English Grammar Summaryn
English Grammar Summaryn
English Grammar Summaryn
Preface.............................................................................................................................................5
1.1. Structure....................................................................................................................................6
2.1. Structure....................................................................................................................................7
2.4. Verbs that are not usually used in the continuous tenses..........................................................8
2.4.1. Exceptions..............................................................................................................................8
4.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................10
5.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................11
i
5.1.2. Future with GOING TO.......................................................................................................12
6.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................15
8.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................17
10.1. Structure................................................................................................................................23
11. Conditional..............................................................................................................................24
ii
11.2.First conditional.....................................................................................................................25
14. Prepositions..............................................................................................................................35
15. Nouns.......................................................................................................................................41
15.1. Definition..............................................................................................................................41
iii
15.5. Formation of plural...............................................................................................................43
15.6. Quantifiers............................................................................................................................46
16. Articles.....................................................................................................................................50
1.7. Pronouns.................................................................................................................................52
18. Conjunctions............................................................................................................................64
18.1Definition................................................................................................................................64
iv
The Others.....................................................................................................................................65
19.2. List of the most common phrasal verbs and their meaning..................................................71
References......................................................................................................................................82
v
Preface
In attempt to make the learning of English language easier, some important grammar points were
selected and summarized, so as to help the learners improving their abilities, especially the
grammar competences.
This book was made through the summaries from different grammarians devoting on the
different grammar points and it’s intended to assist front-line second language learners. As
policy-maker on Summary English Grammar read through the book, it becomes clear that the
author has covered all important grammar aspects for intermediate and advanced students and
again, due to the difficulties faced and presented by students regarding to their reading,
especially in assignments, the author came to an understanding that there was a great need of
collecting and putting together different aspects of grammar considered indispensible to their
progress in this language.
This book was designed for secondary schools students in Mozambique, especially in Nampula,
to minimize all the problems presented by the learners and due to the lack of the materials to be
used in the English Language Learning. So, with this effort, it’s believed that the school life of
the students was made easier than it was before.
The book is not only strongly recommended for every single student in Escola Secundária de
Mecubúri to read as the way of reinforce their grasp or knowledge as the primary target but also
it should be used in the assignment as one of the materials that they have.
5
1. Simple Present (Present Simple)
1.1. Structure
To talk about habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions
and wishes:
In the third persons singular (he, she, it) the verb always end in ‘–s’ as it is illustrated below:
6
Adding ‘es’ to the verbs ending in sh, ch, s, o…: wash – washes; express – expresses;
watch – watches, do – does.
Adding ‘s’ to the verbs ending in y (preceded by a vowel ): play – plays, obey – obeys
and removing ‘y’ (preceded by a consonant) and replacing with ‘ies’: fly – flies; identify
- identifies
In the negative and questions forms use the verb ‘’to do’’ (DO/DOES) with the following
structure:
2.1. Structure
The present continuous puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action with following
structure: subject + auxiliary verb (to be: am; are; is) + verb + ing + object:
She’s watching football on the TV.
Note: for short verbs, we double the last letter and then, we add the ing form:
Put – putting; plan – planning; shut – shutting; get – getting….
The day is getting hotter and hotter.
7
2.2. The use of present continuous tense
2.4. Verbs that are not usually used in the continuous tenses
Some verbs are not used in the continuous tense because refer to states rather than an action or a
process, these are used in the present simple as it is illustrates below:
Sense/ Perceptions: to feel, to hear, to see, to smell, to taste
Opinion: to assume, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to suppose…
8
Mental states: to forget, to imagine, to know, to mean, to notice, to recognize, to
remember, to understand…
Emotions / Desires: to envy, to fear, to like/dislike, to hate, to hope, to love, to mind,
to prefer, to regret, to want, to wish…
2.4.1. Exceptions
Perception verbs (see, hear, fell, taste, smell…) are often used with can (I can see…). These
verbs may be used in the continuous tenses but with different meaning.
This coat feels nice and warms (your perception of the coat’s qualities).
John’s feeling much better now (his healthy is improving)
He has three dogs and a cat (possession). She’s having breakfast (she’s eating);
I can Smalls in the garden (perception). I’m seeing Smalls later (we are planning to
meet)
Past simple, sometimes, called preterite, is used to talk about a completed action in a time
before now. The simple past is the basic form of past tense in English. Te time of the action
can be in the recent past or better yet, the distant past and the action duration is not
important:
My father died last year.
We crossed the channel, yesterday.
Portuguese colonizers entered Mozambique in 1498.
As it’s known that in English, there are two groups of verbs, such as regular and irregular verbs
and again, the past simple is the only reason of the separation above presented. We add the suffix
‘’ed’’ to the regular verbs: use +ed = used; play – played; watch – watched; stop – stopped (we
doubled the last letter); hurry – hurried (we dropped y and replaced with i and then, we added
ed).
9
Check the list of irregular verbs as there is not a basic form of their formation.
Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down.
We can also use past when we say when something happened, so it’s associated with certain past
time expressions:
A definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six months ago…
Yesterday, I arrived in Nacala.
We saw a good film, last night.
She finished her homework at seven o’clock.
I went to the theatre last week.
An indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago.
People lived in caves a long time ago.
In the negative and question forms, we use the auxiliary verb to do in the past simple (did), so
the simple past has the following structures:
Subject + did + not + verb+ complement – Negative form: they did not (didn’t) see any
film.
10
Did + subject + verb + complement - question form: did you finish your homework?
Past continuous tense uses past simple forms of the verbs: was/were as auxiliary verb as it
illustrates in the structure:
The past continuous describes an action or an event in a time before now that was still going at
time of speaking or better yet, it describes an unfinished or incomplete action in the past. It is
used:
To talk about two actions happening at the same time (in the past)
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She wasn’t having a bath.
You and I were not singing correctly at the concert.
Was/were + subject + verb + ing + complement – question form:
Was she having bath?
Were you driving at high speed?
Future refers to time later than now, it expresses facts or certainty. In English, there are two (2)
types of future simple as they are shown below.
In the future with going to, there is a use of the auxiliary verb ‘’to be’’ as it is shown or
illustrated in the structure below:
12
I will carry your bag for you. - Willingness
The baby won’t eat this soup. - Unwillingness
I won’t leave until I’ve seen the manager!
To make suggestions, to ask for instruction or a piece of advice and asking for
permition with “Shall …?’’
What shall I tell the boss about this money? - asking for advice
Note: in modern English WILL is more used than SHALL, Shall is mainly used with “I and
WE’’ to make an offer or suggestion or ask for advice (the example above). With other persons
or pronouns (you, he, she, and they) SHALL is only used in literary or poetic situations: with
ring on her fingers and bells on her toes, she shall have music wherever she goes. That’s to say
that, WILL is used for all grammatical persons, on the other way, SHALL can only be used with
‘’I and WE’’ in formal conversation or writing and, with other grammatical persons in the
figurative language.
13
5.3.1. When to use GOING TO
The structure GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future with some type of connection to
the present, as it is illustrated below:
When we have already decided or we intend to do something in the future (prior plan):
When there are definite signs that something is going to happen (evidence):
Something is going to happen based on the evidence or experience we have
I think it’s going to rain - I felt a drop of it.
I don’t feel well. I thing I’m going to vomit
14
To make an offer, a promise or a threat
I’ll give a discount if you buy it right now’
I promise I will behave next time
I’ll take to the movies if you you’d like
Subject + to be + not + going to + verb + complement – future with GOING TO, Negative form
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be progress at a time later
than now. The future continuous can be used for quite a few purposes:
15
To project ourselves in the future into the future
This time next week, I will be swimming in the pool.
By Christmas, she will be singing for us.
Just think, next Monday you will be working in your new job.
Combined with STILL the future continuous refers to events that are already
happening now and we expect to continue some time in the future
In an hour I will still be ironing my clothes.
Tomorrow he’ll still be suffering from his cold\
Unfortunately, sea levels will still be ironing my clothes.
Examples:
16
She will have fallen asleep by the time we get home.
I shall have gone by then.
Will you have finished when I get back?
Examples:
I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.
By the time you read this I will have left.
You will have finished your report by this time next week.
Won't they have arrived by 5:00?
Will you have eaten when I pick you up?
Most commonly the future perfect is used with a time marker that indicates by when (i.e. prior to
what point in time) the event is to occur, as in the previous examples. However it is also possible
for it to be accompanied by a marker of the retrospective time of occurrence, as in "I will have
done it on the previous Tuesday". This is in contrast to the present perfect, which is not normally
used with a marker of past time: one would not say *"I have done it last Tuesday", since the
inclusion of the past time marker last Tuesday would entail the use of the simple past rather than
the present perfect.
The English future perfect places the action relative only to the absolute future reference point,
without specifying the location in time relative to the present. In most cases the action will be in
the future relative to the present, but this is not necessarily the case: for example, "If it rains
tomorrow, we will have worked in vain yesterday."
17
8. Present Perfect tense
The present perfect is used to indicate a link or connection between the present and past. The
time of action before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in
the action itself.
8.1. Structure
The present perfect tense is composed of the auxiliary verb ‘’to have’’ in the present simple and
the past participle of the main verb. Check the list of verbs:
Subject + to have (have/has) + past participle (main verb) + complement
18
A repeated action in an unspecified period between past and now:
We have visited Portugal several times.
They have seen that film six times.
It has happened several times already
An action that was completed in the very recent past expressed by JUST:
I have just finished my work.
I have just eaten.
We have just seen her
When the precise time of the action is not important or not known
Someone has eaten my soup!
She has studied English, Russian and Japanese.
Have you seen Gone with the wind?
There is also a difference in attitude between the two tenses, which is often an important factor in
choosing which tense to use.
What did you do at school today? We use the past simple tense because the question is
about activities, and the school day is considered finished.
19
What have you done at school today? We use the present perfect tense because the
question is about the result: “show me”. The time at which the question is asked is
considered as a continuation of the school day.
20
action that have just finished, but we are interested in the results :
She has been cooking since last night (and the food on the table looks delicious)
It’s been raining (and the streets are still wet)
Somebody’s been eating my chips (half of them have gone)
We use never (not + ever) in the affirmative sentences, but the meaning is negative, it means
NUNCA:
I have never cheated in the exams
My son has never been to Moscow.
My brother has never gone to London.
Note: in the sentences with the verb in negative, we use ever instead of never:
I wouldn’t ever say that (= I would never say that)
I haven’t ever gone to school earlier (= I have never gone to school earlier)
With other words with negative meaning, we also use ever instead of never. These words are:
without, hardly, anybody, no one, nothing….
Without ever seeing him.
I hardly ever do that.
21
Nobody would ever do that!
Nothing is ever ready on time.
Just – it’s used to express a recently complete action, and it means ‘a short time ago’:
The cat has just caught bird.
The guests have just arrived.
I have just finished my homework.
Already – we use already to express that something has happened sooner than it is
expected:
Don’t forget to bring your book! Oh, I have already brought it.
The boys are going to pack, aren’t they? No, they have already packed.
Is Adam going to buy a new car? No, he isn’t. He has already bought it!
Still – it’s used to talk about something that hasn’t finished, especially when we expect it
to finish earlier:
I’ve still got all those letters you sent me.
Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect:
She’s still working.
The baby is still asleep
We are still waiting for his reply.
It’s still raining.
Yet – it’s used in the interrogative and negative sentences. In the interrogative sentences,
it means the same as already, and it’s used to talk about something is expected to happen.
in the negative sentences, it’s as the same as still, and it suggests a later than expected:
Have you finished your homework, yet? No, I haven’t done it yet.
Have the visitors arrived? No, they haven’t arrived yet.
Note: yet often comes at end of the sentences differently the other words which come after
auxiliary and before main verb.
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For – we use for when we measure the duration – when we say how long something
lasts: for + a period of time to measure a period of time up to the present. It’s used in the
present perfect and not the present simple:
I have known her for a long time
I have lived here for ten year.
But we cannot say like that:
I live here for ten.
I know her for a long time.
The present simple with for refers to the period of time that extends into the future:
How long are you here for? (Until when)
How long have you been here? (Since when)
In reality, we can use all verb tenses with for, however we cannot it with expressions such as: all
day or all the time:
I was there all day (correct)
I was there for all day (incorrect)
Since – since gives the starting point of actions, events or states. It refers to when things
began: since + a point in time (in the past), until now. It’s used with present perfect or
past perfect tenses:
I have been waiting since 7 o’clock.
I have known him since January.
I have been here since 5 o’clock and I am getting tired.
I had been here since 5 o’clock and I was getting tired
Since can also be used in the structure: it has been + period of time + since:
It has been two months since I last saw her.
It has been three years since the last earthquake
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10. Past perfect tense
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event
happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense
makes it clear which one happened first.
10.1. Structure
The past perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary ‘to have’ in the past simple tense (had) and, the
past participle of the main verb as it is illustrated below:
action taking place before a certain time in the past (putting emphasis only on the fact,
not the duration)
Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)
If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.
'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier
than before now.
24
The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
She had just left the room when the police arrived.
I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
11. Conditional
When you fly budget airline, you have to pay for your drinks and snacks.
Unless you need more space, a small car is big enough for one person.
Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which is generally true, and
note that we may use when or unless instead of if.
In the condition clause, we can use a variety of present forms. In the result clause, there can only
be the present simple or imperative.
If you visit London, go on the London Eye.
When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun cream. It'll be very hot.
25
Unless prices are rising, it's not a good investment.
Unless you've been there yourself, you don't really understand how fantastic it is.
We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen:
If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.
The ‘’future clause’’ can contain GOING TO or the future perfect as well as WILL
If see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am.
If we don't get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.
The "future clause" can also contain other modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.
If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's.
26
The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations or imaginations:
If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.
Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'WERE' and not 'WAS'.
(Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is
equally ‘correct’.).
If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.
If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.
Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous:
If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.
27
Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.
If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.
If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.
If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.
Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken:
What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")
Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")
We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they
are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.
If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time.
If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.
Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.
If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. (But he wasn't there so it wasn't
possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the
opportunity had arisen.)
28
It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to
imagine the result of this situation.
If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so
she didn't pass)
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine.
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however,
who or what is performing the action.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however,
who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You
have made a mistake.).
29
13.2. The structure of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences into passive voice, note the following:
The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped)
30
conditional Passive A letter would be written by Houry
Third Active Houry would have written a letter
Passive A letter would have be written by Houry
conditional
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects
becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject
depends on what you want to put the focus on.
As you can see in the examples, adding by Smalls does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is
usually dropped.
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the
passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal
passive.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verbs) normally cannot form personal passive sentence (as
there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If we want to use an
intransitive verb in passive voice, we need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is
called Impersonal passive.
31
Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German,
Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think,
know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than
men.
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active
sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.
The modal verbs of English are a small class of auxiliary verbs used mostly to express modality
(properties such as possibility, obligation, etc.). They can be distinguished from other verbs by
their defectiveness (they do not have participle or infinitive forms) and by the fact that they do
not take the ending -(e)s in the third-person singular.
The principal English modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and
would. Certain other verbs are sometimes, but not always, classed as modals; these include
ought, had better, and (in certain uses) dare and need. Verbs which share some but not all of
the characteristics of the principal modals are sometimes called "semi-modals". The following
verbs can be classed as the principal modal verbs of English. They are listed here in present–
preterite pairs where applicable:
Can and could
May and might
Shall and should
32
Will and would
Must (no preterite)
Note that the preterite forms are not necessarily used to refer to past time, and in some cases are
near synonyms to the present forms.
A modal verb serves as an auxiliary to another verb, which appears in infinitive form (the bare
infinitive or the to-infinitive in the cases of ought and used as discussed above). Examples: You
must escape; this may be difficult.
Like other auxiliaries, modal verbs are negated by the addition of the word not after them. (The
modification of meaning may not always correspond to simple negation, as in the case of must
not.) The modal can combines with not to form the single word cannot. Most of the modals have
contracted negated forms in n't which are commonly used in informal English: can't, mustn't,
won't (from will), etc.
Again like other auxiliaries, modal verbs undergo inversion with their subject, in forming
questions: Could you do this?; On no account may you enter. When there is negation, the
contraction with n't may undergo inversion as an auxiliary in its own right: Why can't I come in?
(or: Why can I not come in?).
The modal verb can expresses possibility in a dynamic, deontic or epistemic sense, that is, in
terms of innate ability, permissibility, or possible circumstance. For example:
I can speak English means "I am able to speak English" or "I know how to speak
English".
You can smoke here means "you may (are permitted to) smoke here" (in formal English
may or might is sometimes considered more correct than can or could in these senses).
There can be strong rivalry between siblings means that such rivalry is possible
(Possibility)
33
Both can and could can be used to make requests: Can/could you pass me the cheese? Means
"Please pass me the cheese" (where could indicates greater politeness).
It is common to use can with verbs of perception such as see, hear, etc, as in I can see a tree.
Aspectual distinction can be made such as I could see it (ongoing state) & I saw it (event).
The use of Could with the perfect infinitive expresses past ability or possibility, either in some
counterfactual circumstances (I could have told him if I had seen him), or in some real
circumstance where the act in question was not in fact realized: I could have told him yesterday
(but in fact I didn’t). The use of Can with perfect infinitive can have… is rarer alternative to may
have (for negative see below).
The verb may expresses possibility in either an epistemic or deontic sense, that is, in terms of
possible circumstance or permissibility. For example:
The mouse may be dead means that it is possible that the mouse is dead.
You may leave the room means that the listener is permitted to leave the room.
In expressing possible circumstance, may can have future as well as present reference (he may
arrive means that it is possible that he will arrive; I may go to the mall means that I am
considering going to the mall).
The preterite form might is used as a synonym for may when expressing possible circumstance. It
is sometimes said that might and could express a greater degree of doubt than may. For uses of
might in conditional sentences, and as a past equivalent to may in such contexts as indirect
speech.
May (or might) can also express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: He may be taller
than I am, but he is certainly not stronger could mean "While it is (or may be) true that he is
taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger."
34
May can indicate presently given permission for present or future actions: You may go now.
Might used in this way is milder: You might go now if you feel like it. Similarly May I use your
phone? is a request for permission (might would be more hesitant or polite).
When used with the perfect infinitive, may have indicates uncertainty about a past circumstance,
whereas might have can have that meaning, but it can also refer to possibilities that did not occur
but could have in other circumstances.
She may have eaten cake (the speaker does not know whether she ate cake).
She might have eaten cake (this means either the same as the above, or else means that
she did not eat cake but that it was or would have been possible for her to eat cake).
The negative forms are shall not and should not, contracted to shan't and shouldn't.
13.1.4. Will and would
35
Will is often used to express futurity: The next meeting will be held on Thursday; will do, will be
doing, will have done and will have been doing.
It can express habitual aspect; for example, he will make mistakes may mean that he
frequently makes mistakes (here the word will is usually stressed somewhat, and often
expresses annoyance).
It can express strong probability with present time reference, as in that will be John at the
door.
Would can be used in conditional sentences (see conditionals) and it can indicate an expression
of habitual aspect in past time, as in Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school.
The negative forms are will not (contracted to won't) and would not (contracted to wouldn't).
14. Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in
front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not
possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on
the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning
useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
36
in months / season in January/ in winter
time of the day in the morning
year in 1998
after a certain period of time (when?) in an hour
at for weekend at weekend
for night at night
a certain point of time (when?) at half past nine
since from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1975
for over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years
to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a period of From Monday to / till
time Friday
by, next to, beside left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to
/ beside the car.
under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) the bag is under the table
something else
below lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the
surface
getting to the other side (also across) walk over the bridge
above higher than something else, but not directly a path above the lake
over it
38
across getting to the other side (also over) walk across the bridge
through something with limits on top, bottom and the drive through the tunnel
sides
39
on walking or riding on horseback on foot, on horseback
off
leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train
by
rise or fall of something prices have risen by 10
percent
travelling (other than walking or horse riding) by car, by bus
about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you
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14.4. Preposition-dependent verbs
A D O
abide by deal with object to
abstain from decide about/on/upon offer something to someone
accuse someone of depend on/upon P
add something to something disagree on/with participate in something
adhere to discriminate against pay for something
advise someone to distinguish from pay something to someone
agree on/with do research on/into/about persist in
aim at/for allow for do something for someone praise someone for
apologize for dream of/about pray for
apply to/for E prepare for
approve of escape from excel in present someone with
argue with/about exchange something for prevent someone/something
arise from excuse someone for from
arrest someone for arrive expect someone to prohibit someone from
in/at protect someone/something
ask for F from
attend to face up to protest about
find something for someone provide someone/something
B fine someone for with punish someone for
beg for forget about
believe in forgive someone for R
belong to recover from
beware of G refer to rely on/upon
blame someone for get something for someone rescue from respond to
boast about give something to someone
borrow something from S
someone H save someone from
brag about hide from hope for sell something to someone
buy something for someone I send something to someone
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insist on/upon sentence someone to
C interfere with/in show something to someone
call for introduce to invite someone smile at
care about/for to stare at
choose between stop from
comment on J subscribe to
compare to/with joke about substitute for
complain about/of succeed in
comply with L suffer from
conceal something from laugh at
concentrate on leave for some place T
condemn someone for leave something for someone take advantage/care of
conform to lend something to someone talk with/to someone about
congratulate someone on/for listen to something
something long for thank someone for
consent to think of/about
consist of M
contribute to make something for someone V
cook something for someone mistake someone for volunteer to
count on/upon vote for
cure someone of a disease W
wait for
warn someone about
worry about
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accustomed to discriminated against married to
acquainted with divorced from O
addicted to done with opposed to
adjacent to dressed in P
afraid of / to (infinitive) E patient with
angry at engaged in/to pleased with
annoyed with/by envious of polite to
associated with equipped with prepared for
aware of equivalent to protected from
B excited about proud of
blessed with exhausted from Q
bored with/by exposed to qualified for
C F
capable of faithful to R
close to familiar with related to
cluttered with filled with relevant to
committed to finished with remembered for
compatible with fond of responsible for
composed of friendly to/with S
concerned about frightened of/by satisfied with
confronted with full of scared of/by
connected to furnished with suitable for
conscious of G T
consistent with gone from terrified of/by
content with grateful to/for tired of/from
contrary to guilty of U
convinced of I upset with
coordinated with innocent of used to
covered with interested in useful to
crowded with invited to W
involved in worried about
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J
jealous of
15. Nouns
15.1. Definition
A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living
creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Note, linguistically, a
noun is a member of a large, open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in
the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Common noun – it’s a noun which represents a class entities or a word that denotes a
member of a class such as: house, car, boy……
Proper noun or proper name – it’s a noun representing unique entities (such as India,
Jupiter, Harry, or BMW), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of
entities as it is illustrated above.
Collective nouns – these are nouns that – even when they are inflected for the singular –
refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples include
committee, government, and police.
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In English these nouns may be followed by a singular or a plural verb and referred to by a
singular or plural pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a
unit and the plural often being preferred to.
Uncountable (or non-count) nouns differ from countable nouns in precisely that respect:
they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers,
for examples: water, furniture, oil, air, bread …
Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, beer is countable in "give
me three beers", but uncountable in "he likes beer".
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15.5. Formation of plural
Nouns, generally, are words which name people, place, things or ideas. They have numbers
singular and plural. Uncountable nouns have only one form and they do not have plural and,
countable nouns vary, that is, they have singular and plural forms as it follows:
Nouns
Singular Plural
boat boats
house houses
cat cats
river rivers
girl girls
Nouns
Singular Plural
bus buses
wish wishes
pitch pitches
box boxes
Singular nouns ending in consonant and then y form their plural by dropping the y and
adding ies:
Nouns
Singular Plural
daisy daisies
baby babies
city cities
penny pennies
spy spies
Singular nouns ending in f or fe form their plural by changing f to v and adding es:
Nouns
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Singular plural
wolf wolves
wife wives
leaf leaves
life lives
Nouns
Singular Plural
Mango Mangoes
Tomato tomatoes
Potato potatoes
Irregular nouns have different forms for singular and plural. Some are listed below:
Nouns
Singular Plural Singular Plural
woman women man men
child children tooth teeth
foot feet person people
mouse mice louse lice
Goose geese cactus cacti
focus foci fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
Analysis Analyses diagnosis diagnoses
oasis oases thesis theses
crisis crises phenomenon phenomena
criterion criteria datum data
ox oxen
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural:
Nouns
Singular Plural
sheep sheep
fish fish
deer deer
aircraft aircraft
species species
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Some plural nouns are used with singular verbs such as news, athletics, linguistics, darts, and
billiards:
Some nouns have their fixed plural and they are used plural verbs such as trousers, saving,
thanks, stairs, wages, jeans, spectacles, customs, congratulations, outskirts, scissors, tropics,
gasses, etc.
15.6. Quantifiers
Quantifiers state precisely or suggest approximately the amount or the number of a noun. (They
quantify) They can be grouped by the noun types they quantify. These expressions are mainly
“some, any, many, much, a lot of, a little, a few …etc.
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There are some students in the class.
There are some cherries in the basket.
There are some mistakes in the list.
NOTE: in a negative sentence, we can use no in place of not any. However, no can also be used
with countable singular nouns. When no is used, the verb is always positive.
There are no wild animals in the forest. - There aren’t any wild animals in the forest.
There isn’t any milk at home. - There is no milk at home.
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Are there many books in your bag?
NOTE: too much and too many indicate an excess and are used in affirmative sentences.
How many - with plural nouns or better yet, it’s u7sed with countable nouns:
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15.6.4. A Few / Few & A Little / Little
A few expresses a small quantity. Few implies that something is not many, not enough or
almost none. It expresses a negative idea and it’s countable nouns.
I have a few close friends in town, and we have a very good time together.
I have few friends in town, so I feel lonely from time to time.
A little expresses a small quantity. Little implies that something is not much, not enough
or almost none. It expresses a negative idea and it’s used with uncountable nouns.
Very
It’s a bit cold! And she didn’t invite him. That was a bit mean!
Gradually
Not in a way
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She wasn’t a bit worried about the test.
Are you getting tired? Not a bit.
A lot of expresses a large amount of something, it’s used with both countable and
uncountable nouns.
A plenty of expresses a large amount of something and, it’s used with uncountable nouns.
I’ve got a plenty of time.
There’s no need to rush. We’ve got plenty of time.
16. Articles
An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a
noun. There are only two types articles (definitive and indefinite) a/an and the, but they are used
very often and are important for using English accurately.
I have a book
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She rides a bike
The difference between the sentences above is that the second sentence refers to a particular,
specific chair, not just any chair.
Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns must have an article. In English, it is
not possible to say I sat on chair without an article, but a demonstrative or possessive adjective
can be used instead of an article as in the sentences:
Whenever you see an article, you will find a noun with it. The noun may be the next word as in
the sentence the man or there may be adjectives and perhaps adverbs between the article and the
noun:
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Notice that in the first example was used the article an because of the adjective interesting which
stars in a vowel and yet, in the second example, there is a use of the article a because of the
adjective. The adjective are qualifying the in sentences, therefore, the article should be used
according to the words that come before the nouns and not the noun itself
1.7. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase or better yet, pronoun is a word used
instead of a name. There are many types of pronouns as they follow.
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is
Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I
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am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about
another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
Object pronoun is used in the predicate of a sentence after an action verb or with a
preposition, such as for, at, into, with, or to. Singular object pronouns are me, you, him,
her, and it. Plural object pronouns are us, you, and them. When you use a person's name
and a pronoun in a compound object, be sure to use an object pronoun.
The teacher asked him about his project. It seemed brilliant to me.
This project was fun for James and me.
Personal Pronouns
Subject Object
Number
I me
You you
He him
Singular She her
It it
We us
You you
Plural
They them
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few
exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal
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is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are
often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several
solutions to this:
If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:
It's raining.
It will probably be hot tomorrow.
Is it nine o'clock yet?
It's 50 kilometres from here to Nampula.
Relative pronouns are used to link two sentences that have the same noun or pronoun in them.
Relative pronouns form the beginning of a relative clause. In English there are five basic relative
pronoun forms:
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That - used when referring to either an animate or inanimate noun, or better yet,
it’s used to refer people, things or objects:
The boy that sits next to me is my brother
The book that is on the table belongs to my teacher
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See the table as well:
Demonstrative pronouns
Near Far
Number
Singular this that
Plural these those
That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
These are bigger than those.
Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for
people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:
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We use possessive pronouns depending on:
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each
possessive pronoun can:
be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (Yours = your
key)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (his = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (hers = her passport)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (ours = our car)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (theirs = their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (theirs = their car)
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17.4.1. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are used to show possession or ownership of something. While we use
when refer to people, it is more the sense of relationship than ownership
The possessive adjectives need to agree with possessor and with thing that is possessed. See the
table below:
The verb that is used needs to be in agreement with the noun – if the noun is singular,
then the verb is singular, plural noun and then the verb is plural:
My pen is black. (Singular)
My pens are black. (Plural)
Our child is intelligent. (Singular)
Our children are intelligent. (Plural)
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Julie’s car is red. Mine is blue. Mine was used by the speaker instead of car to mean a car
belonging to them.
A possessive adjective is usually used to describe a noun, and it comes before it, like
other adjective:
My car is bigger than her car.
all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many,
nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone
Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in
the following sentences:
Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in
one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with
examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural.
Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also
agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:
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Number Pronoun Meaning Examples
another an additional or different That ice-cream was
person or thing good. Can I have
another?
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of two people or things Bill but neither believe
me
nobody/ no-one no person I phoned many times but
nobody answered
nothing no single thing, not If you don’t know the
Singular
anything answer it’s better to say
nothing
one an unidentified person Can one smoke here?
All students arrived but
one is missing
other a different person or One was tall and the
thing from one other was short
mentioned already
somebody/ an unspecified or Clearly some murdered
someone unknown person him. It’s not suicide
something unspecified or unknown Listen! I just heard
thing something! What could
it be
both two people or things John likes coffee but not
seen together tea. I think both are
good.
few a small number of Few have disobeyed him
people or things and lived
fewer a reduced number of Fewer are smoking these
people or things days
Plural many a large number of Many have come
people or things already
others other people, not us I’m sure that others have
tried before us.
several more than two but not They all complained and
many several left the meeting.
all the whole quantity of All is forgiven
something or of some All have arrived
things or people
most the majority, almost all Most is lost
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Most have refused
any no matter how much or Is any left?
Singular / Plural
how many Are any coming?
such of the type already He was a foreigner and
mentioned he left that he was
treated as such
Examples:
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Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function
and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these
examples:
We reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same ways toward
the other.
The action is reciprocated as John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. There are only two
reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
Each other (used with two people or things)
One another (used with three or more people or things)
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18. Conjunctions
18.1Definition
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the
box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're
out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help
themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects parts of a sentence.
AND
Used to join or link different ideas: Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first
clause is an imperative): Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself
deep in debt.
BUT
To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: Joey lost a fortune in
the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably.
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To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative
way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): The club never invested foolishly, but used
the services of a sage investment counselor.
To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second
word takes over as subject): Everybody but Golden breath is trying out for the team.
OR
To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: You can
study hard for this exam or you can fail.
To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: We can broil chicken on the grill
tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
The Others
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions,
so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. It’s most common
use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an
extent, rather stuffy:
George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet
another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he
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is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It
also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The
word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in
this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also
disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see
and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with
a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
Where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon
between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-
league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of
his adoring fans.
So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
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A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at
the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between
the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that
depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since —
are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to
subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
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looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To
introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.
Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
In the examples above, it’s strictly wrong to have the word like in them, so the sentence would be
grammatical correct if it’s remove as it shown in the examples below:
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:
The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St.
Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the U Conn Law School.
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions.
They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
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not only . . . but also whether . . . or
not . . . but as . . . as
either . . . or
Whatever means anything or everything; regardless of what or better yet, no matter what
Whatever you do, don’t forget to buy the drinks for dinner tonight
Ignore David, whatever he says. He's just a joker.
Wherever you go in the world you'll always find someone who speaks English.
We can go wherever you like tonight; it's your birthday.
Whichever means the person or thing which; it doesn't matter which; which is not
important:
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Whoever prepared dinner made a mess in the kitchen.
‘There are three books on the table, which can I read?’’ ‘’you read whichever you want”.
Go to the library and whatever book you find in there!
In the first sentence, the speaker has got only three book and, he can read any he wants and
again, in the second example, somebody is ordered to any book from the library, so to sum up,
we whichever with a few option while, whatever is used with unlimited options.
There are no rules that might explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly - all you can do is
look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. In our lists, you will find some
frequently used phrasal verbs and their meanings.
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Example:
Write down the word. / Write the word down.
If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun (object).
Example:
Write it down
19.2. List of the most common phrasal verbs and their meaning
Phrasal verb Meaning Examples
Account for To explain. They had to account for all the money that had
gone missing.
Act out Perform something with They acted out the story on stage.
actions and gestures..
Aim at To target The magazine is aimed at teenagers.
Answer To reply rudely to someone Her mother was shocked when she started
in authority. answering her back and refusing to help.
Ask for Request to have or be given. I asked for the menu.
Ask in To invite somebody into 'Jon's at the door.' 'ask him in.'
your house.
Be after Try to find or get. The police are after him because of the theft.
Be away Be elsewhere; on holiday, She's away on business for three weeks.
etc..
Be in Be at home or at work. They are never in; I always get their answer
phone.
Be on Take place, happen The show is on for the next three
Be out Be absent from a place. She is out on a visit for the day.
Be out of Have no more left. We're out of coffee so I'll have to go and get
some.
Black out Lose light. Everything blacked out when the power supply
failed.
Block in Park a car and obstruct I couldn't drive here this morning because
another car someone had blocked me in.
Block off Obstruct an exit to prevent The police blocked off the road
people from leaving. after the murder.
Boil over When a hot liquid spills out I left the milk on the cooker and it boiled over.
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of a container
Book in Make a reservation in I'll book us in at the Intercontinental.
advance.
Book in Check in at a hotel. WE took a taxi from the airport to the
hotel and booked in.
Break down Stop working. My car's broken down, so I came by taxi.
Bring back Return. He took the calculator home yesterday
and hasn't brought it back yet.
Bring Make something happen The meeting has been brought
forward earlier than originally forward to this Friday instead of next
planned. week because some people couldn't make
it then.
Brush up Improve a skill quickly. She took a two-week course to brush
up her Spanish before she went travelling
around South and Central America.
Burst into Laugh, cry or clap loudly. She burst into laughter when she heard the joke.
Call back Return a phone call. I must call her back when we get to the office.
Call on Visit. As we were in the area, we called on my sister-
in-law.
Carry on Continue Carry on quietly with your work until the
substitute teacher arrives.
Catch up Reach someone who was He started well, but I caught him up on the third
ahead of you. lap.
Come apart Break into pieces It came apart when I tried to lift it off
the floor and I had to glue it back together
Come back Return. I left work and came back home early.
Cool down Get cooler I left the tea for a minute until it had cooled
down enough to drink.
Cut back Reduce. The firm cut back production because sales
were sluggish.
Cut down Reduce a vertical thing to The logger cut the tree down.
ground level by cutting.
Do without Manage without something There's no sugar, so you'll have to do without.
Eat out Eat in a restaurant. We couldn't be bothered to cook so we ate out
last night.
End up with Get as a result of something He tried hard but ended up with a poor grade.
Fall apart Break into pieces. The box fell apart when I picked it up.
Fight back Defend yourself, resist an The army attacked the town and the inhabitants
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attack. fought back fiercely.
Fill in Complete a form. I filled in the application form and posted it off.
Find out Discover. I went to the library to find out all I could about
the life and work of Joe Meek
Get away Escape. The robbers got away in a stolen car, which the
police later found abandoned.
Get back Return. The train was held up so we didn't get back
home until midnight.
Give back Return something you've I gave the money back that she'd lent to me.
borrowed.
Give up Stop doing something. I have given up trying to help them.
Give up Surrender, stop trying. I can't think of the answer; I give up
Go after Chase, try to get. The cat went after the pigeon, but it flew away.
Go ahead Proceed. The construction of the bypass went ahead
despite the protests from environmentalists.
Go back Return to, start doing We went back to work after the break.
something again
Go on Continue. He went on and on talking and I was
so bored.
Hear about Get to know some Have you heard about the company takeover?
information.
Knock down Hit and injure someone. The car knocked her down and she broke her
arm.
Let in Allow someone to enter. The door staff didn't let him in the night club
because he was wearing jeans.
Let out Allow to leave or go out. The convict was let out of prison after serving
five years of an eight-year sentence.
Lie down Rest. I'm going to lie down for a few minutes before
we have to go out.
Look out Be careful. look out; you're going to drop that!
Pass away Die. Sadly, Georgia's uncle passed away yesterday
after a short illness.
Pay back Repay money borrowed. I paid back the twenty pounds I'd borrowed.
Run out of Have none left. We've run out of sugar; I'm going to the shops
for some.
Shut down Turn a computer off. You should close all programs before you
Shut up Stop talking or making He told us to shut up and start working.
noise.
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Sign up Subscribe. I signed up for their newsletter.
Take out Kill, murder. The gang took him out after he spoke to the
police.
Take away Remove. The police took the protestors away
Throw in Join, accompany. May I throw in with you? My companions left
me behind.
Time out End or close because of a The program timed out before I could reply.
time limit.
Try on Put clothes on to see if they I tried the jacket on before I bought it.
fit.
Walk on Continue walking. I saw the accident but just walked on as I didn't
want to have to give a statement.
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bite bit bitten morder
.bleed bled bled sangrar
bless blest blest abençoar/santificar
blow blew blown soprar
break broke broken partir/quebrar
breed bred bred procriar
bring brought brought trazer
broadcast broadcast broadcast transmitr/espalhar
build built built construir
burn burned/burnt burned/burnt queimar
burst burst burst explodir
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught apanhar
choose chose chosen escolher
clap clapt clapt aplaudir
come came come vir
cost cost cost custar
crow crew crewed cacarejar
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt negociar
dig dug dug cavar
dive dove dived mergulhar
do did done fazer
draw drew drawn desenhar
dream dreamt dreamt sonhar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conduzir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen cair
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought lutar
find found found achar/encontar
fit fit fit caber/server
flee fled fled fugir/escaper
fling flung flung arremessar
fly flew flown voar
forbid forbade forbidden proibir
forecast forecast forecast prever
forget forgot forgotten esquecer
forgive forgave forgiven perdoar
forsake forsook forsaken abandoner
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got gotten obter/cheger/consguir….
give gave given dar
77
go went gone ir
grind ground ground triturar/moer
grow grew grown crescer
hang hung hung pendurar/enforcar
have had had ter
hear heard heard ouvir
hide hid hidden esconder
hit hit hit bater/pisar/atingir
hold held held segurar
hurt hurt hurt doer/magoar
keep kept kept quardar/conserver/manter
kneel knelt knelt ajoelhar
knit knit knit tricotar
know knew known conhecer/saber
lay laid laid pôr
lead led led liderar/comandar
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left partir/deixar
lend lent lent emprestar
let let let deixar
lie lay lain deiatr-se
light lit/lighted lit/lighted acender/ligar (lampâda)
lose lost lost perder
make made made fazer
mean meant meant significar/querer dizer
meet met met econtar-se
melt melt molten deterrter
mislay mislaid mislaid colocar em lugar errado
mislead misled misled desencaminhar/desviar
mistake mistook mistaken errar/confudir
pay paid paid pagar
prove proved proven provar
put put put pôr
quit quit quit abandoner/deixar
read read read ler
rid rid rid livrar-se
ride rode ridden guiar/ montar (cavalo)
ring rang ring tocar (campainha/telefone)
rise rose rison erguer
run ran run corer
saw sawed sawn serrar
say said said dizer
see saw seen ver
seek sought sought procurer
sell sold sold vender
78
set set set acertar/ajustar
sew sewed sewn costurar
shake shook shaken sacudir/agitar
shed shed shed derramar
shine shone shone brilhar
shoot shot shot atirar`
show showed shown mostrar
shut shut shut fechar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk afundar
sit sat sat sentar-se
slay slew slain matar
sleep slept slept dormer
slide slid slid escorregar
sling slung slung atar
sow sowed sown semear
speak spoke spoken falar
speed sped sped apressar-se
spell spelt spelt soletrar
spend spent spent gastar/passer
spit spat spat cuspir
speak spoke spoken falar
spread spread spread espalhar/ espalhar-se
stand stood stood ficar de pé/ aguentar
strike struck struck estrilhar, atacar, golpear
steal stole stolen roubar
sweep swept swept varrer
swim swam swum nadir
take took taken levar
teach taught taught ensinar
tear tore torn rasgar, despedaçar
tell told told dizer, contar (histórias)
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown aremessar, lançar, atirar
tread trod trodden trilhar, pisar
understand understood understood compreender, entender
wear ‘ wore worn vestir
weep wept wept chorar
win won won ganhar
write wrote written escrever
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21. List of regular verbs and their meanings in Portuguese
80
copy copied copied copiar
cough coughed coughed tossir
crash crashed crashed embater
cross crossed crossed atrvessar, riscar
cry cried cried chorar
delay delayed delayed demorar
deliver delivered delivered entregar
deny denied denied negar
design designed designed elaborar
die died died morrer
desire desired desired desejar
despise despised despised desprezar
distinguish distinguished distinguished distinguir
dress dressed dressed vestir-se
earn earned earned ganhar (salário,
pão)
embrace embraced embraced abraçar
end ended ended terminar, findar
enjoy enjoyed enjoyed gozar, divertir – se
enter entered entered entrar
escape escaped escaped escapar / fugir
explain explained explained explicar
express expressed expressed expressar-se
exposs expossed expossed expor
erase erased erased apagar
establish established established estabelecer
frighten frightened frightened assustar
fill filled filled encher, preencher/
abastecer
(automóveis)
finish finished finished acabar
follow followed followed seguir
found founded founded fundar
fulfill fulfilled fulfilled cumprir
greet greeted greeted cumprimentar
gossip gossiped gossiped fofocar
happen happened happened acontecer, suceder
help helped helped ajudar
hug hugged hugged abraçar
identify identified identified identificar
imagine imagined imagined imaginar
imitate imitated imitated imitar
imply implied implied implicar
increase increased increased acrescentar,
81
aumentar
infect infected infected infectar
insert inserted insert inserir
invest invested invested investir
invite invited invited convidar
join joined joined juntar
jump jumped jumped saltar
kick kicked kicked pontapear / chutar
kiss kissed kissed beijar
knock knocked knocked bater(porta), dar
carolo
laugh laughed laughed rir-se
lick licked licked lamber
lie lied lied mentir
lift lifted lifted levantar (algo)
like liked liked gostar
limp limped limped coxear
listen listened listened escutar, ouvir
locate located located localizar
look looked looked olhar, reparar
love loved loved amar, adorar
manage managed managed gerir, conseguir
marry married married casar-se
measure measured measured medir
memorize memorized memorized memorizar, decorar
miss missed missed perder, falhar,
sentir faltar
move moved moved mover, mexer,
avançar, andar
murder murdered murdered assassinar
notice noticed noticed notar
obey obeyed obeyed obedecer
oblige obliged obliged obrigar
offer offered offered oferecer
open opened opened abrir
organize organized organized organizar
owe owed owed dever
paint painted painted pintar
pass passed passed passar
pick picked picked apanhar/ colher/
recolher
plant planted planted plantar
play played played jogar / brincar
please pleased pleased agradar
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practice practiced practiced praticar
predent predented predented fingir
predict predicted predicted prever
present presented presented apresentar
prevent prevented prevented prevenir
press pressed pressed pressionar
produce produced produced produzir
procriate procriated procriated procriar /
reproduzir
protect protected protected proteger
prove proved proved provar
publish published published publicar
punish punished punished castigar / castigo
rain rained rained chover
reach reached reached alcançar
recall recalled recalled recordar
recite recited recited recitar
reduce reduced reduced reduzir
refuse refused refused negar
reject rejected rejected rejeitar
remove removed removed tirar
repeat repeated repeated repetir
replace replaced replaced substituir
reply replied replied responder (carta,
sms)
report reported reported relatar
reproduce reproduced reproduced reproduzir
request requested requested pedir / solicitar
rent rented rented alugar
respected respected respected respeitar
respond responded responded responder
scare scared scared assustar
seem seemed seemed parecer
select selected selected seleccionar /
coleccionar
sign signed signed assinar
smash smashed smashed esmagar
sound sounded sounded soar
sow sowed sowed semear
spy spied spied espionar
sponsor sponsored sponsored patrocinar
start started started começar
stop stopped stopped parar
surprise surprised surprised surpreender
suppose supposed supposed supor
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surrender surrendered surrendered render-se / dar-se
por vencido
talk talked talked falar / conversar
tie tied tied atar /amarrar
touch touched touched tocar
try tried tried tentar/provar/expre
mentar
update updated updated actualizar
undress undressed undressed despir-se
use used used usar
verify verified verified verificar
walk walked walked andar
want wanted wanted querer
wash washed washed lavar
watch watched watched ver/assistir
water watered watered regar
wish wished wished desejar
work worked worked trabalhar
84
References
85