Journal oj’Advunced Nursing, 1986,11,671-678

Curriculum models: product versus process

John Sheehan MSc MEd DipFE SRN RMN RNT FRSH Principal Lecturer in Nursing, Faculty
of Education, The Polytechnic, Holly Bank Road, HuddersJeld HD3 3BP

Accepted,for publication I7 January 1986

SHEEHAN J. (1986) Journal ofAdvancedNursing 11,671-678

Curriculum models: product versus process
At the beginning of this article there is a brief outline of the nature of the curriculum and
models. This leads into a discussion of curriculum models in which ‘product’ and ‘process’
models are set out and discussed. The strengths and weaknesses of both approaches to the
curriculum are outlined and issues relating to the choice of model are advanced.

INTRODUCTION KEY CONCEPTS

When we reflect on the nursing curriculum we There is a plethora of definitions of the curricu-
lum. Those by Tyler (1949), Neagley & Evans
ought to keep a number of things in our (1967), Inlow (1966) and Johnson (1967) are but
thoughts. There are the needs of individual a few examples. However, the definition which it
patients and how these might best be met, and is proposed to use here is the one by Stenhouse
there are the needs of the nursing students. (1975).
Beyond the individual, there are societal needs;
A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the
the need for an efficient and a humane nursing essential principles and features of an educational
service. Coupled with this is the need for skilled proposal in such a form that it is open to critical
manpower to provide this service. There are also scrutiny and capable of effective translation into
vocational aspects. Vocational is taken here to practice.
mean fitted for the task. To be fitted for the task
of nursing means having a store of relevant There are a number of features of this defi-
knowledge, supported by a foundation of science nition which make it attractive. The first is the
and a motive of service, and the ability to apply concentration on essential principles; this should
this knowledge in a variety of circumstances. It avoid getting lost in a mass of detail likely to
means using this knowledge in an ethically cloud the issues. A curriculum ought to be
acceptable way which embodies respect for reviewed and subjected to critical scrutiny from
persons. And it also means an understanding of time to time. That it should be capable of being
the ethos, mores and values related to nursing; in translated into practice is a fundamental require-
other words it means going through a process of
socialization. ment since this must be regarded as the acid
In this paper it is proposed to examine test for any educational proposal relating to a
two approaches to the curriculum (the product vocation.
and the process) in relation to the education According to Page & Thomas (1 977) a model
of nurses. But first it is necessary to deal is a means of transferring a relationship or
with the key concepts of curricula and process from its actual setting to one in
models. which it can be more conveniently studied.
Fawcett (1984) suggests that the term con-
*This paper is based on a paper presented at a West Midland
Regional Health Authority Workshop on curriculum develop- ceptual model, and synonymous terms such as
ment, November 1985. conceptual framework and conceptual system,

67 1
672 J . Sheehan

refer to global ideas about the individual Socialization, as its name implies, is concerned
groups, situations, and events of interest to a with the initiation of the student into the social
discipline. milieu of nursing. It is characterized by the
According to Lippett (1973) conceptual development of attitudes and values, and
models have existed since people began to think assumptions about the requirements of the
about themselves and their surroundings. He world of work, vocational matters and society.
identified examples of models in the early The four models which have just been
Egyptian and Chinese civilizations and in disci- described rather briefly are all product models,
plines such as physics, medicine, mathematics, that is, the emphasis is placed on the outcome of
chemistry and biology. Lippett (1973) made the a learning experience. The next group of models
point that models were influential in shaping the to be considered are all process models. In this
world. Examples given in this context were Marx context the emphasis is on learning acquired
& Engels (1968), Einstein (1950) and Sigmund from experience of work and life, that is
Freud (1914). Marx's model related to political, experiential learning. It comprises open-ended
philosophical, social and economic matters and student activities with developing tendencies
provided a framework for communist ideology. and capacities. The emphasis is on the quality
Einstein's model of relativity paved the way of the learning as it takes place rather than on
to the atomic era. Freud's model provided a predetermined outcomes.
structure for the understanding of man in the The reflective model is an example of a process
context of psychoanalysis. model. The essence of this model is developing in
the student the capacity to look at experience or
data in alternative ways. It is concerned with
MODELS OF THE CURRICULUM working out possible relationships between
matters being studied, making generalizations
The Further Education Curriculum Review and and the development of conceptual frameworks
Development Unit. London (FEU 1980) has set by the student. Reference to Figure 1 shows that
out seven variants of curriculum models and the reflective model is mainly concerned with
these are set out in Figure 1. Each model is based the 'knowing' aspect of learning, but it is also
on certain assumptions about the students for concerned with the feeling aspect.
whom it is designed. Finally, as far as Figure 1 is concerned, there is
In the first place the deficiency model is the 'counselling model'. This model is mostly
based on the assumption that the students have concerned with the 'feeling' aspect of learning.
learning deficiencies which need to be corrected This model is characterized by a concern with
before progress can be made. The deficiencies understanding and control of personal behaviour
may be in the areas of literacy, numeracy. inter- and that of others. Counselling is sometimes
personal or manipulative skills. On the other described as a helping relationship, that is,
hand a deficiency may relate to a student's self- helping the person to know himself/herself
image or a lack of recognition of his learning better. It allows feelings to be expressed. This is
needs. particularly important in a case where feelings
The competency model, as its name suggests, may be acting as a barrier to learning.
is concerned with the 'acting' part of learning in
the form of performing specific skills. Practical
nursing skills would be considered in this PRODUCT MODEL
context
A model which may be described as The FEU (1980) represents the product model
information-based would be concerned with the of the curriculum as leading to some kind of
acquisition of knowledge such as the knowledge desirable end-product. Examples given are
needed for a nurse to function in an informed knowledge of certain facts, mastery of specific
and in an understanding manner. In a sense all skills and competencies, and acquisition of
education is information-based, but this model certain 'appropriate' attitudes and values.
highlights the acquisition of knowledge rather Among the curriculum theorists in the product
than other aspects of the educational process. mode are Bloom et al. (1956), Gagne (1967),
 Curriculum models 673

Acting Knowing Feeling

PRODUCT

FIGURE I Models of the curriculum reproduced with permission of the Further Education
Unit.

Kerr (1968), Krathwohl et al. (1969), Mager Objectives

(1962), Tyler (1949) and Wheeler (1967).
Behavioural objectives provide the founda-
tions on which product models of the curriculum
are built. The intended outcome (the product) of
a learning experience is prescribed beforehand.
There are points for and against behavioural
objectives and thus the product model of the
curriculum. Rowntree (1974), for example,
argues that the use of behavioural objectives
facilitates communication of what is intended
and therefore leads to more purposeful learning.
He also argues that the use of behavioural Expeiience
objectives helps with selection of structure and FIGURE 2 The elements of aproduct modelof the curriculum.
content of teaching; he further argues that
behavioural objectives lead to more accurate
methods of testing and evaluation. evaluation. However, examination of Figure 3
One of the early critics of behavioural objec- provides a different perspective. The individual
tives was Eisner (1966). He conceded that while is in the centre of the educational arena and is, to
the objectives approach is a rational one it does some extent, regarded as a receptacle for knowl-
have its weaknesses. A point of contention is that edge. What is to be learned is predetermined by
educational outcomes are often unpredictable others and the learner takes a passive role except
and are therefore impossible to specify before- for the processing of great masses of information
hand. Eisner (1967) argues that some subjects, coming at him from all directions.
the Arts for example, do not lend themselves to
behavioural specificity. He further argues that
behavioural objectives can become so numerous PROCESS MODEL
that a teacher could spend more time writing
them than teaching. The FEU (1980) depict process approaches to
The key elements of a product model of the the curriculum as being more open-ended than
curriculum are set out in Figure 2 and typically the product approach. Continuous development
comprise objectives, knowledge, experience and is emphasized and the outcome is perceived in
674 J . Sheehun

FIGL'RE 3 The position o f the sturfent on oprodutt model o f t h e curriculum.

terms of the development of certain desirable the process model of the curriculum because it
processes and potentialities. The examples given embodies what this model is about.
are ways of thinking. acting and feeling, which An expanded version of a process model is
the learner is able to use for his own purposes. presented in Figure 5. To start with assessment,
The FEU (1980) document makes a further this involves identifying the need to act. It may
distinction between 'product' and 'process'. The involve, to different degrees in particular cases,
point is made that while learners may acquire biological. psychological and social needs of the
knowledge as a product, that is, the results of the individual, then physical and social environment
thinking of others. knowing is a process which and interaction with the environment. Assess-
involves them in developing their own useful ment involves taking a history and identifying
strategies for, in the words of Bruner (1971), actual and potential problems. An assessment
'reducing the complexity and the clutter'. should result in a statement of the problem (in
Another crucial point made in the FEU (1980) a research mode) or a nursing diagnosis (in a
document is that unlike product competencies, clinical mode).
process competencies are never mastered, only A range of skills are required to make an
improved. assessment and it is through education that these
The elements of a process model are set out in skills are developed. Observation is all important
Figure 4. It will be evident that the elements and will include the physical, psychological and
which comprise the nursing process (assessing. emotional state of the individual. Coupled with
planning, implementing and evaluating) are observation are communication skills -verbal
used. What is added is the reflectireview and non-verbal. Reassurance, support and
dimension. This is, of course, implicit in the listening skills are needed and so are explanation,
nursing process model, but it is made explicit in interviewing and counselling skills. Cognitive
 Curriculum models 615
Assess

Implement
Plan intentions
experiences

competencies
FIGURE 4 The elements of aprocess model of the curriculum.

Societal

Individual-
t
Assess -Vocational
needs

competencies ReflectiReview Plan intentions

t
/Develop \
Tendencies Capacities
I I
processing
P r o b l e d solving
Morals I
Social skills
I
I
Manipulative
skills
Meaningful problems

Reflective lectures
Competence models
Practical work

FIGURE 5 An expanded version of aprocessmodelof the curriculum

616 J . Sheehan

skills in the form of analysis and interpretation is helped to develop skills to go out and explore
of data, making inferences, setting priorities and the world. The learner has more control over,
stating the problems as a basis for planning are and responsibility for his/her own learning.
all required. In the arguments about product versus process
T o move onto planning. In a process model models of the curriculum the matter of evalu-
intentions are used, where in a product model ation is a crunch issue. McKenzie (personal
behavioural objectives would be used. Inten- communication) suggests that a process model
tions. in keeping with the process approach should tend to make a product model redundant.
of the curriculum, are more open-ended than This is because a transition is occurring to a
objectives. But while i t is open-ended there is self-sustaining, self-explanatory type of activity
a case for identifying what it is intended that whose rationale is internal to that activity.
students will develop. However, McKenzie (1985) accepts that in the
A product approach to the curriculum would case of basic skills, safety in practice can never be
specify learning outcomes in the cognitive, taken for granted. There is thus a place for the
affective and psychomotor domains. This frag- assessment of skills. He goes on to differentiate
mentation of human abilities has no place in a between a product and process view of assess-
process approach to the curriculum. The process ment. For the former, the manifestation of skills
approach is a holistic approach and therefore is the greater part of the aim or purpose of the
regards human abilities as a unity. However, activity; for the latter the context in which these
there is some difficulty in maintaining this unity. skills are manifested is crucial. Were they
In Figure 5 human abilities are regarded as mutually identified by learner and teacher, as
tendencies (attitudes, morals, values) and things to be mastered in the pursuit of becoming
capacities (information processing skills, prob- a competent practitioner? Were they assimilated
lem solving skills, social skills, manipulative within an appropriate framework of commit-
skills, observation, communication). However, ment and significance? These are the sort of
the tendencies and capacities are closely inter- issues to be taken into account when considering
twined at all times. The intention of a process process intentions.
curriculum would be to provide opportunities to Self-assessment, involving reflection/review,
develop these abilities. The means of developing must be regarded as an integral part of the
these abilities would be through providing process model of the curriculum. Assessment
appropriate learning experiences. should also be a continuous activity. While it
The implementation phase of the process would not be impossible, the process model does
curriculum is based on the notion that learning is not readily lend itself to final examinations.
an active process on the part of the learner, that it There remains, however, the issue of public
is concerned with solving meaningful problems. evidence concerning competence and safety in
This means, of course. that the student either practice which will be a matter of concern for
chooses the problem himself/herself or at least statutory bodies, the public as well as individual
negotiates the choice with the teacher. A pre- patients. It follows that there must be checks
determined detailed curriculum, apart from before a licence to practice nursing is awarded.
some guiding principles. would be inappropriate. At one level projects could serve a useful
An outline curriculum with opportunities for purpose. A project is a student activity which is
development would probably be the most suit- designed, planned and carried out by a student.
able. A range of teaching and learning strategies In project work students are given freedom, with
are used in the learning process. but the emphasis the minimum of guidance, to tackle the project in
is on independent and individualized learning. their own way. The role of the teacher is that of
There is a move away from teacher-centredness advisor and counsellor. The terms 'facilitator'
towards student-centredness. and 'enabler' of learning are also used in this
The essence of the process model of the cur- context.
riculum is represented in Figure 6. At the centre A project is made up of several stages so that
is the individual, but in contrast to the product- the end product, whatever it may be, is not the
model the nature of the learning experiences is project. The project includes the activity of
very different. In the process model the individual planning and organizing the work before it is
 Curriculum models 617

FIGURE 6 Theposition of the student in aprocess model ofthe curriculum.

finally presented. The assessment criteria should what constitutes a skilled act in a given circum-
therefore take this factor into account. Projects stance and what did not. At the planning stage of
lend themselves to the process curriculum a skill account should be taken of the level of
model. Each phase is either self-assessed or analysis used including the use of imagination
assessed by a combination of student and and originality. In organizing a skill, factors to
teacher. Projects thus provide regular oppor- be taken into account include resourcefulness,
tunities to reflect and review. What would selection of equipment and anticipation of
emerge is a profile of assessed work which could needs. In performing a skill, the level of dexterity
be available for public scrutiny. displayed, the attention to detail, the accuracy
When it comes to manipulative skills, there is (say in administering drugs), the efficiency
no doubt that the product model of the curricu- and the consideration shown to patients and
lum has some points in its favour. A skill can colleagues are factors to be taken into account.
be broken down to specific objectives and used Coupled with these would be the quality of
as measurements. There might be a case for judgement used in self-assessment -realistic/
retaining behavioural objectives in relation to unrealistic, optimistic/pessimistic, self-critical/
manipulative skills. However, it might be non self-critical, and so on.
argued that since the values underpinning both
approaches to the curriculum are so dissimilar,
to mix them may result in a state of dissonance WHICH MODEL?
on the part of the student.
Intentions relating to manipulative skills may A case against the product model is that trivial
be set out in a process model. At a conceptual behaviours are emphasized at the expense of
level it would be possible to develop criteria as to more important outcomes. This does not happen
678 J . Sheehan

with a process model. The prespecification of Bruner J . (1972) The Relerance of Education. Allen 8; Unwin,
London.
behavioural objectives restricts the teacher from Einstein A. (1950)Relativity: the special and general theory. Great
taking advantage of teaching opportunities Ideas Toda?..
which occur unexpectedly. The nature of the Eisner E.W. (1967) Educational objectives: help or hindrance?
School Review 75,250-266.
process model is such that this is less likely to Fawcett J . (1984)Analysis and Evaluation of ConceptualModels of
happen. Measurement is a feature of the product 'Vursing. Davis. Philadelphia.
FEU (1980) Developing Social and Ltfe Skills. Furrher Education.
model, but may be criticized on the grounds that Curriculum Review and Development Unit. London.
measurability which can be objectively and Freud S. ( 1914) The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Penguin.
mechanistically measured is somewhat de- Harmondsworth.
G a p e R.M. (1967) Curriculum research and the promotion of
humanizing. The process model may be criti- learning. In Perspecrives of Curriculum Eealuation (Stake
cized because it does not lend itself so readily to R.E. ed.). Rand McNally, Chicago.
measurement, but in its defence it can be argued Inlow G.M. (1966) The Emergent in Curriculum. Wiley, New
York.
that it is not dehumanizing. Measurability Johnson M. (1967) Definitions and models in curriculum theory.
implies accountability; teachers might be judged Educational Theory 17.127-140.
Kerr J.F. (1968) Changing rhe Curriculum. University of London
on their ability to produce results and thus put Press. London.
the clock back as far as educational practice is Krathwohl D.R.. Bloom B.S. & Masia B.B. (1964) Taxonomy of
concerned. The process model might be rejected Educational Objectives: Handbook I I The .4ffecrive Domain.
David Mckay. New York.
by those who regard measurement highly. Lippet G.L. (1973) I'isualiiing Change: Model Eui1d;ng and The
These are some of the 'pros and cons' relating Change Process. NTL Learning Resources, Fairfax, Virginia.
to the two curriculum models under discussion. Mager R.F. (1962) Preparing Instructional Objectives. Feeron,
Palo Alto.
At the end of the day which model is chosen will Marx K. & Engels F. (1968) Selected Works. Lawrence and
perhaps depend on the values of the chooser as Wishart. London.
much as on anything else. Neagley R.L. & Evans N.D. (1967) Handbook for Effective
Curriculum Developmenr. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.
Stenhouse L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and
References Dei'elopment. Heineman, London.
Tyler R.W (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and lnstrucliun.
Bloom B.S.. Englehart M.D.. Faust E.J.. Hill W.H. & Krathwohl University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
D.R (1956) Taronomy of Educational Objectives' Handbook Wheeler D. ( 1967) Curriculum Process. University of London
I . The Cognitive Domain. Ingman Green. New York. Press, London.