Western Music

For G.C.E(O/L) in Sri Lanka

-Extra Reading Book-

W.M.P. Bhathiya
G.C.E.(A/L) Project 2010
 -2-

Western Music
-Extra Reading Book-

W.M.P.Bhathiya
 -3-

Dedication

To my Teachers who gave me the wisdom in subjects

&
To my parents who gave me the wisdom in life
 -4-
Contents

01. Dedication
02. Contents
03. Preface
04. Special Thanks
05. What is western Music?
06. St. Cecilia – The patron saint of music
07. How did Western Music Grow?
08. Main Composers in Western Music
a. J.S. Bach
b. G.F. Handel
c. A. Scarlatti
d. D. Scarlatti
e. F.J. Haydn
f. W.A. Mozart
g. W.A. Beethoven
h. F. Chopin
i. F. Schubert
j. R. Schumann
k. F. Liszt
l. Richard Wagner
m. Felix Mendelssohn
n. Johannes Brahms
o. Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky
p. Benjamin Britten
q. Saint Säens
r. Béla Bartók
09. Forms
10. Musical Elements
11. The ear
12. List of musical terms
13. Music Genres
14. Instruments
15. The Piano
16. Conventions in a concert
17. List of Recommended compositions
18. Conclusion
19. Sources and Bibliography
 -5-
Special Thanks
It was not an easy task to bundle this kind of a book as a project. It
was a risk to start this kind of a book, as music was a subject, which can never be ended by
discussing. Many people asked me why I chose music, as my A/L project. I myself as a
student learning in Science scheme, many were astounded at my decision. Now, it is my
duty to remember everyone who was behind me to make this project a success. First, I
would like to thank my parents, as they granted me the entire support that they are
possible to provide me. It was firstly to them that I told about the project. If they would
have rejected it, this would never have been seen the light of the day. After that, I must
thank, Madam Deepthika Ranasingha, my western music teacher at school. From the
beginning, she was beside me for everything. She even gave me her own notes, which she
used to write when she was studying. Further, she provided me of some valuable books,
which were full of information necessary. Above all, it was she who showed me the
boundaries of the syllabus of the O/L standard. . In addition, I would like to thank Madam
Swarna Gurusingha, my other western music teacher at school. She gave me the courage to
compile this book. Then, I must remember Mr. Lasantha Fernando, the Head master of the
St. Cecilia’s School of music. He also provided me of certain information and it was he who
gave me the ideas, about the matters which should be included in the book. Further, I must
thank Madam Wansaja Abayanayake, my class teacher of A/L class and the Project
committee for granting me the approval to do this as my A/L project. Finally, I would like
thank my friends, relatives, well-wishers and everyone who gave me their support
knowingly, or unknowingly.

Thank you very much to you all!

W.M.P. Bhathiya
13-A2
Leader and Conductor of the Western Music Choir
D.S. Senanayake College, Colombo 07
 -6-
Preface & Summary

I am extremely privileged to present WESTERN MUSIC-EXTRA READING

BOOK, to everyone who likes to get some extra knowledge about western music. This
book is pointed to the students who are sitting for the O/L exam, who are taking
Western music as their aesthetic subject. Nevertheless, even for A/L students and
anyone who has a moderate knowledge in Western Music will find it useful.

This book is an extra reading book, but it includes information,

which is needed for the exam too. Furthermore, this book is not a direct substitution
for the syllabus and the syllabus-related notes given by the teachers. Yet, this will
widen your knowledge in the area of Western Music. In addition, it will encourage your
general knowledge as well as your interest in the Western Music subject.

In order to prevent the subject and the book getting bored, I tried
to use simple words and explanations wherever possible, to be understood by a
student with a normal English knowledge. And I have tried to simplify the profound
meanings of classical and Traditional Western Music to make them be understood by
ordinary Sri Lankan students who are absolutely not familiar with western music as
European children who have the ability to watch an opera at the evening or listen to a
live performance of a Symphony in the weekends as a day-to-day activity. Moreover, I
tried as much as to let the knowledge to be presented in a flowing manner and in an
interesting way. Therefore, I thought to produce the knowledge in a conversational
behaviour.
This book first says what western music is, then the History of Music, then the
main composers of music and their masterpieces. Next, Forms, Musical Elements,
The ear, List of musical terms, Music Genres, Instruments, The Piano, Conventions in a
concert, List of Recommended compositions are presented in order. Therefore, this
book is almost a full resource material for anyone who is interested in Western Music
in general and students who are doing Western music at O/L in particular.

Therefore, I hope everyone who is in search for knowledge in Western Music will yield
from this book, which is the ultimate harvest of my project and extensive research.

Thank you.
 -7-

1. What is Western music?

Of course, what is Western Music? Let us see.
Western Music is the music originated western countries especially Europe, just as Oriental or
Eastern music originated in India and surrounding countries.

Although, we learn Western Music some of us think classical Western Music

is very boring! Do not get bored. Western Music is not boring and it was or is never uninteresting.

The origination of Western Music goes to B.C. eras. But it became a well-organized
structure in the A.C. era, especially in the 2nd millennium B.C. But, as an O/L student, you only
have to learn about four main eras or periods in Western Music. Which are,
1. Baroque Era(1600-1750)
2. Classical Era(1750-1810)
3. Romantic Era(1810- 1900)
4. Modern Era(1900- to present)

Of these eras, we have to know about the main composers, their birthdays and death
days, their masterpieces or the best and most famous music pieces. Furthermore, we are to be
known how did Western Music grew through its past, and what are its new movements. These
include, how the orchestra developed, how the forms came into being and what are they, about
the invention of the Piano, which was a turning point in Western Music, about jazz, pop, and new
trends and so on…

2. St. Cecilia – The patron saint of music

Saint Cecilia is the patron saint of musicians and church music.
It’s better for you, the student to know a little about her. The
legend speaks of her singing to God in her heart, when she was
suffering the martyrdom. According to tradition she was
martyred (“killed as refusing to give up one’s religion”) for
refusing to honor the Roman gods. It is said that she has been
locked up in a boiling bath. But it is said that she escaped
unharmed. The executioner tried to behead her three times, but
he failed. When her incorruptible body was found long after her
death, it was found that on one hand she had three fingers
outstretched and on the other hand just one finger, denoting her
belief in the trinity. In 821 her remains were buried in a crypt
(vault) in the Basilica of Saint Cecilia in Trastevere in Rome. The
English poets Geoffrey Chaucer, John Dryden, and Alexander
Pope have celebrated her in literature, and she has been the
subject of many paintings. Her feast day is November 22.
 -8-

3. How did Western Music Grow?

As I said before, we talk about four main periods of Western Music in
the school. However, it is useful to know about some previous music eras which came upon
before the first period that we know, Baroque Period. The periods, which are in the syllabus,
are printed in bold letters and the others in normal.
1. Medieval Era
2. Renaissance Era
3. Baroque Era
4. Classical Era
5. Romantic Era
6. Modern Era

Next, we shall take one by one into consideration.

Medieval Era

Western music came in to being in the B.C. eras, mainly between 500 B.C. and 300 A.C. in
Greece and Rome. Though about dozen of these manuscripts still survive, no one can certainly
recognize its’ notation. This music was limited to one melody at a time with no
accompaniments, called MONOPHONY. The Romans too were mostly carrying on the Greek
musical tradition, while adding something of their own. The Romans developed some BRASS
instruments, while the Greeks were mostly using strings called KITHARA, LYRA and a oboe-
like-woodwind, called AULOS.

The voice did a great role in the beginning of the Western

Music. Moreover, the development of Christianity founded by Jesus
Christ, gave Western Music to develop in various directions. Western
Music mainly started its journey in Churches as sacred music, which
praised God. This incident is further proved, when we discuss about
GREGORIAN CHANTS, which itself is a foundation of a Catholic Pope
St.Gregory I, the great.

In the Medieval era, professional

musicians were working to the church, which was the ONLY way for
musicians to express their feelings. Little examples are available for this
type of music. Mainly the Roman chants were getting more attention and when Pope Gregory
I, was giving the full support, it grew rapidly. Moreover, the Roman chants lately got the name
GREGORIAN CHANTS! These Gregorian chants were also preferred by the later popes, and
consequently, it surpassed all other types of contemporary chants, which werePope
there.
St.Gregory I
In the middle of the medieval era, the musicians were tired of the monotonous
Monophony, and were finding some other solution for this. Then they found (Reigned
the 590-610)
base of
multipart music or POLYPHONY. Similarly, it means two or more parts playing together.
Firstly, two parts were used moving parallel to each other, with an interval of a 4th or a 5th.
But later, three parts and four parts came into being and a new musical style developed called,
Organum. Later, Polyphony was highly developed in the Baroque period.
Meanwhile, the present Notation system of lines and spaces began to
be used in order to prevent the confusion, which might occur in reading and composing
 -9-
different parts. That was brought to the perfection by 11th-century Italian Benedictine
monk Guido d’Arezzo.

When the time was going on, about the 14th Century B.C. a new system
started, namely ars nova (new art). That was more complex than any other previous musical
systems, and used a fixed piece of music taken from a Gregorian chant, and the other parts be
woven around it. With ars nova’s rapid development, the composers were trying to compose
some other secular music in that order too. Fewer amounts of instruments were in use and
still the voice was doing a great role.

Renaissance Era
About 15th Century B.C., the musicians were reacting against the complex styles of
ars nova. They preferred smooth and flowing melodies with smoother harmonies. English
composer John Dunstable took the initiative and soon this comparatively simple style became
popular.
In this style, the Polyphonic music was becoming stable and the counterpoint
was becoming smooth with imitation. The same melodic idea was closely restating repeatedly
in different parts. This incident cleaned the way for CANONS and later FUGUES. But still the
voice was mainly used. Chansons, motets and masses were the genres mainly used by
Renaissance composers.

Baroque Era
When the Renaissance Polyphony was prevalent, in
Italy some new developments for music were taking place. Many Italian
composers did not like the complex, difficult and
intricate way of music. They preferred Classical
Greek Music and they tried to use less difficult
styles in Harmony, understandable text and
interplay of voices and instruments. With these
Alessandro Scarlatti new variations, then one of the most famous
(1660-1725) genres of Western Music, the OPERA originated
in the end of the 16th century. Some other new
Henry Purcell
genres were ORATORIO and CANTATA.
Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1695)
Instrumental pieces were getting more
(1660-1725) noticeable, and the compositions, which had no clearly cut
movements, were called Ricercare, Fantasia
or Fancy. The compositions which had
divisions or movements with contrast got the
name Canzona or Sonata. Some pieces were
based on existing melody, but were using
Theme and Variations form. They were called
Passacaglia, Chaconne, and Chorale Prelude.
G.F.Handel Pieces, which were in dance rhythm, were
J.S. Bach
(1685-1759) grouped into Suites. Compositions in
(1685-1750)
improvisatory (composed while performing)
style were Prelude, Toccata and Fantasias. Another important innovation of the Baroque Era,
changed the Renaissance music styles, and it was using contrasting movements. Its name
Henry Purcell
varied such as Concertato, Concertate, and Concerto.
(1659-1695)

J.S. Bach
G.F.Handel
 - 10 -
By the end of 17thcentury, Tonality (choosing a one note or key as
the central note) was dominating in Western Music. This helped the composers to gain the
control smoothly over harmonies.
Some of the most famous composers of the Baroque era are, Dominico Scarlatti,
Alessandro Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Arcangelo Corelli, Henry Purcell, Jean Baptiste Lully, and of
course the two grand masters of the era, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick
Handel.

Classical Era
Music, you know, is always changed. Thus, again in about 1720, the prevailing system
of music was beginning to shatter. The younger musicians were not satisfied with the Baroque
style of counterpoint which was too stiff, and they were thinking of a more flowing and
spontaneous music. Especially, the single emotional quality, which could be seen in the
Baroque era music, was beginning to be disliked by them.

The composers were, as I have said, were using various ornaments to make the
music beautiful. Their music was not as intellectual as the Baroque ones, and thus was pleased
to listen.
In this era, Chamber music was developed and the Symphony, Sonata, String
Quartet were getting a formal outline, called the Sonata form. They consisted of 3 or 4
movements.
The climax of the Classical era musical development came at the end of
the 18 century, in the music of a group of composers known as the Vienna-based classical
th

musicians. The most important of these composers were Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven.
The opera too was getting important changes in the structure. Composers tried
to combine groups of recitatives, arias, duets, choruses, and instrumental sections into unified
scenes. Opera in the classical period climaxed in the Operas of Mozart, in which every feature
of the vocal and instrumental lines joined to the plot development and characterization.

Romantic Era
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Viennese classical style represented by
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven prevailed throughout Europe. This style provided so
satisfactory way to achieve the musical goals of the time that almost every composer wrote in
some variation of it. The style became just a “formula” in the hands of less-skilled composers.
Partly for this reason, experimenting musicians between 1810 and 1820 gradually began to
expand music in new directions.
The more brave musicians felt that it was not essential to maintain clear
formal outlines. They began to value other musical goals more than the goal of formal clarity.
They broke these formal outlines to emphasize their feelings. They might, for instance, write
an unusual progression of chords even though the progression did not contribute to the
overall harmonic direction of a composition. Similarly, if the sound of a particular instrument
seemed especially attractive during the course of a symphony, they might write a long solo
passage for this instrument, even though the solo distended the shape of the symphony.
In this and other ways 19th-century composers began to display a romantic,
view of their art. The aesthetic aims of romanticism were especially valued in Germany and
central Europe. The instrumental works of Franz Schubert, an Austrian was an early sign of
this development in music. The romantic composers were often liked non-musical sources. As
a result, program music, or music that follows a non-musical plan, was widely developed. The
 - 11 -
French composer Hector Berlioz and the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt became
especially prominent in this genre.
Art songs were developed in this era and the German art song known by
its German name, lieder (Singular lied) were composed in the 19th century. The most
successful lieder were written by Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf,
and, late in the century, Richard Strauss.
Opera was one of the most famous genres among composers. Rossini, Bizet
and Verdi were popular opera composers in that era. Richard Wagner was even popular and
his operas were based on legend or mythology. Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, and
Mendelssohn were especially important in writing abstract music. The Russian composer
Tchaikovsky wrote symphonic and chamber works as well as operas and program music.
Works without programs but with freely devised forms were written for the piano by the
Polish composer Frédéric Chopin.

Modern Era
Modern Era began in the 20th century continues to date. A high value placed on
individuality and personal expression in the romantic era grew even more pronounced in the
20th century. This was partly the result of several features of 20th-century life. More people
from more social and geographic backgrounds than ever before were able to study music and
develop their ability for composition. Thus a vast range of tastes and skills became a feature of
modern composition. Radios and recordings brought music from once-remote countries in
South America and the Far East to the attention of musicians in all parts of the world due to
globalization. The speed of modern communications made it possible for listeners to evaluate
improvements more quickly than ever before. The diversity and rapid change have become
the most prominent general features of music. This era includes Pop, Jazz, and Rock cultures
which is more popular among the young generation.

But, some composers were beginning to feel that

older classical style was more interesting and they began to turn back to the Classical style.
Called, Neoclassicism, it marked a return to the classic concept that all elements in a
composition should contribute to the clarity of the overall structure of form. Neoclassicism
includes the use of a modified sense of tonality, usually enlivened with a large amount of
chromaticism, and the use of formal schemes from the baroque and classical eras. The most
prominent representatives of neoclassicism were Igor Stravinsky and German-born Paul
Hindemith. Others included the Russians Sergey Prokofiev and Dmitry Shostakovich.
In this era, electronic music was too coming into being. Electric Synthesizers were
invented and it could make many sounds of other instruments, by a mere change in electrons.
And further, computers were also contributing to the development of music.
We are now in the Modern Era of music. So the music will more be developed
in the near future. We cannot predict about those changes, until they take place. The only
thing that we can do is to wait and see!!!
 - 12 -

Main Composers
BAROQUE ERA

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Birth March 21, 1685

Death July 28, 1750
Place of Birth Eisenach, Thüringen, Germany
Principal Residence Leipzig, Germany
Compositions 6 Brandenburg Concertos
Art of the Fugue, 48 preludes and fugues, Inventions,
St. Matthew Passion , St. John’s Passion
Mass in B Minor, Coffee Cantata, Christmas Oratorio
Six Suites for solo Cello
Did You Know The Bach family produced more than 50 noted musicians over several generations.
Bach became blind during the last year of his life.

Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and one of the world’s
greatest musical geniuses. His works mark the peak of the baroque style music. Being a man of
unlimited energy and imagination, Bach composed in every form known in the baroque era,
except the opera. His huge output includes works for the organ, violin, clavichord and
harpsichord, chamber orchestra, and voice.

He was born on March 21, 1685, in Eisenach, a small city in the

Germany, into a family that over seven generations produced more than 50 famous musicians.
J.S. Bach’s father, Johann Ambrosius Bach was town music director. Young Bach received
instruction in string playing from his father. Bach’s life changed with the death of his mother
in 1694, and the death of his father in 1695 the next year. Abandoned ten-year-old boy was
taken in by his oldest brother, 23-year-old Johann Christoph, who worked as an organist.
There Bach continued his studies and was given thorough keyboard instruction by his
brother. Under his brother’s guidance, young Bach became aware of a wide variety of German
keyboard music.
About 1703, he began his career as an organist in Arnstadt. He worked in there
until 1707. After that he worked in Mühlhausen, Weimar, Köthen and Leipzig.
His Köthen employer, Prince Leopold, was a music lover and a
good performer of several instruments. He held Bach in a higher position .THE WELL
TEMPERED CLAVIER and the BRANDENBURG CONCERTOS were composed while he was in
Köthen. He wrote the first ever keyboard concerto in Western music history by writing the
No.5 Brandenburg Concerto. In 1720, his wife died and he married Anna Magdalena who was
a court singer, for whom he has written THE NOTE BOOKS FOR ANNA MAGDELENA.
 - 13 -
In 1722, Bach applied for the important post of cantor (music teacher) at the
Saint Thomas School in Leipzig. But his candidacy was not accepted highly. Only after famous
organists rejected the post, the council accepted Bach. When he was being taken the council
was not happy with him. They thought he was not good enough. However, Bach accepted the
post and left Köthen with his family.
Bach’s post in Leipzig was one of the oldest and most prestigious music
positions in Germany. He held the position of cantor for more than 25 years, until the end of
his life. Within his career, he showed the town council whether he was not good enough! He
wrote famous COFFEE CANTATA, GOLDBERG VARIATIONS, ART OF FUGUE and B-MINOR MASS
while he was in Leipzig.
In 1747, Bach went to Berlin on a trip. In there, the king provided him
a subject and asked him to improvise a Fugue. Bach, who was one of the best fugue writers in
the era, played a Fugue on the subject given, without preparation. Furthermore on his return
to Leipzig, he composed a set of Polyphonic compositions, on the previous subject and offered
it to the king naming it the MUSICAL OFFERING.
Two years later, Bach’s eye sight was getting poorer than ever. He faced two
operations, proved to be failures. The medicine which were prescribed, broke his health. On
July 18, 1750 he suddenly recovered his eyesight, but faced a stroke few hours later. And on
July 28th, 1750 he passed away.
 - 14 -
George Frideric Handel

Birth February 23, 1685

Death April 14, 1759
Place of Birth Halle, Germany
Principal
England
Residence

Compositions
OPERAS- Almira, Agrippina, Rinaldo, Radamisto (1720) Tamerlano (1724) Orlando (1733)
INSTRUMENTAL- Water Music, Music for the Royal Fireworks
ORATORIOS- Messiah, Israel in Egypt, Jephtha
Did You Know Handel lost his eyesight during the last few years of his life.
Born as Georg Friedrich Händel, Handel anglicized the spelling of his name into George
Frideric Handel after becoming a British citizen in 1727.

George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) was born in Halle, Germany,. He is considered one of the
most important masters of the baroque period. Handel’s most important works are his operas
and oratorios. The most famous of these is Messiah, which was first performed in 1742.
Handel also made important contributions to instrumental music.
At age 17, Handel became organist at Halle’s main church, the Domkirche. He did not
like a career as a church musician, and in 1703 moved to Hamburg. At first he played violin in
Hamburg’s opera orchestra, but by 1704 he had composed Almira, his first opera. In 1706
Handel departed for Italy and spent the next four years in Rome, Florence, Naples, and Venice.
During this time, he composed a large number of cantatas (compositions for voice and
accompaniment designed for an intimate setting) and Italian oratorios (large-scale, unstaged
dramatic compositions for vocal soloists and instruments), including La Resurrezione (The
Resurrrection, produced 1708). He also composed his first certainly great Italian opera,
Agrippina (first performed in 1709). In 1710, Handel returned to Germany and became court
composer for the elector of Hannover, who would become King George I of Great Britain and
Ireland. After a few months in Hannover, Handel went to London, where his first Italian opera
for the English stage, Rinaldo, was shown. Handel visited London again shortly after returning
to Hannover, but this time he did not go back to Germany. He was dismissed from his
Hannover post. But when his former employer Elector of Hannover became the king in Britain
in 1714 and then a formal reconciliation between the two men became necessary. The
reconciliation is thought to have taken place during a party in a open boat on the Thames
River in 1717, at which Handel’s Water Music was played. During the 1720s and 1730s Handel
worked primarily as a composer and producer of operas for the London stage. Some of
Handel’s greatest operas in England: Radamisto (1720), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano
(1724), and Rodelinda (1725),Orlando (1733), Ariodante (1735), and Alcina (1735).
Handel began to concentrate on oratorios in English in 1732, and by
the 1740s he composed an average of two oratorios a year. Oratorios are performed in
concert, without costumes, scenery, or staging, and are consequently less expensive to
produce.
The most famous of Handel’s oratorios is without doubt Messiah (1742), in
which the king George I stood up listening to the “Hallelujah” chorus. Since then it became a
tradition to stand up when “Hallelujah” was played. He also composed a number of equally
 - 15 -
great oratorios that are less well-known, including Saul (1739), Israel in Egypt (1739),
Belshazzar (1745), and Jephtha (1752).
Some of his best instrumental works were written to be played with the
oratorios, including the organ concertos (works for solo organ accompanied by orchestra) of
Opus 4 and the 12 concerti grossi (works for orchestra alone) of Opus 6. Handel also created
the well-known Music for the Royal Fireworks in 1749 to celebrate the end of the War of
Austrian Succession (1740-1748).
While composing the oratorio Jephtha in 1751, Handel began to lose his
eyesight. Handel passed away in his home and was buried in Westminster Abbey in London.

Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725)

Alessandro Scarlatti, father of Domenico Scarlatti, was an Italian
composer, who helped to establish the Neapolitan(Naples-
based) style of opera that dominated 18th-century music. He
was born in Palermo, Sicily. His earliest known opera, L'errore
innocente, was produced in Rome in 1679. In 1684 a more
important work, Pompeo, was performed in Naples, and
Scarlatti was appointed musical director at the Neapolitan
court. In 1702-3 he lived in Florence under the patronage of
Ferdinand de Medici. Scarlatti was assistant choirmaster at the
Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome from 1703 to 1713. He
reestablished himself in Naples in 1713, becoming musical director of the Austrian viceroy,
and director of the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio. From 1719 to 1723, he worked in Rome. He
then returned to Naples and lived there until his death.

Scarlatti was one of the first opera composers who strongly differentiated the singing styles of
aria and recitative. His opera overtures established the Neapolitan overture type, which has
three movements, in fast, slow, and fast tempos. His cantatas, numbering more than 600,
introduced many advanced harmonic procedures to the musical vocabulary of the time.

Famous Compositions
 Gli equivoci nel sembiante 1679;
 L’honestà negli amori 1680,
 Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684;
 Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705;
 S. Filippo Neri, 1714;
 - 16 -
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)
Domenico Scarlatti, son of Alessandro Scarlatti, was an Italian
harpsichordist and composer, born in Naples. He studied first with his
father, Alessandro Scarlatti, and later with the Italian composer Francesco
Gasparini. After 1704, Scarlatti lived in Rome, Naples, and Lisbon and
frequently toured Europe as a traveling virtuoso. In 1729, he was
summoned to the Spanish court at Madrid, which remained his residence
for the rest of his life.

Scarlatti was a founder of the modern school of keyboard technique; he

was the first composer to call for such devices in performance as
arpeggios, the rapid repetition of a single note, and the crossing of hands.
His keyboard compositions, entitled sonatas, are all short pieces. About
550 of these have been preserved; many have a recognizable Spanish
flavor. Scarlatti also composed several operas, religious music, and
instrumental works.

Famous Compositions
 555 sonatas for the harpsichord, chamber ensemble and organ.
 30 Essercizi ("Exercises")
 Sonata in F Minor K. 69
 Sonata in D minor K. 9, Allegretto

CLASSICAL ERA

Franz Joseph Haydn

Birth March 31, 1732

Death May 31, 1809
Place of Birth Rohrau, Vienna, Austria
Compositions 107 Symphonies ( Including Salomon Set - Surprise , Military , Clock , Drum Roll , and London)
68 string quartets
62 piano sonatas
43 Piano Trios
19 Operas

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) is an Austrian composer, known as a leading

force in the development of the musical style of the classical era. Haydn was born into a poor
family the village of Rohrau, near Vienna, on March 31, 1732. When eight years old he went to
the choir school of Saint Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, but was dismissed from the choir at
the age of 17. He studied standard textbooks on counterpoint on his own and took occasional
lessons from the noted Italian singing master and composer Nicola Porpora.
The turning point in Haydn's fortunes came in 1761, when he was appointed assistant music
 - 17 -
director to Prince Pál Antal Esterházy; he became full director, or Kapellmeister, in 1762.
Haydn served under the patronage of three successive princes of the Esterházy family.

Haydn's two trips to England, in 1791-92 and 1794-95, were the occasion of
the huge success of his last symphonies. Known as the “Salomon” or “London” symphonies,
they include several of his most popular works: Surprise Symphony (no. 94), Military
Symphony (no. 100), Clock Symphony (no. 101), Drum Roll Symphony (no. 103), and London
Symphony (no. 104). In his late years in Vienna, Haydn turned to writing masses and
composed his great oratorios, The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801). From this period
also comes his “Emperor's Hymn” (1797), which later became the Austrian national anthem.
His ability to turn a simple tune or motive into unexpectedly complex developments was
admired by his contemporaries as innovative. Named “Father of the Symphony” for his
contribution for the symphony, he died in Vienna, on May 31, 1809, as a famous and wealthy
man.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)

Full Name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart.

Birth January 27, 1756
Death December 5, 1791
Place of Birth Salzburg, Austria
Compositions 41 symphonies ( Including Haffner, Jupiter, Paris)
7 major operas (Including Don Giovanni, Cosi fan tutte, The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic
Flute)
17 piano sonatas
23 string quartets
27 piano concertos
Did You Know Mozart was made a knight of the Order of the Golden Spur by the pope.
Mozart's grave is unmarked.
By age six Mozart was composing and performing music and his name ‘Amadeus’ was later
added to the name, which means “Loved by the God”
Mozart's father, Leopold, was also a noted composer and violinist

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was an Austrian composer, who is regarded one of
the most brilliant and versatile
composers ever. He worked in
all musical genres of his era, and
produced an extraordinary
number of compositions, when
considering his short life of 35
years. By the time Mozart died,
he had completed 41
Mozart’s hand writing (Requiem symphonies, 27 piano concertos,
in D minor, K.626) 23 string quartets, 17 piano
sonatas, 7 major operas, and
many works for voice and other
instruments. In the childhood, Mozart toured Europe and became
Mozart, as a child.
(1763)
 - 18 -
widely regarded as a miracle of nature because of his musical gifts as a performer of
piano, harpsichord, and organ and as a composer of instrumental and vocal music. Thus, he
was called a ‘child prodigy’, by many people of his time.
Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria. He received his early
musical training from his father, violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. By age six, he had
become an accomplished performer on the clavier, violin, and organ and was highly skilled in
sight-reading and musical improvisation. In London in 1764, Mozart met then-popular
German composer Johann Christian Bach, son of Johann Sebastian Bach. The eight-year-old
Mozart played four-hand piano sonatas with J.C. Bach while sitting on his lap. In 1769, when
he was 13 years old, he became the concertmaster of archbishop of Salzburg. Since then, he
worked in Vienna, Germany and frequently went on trips. Haydn was one of his friends who
often admired him. Thus, a Set of Six string quartets (K.387) written in 1785, was dedicated to
him. In 1787, the young Ludwig van Beethoven traveled to Vienna for two weeks in hopes of
studying with Mozart. It is not sure, what happened during this, and there are about three
ideas about what happened: 1. Mozart heard Beethoven play and praised him, 2. Mozart
rejected Beethoven as a student, 3. They never even met.
1791, the last year of his life, was very fruitful for him. He composed some of the
most famous of his compositions, the opera The Magic Flute, the final piano concerto (K. 595
in B flat), the Clarinet Concerto K. 622, the last in his great series of string quintets (K. 614 in E
flat), and the unfinished Requiem K. 626. Mozart was so engaged in this Requiem that, he was
composing it and advising his students how to complete it until the evening of December 4 th,
hours before he died. At night December 4th, his condition got severe and about 1.00 am
December 5th , he passed away. His Requiem was finished by his students and played it at his
funeral.
Mozart’s works were catalogued by Austrian music bibliographer
Ludwig von Köchel. Köchel numbers are preceded by the initial K. The Jeunehomme Concerto,
for example, is K. 271.
 - 19 -
Ludwig Van Beethoven 1770-1827

Birth December 16?, 1770

Death March 26, 1827

Place of Birth Bonn, Germany

Principal Residence Vienna, Austria

Sonatas in C minor op. 13 (Pathétique), C-sharp minor op. 27/2 (Moonlight), F minor op.
Compositions
57 (Appassionata), C major (Waldstein), B-flat major op. 106 (Hammerklavier)

9 Symphonies - No. 3 in E-flat major op. 55 (Eroica), No. 5 in C minor op. 67, No. 9 in D
minor op. 125 (Choral)

Mass in D major op. 123 (Missa Solemnis)

Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and a pianist.

He was a bridge between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music, and
remains as one of the most respected composers of all time. Beethoven's first music teacher
was his father, who was a tenor singer. Beethoven's talent was recognized at a very early age,
and by 1778 he was studying the organ and viola in addition to the piano. Count Ferdinand
Ernst Gabriel von Waldstein was one of his earliest patrons for whom he dedicated the
WALDSTEIN SONATA. When he was in Vienna, he also worked with Haydn.
Beethoven, unlike the previous composers did not yearn for a support
from a certain patron. But he had many aristocratic friends who helped him. He was a
freelance composer and thus he composed what he wanted not the others. By 1796,
Beethoven began to lose his hearing. It was a very difficult situation for him. Despite of his
lose of hearing he composed many famous compositions. By the time he composed his ninth
symphony, he became deaf. On the premiere (first show) of his ninth symphony, he had to
turn back and see the crowd clapping. Hearing nothing, Beethoven is recorded to have begun
to weep. However, he was never discouraged. He composed, using the feeling of the
vibrations of the piano.
On 26th March 1827, he passed away. The reason for his death is said to be Lead poisoning.
Beethoven is told as one of the three B’s who epitomized the Classical western music, along
with Bach and Brahms.
Beethoven's compositional career is usually divided into Early (until1802),
Middle(1803 - 1814) and Late (after1815) periods.

1. In his Early (Classical) period, he explored new directions and gradually expanded the scope
and ambition of his work. Some important pieces from the Early period are the first and second
symphonies, the first six string quartets, the first three piano concertos, and the first twenty
piano sonatas, including the famous "Pathétique" and "Moonlight" sonatas.
2. His Middle (Heroic) period began shortly after Beethoven's personal crisis brought on by his
recognition of encroaching deafness. It is noted for large-scale works that express heroism and
struggle, many of which have become very famous. Middle-period works include six
symphonies (Nos. 3–8), the fourth and fifth piano concertos, , five string quartets (Nos. 7–11),
the next seven piano sonatas (including the "Waldstein" and the "Appassionata"), Beethoven's
only opera, Fidelio.
3. Beethoven's Late (Romantic) period began around 1815. Works from this period are
characterized by their intellectual depth, their formal innovations, and their intense, highly
personal expression. For example, the String Quartet, Op. 131 has seven linked movements,
and the Ninth Symphony adds choral forces to the orchestra in the last movement.
 - 20 -
ROMANTIC ERA

Frédéric Chopin
Frédéric Chopin was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the
Romantic period. He is widely regarded as the greatest Polish composer,
and ranks as one of the greatest tone poets in music. His compositions
are special because he mainly composed only for the pianoforte. Thus, is
also called as the “POET OF THE PIANO”. He was born in the village of
Żelazowa Wola, in the Duchy of Warsaw, to a Polish mother and French
father, and in his early life was regarded as a child-prodigy pianist.
Chopin began to give public concerts and composing at the age of seven
and was soon compared with Mozart, who too began to show musical
talents at a very young age. It is said that he also had a better ability in
painting and literal writing. Robert Schumann, one of his huge admirers
had written: "Hats off, gentlemen! A genius" in reviewing Chopin's
Variations on "La ci darem la mano," Op. 2 (from Mozart's opera Don
Giovanni). But it is interesting to see that Chopin always disliked
Schumann. Since his childhood, he suffered from tuberculosis. Because of this uncertain health
he preferred to play for smaller gatherings rather than public concerts. Furthermore even he
had realized that his light handed playing technique was not very suitable for public concerts.

His health was gradually decreasing as he grew. By

the late 1840s he ran out of not only health but also money.
He had to sell his valuables to consult physicians. In 1849, his
health condition was further decreasing and in October 17th
1849 he passed away. After his death his heart was removed
according to his last will and casts were taken of his hands.
These casts and heart still exist.

As mentioned above, his

playing technique was light handed.
His Autograph, Thus a greater care should be taken in
stylized as a
playing his compositions. Lighter-
minim
touch is often appreciated in playing
his compositions. His waltzes and
nocturnes are very well desired by the
public. His music contains a poetic Cast of Chopin's Hand
attitude and Rubato technique was often
used.

Famous Compositions

 Minute Waltz (Op. 64, No. 1)

 Funeral March
 Fantaisie-Impromptu (Op. posth. 66)
Compositions
3 piano sonatas 58 mazurkas
5 rondos 20 waltzes
4 scherzos 3 écossaises
4 ballades 26 preludes
 - 21 -
17 polonaises, including one with orchestral accompaniment 4 sets of variations, including Souvenir
and one for cello and piano accompaniment de Paganini

4 impromptus 21 nocturnes
27 études (twelve in the Op. 10 cycle, twelve in the Op. 25 2 concertos for piano and orchestra,
cycle, and three in a collection without an opus number) Op. 11 and 21

Franz Peter Schubert

Franz Schubert was an Austrian composer who was
born on January 31st, 1797. He wrote 600 lieder
(songs), 9 symphonies, Liturgical music, operas, and
chamber music. He is well noted for his melodic and
harmonic writing. He was not a very popular composer
at his lifetime but gained popularity posthumously
(after death).
His father was his first teacher. Later he was
given education by Michael Holtzer and Antonio Salieri,
who was a famous composer then.
He began his career as a teacher in his father’s
school, which he disliked. As he yearned for the
freedom, his father released him. Then he devoted
himself wholly to composition, writing one after
another within the same day.
However, his financial status was not too satisfactory.
He always had a circle of friends and those friends kept
him survived, because in his life, he could never get a
permanent employment. His first large compositions such
as Estrella, Fierrabras were not highly accepted by the audiences and were even refused. But
Beethoven who was one of his acquaintances has once said “Truly, the spark of divine genius
resides in this Schubert!".
He started his most controversial “Symphony no. 8 in B minor” or “The
Unfinished symphony” in 1822. The reason for the incompleteness of this symphony is yet
unresolved.
In the midst of this creative activity, his health deteriorated. He contracted
syphilis in 1822. The final illness may have been typhoid fever, but some of his final symptoms
match those of mercury poisoning. He died aged 31, on November 19, 1828.

When we consider his music, he was clearly influenced by the Classical sonata
forms of Mozart and Beethoven. This combination of Classical form and long-breathed
Romantic melody was sometimes discursive. He has composed music for a wide range of
ensembles and in various genres including opera, liturgical music, chamber and solo piano
music. But it was in the genre of the Lied that Schubert kept his permanent stamp. He wrote
more than 600 lieder and is said that he has brought up the potentials of the lied more than
any other composer. His harmonic innovations include movements in which the first section
ends in the key of the subdominant rather than the dominant.
Schubert's compositional style developed rapidly throughout his short life. The
loss of possible masterpieces caused by his early death at 31yrs. was a great loss to the
concert repertory of Romantic Era music.
 - 22 -

Famous Compositions

"Unfinished" Symphony five operas 30 chamber works

21 complete sonatas six masses

Robert Schumann 1810-1856

Robert Alexander Schumann, was a German composer,

aesthete and influential music critic who was born on June 8, 1810.
He is one of the most famous Romantic composers of the 19th
century. He had hoped to be a virtuoso pianist. But a hand injury
prevented that hope from being realized, and he decided to focus his
musical energies on composition. All of Schumann's earlier
compositions were for the piano; he later composed works for piano
and orchestra, many lieder (songs for voice and piano), four
symphonies, an opera, and other orchestral, choral and chamber
works

Schumann himself said that he had begun to compose before

the age of seven. However, as his father who helped him in musical
education died, his mother did not encourage him on music and
instead he was focused in law. However, after sometime he gave up
learning law and began taking piano lessons in which he had a
permanent hand injury. Then he began composing ever since.

The Kinderszenen(Scenes from the childhood), completed in 1838, is a favourite of

Schumann's piano works, which is playful and childlike, and in a wonderfully fresh way
captures the innocence of childhood.

Schumann’s wife Clara Schumann was also a famous composer and a famous
pianist. Clara Schumann highlighted many works by her husband as well. For the last two
years of his life, after an attempted suicide, Schumann was confined to a mental institution by
his own request where he remained until death on July 29, 1856.

Famous compositions

 Carnaval
 Kinderszenen,
 Genoveva, Op. 81; his only opera
 Kreisleriana
 Fantasia in C, Op. 17,
 Etudes Symphoniques
 Requiem for chorus and orchestra op.148
 - 23 -
Franz Liszt(1811-1886)

Franz Liszt was a Hungarian-born pianist and composer,

founder of the solo piano recital and perhaps the greatest
pianist of all time, as well as one of the important
composers of the 19th century.

Liszt was born on October 22, 1811, in the village of

Raiding, near Sopron. He studied the piano first with his
father, then with the Austrian pianist Carl Czerny in
Vienna, where he also studied theory with the Italian
composer Antonio Salieri. In 1823, he moved with his
parents to Paris, where he soon established himself as a
pianist.

When he resided in Paris, he made

friendships with famous people in Paris, such as Frédéric
Chopin and Hector Berlioz. In 1831, he heard the Italian violinist Nicolò Paganini, who was a
virtuoso (a musician who shows exceptional ability, technique, or artistry) and thought to be
virtuoso in the Piano. However, after he became a virtuoso he stopped playing in public
concerts soon, about in 1847.

From 1848 to 1861, he was musical director at the grand ducal

court at Weimar, giving performances of works by Berlioz, Wagner, and others, as well as his
own.

Departing from Weimar in 1861, Liszt for nearly ten years resided
chiefly in Rome. After 1871, dividing his time between Rome, Weimar, and Budapest, he
continued to conduct, teach, and compose and to promote the music of Wagner who was his
son-in-law. He died in Bayreuth, Germany, on July 31, 1886.

His compositions for the piano launched an innovative, difficult playing

technique that gave to the piano a unique variety of qualities and sonorities. Among his well-
known works for the piano are the Sonata in B Minor (1853), the 12 Transcendental Etudes
(1851), the 20 Hungarian Rhapsodies (1846-1885; no. 20 unpublished), Six Paganini Etudes
(1851), Concerto No. 1, in E-Flat (1849; revised 1853), Concerto No. 2, in A-Major (1848;
revised 1856-1861), and the character pieces making up the three-volume Years of Pilgrimage
(1855, 1858, 1877).
 - 24 -
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a
German composer, conductor and one of the most influential
cultural figures of the 19th century who was born in Leipzig.
Through his creative work and his theoretical writings, Wagner
changed the concept and structure of opera.
After many attempts to write an opera, his first
completed opera Die Feen (The Fairies), was completed 1834.
However, it was not published until his death. Some of his
famous Operas were Rienzi (1840), Der fliegende Holländer
(The Flying Dutchman-1841), Tannhäuser (1845), Lohengrin (1848) and Parsifal (1882).
He worked as music director of Königsberg’s theater, Russia at first and then
Rīga, now in Latvia, Kapellmeister at the Royal Court Theater in Dresden, Germany, and in
King Ludwig II’s palace in Munich, Germany.
In February 13th, 1883 after a heated argument with his wife Cosima Liszt,
who was the daughter of Franz Liszt, he suffered a fatal heart attack and passed away.
In the early 19th century, an opera was structured as a succession of conventional
self-contained forms such as aria (a vocal solo), duet, or chorus, and these individual
"numbers" were connected by dialogue, either sung (recitative) or spoken. Wagner changed
all of this. Thus he is said as one of the major composers of opera who changed its’ character.

Felix Mendelssohn
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), was a German
composer, one of the leading figures of early 19th-
century European romanticism.
He was born bearing the full name of Jakob Ludwig
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy on February 3, 1809,
in Hamburg Mendelssohn first appeared in public
as a pianist at the age of 9 and performed his first
original compositions when 11 years old. His
masterly overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream
was composed at the age of 17; the famous
“Wedding March” and the rest of his incidental
music to the same play were written 17 years later.
His teachers included the Bohemian pianist-
composer Ignaz Moscheles and the German
composer Carl Zelter. In 1829 he conducted the first
performance of St. Matthew Passion since J.S.Bach's
death. Thus, he is attributed as the person, who revived the public interest of Bach’s
compositions, in the romantic era.
Mendelssohn appeared as a pianist and conductor throughout Europe, making
frequent trips to England. He was musical director for the city of Düsseldorf (1833-1835),
conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig (from 1835), and musical director to King
Frederick William IV of Prussia (from 1841). In 1842 he helped organize the Leipzig
Conservatory. He suffered a physical collapse at the death of his favourite sister, Fanny
Mendelssohn Hensel, and died a few months later in Leipzig on November 4, 1847.
In spite of an enormously tiring schedule as pianist, conductor, and teacher, Mendelssohn was
a creative composer. Of his five symphonies, the best known are the Italian Symphony (1833)
and the Scotch Symphony (1843). His organ and choral music is among the best of the 19th
 - 25 -
century and includes, for choir and orchestra, the oratorios St. Paul (1836) and Elijah
(1846) and the cantata Erste Walpurgisnacht (First Walpurgis-Night, 1832; revised 1843); and
his organ sonatas, preludes, and fugues. Also important are the Variations sérieuses for piano;
his concert overtures, including The Hebrides (1832); his concertos for violin (1844) and for
piano (1831, 1837); and the eight volumes of Songs Without Words for piano (1830-1845;
some of these are by his sister Fanny).
His romanticism shows most clearly in his use of orchestral color and in his
fondness for program music representing non-musical things. Structurally, Mendelssohn's
music sticks to classical forms. His music was lyrical, graceful and always clear. Further, Felix
Mendelssohn is particularly known for creating extraordinary musical landscapes.

Johannes Brahms
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) was a German composer, one of the
major composers of the 19th century, whose works combine the
best of the classical and romantic schools.
Brahms was born in Hamburg on May 7, 1833. After
studying the violin and cello with his father, Brahms mastered the
piano and began to compose. In 1853, Brahms went on a concert
tour as accompanist to the Hungarian violinist Eduard Reményi. In
the course of the tour he met the German composer Robert
Schumann. Schumann was so impressed by Brahms's unpublished
compositions that he wrote a wildly enthusiastic magazine article
about him.
In 1857, Brahms appointed as the conductor at the
court theater in Detmold, where he remained until 1859. After, several years, he traveled in
Germany and Switzerland. He went to Vienna in 1863 and became director of the
Singakademie (Choral Academy) but left the post a year later.
Brahms won fame throughout Europe following the performance of his German
Requiem. Brahms settled in Vienna in 1871, accepting the directorship of the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde (Society of Friends of Music). In 1874 he resigned his position to devote himself
to composing.
Brahms wrote in every medium except opera. His important works include
Schicksalslied (Song of Destiny, 1871), a musical setting of a poem by the German poet
Friedrich Hölderlin, scored for chorus and orchestra; the Violin Concerto in D Major; 3 string
quartets; 5 trios; a clarinet quintet; numerous other chamber works for various combinations
of instruments; and more than 150 songs. Brahms died on April 13, 1897, in Vienna.

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Tchaikovsky was born on May 7, 1840 in Votkinsk, in the
western Ural area of the country. He studied law in Saint
Petersburg and took music classes at the Saint Petersburg
Conservatory.
Many Tchaikovsky compositions{among them The
Nutcracker (ballet and suite, 1891-1892), the Piano Concerto
no. 2 in G Major, the String Quartet no. 3 in E-flat Minor , and
the Trio in A Minor for Violin, Cello, and Piano}are very
popular among music lovers. His most popular works can be
identified by richly melodic passages. Tchaikovsky was an
exceptionally gifted orchestrator; his ballet scores in particular contain many striking effects
of orchestral coloration. In his best operas, such as Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades, he
 - 26 -
used highly suggestive melodic passages to show a dramatic situation briefly and with
emotional effect. His ballets, notably Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty, are very famous for
their melodic intensity and instrumental brilliance. Tchaikovsky also extended the range of
the symphonic poem, and his works in this genre, including Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet, are
notable for their richly melodic suggestion of the moods of their respective literary works.
The cause of Tchaikovsky’s death is still uncertain: Some authorities believe his
death was accidental, but others hold that he deliberately took arsenic or drank cholera-
infected water. Anyhow, his death is recorded as happened, on November 6, 1893.

MODERN ERA

Benjamin Britten
Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) was a British composer,
whose operas are among the finest English-language operas
of the 20th century. He was born November 22, 1913, in
Lowestoft, England, and he was trained at the Royal College
of Music, London. From 1939 to 1942 Britten lived in the
United States and produced a violin concerto the Sinfonia da
Requiem and his first opera, Paul Bunyan. His second opera,
Peter Grimes was a great success, and he followed it with The
Rape of Lucretia; Albert Herring; Billy Budd, Gloriana, written
to celebrate the coronation of Elizabeth II; The Turn of the
Screw,; and A Midsummer Night's Dream, from Shakespeare's
comedy. His later operatic works include Owen Wingrave, and Death in Venice.
Britten termed some of his later works as chamber operas, because they require
an orchestra of only 12 pieces. Britten also composed in other forms, such as the cantatalike
works he called “church parables,” including Noye's Fludde and The Prodigal Son . His War
Requiem is a massive choral work. In addition, he produced incidental music for plays and
films; song cycles; and music for children, including The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra.
Britten's works range in style from the simplest, most lyrical tonality to complex but
dramatically effective atonality. In 1976 Queen Elizabeth II granted him a life peerage, and he
became Baron Britten of Aldeburgh. He died in Aldeburgh on December 4, 1976.

Saint Säens
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921) was a French composer, pianist,
and an organist, who was born in Paris. He made his debut(first
public apperarence) as a pianist at the age of ten and later studied
organ and harmony at the Paris Conservatoire. In 1853 he
composed his first symphony, and from 1858 to 1877 he was
organist at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris. His most famous
work was the opera Samson et Dalila. During the last part of his life
Saint-Saëns toured widely in North Africa and the America. His
music, which is written in the classical French tradition, is elegant
and precise in detail and form and combines the lyrical style
common to 19th-century French music with a more formal quality.
He composed five piano concertos and three violin concertos.
Among his other works are the symphonic poems Le rouet
d'Omphale (Omphale's Spinning Wheel) and Danse Macabre, the
 - 27 -
Third Symphony in E-flat Minor, and the suite for orchestra with two pianos, Le carnaval
des animaux (Carnival of the Animals, 1886).

Béla Bartók
Béla Viktor János Bartók (1881-1945) was
a Hungarian composer. He was one of the most important figures of
20th-century modern era music. Bartók also was a distinguished
pianist.

He was born in Nagyszentmiklós, Hungary. He showed early talent

for piano and composition, which he studied at the Academy of Music
in Budapest from 1899 to 1903. He supported himself as a pianist and
performer for much of his life. After World War II broke out, Bartók emigrated in 1940 from
Hungary to the United States, where he spent his final years. Although his health was failing,
he continued to compose until he died in 1945.
 - 28 -

Voice
Voice is one of the main gifts to the mankind, which is not present in other
beings. Because of this voice, the man could communicate with each other at first and he could
later sing using his voice. The voice can frame the music into words, which is not possible for
any other musical instrument. Voice is borne by the vibration of vocal cords in our vocal
passage.
Different people have different voice ranges. Due to this, part-singing or different
voice ranges singing together came into being as
the first stage to polyphony. Usually there are four
(4) main ranges in voice. Such as,

 Soprano - Highest female voice.

 Alto - Lowest Female voice or highest
male voice i.e. usually sung by boys).

 Tenor - Highest male voice when usually

regarding with adults.
 Bass - Lowest male voice.

There are two other voice ranges between Tenor and Bass,
called Baritone, and the other is between Soprano and Alto called Mezzo-Soprano.

Further, the soprano divides into 3 main groups.

 Coloratura - usually the highest voice range and an extremely flexible and
light voice capable of performing highly ornamented virtuoso
passages
 Lyric - a lighter, smoothly flowing voice
 Dramatic - a powerful and theatrical voice

The Tenor has 2 main groups and 2 less common groups.

Main
 Lyric - lighter and more agile
 Dramatic - Sounds like a baritone in the lower register
Less common
 Heldentenor - a dramatic voice naturally powerful enough to project over the
large orchestras required for some German operas (“Held”
means “Hero” in German)
 Countertenor - a light voice above and extend beyond the normal tenor range.

Bass also has 3 main groups

 Basso Profondo(Deep bass) - a powerful, low-ranging voice
 - 29 -
 Basso Cantante(Singing bass) - a voice with a well-developed upper range
 Basso Buffo(Comic bass) - an agile voice suited to comic operatic roles

And there is another group called contrabass, which can range nearly an
octave lower the usual Bass range.

There was a time when the females were prohibited to sing in the choir at churches.
Thus, male Sopranos had to be used to sing the higher ranges. To create male Sopranos, boys
with higher and delicate voices were surgically operated (Castrated) before their voices
change at the teens. Then their voices reserved the same higher unbroken voice range
although they grew. They were called Castrati (Singular- Castrato). This technique was
popular in the 17th -18th Century and faded away in the 19th Century.
Other technique used in singing is Falsetto, an artificially high singing
voice. Male singers produce tones in notes above their normal pitch, sounding like an
unbroken voice. Falsetto is the voice normally cultivated by male countertenors.
 - 30 -

Forms
Simple Binary Form
Being the simplest of all the forms, it has only two sections. In pieces with
a major key, section A begins in the tonic key and later gradually modulates to the dominant,
sub dominant or the relative minor. The section B starts with the key in which A ended, and
modulates back to the tonic key.
In compositions, in minor keys section A will typically modulate to the relative
major, alternatively section A could close in the dominant minor, or with an imperfect cadence
in the original key. The section B of the piece begins in the newly established key, where it
remains for an indefinite period. After some harmonic activity, the piece will gradually
modulate back to its original key before ending.
Almost all the nursery tunes are of Binary form, such as Twinkle, Twinkle little
star! (To which Mozart has composed a Theme and Variation too), Mary had a little lamb.

Ternary Form
This form has three sections, as A, B, A2. The first and third parts (A, A2) are
musically identical, or very nearly so, while the second part (B) contrasts sharply with it.
Commonly, the third section will feature more ornamentation than the first section (e.g. -Da
capo arias). In the classical era, it was usually the second movement of symphonies, string
quartets, sonatas and similar works.
A or Statement- The principal theme in tonic key and ends in either tonic or related
key.
B or Digression- This is an episode. Sharply contrast in style and key, to the
principal theme.
A2 or Restatement- This is a restatement of A, beginning and ending in tonic. This
may or may not be followed by a coda.

Rondo Form
Rondo form has many sections. Rondo form started off in the Baroque period as
the Ritornello form, coming from the Latin word ritornare meaning "to return", indicating the
return to the original theme or motif ("A"). The typical Baroque rondo pattern is ABACADA.
In rondo form, a principal theme (sometimes called the "refrain") alternates with one
or more contrasting themes, called "episodes", at least three times. Possible patterns in the
Classical Period include: ABA, ABACA, or ABACAB'A. The number of themes can vary from
piece to piece.
A- The Principal theme in tonic key
B- The episode( usually the sharp side of the tonic)
A2- The principal theme in tonic key. It can be little varied from A.
C- The 2nd episode( usually the flat side of the tonic)
A3- The principal theme in tonic key. The final appearing Principal theme may be
followed by a coda.
 - 31 -
The form began to be commonly used from the classical music era. But, it can be found
in earlier works too. In the classical and romantic periods it was often used for the last
movement of a sonata, symphony, concerto or piece of chamber music.

Theme and Variations Form

Theme and Variations is one of the earliest of the musical forms. It is a musical form
in which the fundamental musical idea, or theme, is repeated in altered form or accompanied
in a different manner. It could be used as a solo piece or as movement of a larger piece. In this
form, the firstly presented theme is later developed and varied using different techniques.
Such as,
 Change of Harmonies
 Change of Key
 Change of Register
 Change of Tonality
 Change of Tempo
 Augmentation
 Diminution
 Contrapuntal Treatment (as a Fugue)
 Ornamentation
 Entire departure from the theme, keeping the connection by rhythmic shape
Sonata Form
Many major works’ first movement is written in this form, such as Sonata,
Symphony, and String Quartet. Thus, it is also, called the First movement form. It is said an
extension of the Simple Binary form, with its first half moving from the home key to the
dominant and the second half moving, back again. Thus,it is also called a Cyclic movement.
It has two main parts divided into three sections. Also called the
sonata-allegro form, its sections are as follows.
It may begin with an introduction, which is generally slower than the main
movement, and then proceeds to the exposition. The exposition presents the primary
thematic material for the movement: one or two theme groups, often in contrasting styles and
in opposing keys, bridged by a transition. The exposition typically concludes with a closing
theme, a codetta, or both. The exposition is followed by the development where the
harmonic and textural possibilities of the thematic material are explored. Themes provided in
the exposition are further developed and this section is also called the “free fantasia”. It then
transitions to the recapitulation where the both thematic materials return in the tonic key.
The movement may conclude with a coda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation.

Description of sonata form

(Although this type of description is not expected at the O/L standard, it is
better to know a lengthy analysis of a sonata form for the general knowledge. The reader can
summarize the description below to their needs. Chiefly, the Introduction section is not
usually being taught by the teachers as it does not appear in the standard O/L syllabus.)

Introduction
The Introduction section is optional, or may be reduced to a minimum. If it is
extended, it is generally slower than the main section, and frequently focuses on the dominant
key. It may or may not contain material which is later stated in the exposition. The
introduction increases the weight of the movement, and also permits the composer to begin
the exposition with a theme that would be too light to start on its own. Usually, but not always,
the introduction is excluded from the exposition repeat.
 - 32 -

Exposition
The primary themes for the movement are presented in the Exposition. This section can be
further divided into several sections. The same section in most sonata form movements has
prominent harmonic and thematic parallelisms which include:
 First subject group – this consists of one or more themes, all of them in the tonic.
Therefore, if the piece is in C major, all of the music in the first group will be in C major.
 Transition – in this section the composer modulates from the key of the first subject to
the key of the second. However, many Classical era works move straight from 1st to
2nd subject groups without any transition.
 Second subject group – one or more themes are in a different key from the first group.
If the first group is in a major key, the second group will usually be in the dominant. In
pieces in a major key this will be the perfect fifth higher; if the original key is C major,
for example, the key of the music of the second group will be G major. If the first group
is in a minor key, the second group will generally be in the relative major, so that if the
original key is C minor, the second group will be in E-flat major. The material of the
second group is often different in rhythm or mood from that of the first group,
frequently, it is more lyrical.
 Codetta – the purpose of this is to end the exposition section with a perfect cadence in
the same key as the second group. The whole of the exposition may then be repeated.
Development
The development generally starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may move
through many different keys during its course. It will usually consist of one or more themes
from the exposition altered and occasionally juxtaposed and may include new material or
themes.
The development varies greatly in length from piece to piece, sometimes being relatively
short compared to the exposition and in other cases quite long and detailed. However, it
usually shows a greater degree of tonal, harmonic and rhythmic instability than the other
sections. At the end, the music will return to the dominant key in preparation of the
recapitulation. The transition from the development to the recapitulation is a important
moment in the work.
The last part of the development section is called the retransition. It prepares for the return of
the first subject group in the tonic. In addition, the character of the music would signal such a
return, often becoming more furious.

Recapitulation

The Recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition, and consists of:

 First subject group – normally given importance, as the highlight of a recapitulation, it
is usually in the same key and forms as in the exposition.
 Transition – now altered so that it does not change key, but remains in the piece's home
key. Often the transition is carried out by introducing new material.
 Second subject group and codetta – usually in the same form as in the exposition, but
now in the tonic key, which sometimes involves transformation from major to minor,
or vice versa. Key here is more important than mode (major or minor) the
recapitulation provides the needed balance even if the material's mode is changed.
Coda
After the final cadence of the recapitulation, the movement may continue with a coda, which
will contain material from the movement. Codas, when present, may be in different length, but
like introductions, are not parts of the "argument" of the work. The coda will end, however,
 - 33 -
with a perfect cadence in the tonic key. Codas may be quite brief tailpieces, or they may
be very long and elaborate. Then the normal reference to the coda is completed, “giving a
satisfactory end to the piece”.

Fugue Form/Texture
Though fugue is sometimes called form, it is not so considered now. It is called a
musical texture. However, it has clearly demarcated (separated) sections, which we can
analyze and study. A fugue is usually based on a single melody which may or may not contain
modulations.

The Exposition or Enunciation

A fugue begins with the exposition of its subject, sounding in one of the voices alone in the
tonic key. After the statement of the subject, a second voice enters with the subject transposed
to the dominant, usually Perfect 4th lower or Perfect 5th upper, which is known as the answer.
When the answer is an exact transposition
of the subject to the dominant, it is called a real answer; if it has to be altered in any way it is a
tonal answer. While the answer is being stated, the voice in which the subject was previously
heard continues with new material. If this new material is reused in later statements of the
subject, it is called a countersubject; if this accompanying material is only heard once, it is
simply referred to as free counterpoint. Each voice then responds with its own subject or
answer in turn, and further countersubjects or free counterpoint may be heard.
The exposition usually ends when all voices have given a statement of the subject or answer.

The Middle or Modulatory Section

In this section the subject and answer are heard in a different
key, which is usually not the tonic. These entries of the subject and answer can be separated
by episodes. Various devises are used in this section, such as Stretto (subject and answer
overlap each other), Inversion (Intervals of the subject are upside down), Augmentation
(notes in the subject are longer), and Diminution (notes in the subject are shorter).

The Final Section

Begins where the subject and answer is heard once again in the tonic key.
Stretto is usually used and this section usually ends with a coda.
 - 34 -

Musical Elements
Music has many different elements. The main elements are rhythm, melody, harmony,
structure, timbre, dynamics, and texture.
Rhythm
Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds in time. Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings,
called measures or bars. The time signature specifies how many beats are in a measure, and
which value of written note, is counted and felt as a single beat. There are conventions in most
musical traditions for a regular and hierarchical accentuation of beats to reinforce the meter.
Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent unexpected parts of the beat. Playing
simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called polymeter.
Melody
A series of notes sounding in succession is melody. The notes of a melody are typically created
with respect to pitch systems such as scales or modes. Melody is typically divided into phrases
within a large structure.
i. Pitch
Pitch is determined by the sound's frequency of vibration. It refers to the relative highness or
lowness of a given tone, or simply the weight and the depth of the sound. The greater the
frequency, the higher sounding the pitch.
The process of giving note names to pitches is called Tuning. 440 Hz is called modern concert
pitch A.
The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The most basic interval
is the octave, which indicates either a doubling or halving of the base frequency. In
mathematical terms, every A can be expressed as:
2n X 440Hz
Therefore, the list of A’s within the human hearing range (20Hz - 20,000Hz) are: A0=27.5Hz,
A1=55Hz, A2=110Hz, A3=220Hz, A4 (concert pitch) =440Hz, A5=880Hz, A6=1,760Hz,
A7=3,520Hz, A8=7,040Hz, and A9=14,080Hz.

ii. Scales and modes

Notes can be arranged into different scales and modes. Western music theory generally
divides the octave into a series of 12 notes that might be included in a piece of music. This
series of twelve notes is called a chromatic scale. In the chromatic scale, each note is called a
half-step or semitone. Patterns of half and whole steps (2 half steps, or a tone) can make up a
scale in that octave. The scales most commonly found are the seven-toned, major, the
harmonic minor, the melodic minor, and the natural minor. Other examples of scales used are
the octatonic scale, and the pentatonic or five-toned scale, which is common in folk music but
not limited to it. There are scales that do not follow the chromatic 12-note pattern, for
example in classical Indian and Arabic music. However, most contemporary compositions use
the Western system.
In music written using the system of major-minor tonality, the key of a piece determines the
scale used. Transposing a piece from C major to D major will make all the notes two semitones
(or one full step) higher. Even in modern equal temperament, changing the key can change the
feel of a piece of music, because it changes the relationship of the composition's pitches to the
pitch range of the instruments on which the piece is being performed. This often affects the
music's timbre, as well as having technical implications for the performers. However,
performing a piece in one key rather than another may go unrecognized by the casual listener,
since changing the key does not change the relationship of the individual pitches to each
other. A key change, or modulation, may occur during a piece, which is more easily heard as a
difference of intervals in sound.
 - 35 -
Harmony
Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music. Vertical sonority means the
consideration of the relationships between pitches that occur together; usually this means at
the same time.
The vertical relationship between two pitches is referred to as an interval. A larger structure
involving multiple pitches is called a chord. In Common practice and Popular music,
harmonies are generally tertian (connected with triads), although there are some notable
exceptions. One way to analyze harmony is using the roman numeral system.
i. Consonance and dissonance
Although, consonance can be roughly defined as harmonies whose tones complement and
increase each others' resonance, and dissonance as those which create more complex
acoustical interactions (called 'beats'), it can simply be said that consonance is "pleasant" and
dissonance is "unpleasant" sound. Another way of thinking about the relationship of
consonance and dissonance is stability; dissonant harmonies are sometimes considered to be
unstable and to "want to move" or "resolve" toward consonance. However, this is not to say
that dissonance is undesirable. A composition made entirely of consonant harmonies may be
pleasing to the ear and yet boring because there are no instabilities to be resolved.

Dynamics
In music, dynamics normally refers to the softness or loudness of a sound or note, e.g.
pianissimo or fortissimo. Until recently, most of these dynamics and signs were written in
Italian, but recently are becoming written or translated into English. However, to every aspect
of the execution of a given piece, either stylistic (staccato, legato etc.) or functional (velocity)
are also known as dynamics. The term is also applied to the written or printed musical
notation used to indicate dynamics.

Structure or Form
Form is a side of music theory that explores the concept of musical syntax, on a local and
global level. The syntax is often explained in terms of phrases and periods (for the local level)
or sections or genre (for the global scale). That is a professional definition of form. But simply,
form is a general outline of the music. Examples of common forms in Western music include
sonata, theme and variations, rondo, the fugue, the invention, and canon.

Timbre
In music, timbre is the quality of a musical note or sound that distinguishes different types of
sound production, such as voices or musical instruments. It’s because of timbre that we are
possible to identify the sound of a violin and a flute, though they play the same note.

Texture
Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music commonly described according to the
number of and relationship between parts or lines of music: monophony, heterophony,
polyphony, homophony, or monody. The perceived texture of a piece may also be affected by
the timbre of the instruments, the number of instruments used, and the interval between each
musical line, among other things.
Monophony is the texture of a melody heard only by itself. If a melody is accompanied by
chords, the texture is homophony. In homophony, the melody is usually voiced in the highest
notes but not always. A third texture, called polyphony, consists of several simultaneous
melodies of equal importance.
 - 36 -

The Ear
Now, besides talking about music we’ll consider about the Ear, from which we get
sound signals. In fact, there couldn’t have been music if there wasn’t an ear. All the vertebrates
or animals with a back born, have ears. Among them, mammals have the most complex and
highly developed ear. Usually, the humans’ listening range is 20Hz- 20,000Hz. Now let’s learn
something about the ear, which helps us to hear sounds and enjoy music.

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

Like the ears of other mammals, the human ear consists of three sections: the outer, middle,
and inner ear. The outer and middle ears function only for hearing, while the inner ear also
serves the functions of balance and orientation.

The Outer Ear

The outer ear is made up of the auricle, or pinna, and the outer auditory canal. The auricle is
the curved part of the ear attached to the side of the. It consists largely of elastic cartilage, and
its shape helps collect sound waves from the air.
The outer auditory canal, which measures about 3 cm (about 1.25 in) in length, is a
tubular passageway lined with delicate hairs. The canal leads from the auricle to a thin taut
membrane called the eardrum or tympanic membrane, which is nearly round in shape and
about 10 mm (0.4 in) wide. The vibration of the eardrum sends sound waves deeper into the
ear, where they can be processed by complex organs and prepared for transmission to the
brain.

The Middle Ear

The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear. A narrow passageway called
the Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the throat and the back of the nose. The
Eustachian tube helps to keep the eardrum undamaged, by equalizing the pressure between
the middle and outer ear.
The middle ear is a narrow, air-filled chamber that extends vertically for about 15 mm
(about 0.6 in) and for nearly the same distance horizontally. Inside this chamber is a linked
chain of three ossicles, or very small bones. Both the Latin and common names of these bones
 - 37 -
are derived from their shapes. They are called the malleus, or hammer; the incus, or
anvil; and the stapes, or stirrup, which is the tiniest bone in the body, being smaller than a
grain of rice.
The hammer is partly embedded in the eardrum, and the stirrup fits into the oval window, a
membrane that fronts the inner ear. Vibrations of the eardrum move the hammer. The motion
of the hammer moves the anvil, which in turn moves the stirrup. As sound vibrations pass
from the relatively large area of the eardrum through the chain of bones, which have a smaller
area, their force is concentrated. This concentration amplifies, or increases the sound, just
before it passes through the oval window and into the inner ear.
The Inner Ear
The chain of bones in the middle ear leads into the convoluted structures of the inner ear, or
labyrinth, which contains organs of both hearing and balance. The three main structures of
the inner ear are the cochlea, the vestibule, and the three semicircular canals.
The cochlea is a coiled tube that bears a close similarity to the shell of a snail. Cochlea also
means ‘snail’ in Greek. It receives sound vibrations from the middle ear and sends them to the
brain via the auditory nerve. In the brain, they are recognized and interpreted as specific
sounds.
The vestibule, the second main structure of the inner ear, helps the body to maintain balance
and orientation by monitoring the sensations of movement and position.
The third main structure of the inner ear is the three semicircular canals. These canals direct
body balance when the body moves in a straight line or rotates in any direction.
This is how we hear. Though we do not know, there is a big process, taking
place within our body. Thus, it is our responsibility, to protect our ears by not listening to loud
sounds, and not inserting foreign items.
 - 38 -

Musical Terms
When we use printed scores of music, we see there are number of words
printed, in order to advise the performer, about the manner of playing the piece. It is expected
for the students to know some of these terms, which are important in reading music
manuscripts. In addition, as the aim of learning music is to enjoy it, if one knows these terms,
it will be easier to understand what the composers’ wishes in writing this piece are. Moreover,
if the student is intending to compose music, the knowledge of these terms will enhance the
connection between him and the player. Besides all these, a part of the question paper in
western music tests is based on these terms. Thus, it is valuable to know these terms in
whichever side it is taken.
The terms marked below are a lengthy list. However, not all these are
needed for the O/L exam. Terms, which are usually needed, are marked with an asterisk (*).
Nevertheless, refer to teachers for the exact list of terms needed for the exam. Normally these
terms are in Italian. But there are exceptions too. Thus, if any term is listed other than Italian,
it is also mentioned, as Ger-German, Fr-French, Lat-Latin, Polish- Polish. All the terms are
listed alphabetically. This list can never be completed. Some terms are common, and others
are used only occasionally.

 a, à (Fr) – at, to, by, for, in, in the style of

 aber (Ger) – but

 a bene placido – up to the performer
 a cappella – in the manner of singing in a chapel; i.e., without instrumental
accompaniment *
 accelerando, accel. – accelerating; gradually increasing the tempo*
 accentato – accented; with emphasis
 accompagnato – accompanied; i.e., with the accompaniment following the soloist, who
may speed up or slow down at will
 adagietto – rather slow
 adagio – at ease; i.e., slow *
 adagissimo – very slow
 ad libitum (commonly ad lib; Latin) – at liberty; i.e., the speed and manner of playing
are left to the performer
 affettuoso, affettuosamente, or affectueusement (Fr) – with affect (that is, with
emotion)
 affrettando – hurrying, pressing onwards
 agile – swiftly
 agitato – agitated *
 alla breve – in cut-time; two beats per measure or the equivalent thereof
 alla marcia – in the style of a march *
 allargando – broadening, becoming a little slower
 allegretto – a little lively, moderately fast *
 allegretto vivace – a moderately quick tempo
 allegro – cheerful or brisk; but commonly interpreted as lively, fast *
 allegrissimo - very fast, but slower than presto
 altissimo – very high
 alzate sordini – lift or raise the mutes; i.e., remove mutes
 - 39 -
 amabile – amiable, pleasant
 amoroso – loving
 andante – at a walking pace; i.e., at a moderate tempo *
 andantino – slightly faster than andante *
 a niente – to nothing; an indication to make a diminuendo to pppp. ( to
pianissississimo)
 animato – animated, lively
 apaisé (Fr) – calmed
 a piacere – at pleasure; i.e., the performer need not follow the rhythm strictly*
 appassionato – passionately
 arco – the bow used for playing some string instrument; i.e., played with the bow, as
opposed to pizzicato (plucked), in music for bowed instruments; normally used to
cancel a pizzicato direction *
 a tempo – in time; i.e., the performer should return to the main tempo of the piece
(after an accelerando or ritardando, etc.); also may be found in combination with other
terms such as a tempo giusto (in strict time) or a tempo di menuetto (at the speed of
a minuet)*
 attacca – attack, or go on; i.e., at the end of a movement, a direction to begin (attack)
the next movement immediately, without a gap or pause
 ausdrucksvoll (Ger) – expressively
B
 barbaro – barbarous, (literally, cruel)
 bellicoso – warlike, aggressive
 bewegt (Ger) – moved, with speed
 bis (Lat) – twice; i.e., repeat the relevant action or passage
 bocca chiusa – with closed mouth, humming, usually in a choral passage.
 bravura – boldness; as in con bravura, boldly
 breit (Ger) – broad
 brillante – brilliantly, with sparkle
 brioso – vigorously
 bruscamente – brusquely
C
 calando – falling away, or lowering; i.e., getting slower and quieter; ritardando along
with diminuendo *
 cambiare – to change; i.e., any change, such as, to a new instrument
 cantabile or cantando – in a singing style*
 capo – head; i.e., the beginning (of a movement, normally)
 capriccioso – capriciously, unpredictable, volatile
 cédez (Fr) – yield, give way
 cesura or caesura (Latin form) – break, stop; i.e., a complete break in sound
 chiuso – closed; i.e., muted by hand (for a horn, or similar instrument)
 colla parte – with the soloist
 colla voce – with the voice
 col legno – with the wood; i.e., the strings (for example, of a violin) are to be struck
with the wood of the bow
 colossale – tremendously
 col pugno – with the fist; i.e., bang the piano with the fist
 come prima – like the first (time); i.e., as before, typically referring to an earlier tempo
 come sopra – as above; i.e., like the previous tempo (usually)
 comodo or commodo – comfortable; i.e., at moderate speed.
 con amore, or con amor – with love, tenderly
 con affetto – with affect (that is, with emotion)
 con brio – with spirit, with vigour
 - 40 -
 con calore - warmly
 con dolore – with sadness
 con forza – with force
 con (gran, molto) espressione – with (great, much) expression
 con fuoco – with fire, in a fiery manner
 con larghezza – with broadness; broadly
 con moto – with motion
 con slancio – with enthusiasm
 con sordina, or con sordine (plural) – with a mute; or with mutes;
 con sordino, or con sordini (plural) ( previous terms in incorrect Italian, but used
usually) – with a mute; or with mutes;
 coperti – covered; i.e., on a drum, muted with a cloth
 crescendo – growing; i.e., progressively louder (contrast diminuendo)*
D
 da capo – from the head; i.e., from the beginning *
 D.S. al coda or dal segno al coda – from the sign to the coda; i.e., return to a place in
the music designated by the sign and continue until directed to move to the coda, a
separate ending section. *
 D.S. al fine or dal segno al fine – from the sign to the end; i.e., return to a place in the
music designated by the sign and continue to the end of the piece
 D.S.S. al coda or dal segno al coda – same as D.S. al coda, but with a double segno
 D.S.S. al fine or dal segno al fine – from the double sign to the end; i.e., return to place
in the music designated by the double sign and continue to the end of the piece
 deciso – decisively
 decrescendo or decresc. – same as diminuendo or dim. (see below) *
 delicatamente or delicato – delicately
 devoto – religiously
 diminuendo, dim. – dwindling; i.e., with gradually decreasing volume (same as
decrescendo)
 dissonante – dissonant
 dolce – sweetly*
 dolcissimo – very sweetly
 dolente – sorrowfully, plaintively
 doloroso – sorrowfully, plaintively
 D.S. – Dal Segno – from the sign *
E
 e (Ital.) – and
 eco – the Italian word for "echo"; an effect in which a group of notes is repeated,
usually more softly, and perhaps at a different octave, to create an echo effect
 ein wenig (Ger) – a little
 Empfindung (Ger) – feeling
 encore (Fr) – again; i.e., perform the relevant passage once more
 en dehors (Fr) – prominently
 energico – energetic, strong *
 enfatico – emphatically
 en pressant (Fr) – hurrying forward
 en retenant (Fr) – slowing
 eroico – heroically
 espirando – expiring; i.e., dying away
 espressivo or espr. – expressively
 estinto – extinct, extinguished; i.e., as soft as possible, lifeless, barely audible
 etwas (Ger) – somewhat
F
 - 41 -
 facile – easily, without fuss
 fermata – finished, closed; i.e., a rest or note is to be held for a duration that is at the
desire of the performer or conductor
 feroce – ferociously
 feurig (Ger) – fiery
 festivamente – cheerfully, celebratory
 fieramente – proudly
 fine – the end, often in phrases like al fine (to the end)
 flebile – mournfully
 focoso or fuocoso – fiery; i.e., passionately
 forte or f (usually) – strong; i.e., to be played or sung loudly *
 fortepiano or fp (usually) – strong-gentle; i.e., loud, then immediately soft
 fortissimo – as loudly as possible (see note at pianissimo)*
 forzando or fz – made loud; i.e., a sudden strong accent*
 freddo – cold(ly); hence depressive, unemotional
 fresco – freshly
 fröhlich - lively, joyfully
 fuoco – fire; e.g.- con fuoco means with fire
 furioso – furiously *
G
 gaudioso – with joy
 gentile – gently
 geschwind (Ger) – quickly
 getragen (Ger) – with sustainment
 giocoso or gioioso – gaily, joyfully, lightheartedly
 giusto – strictly, exactly, e.g. tempo giusto in strict time
 glissando (simulated Italian) – a continuous sliding from one pitch to another (a true
glissando), or an incidental scale executed while moving from one melodic note to
another (an effective glissando). *
 grandioso – grandly
 grave – slowly and seriously*
 grazioso – gracefully*
 gusto – lively enthusiasm, enjoyment
 gustoso – with gusto
H
 Hauptstimme (Ger) – "head" voice, chief part; i.e., the contrapuntal line of primary
importance, in opposition to Nebenstimme
I
 immer (Ger) – always
 imperioso – imperiously
 impetuoso – impetuously
 improvisando – with improvisation
 improvisato – improvised, or as if improvised
 in altissimo – in the highest; i.e., play or sing an octave higher
 incalzando – getting faster and louder
 insistendo – insistently, deliberate
 in modo di – in the art of, in the style of
 intimo – intimately,closely
 irato – angrily
K
 kräftig (Ger) – strongly
L
 lacrimoso – tearfully; i.e., sadly
 - 42 -
 lamentando – lamenting, mournfully
 lamentoso – lamenting, mournfully
 langsam (Ger) – slowly
 largamente – broadly; i.e., slowly (same as largo)
 larghetto – somewhat slowly; not as slow as largo *
 Larghissimo – very slowly; slower than largo
 largo – broadly; i.e., slowly *
 lebhaft (Ger) – briskly, lively
 legato – joined; i.e., smoothly, in a connected manner *
 leggiero – lightly, delicately *
 lent (Fr) – slowly
 lento – slowly*
 liberamente – freely
 libero – free, freely
 l'istesso – see lo stesso, below
 loco – [in] place; i.e., perform the notes at the pitch written (generally used to cancel an
8va direction)
 lontano – from a distance; distantly
 lo stesso (or commonly, but ungrammatically, l'istesso) – the same; applied to the
manner of articulation, tempo, etc.
 lugubre – lugubrious, extremely mournful
 luminoso – luminously
 lusingando – coaxingly
M
 ma – but
 ma non troppo – but not too much
 maestoso – majestically, in a stately fashion
 magico – magically
 magnifico – magnificent
 main droite (Fr) – [played with the] right hand (abbreviation: MD or m.d.)
 main gauche (Fr) – [played with the] left hand (abbreviation: MG or m.g.)
 malinconico – melancholy
 mano destra – [played with the] right hand (abbreviation: MD or m.d.)
 mano sinistra – [played with the] left hand (abbreviation: MS or m.s.)
 marcatissimo – with much accentuation
 marcato – marked; i.e., with accentuation, execute every note as if it were to be
accented
 marcia – a march; alla marcia means in the manner of a march
 martellato – hammered out
 marziale – in the march style
 mässig (Ger) – moderately
 melancolico – melancholic
 melisma – the technique of changing the note (pitch) of a syllable of text while it is
being sung
 meno – less; for example, see meno mosso, under mosso *
 mesto – mournful, sad
 mezza voce – half voice; i.e., with subdued or moderated volume *
 mezzo – half; used in combinations like mezzo forte (mf), meaning moderately loud *
 mezzo forte – half loudly; i.e., moderately loudly. *
 mezzo piano – half softly; i.e., moderately softly. *
 mezzo-soprano – a female singer with a range usually extending from the A below
middle C to the F an eleventh above middle C. Mezzo-sopranos generally have a darker
 - 43 -
vocal tone than sopranos, and their vocal range is between that of a soprano and
that of an alto.
 misterioso – mysteriously
 mobile – flexible, changeable
 moderato – moderate; often combined with other terms, usually relating to tempo; for
example, allegro moderato *
 modesto – modest *
 molto – very
 morendo – dying; i.e., dying away in dynamics, and perhaps also in tempo*
 mosso –moved, used with a preceding più or meno , for faster or slower respectively *
 moto – motion; usually seen as con moto, meaning with motion or quickly
 munter (Ger) – lively
N
 narrante – narratingly
 naturale or nat. – natural; i.e., discontinue a special effect, such as col legno, sul tasto,
sul ponticello, or playing in harmonics
 N.C. – No chord, written in the chord row of music notation to show there is no chord
being played, and no implied harmony.
 Nebenstimme (Ger) – under part; i.e., a secondary contrapuntal part, always occurring
simultaneously with, and subsidiary to, the Hauptstimme
 nicht (Ger) – not
 niente – "nothing", barely audible, dying away
 nobile or nobilmente – in a noble fashion
 notes inégales (Fr) – unequal notes; i.e., a principally Baroque performance practice of
applying long-short rhythms to pairs of notes written as equal
O
 omaggio – homage, celebration
 one-voice-per-part, or OVPP – the practice of using solo voices on each musical line or
part in choral music.
 ossia – or instead; i.e., according to some specified alternative way of performing a
passage, which is marked with a footnote, additional small notes, or an additional staff
 ostinato – obstinate, persistent; i.e., a short musical pattern that is repeated
throughout an entire composition or portion of a composition
 ottava – octave; e.g. ottava bassa: an octave lower

P
 parlando or parlante – like speech, enunciated
 Partitur (Ger) – full orchestral score
 passionato – passionately
 pastorale – in a pastoral style, peaceful and simple
 pausa – rest
 pedale – pedal
 perdendosi – dying away*
 pesante – heavy, ponderous
 peu à peu (Fr) – little by little
 pianissimo or pp (usually) – very gently; i.e., perform very softly, even softer than
piano. This convention can be extended; the more p s that are written, the softer the
composer wants the musician to play or sing, thus ppp (pianississimo) would be softer
than pp. Note: any dynamics in a piece should always be interpreted relative to the
other dynamics in the same piece. For example, pp should be executed as softly as
possible, but if ppp is found later in the piece, pp should be markedly louder than ppp.
Likewise, ff should be played as loudly as possible, but if fff is found later in the piece, ff
 - 44 -
should be noticeably quieter. More than three ps (ppp) or three fs (fff) are
uncommon. *
 piano or p (usually) – softly, gently; i.e., played or sung softly *
 piacevole – pleasant
 piangevole – plaintive
 più – more; for an example see mosso *
 pizzicato –plucked; i.e., in music for bowed strings, plucked with the fingers as
opposed to played with the bow*
 pochettino or poch. – very little
 poco – a little, as in poco più allegro (a little faster)
 poco a poco – little by little
 poi – then, indicating a subsequent instruction in a sequence; for example:
diminuendo poi subito fortissimo- getting softer then suddenly very loud
 portamento – carrying; i.e., 1. generally, sliding in pitch from one note to another,
usually pausing just above or below the final pitch, then sliding quickly to that pitch.
 portato – carried; i.e., non-legato, but not as detached as staccato (same as
portamento, in this list)
 posato – settled
 precipitato – precipitately
 prestissimo – extremely quickly, as fast as possible
 presto – very quickly *
 prima volta – the first time; for example prima volta senza accompagnamento (the
first time without accompaniment)
Q
 quasi (Latin and Italian) – as if, almost, e.g. quasi recitativo like a recitative in an
opera, or quasi una fantasia like a fantasia
R
 rallentando or rall. – Broadening of the tempo (often not discernible from
ritardando); progressively slower *
 rapido – fast
 rasch (Ger) – fast
 religioso – religiously
 repente – suddenly
 restez (Fr) – stay; i.e., remain on a note or string
 rinforzando (rf) – reinforced; i.e., emphasized; sometimes like a sudden crescendo,
but often applied to a single note *
 risoluto – resolutely
 ritardando, ritard., rit. – slowing down; decelerating; opposite of accelerando *
 ritenuto, riten., rit. – held back; i.e., slower *
 roulade (Fr) – a rolling; i.e., a florid vocal phrase
 rubato – robbed; i.e., flexible in tempo, applied to notes within a musical phrase for
expressive effect *
 ruvido – roughly
S
 saltando – bouncing the bow as in a staccato arpeggio, literally means "jumping"
 sanft (Ger) – gently
 scherzando, scherzoso – playfully
 scherzo – a joke; i.e., a musical form, originally and usually in fast triple time, often
replacing the minuet in the later Classical period and the Romantic period, in
symphonies, sonatas, string quartets and the like; in the 19th century some
scherzi(plural) were independent movements for piano, etc. *
 schleppen (Ger) – to drag; usually nicht schleppen ("don't drag"), paired with nicht
eilen-"don't hurry"
 - 45 -
 schnell (Ger) – fast
 schneller (Ger) – faster
 scordatura – out of tune; i.e., an alternative tuning used for the strings of a string
instrument
 secco, or sec (Fr) – dry
 segno – sign, usually Dal Segno "from the sign", indicating a return to the point marked
by *
 segue – carry on to the next section without a pause
 sehr (Ger) – very
 semplice – simply *
 sempre – always *
 senza – without *
 senza misura – without measure
 senza sordina, or senza sordine (plural) – without the mute
 serioso – seriously
 sforzando or sfz – made loud; i.e., a sudden strong accent *
 silenzio – silence; i.e., without reverberations
 simile – similarly; i.e., continue applying the preceding directive, whatever it was, to
the following passage
 slargando or slentando – becoming broader or slower (that is, becoming more largo
or more lento)
 smorzando or smorz. – dying away, extinguishing or dampening; usually interpreted
as a drop in dynamics, and very often in tempo as well
 soave – smoothly, gently
 sognando – dreamily
 solenne – solemn
 sonore – sonorous
 sordina, sordine (plural) – a mute, or a damper in the case of the piano.
 sospirando – sighing
 sostenuto – sustained, lengthened *
 sotto voce – in an undertone i.e. quietly
 spiccato – distinct, separated; i.e., a way of playing the violin and other bowed
instruments by bouncing the bow on the string, giving a characteristic staccato effect
 spiritoso – spiritedly
 staccato – making each note brief and detached; the opposite of legato. In music
notation, a small dot under or over the head of the note indicates that it is to be played
as staccato. *
 strepitoso – noisy
 stretto – tight, narrow*
 stringendo – tightening, narrowing; (that is, becoming stretto)
 subito – suddenly
 sul ponticello – on the bridge; i.e., in string playing, an indication to bow (or
sometimes to pluck) very near to the bridge, producing a characteristic glassy sound,
which emphasizes the higher harmonics at the expense of the fundamental; the
opposite of sul tasto
 sul tasto – on the fingerboard; i.e., in string playing, an indication to bow (or
sometimes to pluck) over the fingerboard; the opposite of sul ponticello

T
 tacet – silent; do not play
 - 46 -
 tempo di marcia – march tempo
 tempo di valse – waltz tempo
 tempo giusto – in strict time
 tempo primo, tempo uno, or tempo I (sometimes also written as tempo I°) – resume
the original speed
 teneramente – tenderly
 tenerezza – tenderness
 tenuto – held; i.e., touch on a note slightly longer than usual, but without generally
altering the note's value
 tranquillo – calmly, peacefully *
 tremolo – shaking; i.e., a rapid repetition of the same note, or an alternation between
two or more notes. It is notated by a strong diagonal bar across the note stem. *
 tre corde or tc – three strings; i.e., release the soft pedal of the piano,(this term is
intended for the grand piano, in which the softness is obtained by lessening the
number of strings being hit by the hammer.)
 troppo – too much; usually seen as non troppo, meaning moderately or, when
combined with other terms, not too much, such as allegro [ma] non troppo (fast but
not too fast)
 tutti – all; i.e., all together, usually used in an orchestral or choral score when the
orchestra or all of the voices come in at the same time, also seen in Baroque-era music
where two instruments share the same copy of music, after one instrument has broken
off to play a more advanced form: they both play together again at the point marked
tutti.
U
 un, uno, or una – one, as for example in the following entries
 una corda – one string; i.e., in piano music, depress the soft pedal, altering, and
reducing the volume of, the sound. In some pianos, this literally results in the hammer
striking one string rather than two or three. Its counterpart, tre corde (three strings),
is the opposite: the soft pedal is to be released.
 un poco – a little
V
 veloce – with velocity
 velocissimo – as quickly as possible; usually applied to a cadenza-like passage or run
 vibrato – vibrating; i.e., a more or less rapidly repeated slight alteration in the pitch of
a note, used to give a richer sound and as a means of expression. Often confused with
tremolo, which refers either to a similar variation in the volume of a note, or to rapid
repetition of a single note. *
 vittorioso – victoriously
 vivo – lively
 vivace – very lively, up-tempo *
 vivacissimo – very lively
 voce – voice
 volante – flying
 V.S. (volti subito) – turn suddenly; i.e., turn the page quickly
W
 wenig (Ger) – a little, not much
 wolno (Polish) – loose, slowly
Z
 Zählzeit (Ger) – beat
 zart (Ger) – tender
 Zartheit (Ger) – tenderness
 zärtlich (Ger) – tenderly
 Zeichen (Ger) – sign
 - 47 -
 Zeitmaß, also spelled Zeitmass (Ger) – time-measure, i.e., tempo
 zelo, zeloso, zelosamente – zeal, zealous, zealously
 ziehen (Ger) – to draw out
 zitternd (Ger) – trembling; i.e., tremolando
 zögernd (Ger) – doubtful, delaying; i.e., rallentando
 - 48 -

Musical Genres
Canon
A canon is a contrapuntal composition, that employs a melody with one or more imitations of
the melody played after a given duration. The initial melody is called the leader, while the
imitative melody is called the follower which is played in a different voice. The follower must
be created from the leader by being either an exact repetition of the rhythms and intervals of
the leader, or a transformation.

Cantata
A cantata (Italian, 'sung') is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment and
often containing more than one movement. Cantatas were written mainly for church services.
J.S. Bach’s church cantatas, Chandos Anthems of G.F. Handel are distinct in here. Cantatas were
often saying an incident. Later larger cantatas were named as oratorios. A famous Sri Lankan
composer Premasiri Khemadasa has written a cantata named “Pirinivan Mangalya” regarding
to the passing away of Lord Buddha.

Concerto
The term Concerto usually refers to a three part musical work in which one solo instrument is
accompanied by an orchestra. The concerto, as understood in this modern way, arose in the
Baroque period side by side with the concerto grosso, which contrasted a small group of
instruments with the rest of the orchestra. While the concerto grosso was limited to the
Baroque period, the solo concerto has continued as an important musical genre to this day. It
is said that it is difficult to write a concerto and many composers have composed them when
themselves were mature and got the ability. In a concerto, the solo instrument’s capability is
taken to the utmost and thus usually a virtuoso in the respective instrument acts as the
soloist.

Étude
An étude (French; meaning study) is an instrumental musical composition, most commonly of
considerable difficulty, usually designed to provide practice material for perfecting a
particular technical skill. The tradition of writing etudes emerged in the early 19th century
with the rapidly growing popularity of the piano. Of the vast number of etudes from that era
some are still used as teaching material (particularly pieces by Carl Czerny and Muzio
Clementi), and a few, by major composers such as Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Claude
Debussy achieved a place in today's concert repertory.

Fugue

There is a lot when we talk about fugues. However, let us see the most important facts.
Fugue, considered as the most difficult of all the forms is a type of contrapuntal composition
for a fixed number of parts, normally called "voices". Its name has derived from the Latin word
Fuga which means ‘Flight’. A fugue opens with one main theme, the subject, which then sounds
successively in each voice in imitation; when each voice has entered, the exposition is
complete; this is occasionally followed by a connecting passage, or episode, developed from
previously heard material; further "entries" of the subject then are heard in related keys.
Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until the "final entry" of the subject,
 - 49 -
by which point the music has returned to the opening key, or tonic, which is often
followed by closing material, the coda.
J.S.Bach is unforgettable when speaking about fugues. Fugues and Bach is so
interconnected. 48 preludes and fugues or The Well-Tempered Clavier, The Art of Fugue are
some of his best books containing fugues. Nevertheless, many other composers have written
great fugues, such as W.A. Mozart and L.V. Beethoven.

Although a typical fugue contains three or four voices, fugues upto nine
voices can be found, such as Charles- Valentin Alken’s Grand Sonate (op.33). J.S. Bach’s
Musical offering (The story of this composition is included in J.S. Bach Biography, pg.) has six
voices.
Fugue is also called a form, but it is mainly called a texture. Fugue form is
included under the “Forms” title. Whatever it is, composing a fugue is considered as a sign of a
matured composer.

Impromptu
Impromptu (loosely meaning "offhand") is a free-form musical composition with the
character of an improvisation, usually for a solo instrument, such as piano. Franz Schubert,
Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Gabriel Fauré are some of the famous
composers who wrote impromptus.

Minuet
A minuet, sometimes spelled menuet, is a stately social dance of French origin for two
persons, usually in 3/4 time. The word was adapted, under the influence of the Italian
minuetto, from the French menuet, meaning small, pretty, delicate. At the period when it was
most fashionable, it was slow, ceremonious, and graceful.

Later, in the 17th century Minuet was adopted into the Baroque suite, which was a
set of dances. As time went on, the other dances in the Suite faded. However, the minuet
remained. In the Classical era and onwards, the minuet was added as a movement of
Symphonies, and large compositions as well. J.S. Bach, G.F. Handel, J.B. Lully, W.A. Mozart are
among the famous composers who wrote minuets. Among those minuets J.S. Bach’s Minuet in
G , in Anna Magdalena Note Book is one of the most known.
 - 50 -

Nocturne
A nocturne is usually a musical composition that is inspired by, or evocative of, the night. This
term was first used in the 18th century. Frédéric Chopin was a noted composer in writing
nocturnes. Later, Gabriel Fauré, Alexander Scriabin and Erik Satie, some romantic era
composers wrote nocturnes. Nocturnes are generally thought of as being tranquil, often
expressive and lyrical and sometimes rather gloomy, some exceptions exist though.

Opera
Opera, drama in which the text is set to music and staged. The texts of operas are sung, with
singing and stage action nearly always given instrumental accompaniment.
Opera began as an entertainment at the courts of the Italian aristocracy. It
had its origins in the last years of the 16th century and as a popular entertainment attained its
peak in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Throughout its history opera has exerted great
influence on other forms of music—and vice versa. The symphony, for example, began as an
instrumental introduction (called a sinfonia) to 18th-century Italian opera.

Opera, usually contains of arias(a composition for a solo or rarely duet, which is
accompanied with music, and often being difficult, to show off the singer’s skill), duets, trios,
quartets and even sextets. Verdi even put a ten voice fugue in his opera Falstaff. Thus, voice is
dominating more than anything in the opera. But instrumental side is also important. The
glittering runs and cadenzas (extended virtuosic solos) of violin and piano concertos stem, are
used to replicate the vocal brilliance. 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner
composed many famous operas. Therefore, many modern musicians regard Wagner as the
principal composer of operas. In Sri Lanka about three operas were composed by Dr.
Premasiri Khemadasa, namely Manasawila, Doramandalawa and Agni.

Oratorio
An oratorio is a large musical composition including an orchestra, a choir, and soloists. The
oratorio was somewhat modelled after the opera. Their similarities include the use of a choir,
soloists, an ensemble, various distinguishable characters, and arias. However, opera is musical
theatre with colourful costumes and stages, while oratorio is strictly a concert piece, though
they are sometimes staged. There is little or no interaction between the characters, no props
or elaborate costumes, like in Opera. Oratorios mainly, present a religious subject taken from
the Bible or lives of saints. The most famous of the oratorios is G.F.Handel’s Messiah.

Overture
Overture (French; opening) in music is the instrumental introduction to a dramatic, choral or
instrumental composition. It was frequently an opening to a larger dramatic work such as an
opera. Overture for the William Tell by Rossini and Overture to the Midsummer night’s dream
of Shakespeare, by Mendelssohn are some famous examples.

Prelude
A prelude is a short piece of music, usually in no particular internal form, which may serve as
an introduction to succeeding movements of a work that are usually longer and more
complex. It generally features a single rhythmic and melodic motif that is used in every
measure throughout the piece. Normally, the prelude is improvisatory in nature. The prelude
 - 51 -
can also refer to an overture, particularly to those seen in an opera or an oratorio. The
prelude can be thought of as a preface. It may stand on its own or introduce another work.

Requiem
Requiem is, the Mass for the Dead of the Roman Catholic Church. This is composed to
commemorate the dead. Its sections are: Introit, Kyrie, Gradual (Requiem aeternam) and Tract
(Absolve, Domine), Sequence (Dies irae, dies illa), Offertory (Domine ]esu Christe), Sanctus and
Benedictus, Agnus Dei, and Communion (Lux aeterna), the responsory Libera me, Domine
follows the communion on solemn occasions.

The oldest existing requiem is By Ockeghem around 1470, who set only four sections.
Hundreds of requiems were composed in the 17th century. Many were for special occasions.
Mozart's unfinished Requiem (1791) is the first large-scale setting with instruments in the
concert repertory. The requiems of Berlioz (1837) and Verdi (1874) are also large-scale
works. War Requiem (1961) of Britten is also a popular piece.

Sonata
Sonata is also a topic, which should be spoken lengthily. Sonata (Latin /Italian;
sonare, "to sound"), in music, literally means a piece played as opposed to a cantata (Latin/
Italian cantare, "to sing"), a piece sung. The term took on increasing importance in the
Classical period, and by the early 19th century the word came to represent a principle of
composing large scale works. Though the sound of sonatas have changed since the Classical
Era, 20th century sonatas still maintain the same structure and build. Mainly, two layouts
were used in composing sonatas in Classical Era, as 3-movement sonata layout and 4-
movement sonata layout which was considered as the standard for the sonata later.

Three-movement sonata layout’s usual order was as follows,

1. Allegro, which at the time was understood to mean not only a tempo, but also some degree of "working
out", or development, of the theme.
2. A middle movement, which was, most frequently, a slow movement: an Andante, an Adagio, or a Largo;
or, less frequently, a Minuet or Theme and Variations form.
3. A closing movement, early in the period sometimes a minuet, but afterwards, generally an Allegro or a
Presto, often labelled Finale. The form was often a Rondo.

Four-movement sonata layout’s usual order was as follows,

1. An allegro, which by this point was in what is called sonata form, complete with exposition,
development, and recapitulation.
2. A slow movement, an Andante, Adagio or Largo.
3. A dance movement, frequently Minuet and trio or – especially later in the classical period – a Scherzo
and trio.
4. A finale in faster tempo, often in a sonata–rondo form.

Later in the Romantic era, the sonata’s structure and form was seriously
defined (Sonata form is discussed in the “FORMS”). This action was later considered as a
roadblock for the development of music. However, defining the form was easier for the novice
to study the style of the sonata. Some famous sonata-writers were, Hayden, Mozart,
Beethoven (Moonlight, Appassionata, Pathètique are among his well known),Brahms, Chopin
and so on. Almost all the major composers in and after Classical era, contributed to the
repertory of sonata system prevailing today. Because, Baroque and earlier Sonatas were not in
this Sonata form.
 - 52 -
Some famous sonatas of various composers

 Ludwig van Beethoven

o Piano Sonata No. 8 "Pathétique"
o Piano Sonata No. 14 "Moonlight"
o Piano Sonata No. 17 "Tempest"
o Piano Sonata No. 21 "Waldstein"
o Piano Sonata No. 23 "Appassionata"
o Piano Sonata No. 29 "Hammerklavier"
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
o Piano Sonata No. 8 in A Minor (K. 310)
o Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major (K. 331/300i)
o Piano Sonata No. 12 in F Major (K. 332)
o Piano Sonata No. 13 in B-flat Major (K. 333)
o Piano Sonata No. 14 in C Minor (K. 457)
o Piano Sonata No. 15 in F Major (K. 533/494)
o Piano Sonata No. 16 in C Major (K. 545)
 Johannes Brahms
o Cello Sonata No. 1
 Frédéric Chopin
o Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Minor
o Piano Sonata No. 3 in B Minor

1. Franz Liszt
o Sonata after a Reading of Dante (Fantasia Quasi Sonata)
o Sonata in B minor
2. Robert Schumann
o Violin Sonata No 1 in A minor opus 105

 Sergei Prokofiev
o Violin Sonata No. 1 in F Minor
o Violin Sonata No. 2 in D Major

Sonatina
A sonatina is literally a small sonata. As a musical term, sonatina
has no single strict definition; it is rather a title applied by the composer to a piece that is in
basic sonata form, but is shorter, lighter in character, or more elementary technically than a
typical sonata. In general, a sonatina will have one or more of the following characteristics:
brevity; fewer movements than the four of the late classical sonata; technical simplicity; a
lighter, less serious character. And in many sonatinas, the development section is little or not
available.

Suite
Suite, also called Partita is an instrumental composition containing a series of separate
sections, or movements, and developed in the 16th century as a cycle of dance tunes, usually
composed in one key. These tunes were arranged to present strong contrasts between slow
and fast tempos and dignified and gay moods. The four basic movements of the suite are the
allemande, a quiet dance in moderate tempo, composed in common time; the courante, a lively
dance, often complex in its rhythms; the sarabande, a stately dance of Spanish origin in triple
time, rich in harmonic embellishment; and the gigue, a rapid and lively dance, also in triple
time. A prelude, not derived from any dance form, was later customarily included at the
beginning of the suite, and one or more additional dance forms, such as the minuet, gavotte,
chaconne, and passacaglia, were also sometimes inserted, generally between the sarabande
and gigue. The dance suite reached its perfection in the compositions of J. S. Bach. In the 18th
and 19th centuries, the sonata combined with the suite and surpassed it gradually. Modern
 - 53 -
compositions called suites are primarily symphonic works, identifiable by considerable
freedom of structure and tonality. They may or may not be presenting dancing tunes. Such as,
Tchaikovsky’s The Nutcracker Suite.

Symphony
Symphony (Greek syn, “together”; phōnē, “sound”; hence, “a sounding together”), is an
orchestral composition consisting usually of four contrasting sections, or movements. The
term was first used in the 16th century to the instrumental interludes in such musical forms
as the cantata, opera, and oratorio. But later it developed as an independent concert piece,
with glamorous musical harmonies and played by huge orchestras. Symphony is one of the
major composition genres in western music.

Toccata
Toccata (from Italian toccare, "to touch") is a virtuoso piece of music typically for a keyboard
or plucked string instrument featuring fast-moving, lightly fingered or otherwise virtuosic
passages or sections, with or without imitative or fugal interludes, generally emphasizing the
dexterity of the performer's fingers.
 - 54 -

Instruments
Before talking about instruments, let’s see their ensemble, THE
ORCHESTRA.
Orchestra is a group of musical instruments. It has various sections.
 String Section
 Woodwind Section
 Brass Section
 Percussion Section

The Usual Seating Arrangement of an Orchestra

The Strings Family

Violin
Violin is perhaps the most famous Western Music
orchestral instrument. It is the littlest member of its Family, the strings. It
is a bowed string instrument and the highest pitched member of the
violin family. Its bow is about 75 cm long and a band of horsehair is
stretched from end-to-end of the bow. The violin’s four strings are to
tuned to G, D, A, E.
 - 55 -
Earlier violins’ strings were made in pure gut. But today normally, the strings have guts
wound with aluminum, silver, steel or perlon.
The violin was made in Italy, in about 1500s, and its’ ancestors were fiddle
and Rebec. The Italians were the top class violin makers, and the production and quality of the
violin came to its climax in the 17th and 18th centuries by Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) and
Giuseppe Guarneri (1687-1745). Their violins are famous as the STRADIVARIUS violins and
GUARNERIUS violins.

Did you know? The violin became a notable

instrument in the Baroque era, in the works
Earlier times, violins were regarded as an of composer-performers such as, Antonio
instrument of low social status! It gained Vivaldi, Arcangelo Corelli, George Phillip
reputation when it was beginning to be used Telemann and J.S. Bach.
in operas and French king Louis XIII's band The main parts of the violin are the
of musicians, the 24 violons du roi (“the front, also called the belly, top, or soundboard,
king's 24 violins,”) formed in 1626. usually made of well-seasoned spruce; the back,
usually made of well-seasoned maple; and the
ribs, neck, fingerboard, peg box, scroll, bridge,
tailpiece, and f-holes, or sound holes (see
illustration).

The sound post conducts sound vibrations from the front of the violin to the back. The bass-
bar, which runs beneath the front of the violin, distributes sound along the belly, transmits
sound to the back of the violin, and furthermore strengthens the violin.
Among the respected characteristics of the violin are its singing tone and it is
possible to play rapid, brilliant figurations as well as lyrical melodies. Violinists can also create
special effects by means of the following techniques:
 pizzicato, plucking the strings
 tremolo, moving the bow rapidly back and forth on a string
 sul ponticello, playing with the bow extremely close to the bridge to produce a thin,
glassy sound
 col legno, playing with the wooden part of the bow instead of with the hair
 harmonics, placing the fingers of the left hand lightly on certain points of the string to
obtain a light, flutelike sound
 glissando, steadily gliding the left-hand fingers up and down along the string to
produce an
upward- or downward-sliding pitch.
 - 56 -

Viola

The viola is a bowed instrument similar to the violin, but two to three
inches longer and a fifth lower in range. It is the alto voice in the family of
stringed instruments known as violin family. It is tuned to C, G, D, A. It
has a mellow sound in the lower range and
rich full sound in the upper range. The viola
plays an important role in chamber music.
There are usually two violas in a classical
Chamber String Quartet, along with two
violins and a cello.
The viola is similar in material and
construction to the violin but is larger in size
and more variable in its proportions. A "full-size" viola's body is
between one and four inches longer than the body of a full-size violin, with an average length
of about 16 inches (41 cm).
While it is
similar to the violin, the Did you know?
technique required for playing
viola has many differences, If a violist and violinist are playing together, the violist must begin
although much of the fingering moving the bow a fraction of a second sooner than the violinist to
technique is comparable. The produce a sound that starts at the same moment as the violinist's
difference in size makes sound. It is because the strings are thick and more weight is needed to
technical differences between
play those thick strings.
the violin and viola. Such as,
notes are spread out farther
along the fingerboard and the vibrato must be broader in a viola. The thick strings and heavier
bow need a different bowing technique. The viola bow has a wider band of horsehair than a
violin bow, especially noticeable near the frog. Viola bows (70 to 74 g) are heavier than violin
bows (58 to 61 g). The outside corner of a
viola bow frog is generally rounded,
compared to the rectangular corner
Violin frog usually seen on violin bows. In early
orchestral music, the viola part was almost
Viola frog limited to the filling in of harmonies with
little melodic part written to it. When the
viola was given melodic parts in music of
Cello frog
that time, it was often duplication in
unison or octaves of whatever other
strings played. A notable exception, would be J.S. Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 6, which
placed the two violas in the primary melodic role. Antonín Dvořák played the viola, and
apparently said it was his favorite instrument; his chamber music is rich with important parts
for the viola.
 - 57 -

Cello

The Cello is also a bowed instrument and plays the

bass voice of a string quartet.
Cellos are tuned in fifths, C, G, D, A. It is tuned the same
way as the viola, only an octave lower. Being too big to
hold under the chin, it is kept between the knees of the
performer.
The cello is normally made from wood, although
other materials such as carbon fibre or aluminium may
be used. A traditional cello has a spruce top, with maple for the back,
sides, and neck. Other woods, such as poplar or willow, are sometimes
used for the back and sides.
The range of the Cello is more than 4 octaves.

Did you know?

In early times, female cellists sometimes played side-saddle, since it was considered
improper for a lady to part her knees in public.

Some techniques which are been used in playing the Cello,

Vibrato – playing a small oscillation (wave), by vibrating the finger on the string.
Harmonics – same as violin
Glissando- same as violin
Sul ponticello- playing near to the bridge
Sul tasto- playing near to the finger board.
Double stops – playing two notes at the same time.
Pizzicato-plucking strings by the finger.
Col legno- playing by the wooden part of the bow
Spiccato – In this style, the strings are not "drawn" by the bow hair but struck by it, while still
retaining some horizontal motion, to generate a more percussive, crisp sound

Did you know that cellos have many sizes? Standard Cello is called “Full
Size” and many smaller versions exist. Cellos come in smaller
(fractional) sizes, from “seven-eighths" and “three-quarter" down to
“one-sixteenth" sized cellos (e.g. 7/8, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/10, 1/16).
The smaller-sized cellos are same as standard “Full Size” cellos in
construction, range, and usage But they are simply 'scaled-down' for
the children and shorter adults to play. A “half-size" cello is not actually
half the size of a "full-size", but only slightly smaller. Many smaller
cellists like to play a "seven-eighths (7/8)" cello as the hand stretches
(movements) in the lower positions are less difficult. Although rare, cellos in sizes larger than
four-fourths (Full Size) do exist. Cellists with unusually large hands may play a slightly larger
cello than a full-sized one.
Cellos which were made approximately before 1700
A full cello and a were
1/8 cello
considerably larger than later cellos, and cellos commonly played today. Around 1680,
 - 58 -
because of the developments in string-making technology, lower pitches could be
obtained on shorter strings.

The cellos of Antonio Stradivari(a famous string instrument maker), for example, can
be clearly divided into two models, with the style (larger instruments) made before 1702 (of
which only three examples exist in their original size and configuration), and the style made
during and after 1702 (smaller instruments). After 1702, Stradivari may have probably
accepted the "new" type of strings and began making cellos of a smaller size.
Today, the cello has gained prestige as one of the most important
instruments for an Orchestra. An orchestra usually has 8 to 12 cellos. Although usually cello is
used to provide harmonies, cello also plays a major role as a solo instrument. Many famous
composers have composed pieces for it and one of the most famous is J.S. Bach’s SIX
UNACCOMPANIED SUITES FOR CELLO.

Double Bass

Double Bass is largest and lowest-

pitched member of the violin family.
This is also known as the contrabass.
The double bass is usually about 1.8 m
(about 6 ft) high. Although usually, it has
four strings, sometimes it even has five
strings. Standard four-string double
bass is tuned to E, A, D, G.
As this plays very low notes,
the actual notes which are played,
cannot be written on the staff. This is
notated one octave higher and thus called a TRANSPOSING
INSTRUMENT.
Double basses are constructed from several types of
wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and
ebony for the fingerboard. It is not sure whether the instrument
is a descendant of the viola da gamba or the violin. But it is
traditionally believed to be a
member of the violin family.
Though, the double bass has
features similar to other violin
family instruments, it also has features which may be derived
from the viols (an antique string
family).
Like many other string
instruments, the double bass is played
either with a bow (Arco) or by plucking
the strings (pizzicato).
On standard four-string Double basses, the lowest note is
E1 at approximately 41 Hz or when five strings are used the lowest
note is B0 at approximately 31 Hz. This is slightly above the lowest
German Bow
sound the average human ear can respond which is 20 Hz. The
 - 59 -
highest notes are almost down at the bridge. Five string instruments either use the
additional string tuned to a low B below the E string, or to a C above the G string.
Two bow types are used in playing the double bass, and choosing the correct one is
according to the player’s preference. However, the German style is the old one. The best wood
to make bows is said to be Pernambuco. But due to its expensiveness, and rarity some other
materials such as brazilwood or carbon fibre
are used. Though it is very large, it does not
Did you know?
project a loud sound, because its range
(pitch) is so low. Usually eight to twelve Double bass is also a popular instrument, in Jazz and
Double basses are used in the orchestra. Blues styles.
As the cello, Double Bass too has
different sizes. But they were not widely
available until the 1990s. Until then, children could not practice the Bass. But after child-size
basses came into being, the children are also interested in the double bass now.

Woodwind Section

Now, we shall see another group of instruments, the WOODWIND

SECTION. Woodwind section has musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing
into a tube, causing the air within to vibrate. Some woodwind instruments, like the flute, were
originally made of wood at first but are now more commonly made of metal. The oboe,
bassoon, flute, and clarinet make up the woodwind section in most orchestras.
Woodwind instruments fall into two categories as Reed instruments and Non-
reed instruments. In reed instruments, air passes through an opening controlled by a
vibrating flexible reed or pair of reeds. In instruments without a reed, air is simply blown into
or across a tube. In both systems, different notes are obtained by changing the length of the
tube by covering holes along it.
Woodwind reed instruments include the clarinet, oboe, cor anglais
(English horn) and bassoon. Woodwinds such as the recorder, flute, and piccolo do not have
reeds; instead the design of the mouthpiece serves the same function as a reed.

Flute

Flute is a tube-like musical instrument which can be played by

directing the player’s breath against the sharp edge of the hole. Additional holes in the flute
wall can be opened or closed to produce different pitches.

The transverse (crosswise) flute, the usual flute of Western music, was made in
China by about 900 BC. By about 1100 AD it came to Europe. Families of flutes from soprano
to bass were played in 16th- and 17th- century chamber music. These flutes were made in one
piece and had a cylindrical bore and six fingerholes. The flute was redesigned in the late 1600s
by the Hotteterre family of French woodwind makers. They built it in three sections, or joints,
with one key and a conical bore tapering away from the player. This flute, put the recorder out
of place as the typical orchestral flute in the late 1700s. Gradually, more keys were added to
improve the intonation(accuracy of pitch) of certain tones. By about 1800 a four-keyed flute
was common, and eight-keyed flutes were developed in the 19th century.
 - 60 -
In 1832, the German flute maker Theobald Boehm created an
improved conical-bore flute, and in 1847 he patented his cylindrical-bore flute, which is the
model in widest use in the 20th century. The cylindrical Boehm flute is made of metal or wood
and has thirteen or more tone holes controlled by a system of padded keys. Its range extends
three octaves, from middle C upward. Other orchestral flutes include the piccolo (an octave
higher than the ordinary flute) and the alto and bass flutes.

Piccolo

A piccolo is a small orchestral flute pitched an octave

above a regular flute. It is the highest-pitched woodwind instrument
used in orchestras. Fingerings on the piccolo are similar to the flute
but it is considerably less than half the size of the flute. Piccolos may
be constructed out of wood, metal, gold, plastic, or a combination of
all of them. In addition to the standard C piccolo, there is a piccolo
pitched in D♭ that is sometimes used in bands, and rarely one in
A♭.

The Range of the Piccolo

Clarinet

Clarinet is also a woodwind musical instrument, sounded by a single beating reed

that is clipped over a slot in a mouthpiece set in the upper end of the
pipe. The lower end flares out into a bell. Modern clarinets are typically
made of ebony (sometimes plastic) and have 20 or more side holes to
produce different pitches; some are open, to be closed by the player's
fingers, and others are covered by padded keys.
The B-flat soprano Clarinet is the most common size of
clarinets, and it has a range of about three-and-one-half octaves. Its
lowest note is the D (written E) below middle C. Other common sizes of
clarinet are the A soprano; the E-flat alto; the bass (an octave below the
soprano); and the contrabass (an octave below the bass). Music for all
clarinets is written as if for a C clarinet. On a B-flat clarinet the written
note C sounds as B-flat. Wait!!! What does that mean? Doesn’t that mean,
the clarinets always play another note, than which is written to it? If you
understood it, that’s correct. Clarinets are TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS.
Players can thus switch instruments without learning new fingerings.
The clarinet was invented about 1700 by the German flute
maker Johann Christoph Denner as a modification of a folk reedpipe, the chalumeau. By about
1840 two complex systems of keywork had evolved: the Boehm system, used in most
countries, and patented in 1844 by the French builder Auguste Buffet, who adapted the flute
improvements of the German builder Theobald Boehm; and the narrower-bore, darker-
sounding system developed about 1860 by the Belgian maker Eugène Albert. Clarinets were
common in orchestras by about 1780. Early works featuring the instrument E-flat clarinet
include(left),
theB-flat
overture for two clarinets and horn (1748) by George Frideric Handel (center, and the theclarinet
most common
concerto (1791) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. of all clarinets); and A
(right).
 - 61 -
Bassoon

Bassoon is a bass double-reed woodwind instrument. It

has about 2.4 m (about 8 ft) of tube bent in a narrow U shape, in four sections,
or joints. The slightly flared bell joint is set into the bass, or long joint, which is
set in turn—like the tenor, or wing joint—into the double, or butt joint. The
bassoon normally has eight finger holes (usually controlled by keys) and ten
or more additional key-controlled holes. The reed is placed in a curved metal
tube, or crook, set into the tenor joint.
This was developed about 1650 from the similar curtal
(which was bored into a single wood block). The bassoon has a range of about
three octaves upward from the third B-flat below middle C.
The modern French bassoon, played in Belgium,
France, Spain, and Italy, was developed in the mid-19th century by the French
firm of Buffet-Crampon. The German bassoon, played elsewhere and perfected
by the 19th-century German manufacturer Wilhelm Heckel, has a more
regular, less flexible tone than the French bassoon.

Oboe

Oboe is a double-reed wind instrument with a wood body

and narrow conical bore. The oboe was invented in the
17th century by the French musicians Jean Hotteterre (I
hope you remember the Hotteterre family, mentioned
above, who redesigned the flute) and Michel Philidor, who
modified the louder shawm (the prevailing double-reed
instrument) for indoor use.
French Oboes (played in most countries
today) have a very narrow bore and a penetrating, focused
sound. German Oboes (also played in Vienna and Vienna-
influenced countries) have a wider bore and a more easily blending sound. The range of the
modern oboe extends two and one-half octaves upward from the B below middle C. Composers
of solo works for the oboe include George Frideric Handel, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Robert Schumann.
 - 62 -
Cor Anglais (English horn)

The English horn is an alto oboe with a deeper, more

mournful sound than the standard oboe has. It is a transposing instrument pitched in F, a fifth
lower than the oboe, and is consequently approximately one-third
longer.

The fingering and playing technique used for the cor anglais are same as those of the oboe. Its
sounding range extends from the E below middle C to the C two octaves above middle C. The
term cor anglais is French for English horn, but the instrument is neither English nor a horn. It
originated in Germany sometime after 1720 when a bulb bell was added to the oboe da caccia,
which was also another antique member of the woodwind family. It has been suggested the
oboe da caccia was similar to the horns played by angels in religious icons of the Middle Ages.
Because of this, oboe da caccia got the German name, engellisches Horn, meaning angelic horn.
But engellisch also meant English, and so the angelic horn became the English horn, a name
which was given to the oboe da caccia. Later as oboe da caccia went unused; its similar
instrument the Alto oboe got the name English horn, and then was again renamed as Cor
anglais.

Brass Section

Brass Instrument, any of a class of musical instruments made of brass or other metal,
including trumpets, trombones, and horns. They are powerful and efficient generators, and
produce tones of great depth and resonance. In the symphony orchestra the brass
instruments are the French horn, trumpet, trombone, and tuba.

French horn

French horn was developed about 1650 in France and is a large version
of the smaller crescent-shaped horns that had been redesigned with
circularly coiled tubing. The French horn, which entered the orchestra
in the early 1700s, produced about twelve tones of the natural
harmonic series. The horn gained greater flexibility about 1750 with
the invention of the technique of hand-stopping. Hand-stopping
involves placing a hand in the bell of the horn to alter the pitch of the
natural notes by as much as a whole tone. In spite of this advance,
awkward lengths of tubing, called crooks, were necessary for playing in
many keys. The invention of valves in the early 19th century
revolutionized the horn, allowing the player to alter the length of the
tubing by the motion of a finger. A horn in the key of F with three
valves can produce a chromatic scale over three octaves, running upward from the B below the
bass clef (notated a fifth higher). Modern players use hand-stopping to affect intonation and
tone colour.
 - 63 -
Trumpet

Trumpet is a brasswind instrument sounded by the

vibration of the player's lips against a mouthpiece.
The modern trumpet has three valves and a bore,
which is partly cylindrical, partly conical. The
standard orchestral trumpet, built in B-flat, has a
range of about three octaves extending upward from
the F-sharp below middle C. Trumpets in D, C, and
other pitches also exist. All are notated as if pitched in C (written C sounds B-flat for a B-flat
trumpet), thereby allowing players to switch instruments without learning new fingerings.

Trombone

The trombone is a member of the brass family of musical

instruments. The principal modern version of the
instrument, the B-flat slide trombone, shown here,
possesses a telescopic slide to change the length of its
tubing and to alter its respective pitch. Admired by
classical composers for its mellow sound at soft volumes,
the trombone is also capable of producing brilliant
timbres when played loudly.
It originated about 1400, as an
improvement to the trumpet and was built in
various sizes, the most common being alto, tenor, Did you know?
and bass. The early trombone was basically identical
to the modern one except for its thicker metal and Trombones with valves were introduced
narrower bell, which yielded a softer, mellower about in 1800s. As their sound quality was not
tone,. as good as the trombones with slides, they did
With its slide closed, not gain much popularity.
a B-flat tenor trombone produces the third B-flat
below middle C as its fundamental or pedal note and
also the notes in the harmonic series of that B-flat. The slide is opened one after another
through six more positions, giving a lower harmonic series each time. The range extends from
the second E below middle C to the B-flat above middle C, plus four pedal notes (B-flat, A, A-
flat, G; the remaining pedal notes, down to low E, are difficult to produce). Orchestral music
also uses a bass trombone in F (usually supplied by a double tenor or bass trombone in B-
flat/F, which has a valve to switch in extra B-flat bass tubing). Early orchestral compositions
with trombone include Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Don Giovanni (1787) and Ludwig van
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony (1808), but the trombone was not firmly entered in the orchestra
until about 1850.

Tuba

The tuba is a lip-vibrated wind instrument and it was invented in 1835

in Berlin. The tuba is the largest member of the brass family of
instruments and only one tuba is used in the orchestra. Musicians
usually sit down to play the instrument, holding it in an upright
position and resting it against the body. The tuba comes in several
sizes, and the largest can be 3 m (9 ft) high.
 - 64 -
It has three or four valves, a deep cup-shaped mouthpiece, and vertically
coiled tubing with an upward-pointing bell. It was patented in 1835 by the Prussian
bandmaster Friedrich Wilhelm Wieprecht and the German builder Johann Gottfried Moritz,
and it was one of several efforts to provide a suitable valved brass bass for the wind band. Its
antecedents include the serpent (an S-shaped, cup-mouthpiece wooden bass with finger
holes) and the ophicleide (a keyed bass bugle). The tuba has a compass of more than three
octaves. It is normally built as a bass in E-flat or F (lowest sounding note: second B-flat or
second C below middle C) or as a contrabass in B-flat or C (lowest sounding note: second E-flat
or second F below middle C). The B-flat contrabass is sometimes known as the “double B-flat”
tuba. A tuba with circular coiling is a helicon; the sousaphone is a variety of helicon. Wagner
tubas are four-valve instruments with a narrower bore, designed to use especially for the
German composer Richard Wagner’s compositions.
Euphonium is a musical instrument almost looks like the tuba. But euphonium is
little than the tuba and it is a baritone four- or five-valved brass horn. It is used chiefly in brass
and military bands.

Percussion Section

Percussion instruments produce sound when struck, plucked or shaken. When

considering their sound, two types of Percussion instruments do exist, as definite pitched and
indefinite pitched instruments.
Further, when considering about how they are made there is another
categorization. Percussion instruments are referred to as membranophones if they produce
sound through the vibrations of a stretched skin or other membrane. They are called
idiophones if they produce sound through their natural resonance when struck, rubbed,
plucked, or shaken. Drums are membranophones; hollowed logs, bells, gongs, xylophones are
examples of idiophones.

Timpani

Timpani (also known as kettledrums) are

musical instruments in the percussion family. A type of drum,
they consist of a skin called a head stretched over a large bowl
commonly made of copper or, in less expensive models,
fiberglass and sometimes aluminum. They are played by
striking the head with a specialized drum stick called a timpani
stick or timpani mallet. Unlike most drums, they produce a
definite pitch when struck, and can be tuned, often with the use
of a pedal, thus it is a definite pitched instrument. Timpani evolved from military drums, and
became a staple of the classical orchestra by the last third of the 18th century. Each individual
drum typically has a range of a perfect fifth to an octave.

In the Sachs-Hornbostel classification, the timpani are considered membranophones. The

drumhead is affixed to a hoop (also called a fleshhoop),
which in turn is held onto the bowl by a counterhoop[,
which is then held by means of a number of tuning screws
called tension rods placed regularly around the
circumference. The head's tension can be adjusted by
loosening or tightening the rods. Most timpani have six to
eight tension rods.
 - 65 -
The shape of the bowl contributes to the tone quality of the drum. For example,
hemispheric bowls produce brighter tones while parabolic bowls produce darker tones.
Another factor that affects the timbre of the drum is the quality of the bowl's surface. And a
number of sticks are used to get different timbres according to the composition.

Timpani come in a variety of sizes from about 84 cm (33 inches) in diameter

down to piccolo timpani of 30 cm (12 inches) or less. A 33-inch drum can produce the C below
the bass clef, and piccolo timpani (Timpani with high pitches) can play up into the treble clef.

A standard set of timpani (sometimes called a timpani console) consists of four drums:
roughly 80 cm (31 in), 75 cm (30 in), 66 cm (26 in), and 61 cm (24 in) in diameter. The range
of this set is roughly the D below the bass clef to the top-line bass clef A. Many schools and
ensembles that cannot afford to purchase a full set of four timpani, only have a set of three
timpani, which is the more traditional number sometimes called as "the Orchestral three". It
consists of 75 cm (30 in), 66 cm (26 in), and 61 cm (24 in) drums. Its range extends down only
to the F below the bass clef.

Triangle

On a triangle instrument, one of the angles is open, with the

ends of the bar not quite touching. This causes the instrument
to be of unknown pitch. It is either suspended from one of the
other corners by a piece of thin wire or gut, leaving it free to
vibrate, or hooked over the hand. It is usually struck with a
metal beater, giving a high-pitched, ringing tone.
Although the shape is nowadays generally in
the form of an equilateral triangle (All the sides are equal), early instruments were often
formed as isosceles triangles (Two out of three sides are equal). Though, it is thought that
Triangle is easy to play, triangle parts in classical music can be very hard. In the hands of an
expert, it can be a surprisingly delicate and expressive instrument. However, this instrument’s
exact origin is unknown.

Side drum

Side drum or Snare drum is a drum with strands of so-

called snares made of curled metal wire, metal cable, plastic cable, or
gut cords stretched across the a drumhead,
normally the bottom. Some military snare drums
often have a second set of snares on the bottom
(internal) side of the top (batter) head to make a
"brighter" sound. The snare drum is considered one of the most
important drums of the drum kit. The drum can be sounded by hitting it
with a drumstick or any other form of beater. Snare drums may be
made from various wood, metal, or acrylic materials. A typical diameter
for snare drums is 14 inches.

Bass Drum

A bass drum is a large drum that produces a note of low

definite or indefinite pitch. There are three general classifications
Snares of aof bass
drum
drums: the concert bass drum, the 'kick' drum, and the pitched bass drum.
The type usually seen or heard in orchestral or concert band music is the
 - 66 -
concert bass drum. An orchestral, or concert bass drum is quite large, about 36" in
diameter, and is played with one or sometimes two large, padded mallets. Usually the right
hand plays the drum and the left hand muffles it. When played with both mallets, a knee or
forearm can be used for damping. The 'kick' drum, struck with a beater attached to a pedal, is
usually seen on drum kits. The third type, the pitched bass drum, is generally used in
marching bands. This particular type of drum is tuned to a specific pitch and is usually played
in a set of three to five drums. It is the largest drum of the orchestra.

Cymbals

Cymbals are a modern percussion instrument. Cymbals consist of

thin, normally round plates of various cymbal alloys. Most modern
cymbals are of indefinite pitch (tuned sets have been manufactured
but are rare), whereas small cup-shaped cymbals based on ancient
designs sound a definite note. Cymbals typically have handles or
leather thongs attached to their backs.

Cymbals are used in modern orchestras and many military,

marching, concert and other bands. Cymbals are one of the two
instrument types that form the modern drum kit, the other being
the drum, and are a basic part of much contemporary music.

The origins of cymbals can be traced back to prehistoric times. The ancient Egyptian
cymbals were very similar to our own.

Tubular Bells

Tubular bells (also known as chimes) are musical instruments in the

percussion family. Each bell is a metal tube, 30–38 mm (1¼–1½ inches) in
diameter, tuned by changing its length. They range from C4 (middle C) to
F5.

Tubular bells are typically struck on the top edge of the tube
with a rawhide- or plastic-headed hammer. Often, a sustain pedal will be
attached to allow extended ringing of the bells.

Xylophone

Xylophone (Greek xylon, “wood”; phone, “sound”), musical

percussion instrument consisting of a series of graduated wooden
bars that are struck with mallets to produce sound. Xylophones
were developed and known in Southeast Asia by the 14th century.
 - 67 -
The orchestral xylophone has two rows of bars arranged like piano keys; normally,
tubular resonators are tuned to each bar. It is typically played with two hard mallets for a dry,
penetrating sound, but may also be played with four mallets. The xylophone is a transposing
instrument, sounding one octave higher than written. Its usual compass is three-and-a-half or
four octaves, running upward from middle C or a sounding F above middle C.

Glockenspiel

The glockenspiel (German, "set of bells" or "play-bells", also

known as orchestra) is a musical instrument in the percussion
family. It is similar to the xylophone, in that it has tuned bars
laid out in a fashion resembling a piano keyboard. The
glockenspiel's bars are metal, thus making it a metallophone.
The glockenspiel, moreover, is much smaller and higher in
pitch. When used in a marching or military band, the bars are
sometimes mounted in a portable case and held vertically. In
orchestral use, the bars are mounted horizontally. A pair of hard-unwrapped mallets made of
rubber, plastic, or metal are generally used to strike the bars, although if laid out horizontally,
a keyboard may be attached to the instrument to allow chords to be more easily played.

The glockenspiel's range is limited to the upper register, and usually covers about two and a
half to three octaves. The glockenspiel is a transposing instrument; its parts are written two
octaves below concert pitch. When struck, the bars give a very pure, bell-like sound. As this
instrument can play different notes, it is a definite-pitched instrument.

Other Instruments
Concert Harp

The harp is a stringed instrument, which has the plane of its strings positioned perpendicular
to the soundboard. All harps have a neck, resonator and strings. The harp
is relatively one of the oldest instruments in the world.
The concert harp is large and technically modern, designed
for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in
symphony orchestras. It typically has six and a half octaves (46 or 47
strings), weighs about 80lb (36 kg), is approximately 1.8 m (6 ft) high, has
a depth of 1.2 m (4 ft), and is 55 cm (21.5 in) wide at the bass end of the
soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C (or the D
above) to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. Using octave
designations, the range is C1 or D1 to G7.
The lowest strings are made of copper or steel-wound nylon, the
middle strings of gut and the highest of nylon. This is not to say that
strings in the higher register are not produced in gut or that middle
strings are not produced in nylon. The middle gut string and high
nylon string setting is mainly because gut strings usually carry a
 - 68 -
higher price than nylon strings; they also fray and break more frequently than nylon
strings. However, gut strings produce fuller sounds than nylon strings do. The strings in the
higher register are thinner and break more frequently. In the case of a broken string, replacing
it with the same type (gut or nylon) is recommended, for a change in the type can be
noticeable. For example, in a sequence of strings such as gut-gut-nylon-gut-gut, the nylon
string's sound may stand out from the gut strings' sounds.

Harpsichord

A harpsichord is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It

produces sound by plucking a string when each key is pressed. It
normally has 4 or 5 octaves.

The harpsichord was widely used in baroque music. It became less

popular following the invention of the piano, but its distinctive sound is
still used in contemporary music. A major difference between the
harpsichord and the Piano is that harpsichord can play Vibratos, in
which the player can slightly vary the pitch of the note.

Harpsichords change in size and shape, but they all have the same basic functional
arrangement. The player presses a key, which causes the far-end of the key to rise. This lifts a
jack, a long strip of wood, to which is attached a small plectrum (a bit of quill or plastic), which
plucks the string. When the player releases the key, the far end returns to its rest position and
the jack falls back. The plectrum, mounted on a tongue that can rotate backwards away from
the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, the
string's vibrations are halted by the damper, a bit of felt attached to the top of the jack.

The harpsichord was most probably invented in the late Middle Ages.
But, in the late 18th century the harpsichord was replaced by the piano. And, it almost
disappeared from view until 19th century. In the 20th century, many efforts were taken to
revive the harpsichord.

Clavichord

The clavichord is a stringed keyboard instrument

known from the late Medieval, through the
Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. Historically, it
was widely used as a practice instrument and as an aid
to composition. The clavichord produces sound by
striking brass or iron strings with small metal blades
called tangents. Vibrations are transmitted through the
bridge(s) to the soundboard. As for the Harpsichord,
its’ prominence was also deteriorated by the approach
of the Piano. But still, many Baroque and Renaissance enthusiasts play Clavichords, being
enchanted by its soft sound. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were
small (four octaves, four feet long), the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long
with a six octave range.

Virginal

Virginal is a keyboard instrument) which has strong

similarities to a harpsichord. It was popular in northern
 - 69 -
Europe and Italy during the late Mediaeval and Renaissance periods. The virginals is a
smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord with only one string per note
running parallel to the keyboard on the long side of the case. Many, if not most, of the
instruments were constructed without legs, and would be placed on a table for playing. Later
models were built with their own stands. Its playing range is C/E to c3 (45 notes); but some
Italian models have a range of C to f3 (54 notes). The mechanism of the virginals is identical
to that of the harpsichord.

Organ

The organ is a keyboard instrument played using one or

more manuals and a pedalboard. It uses wind, which moves through
metal or wood pipes to produce sound, which remains constant while
a key is depressed. Its sounds vary widely in timbre and volume. The
keyboard is not expressive and does not
affect dynamics. Organs vary greatly in size,
ranging from a cubic yard to a height
reaching five floors, and are located primarily
in churches, concert halls, and homes. The
organ is the largest, one of the oldest musical
instruments, in the Western musical
tradition, and carries a rich history connected
with Christian liturgy and public ceremony. A
large modern organ normally has three or
four manuals with five octaves (61 notes) each, with a two-and-a-half octave (32-note)
pedalboard.

The Piano
Introduction
The Piano, or more accurately the
Pianoforte, is a stringed keyboard musical instrument,
derived from the harpsichord and the clavichord. It
differs from its predecessors principally in the
introduction of the hammer-and-lever action that
allows the player to modify the intensity of sound by
the stronger or weaker touch of the fingers. For this
reason it was earlier called gravicembalo col piano e
forte (Italian for “harpsichord with soft and loud”).
Bartolomeo Cristofori (This name is often variously
spelled), a harpsichord maker of Florence, Italy, is generally credited with inventing the piano.
Two or three of his pianos still exist.
There is an idea that J.S.Bach, one of the major Baroque composers saw one
of the first pianos of Silbermann in 1730’s, who was a piano maker, who took the idea of
Christofori’s piano action. But Bach did not like it at that time, saying that the higher notes
were too soft to allow a full dynamic range. However it is said, after Silbermann corrected the
instrument, Bach approved it in 1747, and even served as an agent in selling Silbermann's
pianos.
The piano is widely used in Western music for solo
performance, ensemble use, chamber music, and accompaniment. It is also very popular as a
 - 70 -
support to composing and rehearsal. Although not portable and often very expensive, the
piano's versatility and availability have made it one of the most familiar musical instruments.
It is sometimes classified as both percussion and a stringed instrument. According to the
Hornbostel-Sachs method of music classification, it is grouped as a Chordophone.

Evolution
After Cristofori, the next major developments took place in Germany.
Perhaps the most important contribution was made by Johann Andreas Stein of Augsburg,
who is credited with inventing an improved escapement that became the foundation of the
“Viennese” piano praised by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and favored by most German
composers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Twelve masters from central Germany
migrated to London about 1760 and established the English school that, under John
Broadwood and others, turned to the production of pianos of a stronger build, resembling
those of our own day. The French manufacturer Sébastien Erard founded the French school in
the 1790s, and in 1823 created the double action that is still in general use. By this time
artisans in all Western nations were working to perfect the pianoforte. Numerous
improvements were and are still being made in design and construction. Germany, England
and the United States have long been distinguished for fine pianos, notably those of the
German firm founded by Karl Bechstein and the American firms of Baldwin, Mason & Hamlin,
Steinway, and Chickering. The pianos of the Austrian Bösendorfer firm are also highly
respected.
The range of the early piano was, like that of the harpsichord, only four, or
at most, five octaves, but it has gradually increased to a compass of more than seven octaves
by now.

Viennese Piano

Piano making flourished during the late 18th century in the Viennese
school, which included Johann Andreas Stein (who worked in Augsburg, Germany) and the
Viennese makers Nannette Streicher (daughter of Johann Andreas Stein) and Anton Walter.
Viennese-style pianos were built with wood frames, two strings per note, and had leather-
covered hammers. Some of these Viennese pianos had the opposite coloring of modern-day
pianos; the natural keys were black and the accidental keys white.
It was for such instruments that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed
his concertos and sonatas, and replicas(accurate reproduction of earlier pianos) of them are
built today for use in authentic-instrument performance(The performances in which the
sounds and instruments and sometimes even the dresses of the performers are equal to the
respective era.) of his music. The pianos of Mozart's day had a softer, clearer tone than today's
pianos, with less sustaining power.

Action

In the Piano, when a key is depressed, a hammer covered with a felt,

hits the string, rebounds immediately and holds in check. At the same time, the damper, which
normally touches the strings, moves aside to allow the string to vibrate at their resonant
frequency. When the player releases the key, the damper and the hammer, take their initial
positions. The vibrations occurred are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that
amplifies them.
 - 71 -

Pedals

Pianos have had pedals since the earliest days. (In the
18th century, some pianos used levers pressed upward by
the player's knee instead of pedals.) Most grand pianos have
three pedals: soft pedal (una corda), sostenuto, and sustain
pedal (from left to right, respectively).
When the soft pedal(una corda) is pressed in
grand pianos, it shifts the entire action, including the
keyboard, to the right, so that the hammers hit only one of the three strings for each note
(thus the name una corda, or 'one string'). The effect is to soften the note as well as to change
the tone. In uprights, this action is not possible, and so the pedal moves the hammers closer to
the strings, allowing the hammers to hit the strings with less force and produce a softer sound.
When the sustain pedal is pressed, the set of dampers move aside from all keys and
as the strings are free to vibrate, all played notes are sustained.
When the Sostenuto pedal is pressed, any damper that was already raised at the
moment of pressing the pedal keeps raised. This makes it possible to sustain some notes (by
depressing the sostenuto pedal before notes to be sustained are released) while the player's
hands are free to play other notes. This can be useful for musical passages with pedal points
and other otherwise tricky or impossible situations. But sometimes this pedal is absent in
modern pianos.

Grand Piano

Grand pianos have the frame and

strings placed horizontally, with the strings extending
away from the keyboard. This makes the grand piano a
large instrument, for which the ideal setting is a spacious
room with high ceilings for proper resonance. There are
several sizes of grand piano. Manufacturers and models
vary, but a rough generalization distinguishes the
"concert grand piano" (between about 2.2 m to 3 m long)
from the "parlor grand piano" (about 1.7 m to 2.2 m) and
the smaller "baby grand piano" (which may be shorter
than it is width).
Although other things are equal, longer pianos with longer strings have better
sound and lower inharmonicity of the strings. Inharmonicity is the degree, to which the
frequencies of overtones (known as partials, partial tones, or harmonics) depart from whole
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Pianos with shorter, thicker, and stiffer strings (e.g.,
baby grands) have more inharmonicity. The longer strings on a concert grand can vibrate
more freely than the shorter, thicker strings on a baby grand, which means that a concert
grand's strings will have truer overtones. This is partly because the strings will be tuned
Grand Piano
closer to equal temperament in relation to the standard pitch with less "stretching" in the
piano. Full-size grand pianos are usually used for public concerts, whereas smaller grand
pianos, are often chosen for domestic use where space and cost are considerations.
 - 72 -
Upright Piano
Upright pianos, also called vertical pianos, are more compact
because the frame and strings are vertical, extending in both
directions from the keyboard and hammers. It is considered
harder to produce a sensitive piano action when the
hammers move horizontally, as the vertical hammer return
is dependent on strings which are horizontal. The grand
piano hammers return by gravity, hence their return will
always be more consistent than the vertical hammers, thus
giving pianists better control of their playing. However, a
well-regulated vertical piano will probably play smoother
than a grand piano that has not been regulated for years.
And the very best upright pianos now approach the level of some grand pianos of the same
size in tone quality and responsiveness.
One noticeable advantage that the grand piano action has over
the vertical action is, that all grand pianos have a special repetition lever in the playing action
that is absent in all verticals. This repetition lever, a separate one for every key, catches the
hammer close to the strings as long as the keys are played repeatedly and fairly quickly. In
this position, with the hammer resting on the lever, a pianist can play repeated notes,
Upright Pianostaccato,
and trills with much more speed and control than is possible on a vertical piano.
Pianos were, and still are, popular instruments for private household ownership,
especially among the middle and upper classes. The piano is considered a sign of wealth. In
addition, the ability to play a piano is highly regarded in the society.
 - 73 -

Conventions in a Concert
1. Applaud when the leader of the orchestra, the 1st violinist comes on stage after all
other performers have taken their seats.
2. Acknowledge when the conductor comes to the stage.
3. Tuning of the instruments, after the concert pitch is produced by the oboist.
4. Stand up when the national anthem is played.
5. Applaud only at the end of a complete work. Do not clap at each movement. (This is
because, some movements go continuously without break, and then when someone
claps, a part of the music is gone unheard.)
6. Ask for an Encore. Encore roughly means “one more!”.
7. Garland the conductor and the leader of the orchestra. If the leader is a lady, present
her a bouquet of flowers.
8. Respect all the performers by standing.

 Some other etiquette, which you have to consider at a concert.

1. Be silent as much as possible.

2. Do not sneeze or cough. If unavoidable, use a handkerchief and muffle it.
3. Turn off all mobile phones.
4. Do not bring babies, if they are possible to cry.
5. Use the bathroom, before entering to the concert hall to stay comfortable during the
concert.
6. Do not remove your shoes in the concert hall, because the odour of leather will distract
others.
7. Do not pass comments over to your neighbour in the middle of a work. Wait for such
things until end of the work or at least the end of the movement.
 - 74 -

List of Recommended Compositions

Listening to following compositions will enrich your aesthetic feelings in
music. They include pieces from the Baroque to Modern eras. Some composers mentioned
here are in your syllabus, while others are not. But you will find all of them quite interesting.

1. Water Music Suite - Handel

2. Royal Fireworks Suite - Handel
3. Hallelujah Chorus, Messiah - Handel
4. Brandenburg Concertos – Bach
5. Fugue in C – Bach
6. Six Partitas and Sonatas for solo violin - Bach
7. Well-Tempered Clavier – Bach
8. Rhapsody in Blue - Gershwin
9. Carnival of the animals – Saint Säens
10. Moonlight/Waldstein Sonatas – Beethoven
11. Symphony No.9 - Beethoven
12. Symphony No.6 in F(Pastoral) - Beethoven
13. Wedding March – Mendelssohn
14. Songs without Words - Mendelssohn
15. William Tell overture - Rossini
16. Symphony No.40(K.550) – Mozart
17. Clarinet Quintet (K.581) – Mozart
18. Jupiter Symphony - Mozart
19. Piano Sonata No.16(K.545) – Mozart
20. Requiem in D minor (K.626) - Mozart
21. Scenes from Childhood - Schumann
22. Nutcracker Suite - Tchaikovsky
23. Four seasons – Vivaldi
24. Fantasie Impromptu - Chopin
25. Nocturne in E flat minor - Chopin
26. Surprise Symphony – Haydn
27. Emperor’s Hymn - Haydn
28. Requiem – Verdi
29. Carmen - Bizet
30. Peter and the Wolf - Prokofiev
31. Reflections of Passion - Yanni
32. Sonata V - Cage
 - 75 -

Conclusion
This book, which is intended to use for the O/L Western Music, is almost a
complete resource guide for the students. Yet, I encourage the students to refer
to their teachers to know the exact level for the exam.

This book is compiled for the A/L project for the A/L in year 2010.
Music used to be my favourite subject in the O/L and still continues to date.
It will always be my heart soother forever.
I hope you too will enjoy it if you really try to understand its glamour, beauty
and enchantment.

Therefore, I would like to thank again everybody who helped me to make this
book see the light of the day.

I would be highly thankful to you if you point out the errors, which I have made
either factual or lingual.

Thanks!

W.M.P. Bhathiya
Student of 13-A2 (Bio)
Leader & Conductor of Western Music Choir
D.S. Senanayake College,
Colombo -07
 - 76 -

Sources and Bibliography

Personnel
1. Mrs. Deepthika Ranasinghe , Dip in Western music, Grade 8,ABRSM
2. Mr. Lasantha Fernando , ATCL, LTCL, Cert. GSMD, ARSM, Concert Pianist

Webpages
1. Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)
2. Encarta (www.encarta.com)

Softwares
1. Encarta Encyclopedia
2. Britannica Encyclopedia
- 77 -