Helping learners master the definite, indefinite and zero articles

Word Count: 2492

Contents Page number

1. Introduction 2
1.1 Focus
1.2 Scope
2. Analysis of Features 3-6
2.1 Meaning
2.1.1 Specific and non-specific
2.1.2 Generic meaning
2.2 Use
2.2.1 Use of a/an
2.2.2 Use of the
2.2.3 Use of zero article
2.3 Phonological Form
3. Problems and Teaching Solutions 7-12
3.1 Meaning
3.2 Meaning/Use
3.3 Phonological Form

4. Conclusion 12

5. Bibliography 13
5.1 Research materials
5.2 Resource materials

6. Appendices 14-19

Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

1. Introduction

1.1 Focus
This language systems assignment focuses on the English article system. Many
languages have definite and/or indefinite articles but their use differs from

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English. Several express articles through suffixation and some languages such as
Chinese and Russian have no articles at all. (Swan & Smith, 2001). Consequently
articles cause problems for even the most advanced user of English and,
although incorrect usage rarely leads to a breakdown in communication, it does
indicate a non-native speaker.

Learner difficulty along with density and necessity of use are my reasons for
concentrating on articles. I find that neither learners nor teachers pay enough
attention to this aspect of English because comprehension is not impeded.
However, most of my B2/C1 students wish to perfect their English to work in
companies where English is essential and my experience shows that their article
misuse can be detrimental, particularly in written work where precision is
paramount.

1.2 Scope
Articles are a sub-class of determiners and while I acknowledge that determiners
as a whole pose difficulties for learners, I am limiting my scope to the study of
the most frequently occurring determiners in English, a(n), the (Oxford English
Corpus) and zero article as these cause problems at an early stage and many of
my students are at an elementary level.

Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

2. Analysis of Features

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2.1 Meaning

2.1.1 Specific and non-specific

Articles are the words that come at the beginning of noun phrases. They are the
definite article the, the indefinite article a(n) and zero article.

Interestingly, the original forms of the and a(n) are that and one respectively.
(Halliday, 2004). Historically, then the specifies the object referred to while a(n)
introduces a non-specific object.
 Have you got the pen (that pen I gave you earlier)? - The speaker
assumes his interlocutor knows which pen is being referred to.
 Have you got a pen? - The speaker needs any pen and hasn't specified
which one.

2.1.2 Generic meaning

They also refer to categories or sets of things:
 The tiger is a fierce animal
 A tiger is a fierce animal
 ØTigers are fierce animals

2.2 Use
Article use depends on noun classification. (Larsen Freeman & Celce Murcia,
1999). The English noun system classifies nouns as common (boy, pen) or proper
(James, London). Furthermore, nouns are either countable (skirt, hat) or
uncountable be they concrete or abstract (water, information). Non-count nouns
cannot combine with the indefinite article or the plural -s morpheme.

 Have you got a pen/some/any/Øpens?

X I’d like an information/ Ø informations.
 I'd like Ø information/some information.

Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

2.2.1 Use of a/an

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The indefinite article is used to introduce what is new when talking about a
person or a thing, to classify and define.
 There's an ambulance outside.
 A man’s here to see you.
 A pilot is someone who flies planes.
 My husband's a doctor.
 It's a lovely day.
 There's a Mr Smith to see you.

A/an is also used when it means one.

 Wait a minute
Or every.
 Once a week

2.2.2 Use of the

The is used for further reference to a noun that has been identified by a/zero
article. Parrot (2010) explains that the sends signals to the reader/listener to
search for common ground. I find this helpful in recognising the's role.
 A tiger/ Øtigers has/have escaped from the zoo. The tiger’s/tigers’
whereabouts are unknown.

This links to speakers and a shared world.

 I need to pop to the shops. (The shops that make up our culture)
 Have you seen the news? (The news shared by our community)

We use the for uniqueness, i.e. the only one(s) that exist(s) or is 'understood to
be unique in the context' (Leech & Svartvik, 2003:36) and with superlatives. This
follows on from the's original meaning of specificity.

 The Renaissance, the Queen (unique use)

 The best restaurant in town (superlative use)

The doesn't usually come before singular proper nouns.

 ØFrance, ØChristopher, ØJupiter
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

But can be used when proper nouns become common nouns to avoid confusion.

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  The Christopher from Bournemouth (not the Christopher from
Brighton)

It is used with seas, mountains groups, island groups, rivers and deserts. (Swan,
2005:65)

The is often used with -of phrases, which define and specify the noun. Compare:
 Ø French history - the history of France
 Ø Birds of Britain – the birds of Britain
 Ø Furniture of the 19th century – the furniture of the 19th century

2.2.3 Use of zero article

When a speaker refers to things in general.

Plural count nouns   

 I love Ø cats
    X I love the cats.

Concrete non-count nouns

 I prefer Øred wine.
     X I prefer the red wine.    

Abstract non-count nouns

 I enjoy Ømusic.
     X I enjoy the music.

However, these same nouns can take the in specific use.

 The cats next door are loud at night.
 Can you pass me the red wine?
 I enjoyed the music we listened to yesterday.

Zero article occurs with idiomatic expressions relating to meals, times of the day
or night and transport.
 Let's have Ø lunch.
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

 He works at Ø night.

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  She came by Ø bus.
 He's in Ø bed/she's at Ø home.

We omit the article when talking about continents, countries, states, towns,
streets and lakes, with the exception of a place whose name contains a common
noun. (Swan, 2003:65)
 Ø Brazil
 The United Kingdom

2.3 Phonological form

2.3.1 A/an
The pronunciation of a/an depends on the sounds that follow it:
With consonant sounds:
/ə ˈbʊk/
And vowel sounds:
/ən ˈɒrɪndʒ/

These already weak forms can be the victims of further elision and assimilation:
  My Dad’s an electrician - /maɪ ˈdædz nɪˌlekˈtrɪʃn/

Although rare, there is a strong form of a:

There’s a Mr Smith here - /ðəz eɪ ˈmɪstə smɪθ hɪə/

2.3.2 The
The form of the doesn't change, but its pronunciation does depending on the
noun that follows it.
With consonant sounds:
/ðə 'bʊk/
And vowel sounds:
    /ði ˈɒrɪndʒ/

Emphatic use:
    /ði:/ I met THE Will Smith! (The actor, not someone with the same name)
(Swan, 2005)
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

3.Problems and Solutions

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3.1 Meaning

3.1.1 Problem
∅  and a for generalising, the for specifying
My French and German students transfer their article rules to English. A
common problem is the use of the definite article for nouns which, in English,
are used in a general sense. (Swan & Smith, 2001) The life is difficult is a frequent
mistake and learners fail to understand why it isn't correct.

Solution 3.1.2
A Haiku is a Japanese poem which talks about nature and life. I first used Haiku
as a creative writing exercise and discovered that learners made numerous
article errors. This is the procedure I use now:
 Choose an occasion to write about, Spring for example.
 Distribute appropriate pictures to activate schemata and imaginations.
 Pre-teach necessary lexis.
 Distribute examples of Haiku of relevant level and theme. Explain what
Haiku are and point out article usage. Why is the used, why not Ø or a/an?
(Appendix 1)
 Invite students to write their own using the pictures to help them.
 Circulate and encourage cooperation.
 Get the learners to compare their versions with the samples.
 Lead a discussion on article choice.
 Students rewrite their Haikus to consolidate new knowledge.

A recent example from a B1 class instigated a discussion about the. (Appendix 2)

The student argued he could see the men, others that it could be any men and
zero article could be used. I find this activity promotes deeper understanding.

Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

3.2 Meaning/use
3.2.1 Problem

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Advanced learners are unsure of the use of a and the in texts.

3.2.2 Solution 1
Larsen-Freeman and Celce-Murcia suggest the following activity as a checklist to
give to students for editing their writing. (1999:291) It is a nice idea as a reading
activity for C1 students, who are already aware of articles and their rules but
need to fine tune their use. They need to be aware that article use is 'a reflection
of shared knowledge' between speakers. (Celce-Murcia & Larsen Freeman,
1999:281) Furthermore, nouns can shift from count (how many times have I told
you?) to mass (I don't have time). The checklist can be kept for the students’
own use.

Give the learners a text embedded with the target language. (Appendix 3) Ask
them to underline all the nouns, draw a box round the and circle all the instances
of a and zero article.

Pose the following questions:

A. If there is no article before the noun is it:
o a non-count noun
o a plural count noun
o a proper noun

B. If there is the + noun does this refer to someone or something that is specified
by
o the context
o previous mention
o mention within a noun group
o shared knowledge

C. If there is a + noun does this refer to someone or something that is singular

and:
o isn’t specific
o is being mentioned for the first time
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

o is being classified

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This is good for promoting noticing and raising consciousness of the need for
good article use. I agree with Thornbury (1997) about the necessity of forcing
attention on form and activating bottom up processing.

3.2.3 Solution 2
Text reordering shows the first mention/further mention use of a/an and the.
Students have to notice the difference in use to be able to complete the task.

The text below is taken from Teaching English Grammar by Jim Scrivener.
(2010:46)

a) I had an accident this morning in the kitchen

b) Suddenly, I dropped the book on the floor
c) And the egg went all over my trousers
d) I was eating an egg and reading a book
e) When I picked up the book I knocked the food on the floor

A good group activity, this encourages discussion and scaffolding. Learners

notice the importance and logic of articles. The idea is that they’ll notice more
outside the classroom therefore improving their usage.

3.3 Use

3.3.1 Problem 1
Learners have difficulty determining whether nouns are count or non-count.
News and advice are non-count in English but countable in French and Russian.
In Japanese, there is no regular system of plurality nor is there any distinction
between countable and uncountable. (Swan & Smith, 2001) Mistakes include I
gave him an advice or I’ve had a good news.

3.3.2 Solution
Sorting nouns into count/non-count/both categories using realia to help
students visualise the difference.
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

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Bring an array of objects into the classroom, money (a coin, Ømoney), a
newspaper (with Øinformation, Øwriting, and Øadvice in the agony column), an
apple, Øgrapes, a banana which together makes Øfruit, a pen, Øpaper, envelopes
makes stationary. Personalisation could be exploited by using learner belongings
to teach Øjeans, a shirt, Øcotton etc. Always teach article and noun as a chunk to
aid retention.

Alternatively students could cut pictures out of magazines and arrange them into
count/non-count/both columns. The activity could be held as a race with
learners working together to get the most correct answers. A more
communicative task could revolve around choosing a recipe together and
deciding what ingredients are needed. We need eggs, cheese, a tomato etc.

3.3.3 Problem 2
My French and German beginners frequently omit articles when defining
people’s professions, a problem that can persist into higher levels if it goes
unchecked. They also don’t know or forget to use an with nouns beginning with
vowel sounds.

3.3.4 Solution
(Idea from English in Common by Vicky Saumell.)
Give learners a list of occupations accompanied by a/an. Distribute pictures and
ask the learners to match lists and pictures. Draw attention to the articles and
guide discovery as to why some jobs begin with a and some with an.
Learners then separate the occupations into two columns – a and an and circle
the first letters of the jobs to highlight the vowel/consonant pattern. Get the
learners to complete the rules. (Appendix 4). Make sure they understand that it
is vowel sounds that take an by having a university professor on your job list.

Distribute a second lot of jobs without articles. Learners race in pairs to add
a/an. The first pair to finish read out their list and the rest of the class challenge
if they think there is a mistake. The winner is the pair with the most correct
answers. These activities help my German/Alsatian learners who use ein for a.
Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

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Move from restrictive practice to communication by asking learners to describe
their jobs while the class guess, or showing pictures of people accompanied by
their likes and dislikes and getting the class to decide on a perfect job for each
person. Draw attention to the weak form pronunciation of /ə/ and /ən/
throughout the lesson.

3.4 Phonological form

3.4.1 Problem
In rapid speech articles often go unnoticed. Learners who listen and don’t read
may consequently have a weaker understanding of article use. (Parrot, 2010)

The following solution is for A2 classes.

3.4.2 Solution
Dictoglosses are designed to deepen learners’ understanding of grammar.
(Wajnryb, 1990) I like to use them to highlight and raise awareness of weak
forms.

Introduce the theme of leisure activities. This arouses interest and personalises
the subject matter. Pre-teach any necessary lexis. Forewarn the learners that
you will read a text which they must reconstruct.

Read an appropriate text at normal speed, 3-4 lines for beginners, 8-9 for higher
levels. (See appendix 5). Learners take notes after listening. Re-read the text
followed by further note taking. Encourage the noting of content words. The
learners supply the function words at the reconstruction stage.

Form pairs, who recreate the text together. Avoid correcting the target language
but, as Wajynryb (1990) says, some correction of non-target language is
advisable to ‘declutter’ the error analysis stage that follows. Learners then
discuss the text as a group and form one text which is written on the board for
scrutiny. The learners’ choice of articles is discussed and explanations given.

Helping learners master articles Joanne Smith, Candidate Number 007

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Reread while pointing at the articles on the board. Learners will likely not have
heard the articles, accounting for some of their mistakes. Drill pronunciation.
Follow up lessons could build on their exposure to weak form articles.

4. Conclusion

The teaching of article use is a neglected area. Behind the deceptively simple
choices we make as native speakers lies a complex system which is said by some
to be unteachable. (Dulay, Burt and Krashen, 1992 as cited in Larsen-
Freeman/Celce-Murcia, 1999) It is often a missing piece in higher level learners’
discourse but with instruction at an early stage our learners will start to use
articles more naturally.

I aim to include consciousness-raising activities into my classes at all levels

because I believe that Master (1997) is correct in his assertion that articles can
be taught with focused instruction and constant revision

My Delta learners have manifested difficulties using articles with count and non-
count nouns so my lesson plan will resemble solution 3.3.2.

5. Bibliography

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5.1 Research materials
 Batstone, R. 1994. Grammar. Oxford: OUP
 Celce-Murcia, M. and Larsen-Freeman, D. 1999. The grammar book: An
ESL/EFL teacher’s course. Second edition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
 Halliday, M & Matthiessen, C. 2004. An Introduction to Functional
Grammar. Third edition. Routledge.
 Leech,G & Svartvik, J. 2003. A Communicative Grammar of English. Third
Edition. Routledge
 Master, P. 1997. The English Article System: Acquisition, Function and
Pedagogy. San Jose State University
 Parrot, M. 2010. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Second
edition. Cambridge University Press
 Swan, M. 2005. Practical English Usage. Third edition. OUP   
 Swan, M & Smith, B. 2001. Learner English. Second edition. Cambridge
University Press

5.2 Resource materials

 Celce-Murcia, M. and Larsen-Freeman, D. 1999. The grammar book: An
ESL/EFL teacher’s course. Second edition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
 Eales, F & Oakes, S. 2012. Speakout Starter Books 1 & 2. Pearson
Education.
 Saumell, V. English in Common. Pearson.
 Scrivener, J. 2010. Teaching English Grammar. What to Teach and How
to Teach it. Macmillan Education.
 Thornbury,S. 1997. Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that
promote ‘noticing’. ELT Journal Volume 51/4
 Ur, P. 1998. Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Guide for Teachers.
Cambridge University Press.
 Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar Dictation. OUP
 Woodward, S. 1997. Fun with Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents

6. Appendices

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  Appendix 1: Haiku example to show the difference in article use when generalising and
specifying. (Solution 3.1.2)

 Appendix 2: Student example of a Haiku. (Solution 3.1.2)

 Appendix 3: Text showing the difference in use of a and the in a text. (Solution 3.2.2)

 Appendix 4: Rules for a/an for students to complete. (Solution 3.3.4)

 Appendix 5: Dictogloss highlighting phonological form. (Solution 3.4.2)

Appendix 1

Haiku examples

 ØSummer here again.

 ØMusic plays sweetly, drifting.

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  And Ølife is renewed. (unknown author)

Summer, music and life are general in the haiku above whereas the is used
below for specifying.

The summer breeze breathes

Warmth into the life of bees
The buzz of music (author’s own)

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Appendix 2

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Appendix 3

ØAmericans are generally known for having a positive outlook on Ølife, but with
the countdown for ØNovember's presidential election now well under way,
Øpolls show Øvoters are angry. This may explain the success of Ønon-
mainstream candidates such as ØRepublican Donald Trump and ØDemocrat
Bernie Sanders. But what is fuelling the frustration?

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Appendix 4

From English in Common by Vicky Saumell.

Rules for a and an

Look at the list of jobs. Complete the rules with a or an.

1. Use ______ before vowel sounds, such as /a/, /e/ and /i/.

She's ______ artist

2. Use ______ before consonant sounds, such as /b/, /d/ and /f/.

He's ______ lawyer

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Appendix 5

Dictogloss

I go to the gym once a week and I play Øtennis at the weekend when I have
Øtime. I watch Ømovies at Øhome but I prefer to go to the cinema. I like to see
Øfilms on an enormous screen. I read every night before I go to Øbed. I love
Ømusic and Ødancing and I like to drink a glass of wine every Friday.

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