Waldorf Education

Waldorf education - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Waldorf_education#Four_temperaments
Waldorf education
Waldorf education, also known as Steiner
education, is based on the educational philosophy of
Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy. Its
pedagogy strives to develop pupils' intellectual, artistic,
and practical skills in an integrated and holistic
manner. The cultivation of pupils' imagination and
creativity is a central focus.
Individual teachers and schools have a great deal of

autonomy in determining curriculum content, teaching
methodology, and governance. Qualitative assessments
of student work are integrated into the daily life of the Hawthorne Valley Waldorf School, Ghent, NY
classroom, with quantitative testing playing a minimal
role and standardized testing usually limited to what is
required to enter post-secondary education.
The first Waldorf school opened in 1919[1] in Stuttgart,

Germany. A century later, it has become the largest
independent school movement in the world,[2] with
about 1,200 independent Waldorf schools,[3] 2,000
kindergartens[4] and 646 centers for special
education[5] located in 75 countries. Germany is the
country with the most Waldorf schools, followed by the
United States.[6] There are also a number of Waldorf-
based public schools,[7] charter schools and academies, Michael Hall School, Forest Row, Sussex, UK
and homeschooling[8] environments.
Some Waldorf schools in English-speaking countries

have met opposition due to vaccine hesitancy among
the parents of some Waldorf pupils, differences in
education standards, and the mystical and antiquated
nature of some of Steiner's theories.[9][10][11][12][13]
Contents Waldorf school in Ismaning, Bavaria

Origins and history
Developmental approach
Early childhood
Elementary education
Four temperaments
Secondary education
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Waldorf education - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldorf_education#Four_temperaments
Educational theory and practice

Assessment
Curriculum
Science
Information technology
Spirituality
Teacher education
Governance
Independent schools
State-funded schools
United States A cartogram of Waldorf Schools - countries are resized according to how many
United Kingdom Waldorf schools in that country.[6]
Australia, New Zealand, and Canada
Russia Waldorf schools by continent[3]
Homeschooling
Continent Schools Kindergartens Countries
Social engagement
Europe 803 138 37
Intercultural links in socially polarized
communities North America 202[14] 176 2
Reception Central America 17 18 4

Evaluations of students' progress South America 62 135 7
Educational scholars Asia 65 42 15
Germany
Oceania 69 50 3
Relationship with mainstream education
Public health Africa 21 21 5
Vaccine exemption Total 1239 580 71
Race
References
Further reading
External links
Origins and history

The first school based upon the ideas of Rudolf Steiner was opened in 1919 in response to a request
from Emil Molt, the owner and managing director of the Waldorf-Astoria Cigarette Company in
Stuttgart, Germany. This is the source of the name Waldorf, which is now trademarked in some
countries when used in connection with the overall method that grew out of this original Waldorf
school.[16] Molt's proposed school would educate the children of employees of the factory.[17]:381
Molt was a follower of Anthroposophy, the esoteric spiritual movement based on the notion that an
objectively comprehensible spiritual realm exists and can be observed by humans. Emil Molt was also
a close confidant of Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy's founder and spiritual leader.[18] Many of
Steiner's ideas influenced the pedagogy of the original Waldorf school and still play a central role in
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modern
Waldorf
classrooms
Growth in the number of accredited Waldorf schools from 1919

to 2016[15]
Rudolf Steiner
(reincarnation,[19] karma,[20][21] the existence of gnomes,[22]
eurythmy).[23]
As the co-educational school also served children from outside the factory, it included children from a
diverse social spectrum. It was also the first comprehensive school in Germany.[24][25][26][27]
Waldorf education became more widely known in Britain in 1922 through lectures Steiner gave at a
conference at Oxford University on educational methods.[28] Two years later, on his final trip to
Britain at Torquay in 1924, Steiner delivered a Waldorf teacher training course.[29] The first school in
England (Michael Hall) was founded in 1925; the first in the United States (the Rudolf Steiner School
in New York City) in 1928. By the 1930s, numerous schools inspired by the original and/or Steiner's
pedagogical principles had opened in Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Austria,
Hungary, the United States, and England.[30]
From 1933 to 1945, political interference from the Nazi regime limited and ultimately closed most
Waldorf schools in Europe, with the exception of the British, Swiss, and some Dutch schools. The
affected schools were reopened after the Second World War,[31][32] though those in Soviet-dominated
Eastern Germany were closed again a few years later by the Communist German Democratic Republic
government.[33]
In North America, the number of Waldorf schools increased from nine in the United States[34] and
one in Canada[35] in 1967 to around 200 in the United States[3][36][37] and over 20 in Canada[38] as of
2014. There are currently 29 Steiner schools in the United Kingdom and 3 in the Republic of
Ireland.[39]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Waldorf schools again began to proliferate in Central and
Eastern Europe. Most recently, many schools have opened in Asia, especially in China.[40][41] There
are currently over 1,000 independent Waldorf schools worldwide.[3]
Developmental approach
The structure of Waldorf education follows a theory of childhood development devised by Rudolf
Steiner, utilizing three distinct learning strategies for each of three distinct developmental stages.
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[17][42][43]These stages each last approximately seven years, as Steiner believed human beings
develop in seven-year-long spiritual cycles. He also believed each stage was imbued with a different
"sphere" - the Moon (0-7 years old), Mercury (7-14 years old), and Venus (14-21 years old).[44][45][46]
[47][48] Aside from these spiritual underpinnings, Steiner's seven-year stages are broadly similar to
those later described by Jean Piaget.[17]:402[49] In other respects, Steiner's ideas are descended
similarly from educational theories developed by Comenius and Pestalozzi.[50] The stated purpose of
this approach is to awaken the "physical, behavioral, emotional, cognitive, social, and spiritual"
aspects of each individual,[51] fostering creative and inquisitive thought.[51]:28 :39
Where is the book in which the teacher can read about what teaching is? The children
themselves are this book. We should not learn to teach out of any book other than the one
lying open before us and consisting of the children themselves.
— Rudolf Steiner, Human Values in Education[52]
Early childhood
Waldorf pedagogical theory considers that during the first years of life children learn best by being
immersed in an environment they can learn through un-selfconscious imitation of practical activities.
The early childhood curriculum therefore centers on experiential education, allowing children to learn
by example, and opportunities for imaginative play.[53][54][55][56] The overall goal of the curriculum is
to "imbue the child with a sense that the world is good".[57]
Waldorf preschools employ a regular daily routine that includes free play, artistic work (e.g. drawing,
painting or modeling), circle time (songs, games, and stories), and practical tasks (e.g. cooking,
cleaning, and gardening), with rhythmic variations.[58] Periods of outdoor recess are also usually
included.[57]:125 The classroom is intended to resemble a home, with tools and toys usually sourced
from simple, natural materials that lend themselves to imaginative play.[59] The use of natural
materials has been widely praised as fulfilling children's aesthetic needs, encouraging their
imagination, and reinforcing their identification with nature,[59][60][61][62] though one pair of
reviewers questioned whether the preference for natural, non-manufactured materials is "a reaction
against the dehumanizing aspects of nineteenth-century industrialization" rather than a "reasoned
assessment of twenty-first century children's needs".[63]
Pre-school and kindergarten programs generally include seasonal festivals drawn from a variety of
traditions, with attention placed on the traditions brought forth from the community.[64] Waldorf
schools in the Western Hemisphere have traditionally celebrated Christian festivals,[65] though many
North American schools also include Jewish festivals.[66]
Waldorf kindergarten and lower grades generally discourage pupils' use of electronic media such as
television and computers.[55] There are a variety of reasons for this: Waldorf educators believe that
use of these conflicts with young children's developmental needs,[67] media users may be physically
inactive, and media may be seen to contain inappropriate or undesirable content and to hamper the
imagination.[68]
Elementary education
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Waldorf pedagogues consider that readiness for formal learning

depends upon increased independence of character,
temperament, habits, and memory, one of the markers of which is
the loss of the baby teeth.[17]:389[50][69] Formal instruction in
reading, writing, and other academic disciplines are therefore not
introduced until students enter the elementary school, when
pupils are around seven years of age.[70] Steiner believed that
engaging young children in abstract intellectual activity too early
would adversely affect their growth and development.[17]:389
Waldorf elementary school
Waldorf elementary schools (ages 7–14) emphasize cultivating classroom
children's emotional life and imagination. In order that students
can connect more deeply with the subject matter, academic
instruction is presented through artistic work that includes story-telling, visual arts, drama,
movement, vocal and instrumental music, and crafts.[71][72][73] The core curriculum includes
language arts, mythology, history, geography, geology, algebra, geometry, mineralogy, biology,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, and nutrition.[57] The school day generally begins with a one-and-
a-half to two-hour, cognitively oriented academic lesson, or "Main lesson", that focuses on a single
theme over the course of about a month's time.[57]:145 This typically begins with introductory
activities that may include singing, instrumental music, and recitations of poetry, generally including
a verse written by Steiner for the start of a school day.[65]
Elementary school educators' stated task is to present a role model children will naturally want to
follow, gaining authority through fostering rapport and "nurturing curiosity, imagination, and
creativity".[74][75] The declared goal of this second stage is to "imbue children with a sense that the
world is beautiful".[57] There is little reliance on standardized textbooks.[50]
Waldorf elementary education allows for individual variations in the pace of learning, based upon the
expectation that a child will grasp a concept or achieve a skill when he or she is ready.[31] Cooperation
takes priority over competition.[76] This approach also extends to physical education; competitive
team sports are introduced in upper grades.[55]
Each class normally remains together as a cohort throughout their years, developing as a quasi-
familial social group whose members know each other quite deeply.[77] In the elementary years, a core
teacher teaches the primary academic subjects. A central role of this class teacher is to provide
supportive role models both through personal example and through stories drawn from a variety of
cultures,[57] educating by exercising creative, loving authority. Class teachers are normally expected to
teach a group of children for several years,[78] a practice known as looping. The traditional goal was
for the teacher to remain with a class for the eight years of the "lower school" cycle, but in recent years
the duration of these cycles has been increasingly treated flexibly. Already in first grade, specialized
teachers teach many of the subjects, including music, crafts, movement, and two foreign languages
from complementary language families[17] (in English-speaking countries often German and either
Spanish or French); these subjects remain central to the curriculum throughout the elementary school
years.
While class teachers serve a valuable role as personal mentors, establishing "lasting relationships with
pupils",[78] especially in the early years, Ullrich documented problems when the same class teacher
continues into the middle school years. Noting that there is a danger of any authority figure limiting
students enthusiasm for inquiry and assertion of autonomy, he emphasized the need for teachers to
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encourage independent thought and explanatory discussion in these years, and cited approvingly a
number of schools where the class teacher accompanies the class for six years, after which specialist
teachers play a significantly greater role.[57]:222
Four temperaments
Steiner considered children's cognitive, emotional and behavioral development to be interlinked.[79]

When students in a Waldorf school are grouped, it is generally not by a singular focus on their
academic abilities.[51]:89 Instead Steiner adapted the proto-psychological concept of the classic four
temperaments – melancholic, sanguine, phlegmatic and choleric – for pedagogical use in the
elementary years.[80] Steiner indicated that teaching should be differentiated to accommodate the
different needs that these psychophysical types[81] represent. For example, "cholerics are risk takers,
phlegmatics take things calmly, melancholics are sensitive or introverted, and sanguines take things
lightly".[51]:18 Today Waldorf teachers may work with the notion of temperaments to differentiate
their instruction. Seating arrangements and class activities may be planned taking into account the
temperaments of the students[82] but this is often not readily apparent to observers.[83] Steiner also
believed that teachers must consider their own temperament and be prepared to work with it
positively in the classroom,[84] that temperament is emergent in children,[31] and that most people
express a combination of temperaments rather than a pure single type.[80]
Secondary education
In most Waldorf schools, pupils enter secondary education when they are about fourteen years old.
Secondary education is provided by specialist teachers for each subject. The education focuses much
more strongly on academic subjects, though students normally continue to take courses in art, music,
and crafts.[57] The curriculum is structured to foster pupils' intellectual understanding, independent
judgment, and ethical ideals such as social responsibility, aiming to meet the developing capacity for
abstract thought and conceptual judgment.[53][59]
In the third developmental stage (14 years old and up), children in Waldorf programs are supposed to
learn through their own thinking and judgment.[85] Students are asked to understand abstract
material and expected to have sufficient foundation and maturity to form conclusions using their own
judgment.[17]:391 The intention of the third stage is to "imbue children with a sense that the world is
true".[57]
The overarching goals are to provide young people the basis on which to develop into free, morally
responsible,[51][86] and integrated individuals,[71][87][88] with the aim of helping young people "go out
into the world as free, independent and creative beings".[89] No independent studies have been
published as to whether or not Waldorf education achieves this aim.[77]
Educational theory and practice

The philosophical foundation of the Waldorf approach, anthroposophy, underpins its primary
pedagogical goals: to provide an education that enables children to become free human beings, and to
help children to incarnate their "unfolding spiritual identity", carried from the preceding spiritual
existence, as beings of body, soul, and spirit in this lifetime.[90] Educational researcher Martin Ashley
suggests that the latter role would be problematic for secular teachers and parents in state schools,[77]
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and the commitment to a spiritual background both of the child and the education has been
problematic for some committed to a secular perspective.[37][77][91]
While anthroposophy underpins the curriculum design, pedagogical approach, and organizational
structure, it is explicitly not taught within the school curriculum and studies have shown that Waldorf
pupils have little awareness of it.[51]:6 Tensions may arise within the Waldorf community between the
commitment to Steiner's original intentions, which has sometimes acted as a valuable anchor against
following educational fads, and openness to new directions in education, such as the incorporation of
new technologies or modern methods of accountability and assessment.[77]
Waldorf schools frequently have striking architecture, employing walls meeting at varied angles (not
only perpendicularly) to achieve a more fluid, less boxed-in feeling to the space. The walls are often
painted in subtle colors, often with a lazure technique, and include textured surfaces.[92]
Assessment
The schools primarily assess students through reports on individual academic progress and personal
development. The emphasis is on characterization through qualitative description. Pupils' progress is
primarily evaluated through portfolio work in academic blocks and discussion of pupils in teacher
conferences. Standardized tests are rare, with the exception of examinations necessary for college
entry taken during the secondary school years.[57]:150,186 Letter grades are generally not given until
students enter high school at 14–15 years,[93] as the educational emphasis is on children's holistic
development, not solely their academic progress.[57] Pupils are not normally asked to repeat years of
elementary or secondary education. It is noted that Waldorf education is not a matter of "assessment-
driven instruction or vice-versa" and there is no anxiety-producing experience on the part of the
learner of suddenly being tested.[94]
Curriculum
Though Waldorf schools are autonomous institutions not required to follow a prescribed curriculum
(beyond those required by local governments) there are widely agreed upon guidelines for the
Waldorf curriculum, supported by the schools' common principles.[67] The schools offer a wide
curriculum "governed by close observation and recording of what content motivates children at
different ages" and including within it, for example, the English, Welsh and Northern Irish National
Curriculum.[95]
The main academic subjects are introduced through up to two-hour morning lesson blocks that last
for several weeks.[51]:18 These lesson blocks are horizontally integrated at each grade level in that the
topic of the block will be infused into many of the activities of the classroom and vertically integrated
in that each subject will be revisited over the course of the education with increasing complexity as
students develop their skills, reasoning capacities and individual sense of self. This has been described
as a spiral curriculum.[96]
Many subjects and skills not considered core parts of mainstream schools, such as art, music,
gardening, and mythology, are central to Waldorf education.[97] Students learn a variety of fine and
practical arts. Elementary students paint, draw, sculpt, knit, weave, and crochet.[98] Older students
build on these experiences and learn new skills such as pattern-making and sewing, wood and stone
carving, metal work, book-binding,[99] and doll or puppet making. Fine art instruction includes form
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drawing, sketching, sculpting, perspective drawing and other techniques.
Music instruction begins with singing in early childhood and choral instruction remains an important
component through the end of high school. Pupils usually learn to play pentatonic flutes, recorders
and/or lyres in the early elementary grades. Around age 9, diatonic recorders and orchestral
instruments are introduced.[100]
Certain subjects are largely unique to the Waldorf schools. Foremost among these is eurythmy, a
movement art usually accompanying spoken texts or music which includes elements of drama and
dance and is designed to provide individuals and classes with a "sense of integration and
harmony".[76] Although found in other educational contexts, cooking,[101] farming,[102] and
environmental and outdoor education[103] have long been incorporated into the Waldorf curriculum.
Other differences include: non-competitive games and free play in the younger years as opposed to
athletics instruction; instruction in two foreign languages from the beginning of elementary school;
and an experiential-phenomenological approach to science[104] whereby students observe and depict
scientific concepts in their own words and drawings[105] rather than encountering the ideas first
through a textbook.
The Waldorf curriculum aims to incorporate multiple intelligences.[106]
Science
The scientific methodology of modern Waldorf schools utilizes a so-

called "phenomenological approach" to science education employing a
methodology of inquiry-based learning aiming to "strengthen the
interest and ability to observe" in pupils.[107]:111 The main aim is to
cultivate a sense of "wholeness" in regard to the human's place in nature.
[107]:113 Several empirical studies have noted how this method appears
effective and even exemplary when evaluated against age-matched peers
using the internationally recognized PISA test of 15-year-old students in
mathematics and science.[51][108][109]
Other experts have called into question the quality of this

phenomenological approach if it fails to educate Waldorf students on
basic tenets of scientific fact.[110] One study conducted by California
State University at Sacramento researchers outlined numerous theories Geometric growth of the
and ideas prevalent throughout Waldorf curricula that were patently nautilus shell – student
pseudoscientific and steeped in magical thinking. These included the work
idea that animals evolved from humans, that human spirits are
physically incarnated into "soul qualities that manifested themselves into
various animal forms", that the current geological formations on Earth have evolved through so-called
"Lemurian" and "Atlantiean" epochs, and that the four kingdoms of nature are "mineral, plant,
animal, and man". All of these are directly contradicted by mainstream scientific knowledge and have
no basis in any form of conventional scientific study. Contradictory notions found in Waldorf
textbooks are distinct from factual inaccuracies occasionally found in modern public school textbooks,
as the inaccuracies in the latter are of a specific and minute nature that results from the progress of
science. The inaccuracies present in Waldorf textbooks, however, are the result of a mode of thinking
that has no valid basis in reason or logic.[111] This unscientific foundation has been blamed for the
scarcity of systematic empirical research on Waldorf education as academic researchers hesitate in
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getting involved in studies of Waldorf schools lest it hamper their future career.[112]
One study of the science curriculum compared a group of American Waldorf school students to
American public school students on three different test variables.[107] Two tests measured verbal and
non-verbal logical reasoning and the third was an international TIMSS test. The TIMSS test covered
scientific understanding of magnetism. The researchers found that Waldorf school students scored
higher than both the public school students and the national average on the TIMSS test while scoring
the same as the public school students on the logical reasoning tests.[107] However, when the logical
reasoning tests measured students' understanding of part-to-whole relations, the Waldorf students
also outperformed the public school students.[107] The authors of the study noted the Waldorf
students' enthusiasm for science, but viewed the science curriculum as "somewhat old-fashioned and
out of date, as well as including some doubtful scientific material".[107] Educational researchers
Phillip and Glenys Woods, who reviewed this study, criticized the authors' implication of an
"unresolved conflict": that it is possible for supposedly inaccurate science to lead to demonstrably
better scientific understanding.[113]
In 2008, Stockholm University terminated its Waldorf teacher training courses. In a statement the
university said "the courses did not encompass sufficient subject theory and a large part of the subject
theory that is included is not founded on any scientific base". The dean, Stefan Nordlund, stated "the
syllabus contains literature which conveys scientific inaccuracies that are worse than woolly; they are
downright dangerous".[114]
Information technology
Because they view human interaction as the essential basis for younger children's learning and
growth,[77]:212 Waldorf schools view computer technology as being first useful to children in the early
teen years, after they have mastered "fundamental, time-honoured ways of discovering information
and learning, such as practical experiments and books".[115]
In the United Kingdom, Waldorf schools are granted an exemption by the Department for Education
(DfE) from the requirement to teach ICT as part of Foundation Stage education (ages 3–5). Education
researchers John Siraj-Blatchford and David Whitebread praised the [DfE] for making this
exemption, highlighting Waldorf education's emphasis on simplicity of resources and the way the
education cultivates the imagination.[63]
Waldorf schools have been popular with some parents working in the technology sector in the United
States, including those from some of the most advanced technology firms.[116][117][118][119] A number
of technologically oriented parents from one school expressed their conviction that younger students
do not need the exposure to computers and technology, but benefit from creative aspects of the
education; one Google executive was quoted as saying "I fundamentally reject the notion you need
technology aids in grammar school."[120]
Spirituality
Waldorf education aims to educate children about a wide range of religious traditions without
favoring any one of these.[76] One of Steiner's primary aims was to establish a spiritual yet
nondenominational setting for children from all backgrounds[71]:79[92][121] that recognized the value
of role models drawn from a wide range of literary and historical traditions in developing children's
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fantasy and moral imaginations.[50]:78 Indeed, for Steiner, education was an activity which fosters the
human being's connection to the divine and is thus inherently religious.[122]:1422,1430
Waldorf schools were historically "Christian based and theistically oriented",[73] as they expand into
different cultural settings they are adapting to "a truly pluralistic spirituality".[51]:146 Waldorf theories
and practices are often modified from their European and Christian roots to meet the historical and
cultural traditions of the local community.[123] Examples of such adaptation include the Waldorf
schools in Israel and Japan, which celebrate festivals drawn from these cultures, and classes in the
Milwaukee Urban Waldorf school, which have adopted African American and Native American
traditions.[76] Such festivals, as well as assemblies generally, which play an important role in Waldorf
schools, generally center on classes presenting their work.
Religion classes are usually absent from United States Waldorf schools, [124] are a mandatory offering
in some German federal states, whereby in Waldorf schools each religious denomination provides its
own teachers for the classes, and a non-denominational religion class is also offered. In the United
Kingdom, public Waldorf schools are not categorized as "Faith schools".[125]
Tom Stehlik places Waldorf education in a humanistic tradition, and contrasts its philosophically
grounded approach to "value-neutral" secular state schooling systems.[84]
Teacher education
Waldorf teacher education programs offer courses in child development,

the methodology of Waldorf teaching, academic subjects appropriate to
the future teachers' chosen specialty, and the study of pedagogical texts
and other works by Steiner.[2][126][127] For early childhood and
elementary school teachers, the training includes considerable artistic
work in storytelling, movement, painting, music, and handwork.[128]
Waldorf teacher education includes social–emotional development as

"an integral and central element", which is unusual for teacher
trainings.[129] A 2010 study found that students in advanced years of
Waldorf teacher training courses scored significantly higher than
students in non-Waldorf teacher trainings on three measures of
empathy: perspective taking, empathic concern and fantasy.[129]
Waldorf teacher training
centre in Witten, Germany
Governance
Independent schools
One of Waldorf education's central premises is that all educational and cultural institutions should be
self-governing and should grant teachers a high degree of creative autonomy within the school;
[130]:143[73] this is based upon the conviction that a holistic approach to education aiming at the
development of free individuals can only be successful when based on a school form that expresses
these same principles.[131] Most Waldorf schools are not directed by a principal or head teacher, but
rather by a number of groups, including:
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The college of teachers, who decide on pedagogical issues, normally on the basis of consensus.
This group is usually open to full-time teachers who have been with the school for a prescribed
period of time. Each school is accordingly unique in its approach, as it may act solely on the basis
of the decisions of the college of teachers to set policy or other actions pertaining to the school
and its students.[65]
The board of trustees, who decide on governance issues, especially those relating to school
finances and legal issues, including formulating strategic plans and central policies.[132]
Parents are encouraged to take an active part in non-curricular aspects of school life.[76] Waldorf
schools have been found to create effective adult learning communities.[133]
There are coordinating bodies for Waldorf education at both the national (e.g. the Association of
Waldorf Schools of North America and the Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship in the UK and
Ireland) and international level (e.g. International Association for Waldorf Education and The
European Council for Steiner Waldorf Education (ECSWE)). These organizations certify the use of the
registered names "Waldorf" and "Steiner school" and offer accreditations, often in conjunction with
regional independent school associations.[134]
State-funded schools
United States
The first US Waldorf-inspired public school, the Yuba River Charter School in California, opened in
1994. The Waldorf public school movement is currently expanding rapidly; while in 2010, there were
twelve Waldorf-inspired public schools in the United States,[135] by 2018 there were 53 such
schools.[36]
Most Waldorf-inspired schools in the United States are elementary schools established as either
magnet or charter schools. The first Waldorf-inspired high school was launched in 2008 with
assistance from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.[135] While these schools follow a similar
developmental approach as the independent schools, Waldorf-inspired schools must demonstrate
achievement on standardized tests in order to continue receiving public funding. Studies of
standardized test scores suggest that students at Waldorf-inspired schools tend to score below their
peers in the earliest grades and catch up[135] or surpass[126] their peers by middle school. One study
found that students at Waldorf-inspired schools watch less television and spend more time engaging
in creative activities or spending time with friends.[135] Public Waldorf schools' need to demonstrate
achievement through standardized test scores has encouraged increased use of textbooks and
expanded instructional time for academic subjects.[135]
A legal challenge alleging that California school districts' Waldorf-inspired schools violated the First
and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution and Article IX of the California
Constitution was dismissed on its merits in 2005[136] and on appeal in 2007[137] and 2012.
United Kingdom
The first state-funded Steiner-Waldorf school in the United Kingdom, the Steiner Academy Hereford,
opened in 2008. Since then, Steiner academies have opened in Frome, Exeter and Bristol as part of
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the government-funded free schools programme.
In December 2018, Ofsted judged the Steiner Academy Exeter as inadequate and ordered it to be
transferred to a multi-academy trust; it was temporarily closed in October 2018 because of concerns.
The concerns included significant lapses in safeguarding, and mistreating children with special
educational needs and disabilities, and misspending the funding designated for them.[138] Another
incident was that in July 2018, two 6-year-old children were found by police having walked out of the
school unnoticed, and their parents were not informed until the end of the day.[139] Subsequently, the
Steiner Academies in Bristol and Frome have also been judged inadequate by Ofsted, because of
concerns over safeguarding and bullying, and a number of private Steiner schools have also been
judged inadequate.[140] Overall, several Waldorf schools in the UK have closed in the last decade due
to their administrations' failure to adhere to state-mandated standards of education (e.g. required
levels of literacy, safety standards for child welfare, and mistreatment of special needs children).
[141][142][143]
In November 2012, BBC News broadcast an item about accusations that the establishment of a state-
funded Waldorf School in Frome was a misguided use of public money. The broadcast reported that
concerns were being raised about Rudolf Steiner's beliefs, stating he "believed in reincarnation and
said it was related to race, with black (schwarz) people being the least spiritually developed, and
white (weiß) people the most".[144] In 2007 the European Council for Steiner Waldorf Education
(ECSWE) issued a statement, "Waldorf schools against discrimination", which said in part, "Waldorf
schools do not select, stratify or discriminate amongst their pupils, but consider all human beings to
be free and equal in dignity and rights, independent of ethnicity, national or social origin, gender,
language, religion, and political or other convictions. Anthroposophy, upon which Waldorf education
is founded, stands firmly against all forms of racism and nationalism."[145]
The British Humanist Association criticised a reference book used to train teachers in Steiner
academies for suggesting that the heart is sensitive to emotions and promoting homeopathy, while
claiming that Darwinism is "rooted in reductionist thinking and Victorian ethics". Edzard Ernst,
emeritus professor of complementary medicine, said that Waldorf schools "seem to have an anti-
science agenda". A United Kingdom Department for Education spokeswoman said "no state school is
allowed to teach homeopathy as scientific fact" and that free schools "must demonstrate that they will
provide a broad and balanced curriculum".[146]
Australia, New Zealand, and Canada
Australia has "Steiner streams" incorporated into a small number of existing government schools in
some states; in addition, independent Steiner-Waldorf schools receive partial government funding.
The majority of Steiner-Waldorf schools in New Zealand are Integrated Private Schools under The
Private Schools Integration Act 1975, thus receiving full state funding. In the Canadian provinces of
British Columbia, Quebec and Alberta, all private schools receive partial state funding.[147]
Russia
The first Steiner school in Russia was established in 1992 in Moscow.[148] That school is now an
award-winning government-funded school with over 650 students offering classes for kindergarten
and years 1 to 11 (the Russian education system is an eleven year system). There are 18 Waldorf
schools in Russia and 30 kindergartens. Some are government funded (with no fees) and some are
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privately funded (with fees for students). As well as five Waldorf schools in Moscow, there are also
Waldorf schools in Saint Petersburg, Irkutsk, Jaroslawl, Kaluga, Samara, Zhukovskiy, Smolensk,
Tomsk, Ufa, Vladimir, Voronezh, and Zelenograd. The Association of Russian Waldorf Schools was
founded in 1995 and now has 21 members.[148]
Homeschooling
Waldorf-inspired home schools typically obtain their program information through informal parent
groups, online, or by purchasing a curriculum. Waldorf homeschooling groups are not affiliated with
the Association of Waldorf Schools of North America (AWSNA), which represents independent
schools and it is unknown how many home schools use a Waldorf-inspired curriculum.
Educationalist Sandra Chistolini suggests that parents offer their children Waldorf-inspired
homeschooling because "the frustration and boredom some children feel in school are eliminated and
replaced with constant attention to the needs of childhood [and] connections between content and the
real world".[149]
Social engagement
Steiner's belief that all people are imbued with a spiritual core has fueled Waldorf schools' social
mission.[150] The schools have always been coeducational and open to children of all social classes.
They were designed from the beginning to be comprehensive, 12-year schools under the direction of
their own teachers, rather than the state or other external authorities,[151] all radical principles when
Steiner first articulated them.[152]
Social renewal and transformation remain primary goals for Waldorf schools,[153] which seek to
cultivate pupils' sense of social responsibility.[59][154][155][156] Studies suggest that this is successful;
[50]:190[51]:4 Waldorf pupils have been found to be more interested in and engaged with social and
moral questions and to have more positive attitudes than students from mainstream schools,[157]
demonstrating activism and self-confidence and feeling empowered to forge their own futures.[158]
Waldorf schools build close learning communities, founded on the shared values of its members,[51]:17
in ways that can lead to transformative learning experiences that allow all participants, including
parents, to become more aware of their own individual path,[51]:5,17,32,40[84]:238 but which at times
also risk becoming exclusive.[50]:167, 207 Reports from small-scale studies suggest that there are lower
levels of harassment and bullying in Waldorf schools[51]:29 and that European Waldorf students have
much lower rates of xenophobia and gender stereotypes than students in any other type of
schools.[159] Betty Reardon, a professor and peace researcher, gives Waldorf schools as an example of
schools that follow a philosophy based on peace and tolerance.[160]
Many private Waldorf schools experience a tension between these social goals and the way tuition fees
act as a barrier to access to the education by less well-off families. Schools have attempted to improve
access for a wider range of income groups by charging lower fees than comparable independent
schools, by offering a sliding scale of fees, and/or by seeking state support.[77]
Intercultural links in socially polarized communities
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Waldorf schools have linked polarized communities in a variety of settings.
Under the apartheid regime in South Africa, the Waldorf school was one of the few schools in
which children of all apartheid racial classifications attended the same classes, despite the
ensuing loss of state aid. A Waldorf training college in Cape Town, the Novalis Institute, was
referenced during UNESCO's Year of Tolerance for being an organization that was working
towards reconciliation in South Africa.[160][161]
The first Waldorf school in West Africa was founded in Sierra Leone to educate boys and girls
orphaned by the country's civil war.[162] The school building is a passive solar building built by the
local community, including the students.[163]
In Israel, the Harduf Kibbutz Waldorf school includes both Jewish and Arab faculty and students
and has extensive contact with the surrounding Arab communities.[164] It also runs an Arab-
language Waldorf teacher training.[165] A joint Arab-Jewish Waldorf kindergarten, Ein Bustan, was
founded in Hilf (near Haifa) in 2005[166][167] while an Arabic language multi-cultural
Druze/Christian/Muslim Waldorf school has operated in Shefa-'Amr since 2003.[168] In Lod, a
teacher training program brings together Israeli Arabs and Jews on an equal basis, with the goals
of improving Arab education in Israel and offering new career paths to Arab women.[169]
In Brazil, a Waldorf teacher, Ute Craemer, founded

Associação Comunitária Monte Azul, a community service
organization providing childcare, vocational training and work,
social services including health care, and Waldorf education
to more than 1,000 residents of poverty-stricken areas
(Favelas) of São Paulo.
In Nepal, the Tashi Waldorf School in the outskirts of
A ten kindergarten complex in
Kathmandu teaches mainly disadvantaged children from a
Associação Comunitária Monte Azul
wide variety of cultural backgrounds.[170] It was founded in
1999 and is run by Nepalese staff. In addition, in the
southwest Kathmandu Valley a foundation provides
underprivileged, disabled and poor adults with work on a biodynamic farm and provides a Waldorf
school for their children.[171]
The T.E. Mathews Community School in Yuba County, California, serves high-risk juvenile
offenders, many of whom have learning disabilities. The school switched to Waldorf methods in
the 1990s. A 1999 study of the school found that students had "improved attitudes toward
learning, better social interaction and excellent academic progress".[172][173] This study identified
the integration of the arts "into every curriculum unit and almost every classroom activity" as the
most effective tool to help students overcome patterns of failure. The study also found significant
improvements in reading and math scores, student participation, focus, openness and
enthusiasm, as well as emotional stability, civility of interaction and tenacity.[173]
Waldorf education also has links with UNESCO. In 2008, 24 Waldorf schools in 15 countries were
members of the UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network.[174] The Friends of Waldorf Education
is an organization whose purpose is to support, finance and advise the Waldorf movement worldwide,
particularly in disadvantaged settings.
Reception
Evaluations of students' progress
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Although studies about Waldorf education tend to be small-scale and vary in national context, a
recent independent comprehensive review of the literature concluded there is evidence that Waldorf
education encourages academic achievement as well as "creative, social and other capabilities
important to the holistic growth of a person".[51]:39[77]
In comparison to state school pupils, European Waldorf students are significantly more enthusiastic
about learning, report having more fun and being less bored in school, view their school
environments as pleasant and supportive places where they are able to discover their personal
academic strengths,[108] and have more positive views of the future.[175] Twice as many Waldorf
students as state school pupils report having good relationships with teachers; they also report
significantly fewer ailments such as headaches, stomach aches, and disrupted sleep.[108]
A 2007 German study found that an above-average number of Waldorf students become teachers,
doctors, engineers, scholars of the humanities, and scientists.[176] Studies of Waldorf students' artistic
capacities found that they averaged higher scores on the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking
Ability,[177] drew more accurate, detailed, and imaginative drawings,[178] and were able to develop
richer images than comparison groups.[175]
Some observers have noted that Waldorf educators tend to be more concerned to address the needs of
weaker students who need support than they are to meet the needs of talented students who could
benefit from advanced work.[179]
Educational scholars
Professor of educational psychology Clifford Mayes said "Waldorf students learn in sequences and
paces that are developmentally appropriate, aesthetically stimulating, emotionally supportive, and
ecologically sensitive."[180] Professors of education Timothy Leonard and Peter Willis stated that
Waldorf education "cultivates the imagination of the young to provide them a firm emotional
foundation upon which to build a sound intellectual life".[181]
Professor of education Bruce Uhrmacher considers Steiner's view on education worthy of

investigation for those seeking to improve public schooling, saying the approach serves as a reminder
that "holistic education is rooted in a cosmology that posits a fundamental unity to the universe and
as such ought to take into account interconnections among the purpose of schooling, the nature of the
growing child, and the relationships between the human being and the universe at large", and that a
curriculum need not be technocratic, but may equally well be arts-based.[17]:382, 401
Thomas Nielsen, assistant professor at the University of Canberra's education department, said that
imaginative teaching approaches used in Waldorf education (drama, exploration, storytelling, routine,
arts, discussion and empathy) are effective stimulators of spiritual-aesthetic, intellectual and physical
development, expanding "the concept of holistic and imaginative education" and recommends these
to mainstream educators.[71][182]
Andreas Schleicher, international coordinator of the PISA studies, commented on what he saw as the
"high degree of congruence between what the world demands of people, and what Waldorf schools
develop in their pupils", placing a high value on creatively and productively applying knowledge to
new realms. This enables "deep learning" that goes beyond studying for the next test.[176] Deborah
Meier, principal of Mission Hill School and MacArthur grant recipient, while having some "quibbles"
about the Waldorf schools, stated: "The adults I know who have come out of Waldorf schools are
15 of 34 13/01/2021, 1:14 am
extraordinary people. That education leaves a strong mark of thoroughness, carefulness, and
thoughtfulness."[183]
Robert Peterkin, director of the Urban Superintendents Program at Harvard's Graduate School of
Education and former Superintendent of Milwaukee Public Schools during a period when Milwaukee
funded a public Waldorf school, considers Waldorf education a "healing education" whose underlying
principles are appropriate for educating all children.[184]
Waldorf education has also been studied as an example of educational neuroscience ideas in
practice.[185]
Germany
In 2000, educational scholar Heiner Ullrich wrote that intensive study of Steiner's pedagogy had been
in progress in educational circles in Germany since about 1990 and that positions were "highly
controversial: they range from enthusiastic support to destructive criticism".[50] In 2008, the same
scholar wrote that Waldorf schools have "not stirred comparable discussion or controversy... those
interested in the Waldorf School today... generally tend to view this school form first and foremost as
a representative of internationally recognized models of applied classic reform pedagogy"[57]:140–141
and that critics tend to focus on what they see as Steiner's "occult neo-mythology of education" and to
fear the risks of indoctrination in a worldview school, but lose an "unprejudiced view of the varied
practice of the Steiner schools".[50] Ullrich himself considers that the schools successfully foster
dedication, openness, and a love for other human beings, for nature, and for the inanimate world.
[57]:179
Professor of Comparative Education Hermann Röhrs describes Waldorf education as embodying

original pedagogical ideas and presenting exemplary organizational capabilities.[186]
Relationship with mainstream education
A UK Department for Education and Skills report suggested that Waldorf and state schools could
learn from each other's strengths: in particular, that state schools could benefit from Waldorf
education's early introduction and approach to modern foreign languages; combination of block
(class) and subject teaching for younger children; development of speaking and listening through an
emphasis on oral work; good pacing of lessons through an emphasis on rhythm; emphasis on child
development guiding the curriculum and examinations; approach to art and creativity; attention
given to teachers’ reflective activity and heightened awareness (in collective child study for example);
and collegial structure of leadership and management, including collegial study. Aspects of
mainstream practice which could inform good practice in Waldorf schools included: management
skills and ways of improving organizational and administrative efficiency; classroom management;
work with secondary-school age children; and assessment and record keeping.[51]
American state and private schools are drawing on Waldorf education – "less in whole than in part" –
in expanding numbers.[187] Professor of Education Elliot Eisner sees Waldorf education exemplifying
embodied learning and fostering a more balanced educational approach than American public schools
achieve.[188] Ernest Boyer, former president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching commended the significant role the arts play throughout Waldorf education as a model for
other schools to follow.[189] Waldorf schools have been described as establishing "genuine
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community" and contrasted to mainstream schools, which have been described as "residential areas
partitioned by bureaucratic authorities for educational purposes".[190]
Many elements of Waldorf pedagogy have been used in all Finnish schools for many years.[176]
Ashley described seven principal ways Waldorf education differed from mainstream approaches: its
method of working from the whole to the parts, its attentiveness to child development, its goal of
freedom, the deep relationships of teachers to students, the emphasis on experiencing oral traditions,
the role of ritual and routine (e.g. welcoming students with a handshake, the use of opening and
closing verses, and yearly festivals), the role arts and creativity play, and the Goetheanistic approach
to science.[77]
Public health
Vaccine exemption
In states where nonmedical vaccine exemption is legal, 2015 reports showed Waldorf schools as
having a high rate of vaccine exemption within their student populations, however, recent research
has shown that in US state schools, child immunization rates often fall below the 95-percent threshold
that the Centers for Disease Control say is necessary to provide “herd immunity” for a community.
[191][192][193][194][195][196] A 2010 report by the UK Government said that Steiner schools should be
considered "high risk populations" and "unvaccinated communities" with respect to children's risks of
catching measles and contributing to outbreaks.[197] On 19 November 2018, the BBC reported there
was an outbreak of chickenpox affecting 36 students at the Asheville Waldorf School located in North
Carolina.[198] Out of 152 students at the school, 110 had not received the Varicella vaccine that
protects against chickenpox.[198] The United States Advisory Committee on Immunization, the
Centers for Disease Control, and the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services all
recommend that all healthy children 12 months of age and older get vaccinated against Varicella.
[199][200][201] The Guardian reported that several Waldorf schools in California had some of the
lowest vaccination rates among kindergarten pupils in the 2017–18 school year, with only 7% of
pupils having been vaccinated in one school.[202] In the same article, however, The Guardian also
reported that, in a 2019 statement, the International Center for Anthroposophic Medicine and the
International Federation of Anthroposophic Medical Associations stressed that anthroposophic
medicine, the form of medicine Steiner founded, “fully appreciates the contributions of vaccines to
global health and firmly supports vaccinations as an important measure to prevent life threatening
diseases".[203]
Rudolf Steiner founded the first Waldorf school several years before vaccinations for tetanus,
diphtheria, and whooping cough were invented.[204][205] After such vaccinations became widespread
in Europe, Steiner opposed their use in several contexts, writing that vaccination could "impede
spiritual development" and lead to a loss of "any urge for a spiritual life". Steiner also thought that
these effects would carry over into subsequent reincarnations of the vaccinated person.[206]
The Association of Waldorf Schools of North America released the following in a statement in
2019:[207]
The Association of Waldorf Schools of North America wishes to state unequivocally that
17 of 34 13/01/2021, 1:14 am
our educational objectives do not include avoidance of, or resistance to, childhood
immunization. The health, safety, and wellbeing of children are our forefront concerns.
All members of our association are schools or institutions that are free to make
independent school policy decisions in accordance with AWSNA's membership and
accreditation criteria. Our membership and accreditation criteria require schools to be
compliant with national, state, provincial, and local laws. While policy decisions
regarding immunizations may vary from school to school, such decisions are made in
accordance with legal requirements set by local, state, provincial or federal
government.
The Association encourages parents to consider their civic responsibility in regards to
the decision of whether or not to immunize against any communicable disease, but
ultimately, the decision to immunize or not is one made by parents in consultation with
their family physician.
Race
The Association of Waldorf Schools of North America (AWSNA) and European Council for Steiner
Waldorf Education have put out statements stating that "racist or discriminatory tendencies are not
tolerated in Waldorf schools or Waldorf teacher training institutes. The Waldorf school movement
explicitly rejects any attempt to misappropriate Waldorf pedagogy or Rudolf Steiner's work for racist
or nationalistic purposes."[208] Similar statements were put out by the Waldorf school association in
Britain ("Our schools do not tolerate racism. Racist views do not accord with Steiner’s longer term
vision of a society in which such distinctions would be entirely irrelevant & modern Steiner Waldorf
schools deplore all forms of intolerance, aiming to educate in a spirit of respect & to encourage open-
hearted regard for others among the children they educate")[209] and Germany.[210]
These statements are the necessary response to Rudolf Steiner's contradictory beliefs about race: he
emphasized the core spiritual unity of all the world's peoples, sharply criticized racial prejudice, and
articulated beliefs that the individual nature of any person stands higher than any racial, ethnic,
national or religious affiliation,[211][212][213] yet he asserted a hierarchy of races, with the white race at
the top, and associated intelligence with having blonde hair and blue eyes.[214][215]
In 2019 a school in Christchurch, New Zealand began considering removing Rudolf Steiner from the
name of the school "so that the our best ideals are not burdened by historical, philosophical
untruths."[216] In 2014, after an investigation by the NZ Ministry of Education, a small school on the
Kapiti Coast of New Zealand was cleared of teaching racist theories. An independent investigation
concluded that while there were no racist elements in the curriculum, the school needed to make
changes in the "areas of governance, management and teaching to ensure parents' complaints were
dealt with appropriately in the future...[and that]...the school must continue regular communication
with the school community regarding the ongoing work being undertaken to address the issues raised
and noted that the board has proactively sought support to do this."[217]
Racist attitudes and behaviour have been reported in particular Waldorf schools, and some teachers
have reportedly expressed Steiner's view that individuals reincarnate through various races, however,
Kevin Avison, senior advisor for the Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship in the UK and Ireland, calls
the claim of belief in reincarnation through the races “a complete and utter misunderstanding” of
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Steiner’s teachings.[215]
References
1. Edmunds, Francis (2004). An Introduction to Steiner Education: The Waldorf School. Forest Row:
Sophia Books. p. 86. ISBN 9781855841727.
2. Zdrazil, Tomas (2018). "Theorie-Praxis Verhältnis in der Waldorfpädagogik". In Kern, Holger;
Zdrazil, Tomas; Götte, Wenzel Michael (eds.). Lehrerbildung in der Waldorfschule. Weinheim, DE:
Juventa. p. 34. ISBN 9783779938293.
3. "Statistics for Waldorf schools worldwide" (http://www.freunde-waldorf.de/fileadmin/user_upload/i
mages/Waldorf_World_List/Waldorf_World_List.pdf) (PDF).
4. [https://ps.goetheanum.org/paedagogik/kindergaerten/ Kindergartens>
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n/waldorf-worldwide/waldorf-education/waldorf-world-list.html) www.freunde-waldorf.de.
6. Paull, John & Hennig, Benjamin (2020) Rudolf Steiner Education and Waldorf Schools: Centenary
World Maps of the Global Diffusion of "The School of the Future" (https://www.academia.edu/4203
9133/Rudolf_Steiner_Education_and_Waldorf_Schools_Centenary_World_Maps_of_the_Global_
Diffusion_of_The_School_of_the_Future_) Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 6(1):
24–33.
7. J. Vasagard, "A different class: the expansion of Steiner schools" (https://www.theguardian.com/e
ducation/2012/may/25/steiner-state-funded-free-schools), Guardian 25 May 2012
8. M. L. Stevens, "The Normalisation of Homeschooling in the USA", Evaluation & Research in
Education Volume 17, Issue 2–3, 2003, pp. 90–100
9. "Vaccine deniers: inside the dumb, dangerous new fad" (https://www.theverge.com/2013/10/21/47
67530/vaccine-deniers-inside-the-dumb-dangerous-new-fad). The Verge. Retrieved 3 December
2018.
10. Morgan, Richard E. (1973). "The Establishment Clause and Sectarian Schools: A Final
Installment?". The Supreme Court Review. 1973: 57–97. doi:10.1086/scr.1973.3108801 (https://d
oi.org/10.1086%2Fscr.1973.3108801). JSTOR 3108801 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3108801).
S2CID 147590904 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147590904).
11. Cook, Chris (4 August 2014). "Why are Steiner schools so controversial?" (https://www.bbc.com/n
ews/education-28646118). BBC News.
12. "Steiner schools have some questionable lessons for today's children" (https://www.independent.c
o.uk/news/education/steiner-schools-have-some-questionable-lessons-for-todays-children-a7402
911.html). The Independent. The Independent. 17 May 2019.
13. Chertoff, Emily (30 November 2012). "Is This Grade School a 'Cult'? (And Do Parents Care?)" (htt
ps://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/11/is-this-grade-school-a-cult-and-do-parents-care
/265620/). The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
14. This figure includes 155 private and 47 US public and charter schools. Alliance for Public Waldorf
Education list of schools (http://www.allianceforpublicwaldorfeducation.org/find-a-school/)
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15. Data drawn from Helmut Zander, Anthroposophie in Deutschland, 2 volumes, Vandenhoeck und
Ruprecht Verlag, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 9783525554524; Dirk Randall, "Empirische Forschung
und Waldorfpädogogik", in H. Paschen (ed.) Erziehungswissenschaftliche Zugänge zur
Waldorfpädagogik, 2010 Berlin: Springer 978-3-531-17397-9; "Introduction", Deeper insights in
education: the Waldorf approach, Rudolf Steiner Press (December 1983) 978-0880100670. p. vii;
L. M. Klasse, Die Waldorfschule und die Grundlagen der Waldorfpädagogik Rudolf Steiners,
GRIN Verlag, 2007; Ogletree E J "The Waldorf Schools: An International School System",
Headmaster U.S.A., pp8-10 Dec 1979; Heiner Ullrich, Rudolf Steiner, Translated by Janet Duke
and Daniel Balestrini, Continuum Library of Educational Thought, v. 11, 2008
ISBN 9780826484192.
16. "Waldorf Education Trademarks - Association of Waldorf Schools of North America" (https://waldo
rfeducation.org/awsna/registered_trademarks). waldorfeducation.org.
17. Uhrmacher, P. Bruce (Winter 1995). "Uncommon Schooling: A Historical Look at Rudolf Steiner,
Anthroposophy, and Waldorf Education". Curriculum Inquiry. 25 (4): 381–406.
doi:10.2307/1180016 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1180016). JSTOR 1180016 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/1180016).
18. Paull, John. " 'From Waldorf Tobacco to Waldorf Education' Emil Molt meets Rudolf Steiner" (http
s://www.anthroposophyau.org.au/event/moving-beyond-blame-listening-for-whats-needed-nowhos
ted-by-the-tas-branch-anthroposophical-society-our-guest-facilitator-and-educator-tanya-coburn-w
ho-works-with-deepening-listening-to-address-copy/). Anthroposophical Society in Australia.
Retrieved 26 December 2018.
19. Lewis, Andy (19 March 2013). "Bill Roache, Karma, Reincarnation and Steiner Schools" (http://ww
w.quackometer.net/blog/2013/03/bill-roache-karma-reincarnation-and-steiner-schools.html). The
Quackometer Blog. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
ews/education-28646118). BBC News. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
21. "Second Year" (http://www.bacwtt.org/programs/teacher-training/second-year/). Bay Area Center
for Waldorf Teacher Training. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
22. Berlatsky, Noah (1 April 2013). "My Waldorf-Student Son Believes in Gnomes—and That's Fine
With Me" (https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/04/my-waldorf-student-son-believes-i
n-gnomes-and-thats-fine-with-me/274521/). The Atlantic. Retrieved 25 December 2018.
23. Goldshmidt, Gilad (14 February 2017). "Waldorf Education as Spiritual Education". Religion &
Education. 44 (3): 346–363. doi:10.1080/15507394.2017.1294400 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15
507394.2017.1294400). S2CID 151518278 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151518278)
.
24. Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner: A documentary biography, Henry Goulden Ltd,
ISBN 0-904822-02-8, pp. 121–126 (German edition Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag
ISBN 3-499-50079-5).
25. Heiner Ullrich (2002). Inge Hansen-Schaberg, Bruno Schonig (ed.). Basiswissen Pädagogik.
Reformpädagogische Schulkonzepte Band 6: Waldorf-Pädagogik. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider
Verlag Hohengehren. ISBN 978-3-89676503-1.
26. Barnes, Henry (1980). "An Introduction to Waldorf Education". Teachers College Record. 81 (3):
323–336.
27. Reinsmith, William A. (31 March 1990). "The Whole in Every Part: Steiner and Waldorf
Schooling". The Educational Forum. 54 (1): 79–91. doi:10.1080/00131728909335521 (https://doi.
org/10.1080%2F00131728909335521).
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28. Paull, John (2011) Rudolf Steiner and the Oxford Conference: The Birth of Waldorf Education in
Britain (http://orgprints.org/18835/1/Paull2011OxfordEJES.pdf). European Journal of Educational
Studies, 3(1): 53–66.
29. Paull, John (2018) Torquay: In the Footsteps of Rudolf Steiner (https://www.academia.edu/364044
89/Torquay_In_the_Footsteps_of_Rudolf_Steiner), Journal of Biodynamics Tasmania. 125 (Mar):
26–31.
30. Friends of Waldorf education, Waldorf schools' Expansion (http://www.freunde-waldorf.de/en/the-fr
iends/publications/waldorf-education-worldwide/teil-1/waldorf-education-expansion-in-the-twentiet
h-century.html)
31. Uhrmacher, P. Bruce (1995). "Uncommon Schooling: A Historical Look at Rudolf Steiner,
Anthroposophy, and Waldorf Education". Curriculum Inquiry. 25 (4): 381–406.
doi:10.2307/1180016 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1180016). JSTOR 1180016 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/1180016).
32. A few schools elsewhere in Europe, e.g. in Norway, survived by going underground. History of the
Norwegian schools (http://www.freunde-waldorf.de/en/the-friends/publications/waldorf-education-
worldwide/teil-2/norway.html)
33. E.g. Waldorf schools in East Germany were closed by the DDR educational authorities, who
justified this as follows: the pedagogy was based on the needs of children, rather than on the
needs of society, was too pacifistic, and had failed to structure itself according to pure Marxist-
Leninist principles."Die Geschichte der Dresdner Waldorfschule" (http://www.waldorfschule-dresd
en.de.srv1.bk-provider.de/Historie.14.0.html)
34. The schools founded by 1967 were: Detroit Waldorf School, Green Meadow Waldorf School, High
Mowing School, Highland Hall Waldorf School, Honolulu Waldorf School, Kimberton Waldorf
School, Rudolf Steiner School of New York City, Sacramento Waldorf School, Waldorf School of
Garden City.AWSNA list of schools with dates of founding (http://www.whywaldorfworks.org/05_Fi
ndASchool/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130321223002/http://www.whywaldorfwork
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35. Founded in 1968, Toronto Waldorf School was the first Waldorf school in Canada.History of the
Toronto Waldorf School (http://www.torontowaldorfschool.com/about_TWS/TWS_history/index.ph
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EPATH=&ID=19487) 4 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine
39. Steiner Waldorf Schools Foundation, List of Steiner schools (http://www.steinerwaldorf.org/_listofs
teinerschools.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140104211009/http://www.steinerwal
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40. Connor, Neil (12 March 2012). "China Starts to Question Strict Schooling Methods" (https://ph.ne
ws.yahoo.com/china-starts-strict-schooling-methods-044028999.html). Agence France Press –
AFP. Retrieved 1 May 2013. "In recent years, China has seen a major expansion of alternative
teaching establishments such as those that operate under the educational principles of Austrian
philosopher Rudolf Steiner."
41. Lin Qi and Guo Shuhan (23 June 2011). "Educating the Whole Child" (http://www.chinadaily.com.c
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43. Thomas Armstrong, PhD (1 December 2006). The Best Schools: How Human Development
Research Should Inform Educational Practice (https://books.google.com/books?id=bmsbReA56NI
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44. Steiner, Rudolf (2016). "Between Death and Rebirth: Lecture Seven" (https://wn.rsarchive.org/Lec
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45. Steiner, Rudolf (1973). "Karmic Relationships: Esoteric Studies - Volume VII (Lecture Two)" (http
s://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/GA239/English/RSP1973/19240608p01.html). Rudolf Steiner
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48. Ahern, Geoffrey (2009). Sun at midnight : the Rudolf Steiner movement and gnosis in the West
(Rev. and expanded ed.). James Clarke & Co. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0227172933.
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people and surroundings, is seen by Steiner educators as the empathic stage - where empathy
means embracing the unconscious of another with one's own unconscious, to live into the
experience of another. The kindergarten teacher purposefully employs her own empathic ability as
she strives to be a role model worthy of imitation by the children, but she also creates a space
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80. Grant, M. (1999). "Steiner and the Humours: The Survival of Ancient Greek Science". British
Journal of Educational Studies. 47: 60. doi:10.1111/1467-8527.00103 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F
1467-8527.00103). "In individuals the temperaments are mixed in the most diverse ways, so that
it is possible only to say that one temperament or another predominates in certain traits.
Temperament inclines toward the individual, thus making people different, and on the other hand
joins individuals together in a group so proving that it has something to do both with the innermost
essence of the human being and with universal human nature."
81. Ullrich, Heiner (2008). Rudolf Steiner. London: Continuum.
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ISBN 978-0-549-26917-5. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
83. Woods, Philip A.; Martin Ashley; Glenys Woods (2005). Steiner Schools in England. UK
Department for Education and Skills (DfES). pp. 89–90. "For example, melancholic children like
sitting together because they are unlikely to be annoyed or disturbed by their neighbors. Livelier
temperaments such as sanguine or choleric are said to be likely to rub their liveliness off on each
other and calm down of their own accord. Little evidence of this aspect of practice was
immediately apparent to outside observers, and teachers did not readily volunteer to talk about it."
84. Stehlik, Tom (2008). Thinking, Feeling, and Willing: How Waldorf Schools Provide a Creative
Pedagogy That Nurtures and Develops Imagination. In Leonard, Timothy and Willis, Peter,
Pedagogies of the Imagination: Mythopoetic Curriculum in Educational Practice (https://books.goo
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99. Ogeltree, Earl J. (1979). Introduction to Waldorf Education: Curriculum and Methods. University
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104. Østergaard, Edvin; Dahlin, Bo; Hugo, Aksel (1 September 2008). "Doing phenomenology in
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nology_in_science_education_a_research_review.pdf) (PDF). Studies in Science Education. 44
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3O). doi:10.1080/03057260802264081 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057260802264081).
105. Zubrowski, Bernard (2009). Exploration and Meaning Making in the Learning of Science (Vol.
18 ed.). Springer. p. 231. ISBN 978-90-481-2496-1. "[Pictoral representation] is also a way of
focusing attention and closely observing what is happening. However, there are problems when it
comes to having students draw. Some are inhibited because they feel they have to have very
realistic representations. This can be overcome if throughout the grades drawing is approached
both as a way of self-expression and a way of capturing the external world. In Waldorf education,
there is an ongoing practice of having students draw. Others would do well to find ways of
adapting this approach in public school practice so that drawing is second nature to the students
and they are not inhibited in attempting it."
106. Thomas Armstrong, cited in Eric Oddleifson, Boston Public Schools As Arts-Integrated Learning
Organizations: Developing a High Standard of Culture for All (http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhori
zons/strategies/topics/Arts%20in%20Education/The%20Center%20for%20Arts%20in%20the%20
Basic%20Curriculum/oddleifson3.htm), :"Waldorf education embodies in a truly organic sense all
of Howard Gardner's seven intelligences. Rudolph Steiner's vision is a whole one, not simply an
amalgam of the seven intelligences. Many schools are currently attempting to construct curricula
based on Gardner's model simply through an additive process (what can we add to what we have
already got?). Steiner's approach, however, was to begin with a deep inner vision of the child and
the child's needs and build a curriculum around that vision."
107. Østergaard, Edvin; Dahlin, Bo; Hugo, Aksel (1 September 2008). "Doing phenomenology in
science education: a research review". Studies in Science Education. 44 (2): 93–121.
Bibcode:2008SScEd..44...93O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SScEd..44...93O).
doi:10.1080/03057260802264081 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057260802264081).
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Schulqualität und Lernerfahrungen, 2012
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Individual Characteristics of Waldorf Students" (https://www.webcitation.org/6LuyNS9bX?url=http
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"inaccurate science" that leads to better scientific understanding."
114. Peter Vinthagen Simpson (29 August 2008). "Stockholm University ends Steiner teacher training"
(http://www.thelocal.se/20080826/13944). The Local. "Stockholm University has decided to wind
up its Steiner-Waldorf teacher training. Steiner science literature is 'too much myth and too little
fact', the university's teacher education committee has ruled."
115. "Reading is a habit that we can't afford to lose" (http://www.heraldscotland.com/reading-is-a-habit-
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Further reading
Clouder, Christopher (ed.). Education: An Introductory Reader. Sophia Books, 2004 ("a collection
33 of 34 13/01/2021, 1:14 am
of relevant works by Steiner on education").

Steiner, Rudolf. "The Education of the Child, and early Lectures on Education" in Foundations of
Waldorf Education, Anthroposophic Press, 1996 (includes Steiner's first descriptions of child
development, originally published as a small booklet).
Steiner, Rudolf. The Foundations of Human Experience (also known as The Study of Man).
Anthroposophic Press, 1996 (these fundamental lectures on education were given to the teachers
just before the opening of the first Waldorf school in Stuttgart in 1919).
Note: All of Steiner's lectures on Waldorf education are available in PDF form at this research site (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20100815094205/http://www.steinerbooks.org/research/archive.php#w
aldorf).
External links
Online Waldorf Library (http://www.waldorflibrary.org/)
Education Section at the Rudolf Steiner Archive, An Online Library (https://www.rsarchive.org/Edu
cation/)
Regional associations of schools
Association of Waldorf Schools of North America (https://waldorfeducation.org/)

Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship (UK) (https://www.steinerwaldorf.org/)
Steiner Education Australia (https://www.steinereducation.edu.au)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waldorf_education&oldid=997771688"
This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 04:16 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
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Waldorf education - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

Individual teachers and schools have a great deal of

The first Waldorf school opened in 1919[1] in Stuttgart,

Some Waldorf schools in English-speaking countries

Contents Waldorf school in Ismaning, Bavaria

Educational theory and practice

Reception Central America 17 18 4

Origins and history

Growth in the number of accredited Waldorf schools from 1919

— Rudolf Steiner, Human Values in Education[52]

Waldorf pedagogues consider that readiness for formal learning

Steiner considered children's cognitive, emotional and behavioral development to be interlinked.[79]

Educational theory and practice

drawing, sketching, sculpting, perspective drawing and other techniques.

The Waldorf curriculum aims to incorporate multiple intelligences.[106]

The scientific methodology of modern Waldorf schools utilizes a so-

Other experts have called into question the quality of this

Waldorf teacher education programs offer courses in child development,

Waldorf teacher education includes social–emotional development as

the government-funded free schools programme.

Australia, New Zealand, and Canada

Intercultural links in socially polarized communities

Waldorf schools have linked polarized communities in a variety of settings.

In Brazil, a Waldorf teacher, Ute Craemer, founded

Evaluations of students' progress

Professor of education Bruce Uhrmacher considers Steiner's view on education worthy of

Professor of Comparative Education Hermann Röhrs describes Waldorf education as embodying

Relationship with mainstream education

57. Ullrich, Heiner (2008). Rudolf Steiner (https://archive.org/details/rudolfsteinercon00ullr). London:

160. Tolerance: The Threshold of Peace., UNESCO, 1994.

of relevant works by Steiner on education").

Regional associations of schools

Association of Waldorf Schools of North America (https://waldorfeducation.org/)

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This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 04:16 (UTC).

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