feel more worthless as compared to others.
3. I feel utterly worthless.
Loss of Energy
0. I have as much energy as ever.
1. I have less energy than I used to have.
2. I don't have enough energy to do very much.
3. I don't have enough energy to do anything
Irritability
0. I am not more irritable than usual.
1. I am more irritable than usual.
2. I am much more irritable than usual.
3. I am irritable all the time.
Changes in Appetite
0. I have not experienced any change in my
appetite.
117
Concentration Difficulty
0. I can concentrate as well as ever.
1. I can't concentrate as well as usual.
2. It's hard to keep my mind on anything for
very long.
3. I find I can't concentrate on anything.
Tiredness or Fatigue
0. I am no more tired or fatigued than usual.
1. I get more tired or fatigued more easily than usual.
2. I am too tired or fatigued to do a lot of the things I used to do.
3. I am too tired or fatigued to do most of the things I used to do.
Appendix L
Appendix M