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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
 Define collaborative learning
 Describe the different ways collaborative learning is used
 Demonstrate how collaborative learning may be applied your subject
 Compare the different types of collaborative learning techniques
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative learning
 Discuss the role of discussion in teaching and learning
 Apply some of the strategies that facilitate small group teaching
 Identify the questioning and listening techniques that may be adopted in small group
teaching
 Explain how to assess student participation in small group work
 Use the checklist for assessing tutor or instructor performance

Outline
3.1 What is collaborative learning?
3.2 Underlying features of collaborative learning
3.3 Why is collaboration learning not widespread in higher education?
3.4 Collaborative learning techniques
3.5 Advantages of using
collaborative techniques
3.6 Disadvantages of using collaborative techniques
3.7 Why small group teaching?
3.8 Enhancing small group teaching
3.9 Questioning in small group tteaching
3.10 Seating layout
3.11 Grading participation
3.12 Assessing your own performance
Summary
Key Terms
References

In this module we will discuss in detail about collaborative learning in which students work in
small groups. Collaborative learning is aimed at achieving many of the objectives of higher
education teaching that may not be attained through the lecture method. While there is no
consensus on what is collaborative learning, there are some underlying features that will be
identified. Discussed in this chapter are many different types of collaborative learning which
teachers may select for adoption in their respective courses. Also discussed is small group
teaching and its processes which is the basis of collaborative learning. Several ways of
enhancing small group teaching, the role of questioning and seating arrangements is
examined. There is controversy whether participation in group work should be graded and
rubrics for assessing student and tutor performance are presented.
3.1 WHAT IS COLLABORATIVE LEARNING?

Increasingly, schools, universities and colleges are recognising the need for
education to be more closely aligned with team-playing, project-based learning and
problem-solving approaches necessary for the world of work in the global and
information age. Hence the growing interest among schools, university and college
teachers in collaborative learning. Unfortunately, there is no agreed upon definition as
to what is collaborative learning. The term has been used in a wide variety of ways
across different disciplines and fields and hence the lack of consensus. One way to
understand what is collaborative learning is to refer to what experts in the field have
to say.

 According to Gerlach, “collaborative learning is based on the idea that

learning is a naturally social act in which participants talk among themselves
(Gerlach, 1994, p.12).

 According to Smith and MacGregor (1992), collaborative learning is an

umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint
intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together. Usually
students are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for
understanding, solutions, or meanings, or creating a product. Collaborative
learning activities vary widely, but most centre on students’ exploration or
application of the course material, not simply the teachers’s presentation or
explication of it.

 Dillenbourg (1999) defines collaborative learning as a situation in which two

or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. “Two or more”
may be interpreted as a pair, a small group (3-5 subjects) or a class (20-30
subjects). “Learn something” may be interpreted as “follow a course”, perform
learning activities such as problem solving”. “Together” may be interpreted as
different forms of interaction which may be face-to-face or computer-
mediated.

 Golub (1988) emphasises that in collaborative learning allows for student talk
in which students are supposed to talk with each other, and it is in this talking
that much of learning occurs.

 Collaborative teaching and learning is a teaching approach that involves

groups of students working to solve a problem, complete a task or create a
product (MacGregor, 1990).

However, the use of collaborative learning techniques is not aimed at

abandoning the lecture, but rather using active learning techniques to supplement
lectures. "Active Learning" is, in short, anything that students do in a classroom other
than merely passively listening to a lecture. This includes everything from listening
practices which help the students to absorb what they hear, to short writing exercises
in which students react to lecture material, to complex group exercises in which
students apply course material to "real life" situations and/or to new problems. The
term "collaborative learning" covers active learning activities which students do as
groups rather than alone. In collaborative learning techniques students work in groups
and are assigned complex tasks.

3.2 UNDERLYING FEATURES OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Even though, collaborative learning takes on a variety of forms and is practiced by

teachers of different disciplines and fields there are a number of important underlying
features about learners and the learning process. The following are some of the
features of collaborative learning:

 Learning is an active process whereby students assimilate the information and

relate this new knowledge to a framework of prior knowledge.
 Learning is a constructive process. To learn new information, ideas or skills,
our students have to work actively with them in purposeful ways. They need to
integrate this new material with what they already know-or use it to reorganize
what they thought they knew. students are not simply taking in new
information or ideas. They are creating something new with the information
and ideas. These acts of intellectual processing- of constructing meaning or
creating something new-are crucial to learning.

 Learning requires a challenge that opens the door for the learner to actively
engage his/her peers, and to process and synthesise information rather than
simply memorize and regurgitate it.

 Learners benefit when exposed to diverse viewpoints from people with varied
backgrounds.
o Learners are challenged both socially and emotionally as they listen to
different perspectives, and are required to articulate and defend their
ideas. In so doing, the learners begin to create their own unique
conceptual frameworks and not rely solely on an expert's or a text's
framework.
 Learners have the opportunity to converse with peers, present and defend
ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other conceptual frameworks and be
actively engaged.

 Learning flourishes in a social environment where conversation between

learners takes place. During this intellectual gymnastics, the learner creates a
framework and meaning to the discourse.
 Collaborative learning activities immerse students in challenging tasks or
questions. Rather than beginning with facts and ideas and then moving to
applications, collaborative learning activities frequently begin with problems, for
which students must marshal pertinent facts and ideas. Instead of being distant
observers of questions and answers, or problems and solutions, students become
immediate practitioners. Rich contexts challenge students to practice and develop
higher order reasoning and problem-solving skills.

3.3 WHY ARE COLLABORATIVE LEARNING TECHNIQUES NOT

WIDELY USED IN EDUCATION?

 First, many people are still unfamiliar with collaboration tools as many of
these tools are not intuitive and hence not easy to use.
 Second, the way these techniques are used is not the way most people
converse and collaborate, i.e. they are awkward.
 Third, many people have poor listening, communication and collaboration
skills, and these tools do not solve (and can exacerbate) this underlying
problem of ineffective interpersonal skills.
 Fourth, students may not be accustomed to learning with others because
traditional schooling rewards individual effort (e.g. you take the test by
yourself).
 Fifth, students do not know the people they are to collaborate with. They need
to go through a process of discovering who those people are first.

ACTIVITY
a) What is collaborative learning?
b) What are some of the underlying features of collaborative
le learning?
c) Suggest other aspects of collaborative learning that may
be unique to your course.
d) Why do you think collaborative learning techniques have
not been widely used?

3.4 COLLABORATION TECHNIQUES

Collaborative learning techniques, although not the easiest way to adopt, can
revitalise students and instructors by providing a structured environment for sharing
some of the responsibility for learning. Through working together to learn complex
conceptual information and master knowledge and skills, students learn more, have
more fun, and develop many other skills, such as learning how to work with one
another. Instructors, meanwhile, must provide the foundation and learning structures
to guide their students in this new learning experience.
1) Seminar
The seminar is a popular collaborative teaching-learning strategy in which a student
presents a paper and others in the group including the instructor commenting on the
paper.
Step 1: A student is assigned the task of preparing a paper. He or she may
consult with the instructor as to the scope, balance and contents of what is to
be covered in the paper.
Step 2: The student presents the paper which may be accompanied by
powerpoint slides and handouts distributed to the group.
Step 3: The instructor invites comments and views on the paper. If comments
or questions are not forthcoming,
the tutor may ask individuals to
make specific observations. At
various points the instructor can
draw the discussion together. The
instructor can suggest his or her
own views, but not present them as
dogma.
Step 4: The instructor summarises
the main points discussed with his
or her additional inputs. Students
could further comment on the summary.

2) Syndicates
In this technique groups of 20 to 25 students are broken down into sub-groups or
syndicates of 4-5 students. Each syndicate may be assigned different tasks or the
same task.
Step 1: A preliminary meeting is held to describe the procedures, to allocate
assignments and to set up the syndicates. Depending on the task, this meeting
could be used for example, to view a video-clip, observe an experiment or
demonstration which will serve as the stimulus for the task each sub-group is
going to undertake.
Step 2: Each syndicate works independently in which they discuss, form
views and deduce principles for themselves from reading and doing research.
It is envisaged that the small number of individuals in the group means
everyone can take full and active part in the work assigned. Each syndicate
brings its task to completion by the writing of a joint report or preparation of
notes for an oral report.
Step 3: There are a number of options available:
 The papers from each syndicate is submitted to the instructor who may
summarise their conclusions and present it in a lecture. The instructor
will correct misconceptions and extend the subject beyond what
students have presented. The purpose is to consolidate what the
students have learned.

 Alternatively, each syndicate makes an oral presentation to the full

group. Students from other syndicates comment on the presentation
and may ask questions to clarify. The instructor draws the different
reports and gives comments and his or her views. The instructor will
 find commonalities and make generalisations based on the various
reports. Sometimes he or she may invite experts to come and comment
on the students’ work.

3) Three-Step Interview
This technique is commonly used as an ice-breaker or a team-building exercise
developed by Kagan (1989). It is aimed at helping students reinforce and internalise
important concept-related information based on lectures or textbook material.

The Three-Step Interview Process:

 Step 1: One student interviews
another within specified time limits.
 Step 2: Reverse roles and conduct
the interview again.
 Step 3: Students then share the
highlights of the information or
insights gleaned from the paired
interview.

This technique reinforces listening and

probing skills, helps students process and
rehearse information, and results in shared
insights. Questions asked are related to the assigned readings. The teacher or
instructor will monitor how well the students have responded to the readings and
possibly incorporate some of their ideas in the follow-on lecture or discussion. This
technique can be modified to be role-playing session. One student will assume the
role of a historical figure, or a CEO or human-resource manager and so forth. The
other student will interview the personality.

ACTIVITY
a) Discuss how you have used the seminar in your course.
b) Explain how you would use the syndicate technique in
your course.
c) Do you think you would be able to use the ‘three-step
interview’ in your course?

4) Think-Pair-SHARE
This activity was developed by Frank Lyman (1981). The
teacher or instructor poses a question, preferably one
demanding higher order thinking (analysis, evaluation, or
synthesis).
 Step 1: Think - Students given 30 seconds or more
to think through an appropriate response. This time
can also be spent writing the response.
 Step 2: Pair - After this "wait time," students then
turn to a partner and share their responses, thus
 allowing time for both rehearsal and immediate feedback on their ideas.
 Step 3: Share - Student responses can be shared within learning teams, with
larger groups, or with the entire class during a follow-up discussion. This
technique gives all students an opportunity to express themselves as well as
reflect on their answers. It also prevents vocal students dominating the
discussion. .
Students may use Think - Pair - Share to reach a consensus; however, this versatile
technique can be used in other ways:
 pairs problem solving: two students work together to solve a math problem,
for example;
 thinking aloud pairs problem solving: a variation where one student in the pair
listens to the other as s/he talks through the solution to the problem; and
 peer teaching: students teach each other the material.

5) Think-Pair-SQUARE

Similar to the Think- Pair- Share

structure, Think- Pair - Square asks
students, once they have completed their
assigned pair task, to join with another
pair to compare their conclusions. The
instructions to the newly formed
"squares" may be to reach a consensus
within their groups or to explain their
conclusions to the other pair who has
joined them.

6) Dyadic Essay Confrontation (DEC)

This technique was developed by Sherman (1991) to enable teachers or instructors
make certain students work independently outside of class to master assigned
material. Students then extend and validate their individual study through an in-class
writing/thinking cooperative learning exercise.
 Step 1: Students read assigned material, such as a textbook chapter, and
prepare an essay question. They come to class with their essay question on one
sheet of paper, along with a second sheet of paper, which includes the question
and their carefully thought-out response.
 Step 2: Randomly-paired students exchange questions, spending about 20
minutes writing an answer either closed or open book depending on the
complexity of the material to their partner's essay question.
 Step 3: The two then read, compare, and discuss the four answers, looking in
particular for the differences between the in-depth responses prepared before
class and the spontaneously generated in-class responses.
This technique promotes critical thinking by requiring students to confront differing
ideas, offers writing-to-learn opportunities, and provides solid and immediate
feedback to students about their intellectual responses to discipline-specific material.
 ACTIVITY
a) What is the difference between the ‘think-pair-share’ and
‘dyadic essay confrontation’ technique?
b) Explain how you would use these two techniques in your
course.

7) Jigsaw
The Jigsaw popularised by Elliot
Aronson (1960) was adopted as technique to
reduce racial tension in schools in the
United States in the 60s. The underlying
belief of this technique is that no one can
know something well without the aid of
every other person in the group and each
member has a unique and essential
contribution to make. This technique can be
used in higher education in disciplines
where students confront complex,
challenging problems involving multiple pieces of information necessary for a final,
overall solution. The following are the steps for using the Jigsaw technique:
 Step 1: Divide students into 5 or 6 person jigsaw groups. The groups should
be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity and ability. Appoint one student from
each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature
student in the group.
o Select a topic or issue that can be broken down into segments. For
example, if you want students to build a website on Tengku Abdul
Rahman; you might divide the problem into: His childhood; His path
towards being Prime Minister; Economic policies during his
premiership, Social policies during his premiership, Politics during his
premiership and his life after being prime minister until his death.
o Assign each jigsaw group to work on one segment, making sure
students have direct access only to their own segment.

 Step 2: Each member of a team assumes responsibility for one of one part of
the problem. They are responsible not just for researching the segment
assigned; they must also be able to teach the material to their fellow
teammates. Thus, working together, the jigsaw group merges the various
portions to solve the "puzzle."
 Step 3: One student from each jigsaw group temporarily leaves the group to
form temporary "expert groups". Students in the expert group will discuss the
main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make
to their jigsaw group.

 Step 4: Each student presents his or her segment to the group. Encourage
others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
  Step 5: At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students
quickly come to realise that these sessions are not just fun and games but
really count.

The instructor floats from group to group, observing the process. If any group is
having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), the instructor should
make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it is best for the group leader to handle
this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene,
until the leader gets the hang of it.

8) Buzz Groups
The term ‘buzz’ comes from the hive of verbal activity. It is a small discussion group
formed for a specific task such as generating ideas, solving problems, or reaching a
common viewpoint on a topic within a specific period of time. Groups may be divided
into buzz groups or 2-3 persons after an initial presentation in order to cover different
aspects of a topic or maximise participation. These small groups meet for a short
period (up to three minutes) without any time for preparation or ref lection to consider
a simple question or problem. Each group appoints a spokesperson to report the
results of the discussion to the larger group. Buzz groups are a form of brainstorming
and is good for overcoming students who are shy to talk.

9) Snowball
Snowball is a variation of the ‘buzz group’ where
students are asked to form small groups to exchange
ideas or address a set question or to clarify
understandings, identify misunderstandings and so
forth. Students either start with an individual task (e.g.
reflection) or in pairs to share initial ideas. This pair
then joins another pair to form a foursome where
students start to look for patterns, trends, and points of
consensus or disagreement. It is possible to develop
further by forming groups of eight who then begin to develop principles or guidelines
or action plans.

ACTIVITY
a) Explain how you would use the ‘jigsaw’ technique in your
course.
b) What is the difference between the ‘buzz group’ and the
‘snowball’ technique?

9. Paired Annotations
This activity motivates students to read important chapters or articles prior to a class
session. Besides this useful "front-loading" of course material, another key objective
is to build critical thinking and writing skills by having students contrast and then
compare their responses to the same piece of writing.
  Step 1: The instructor identifies a pool of articles on a specific topic under
consideration or the students themselves can identify key resources. Students,
working individually, prepare a reflective commentary on one of the articles or
chapters. They do so using a double-column format, where they cite key points
excerpted from the original source on the left-hand side and reactions,
questions, commentary, and connections with other readings on the right (the
columns will not be the same length).
 Step 2: When students come to class, the instructor randomly pairs them with
another student who has read and analysed the same article or chapter. The
two partners now read one another's reflective commentaries, comparing both
the key points they have identified and their specific responses to them. They
discuss their reasons for these choices.
 Step 3: Then, working together, they prepare a composite annotation
summarising the article. If time permits, several students can present to the
class their joint annotations. This step offers more peer reinforcement and
enhances the speaking/presentation skills students will need.

This activity should be repeated several times during the semester, pairing different
students. It enables students to reflect on their own thinking skills (metacognition) and
to compare their thinking with that of other students. The more paired annotations
they complete, the more skilled students become at identifying key points in an
article. They are also more likely to remember the material because they had an
opportunity not only to give a personal response, but also to discuss their response
with another individual. This activity motivates students to arrive prepared if only
because of peer pressure. Informal, hand-written comments on the pieces will
reinforce student thinking and provide feedback leading to more sophisticated writing
in the future. It is useful to share exemplary models with the class as a whole. If time
is a problem, then the final step of preparing a joint annotation can be omitted, leaving
students time, however, to discuss their reactions, a valuable learning tool. The final
presentation step can always be deleted.

10. Fishbowl
The fishbowl is a technique adopted for the scholarly discussion of an essential
question in which student opinions are shared, proven, refuted, and refined through
dialogue with other students. The technique divides students into two group;
 the outer circle is made of students who act as observers and coaches.
 The inner circle is made up of students who form the panel that is discussing
the question or topic.

There are many ways in which the fishbowl technique can be implemented and
discussed here is one format.

Preparation:
 The instructor gives the fishbowl panel which consists of 3 to 5 students
questions on the topic discussed. These students become ‘experts’ for the topic
discussed and present and discuss their viewpoints to an audience.
 The questions are also given to students in the outer circle so that students they
will be aware of the themes and points of analysis which will be the focus of
final discussion.
  Students in the inner circle or fishbowl panel should be cautioned to avoid
discussing their individual questions with members of their panel because you
want the discussions to be spontaneous and entirely unrehearsed.
 For example if the discussion is about a novel or short story, students should
be prepared to provide citations of passages from the novel or short story to
support their planned statements.

Implementation:
 As the fishbowl panels are heard, there is no moderator and the instructor does
not participate. The discussion and flow is entirely up to the fishbowl panel or
inner circle while the outer circle or rest of the class observes and takes notes.
 Class note sheets can be collected and graded for participation points. These
note sheets are then given to the panel to provide feedback from the class.
 A simple tally of logical points made for each member of the panel is
effective. Requiring observers to make specific comments assists panel
members to evaluate how they came across to the audience. In addition, this
method serves to keep the audience "tuned in" to the discussion.
 The instructor also keeps a tally of points made by each speaker. Comments
for each speaker and a grade can be assessed on the spot.
 As the fishbowl panel comes to a close of discussion, the point under focus
can be opened to the entire class.
 Timing is up to the discretion of the instructor.
 Once the panel runs out of new points to address or seems to start repeating, it
is best to move to another group and question. Students need to understand
that they must participate or they will not earn a good grade.

11. Structured Problem Solving

 Step 1: Members of learning teams, usually composed of four individuals,
count off: 1, 2, 3, and 4. The teacher poses a question or problem requiring
higher order thinking skills.
 Step 2: Students discuss the question or solve the problem, making certain that
every group member can summarise the group's discussion or can explain the
problem.
 Step 3: The instructor calls a specific number and the designated team
members (1, 2, 3, or 4) respond as group spokespersons. To avoid repetition,
instructor will usually ask for responses from only three to six groups. The
desired learning will already have occurred.

In this activity, students benefit from the verbalization, from the opportunity to
exchange differing perspectives, and from the peer coaching that helps high and low
achievers, alike. Less class time is wasted on inappropriate responses, and the
principle of simultaneity is operative because at any given time 25% of the students
are vocal within their groups. Students become actively involved with the material
and, since no one knows which number the teacher will call, each has a vested interest
in being able to articulate the appropriate response. Those chosen randomly as
spokespersons (often students who do not volunteer during a whole-class discussion)
feel far less threatened giving a team, rather than an individual, answer.
 ACTIVITY
a) Explain how you would use the ‘fishbowl’ technique in
your course.
b) What is the difference between the ‘paired annotations’
and the ‘structured problem solving’ technique?

12. Roundtable
Roundtable is a technique useful for brainstorming, reviewing, or practicing a
skill. Students use a single sheet of paper and pen for each group. Students in the
group respond in turn to a question or problem by stating their ideas aloud as they
write them on the paper.
It is important that the
ideas be vocalized for several
reasons: (a) silence in a setting
like this is boring, rather than
golden; (b) other team members
need to be reflecting on the
thoughts; (c) variety results
because teammates learn
immediately that someone has
come up with an idea they know
now not to repeat; and (d) hearing
the responses said aloud means
that students do not have to waste
valuable brainstorming time by reading the previous ideas on the page.
Team members are encouraged not to skip turns, but if their thoughts are at a
standstill, they are allowed to say "Pass" rather than to turn the brainstorm into a brain
drizzle. Thus, there is almost universal participation in Roundtable.
Roundtable is most effective when used in a carefully sequenced series of activities.
The brainstorming can reinforce ideas from the readings or can be used to set the
stage for upcoming discussions. Students, for example, could identify the
characteristics of an effective leader or the attributes of an honest person before these
topics are formally introduced. Comparing a student-generated list with those of the
"experts," creates interest. Many creative uses can be made of the ideas generated,
depending on their nature.
In Roundtable, the multiple answers encourage creativity and deeper thinking.
This activity builds positive interdependence among team members because of the
shared writing surface, but more importantly, it builds team cohesion and reinforces
the power of teamwork because students see in action the value of multiple
viewpoints and ideas.

13. Stand Up and Share

This report-out method should be rapid and energetic. It works best when
students have completed an activity, such as Roundtable, that lends itself to single
statement summaries. It relies on students having an easily designated identity within
each team so that you can call on the "Number Twos" to serve as spokespersons.
These designated students then rise, prepared to respond on behalf of the
group. Each team responds in turn, giving only one response, in rapid round robin
fashion. Depending on the number of answers and the number of teams involved, you
may want to go through another rotation, calling on another group member to share
one group idea (the "Number Fours" this time).
All students must attend to the sharing because they may serve as the next
spokesperson. No ideas should be repeated. If student spokespersons find that all the
topics on the team's list have been covered, they merely sit down and the rotation
continues. Besides allowing for rapid exchanges (Sometimes this activity becomes a
"Stand Up and Shout"), the value of positive interdependence (team work) is
emphasised.

14. Three-Stay One-Stray

Like "Stand Up and Share," this structure requires the easy identification of a
team member who will become the group’s spokesperson. It too builds on another
structure, such as Structured Problem Solving, but in this case the topics can be far
more complex. After the problem solving discussions are complete and all team
members indicate that they can give the team's report, you designate the student from
each team who will "stray." That is, one student from each group (such as the
"Number One") leaves it and rotates to an adjoining team to give the report.
In large classes it is essential that the order of rotation is clear. The designated
student, who is welcomed as a visitor, shares with this new team the results of his
original group's discussion, giving proposed solutions to problems or summarizing
discussions. A second rotation may be desirable if the topic prompted divergent
thinking and solutions.
Three-Stay One-Stray offers a low-threat forum where students can exchange
ideas and build social skills such as asking probing questions. It also offers students
the opportunity to learn by teaching. Placing the report-out responsibility on the
students reinforces the valuable conception that knowledge resides within the learning
community, not just with the "authority-figure" instructor. Perhaps its greatest value
lies in its efficiency. Instead of, for example, ten sequenced five-minute reports to the
entire class (fifty minutes, plus transition time), individual students are simultaneously
giving five-minute reports throughout the room.

15. Gallery Walk

A Gallery Walk requires a report-out that can be visually depicted, preferably
on butcher paper. It can be an outline, a concept or mind map, or any other written
product. In this case a designated student stays by the desk or table or next to the
butcher paper if it is taped to the wall and serves as the group spokesperson.
The other students rotate around the room examining the products of other
teams' thinking, asking questions of the designated spokesperson. (The spokesperson
role should be rotated so that no one is left without the stimulation of exploring the
different student creations.)
This structure is also efficient and engenders a sense of team cohesion as each
group displays the product of their "group think." The variety of the end products
emphasizes the value of critical/creative thinking.
 You can use a variation of "Gallery Walk" when you have required individual
or team long-term products. Rather than having time-consuming report-puts, each
student circulates to classmates a summary of his or her project. Each product, such as
a term paper or student portfolio, is assigned to specific work area, as in a conference
poster session. Then a class period can be spent with students examining one
another’s work. To provide an opportunity for feedback, each student leaves a
comment sheet next to the product, and browsers write a brief response.

16. Send or Pass a Problem

This structure is particularly effective for problem solving. The starting point
is a list of problems or issues, which can be can be generated by students through an
activity such as a Roundtable or can be teacher-selected.
Each team identifies the particular problem or issue upon which they wish to
focus initially and records their choice on the front of a folder or envelope. Each team
selects a different problem.
The teams then brainstorm effective solutions for these problems and write
them down on a piece of paper. At a predetermined time, the ideas are placed in the
folder or envelope and forwarded to another team.
The members of the second team, without looking at the ideas already
generated, compile their own list. This second set of ideas is forwarded to a third team
which now looks at the suggestions provided from the other teams, adds its own, and
then decides on the two most effective solutions.
Besides encouraging collaborative higher order thinking skills this structure
results in students’ evaluative judgments which are the highest cognitive level in
Bloom's well-known taxonomy.
Reports to the whole group occur as time permits and can take many forms,
including written reports when the material is relatively complex. Some instructors
use this structure for examination review sessions by putting typical exam questions
in folders for group problem solving.

17. Student Summary of another Student's Answer

In order to promote active listening, after one student has volunteered an answer to
your question, ask another student to summarize the first student's response. Many
students hear little of what their classmates have to say, waiting instead for the
instructor to either correct or repeat the answer. Having students summarise or repeat
each others' contributions to the course both fosters active participation by all students
and promotes the idea that learning is a shared enterprise. Given the possibility of
being asked to repeat a classmate’s comments, most students will listen more
attentively to each other.

18. Note Comparison or Sharing

One reason that some students perform poorly in classes is that they often do not have
good note-taking skills. That is, while they might listen attentively, students do not
always know what to write down, or they may have gaps in their notes which will
leave them bewildered when they go back to the notes to study or to write a paper.
One way to avoid some of these pitfalls and to have students model good note-taking
is to have them occasionally compare notes. The instructor have students read each
others' notes, filling in the gaps in their own note-taking. This is especially useful in
introductory courses or in courses designed for non-majors or special admissions
students. Once students see the value of supplementing their own note-taking with
others', they are likely to continue the practice outside of class time.

ACTIVITY
a) Explain how you would use the ‘roundtable’ technique
‘three-stay & one stray’ technique in your course.
b) Do you think the note comparison technique will be able
to enhance the note-taking ability of students? Explain.

3. 5 ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

1) A lot more done in a shorter amount of time.

 One advantage of working in groups is that a problem can be solved faster
and easier
 Any time more than one person works together to solve a problem it is
usually more efficient.
 When working in a group it allows for people to think as one and help
others become "unstuck." Problem solving becomes easier when people
work together.

2) Each member of the group has something unique to contribute.

 People often get stuck in their own unique ways of thinking; listening to
another person's ideas helps them to broaden their horizons.
 The saying "three heads are better than one" is definitely true

3) Motivated by others in the group

 Reassurance from others and trusting their own thoughts
 Because of the group students do not give up on doing assignment
 Group keeps each other on hand
 Partner explains things that are not easily understood

4) Students relate to one another more easily than to a teacher.

 Students feel more comfortable asking their own peers questions because .
they are on the same level
 Group creates a ‘comfort zone;
 Makes the assignment or project more fun

5) Long term benefits

 Teaches social skills such as cooperation, teamwork, and communication
skills useful in later life.
 Learn to work together to achieve a common goal and how to problem solve
together which is required in the workplace
3. 6 DISADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

1) People need to go at different speeds.

 Some students need more time than others to understand and absorb the
information.
 In groups slow students need to catch up which may cause tension because
others are pulled back or delayed.

2) Some students may try to take over the group.

 Not everyone is has an equal voice in a group. One person may dominate the
group while others feel left out.
 Some students do not trust the abilities of others in the group which results in
tension and refusing to cooperate.

3) Quiet students may not feel comfortable.

 Some students are shy or reserved and feel awkward when working with
others.
 Not sure whether others will appreciate a person’s beliefs and values.

4) Sometimes people just don't get along.

 Sometimes people just don't get along no matter how hard they try because of
personality differences
 Personality differences lead to arguments, wasting of time and unproductive
group work.

5) Not everyone pulls their weight.

 Frustrating when all work hard and a few students do not do their work.
 One or two people end up doing all the work and all in the group may get the
grade they do not deserve.

6) Not properly understanding

 At time it is possible that one may miss things which they would not if they
did the work individually.

7) Time spent on irrelevant things

 Sometimes nothing gets done because everyone is talking about everything
else except but what they are supposed to be doing.
 ACTIVITY
a) What are the advantages of using collaborative learning
techniques?.
c) Are the disadvantages of using collaborative learning
techniques likely to happen in your course?

3.7 SMALL GROUP TEACHING

Small group work provide opportunity for collaborative learning, for problem-
based learning, for defining, exploring and solving problems, for developing higher
order cognitive skills, such as using and/or transferring knowledge to new situations,
for discussion and for the development of communication skills. The discussion
method allows for mutual influence; in influencing students and in influencing the
teacher. The teacher or tutor gets to know his or her students whose values, attitudes,
opinions and purpose may differ from each other. The spoken word is the medium of
discussion. But whose words is it? It is not uncommon for the small group session to
revert to a “mini-lecture” by a teacher who is obsessed with his or her own voice.
Institutions worry that students are not keen or trained to speak up. Chong Chi Tat
(2006) in his article Small Group Work: Are We Doing All Right? raised the
following issues that instructors or tutors should take into consideration when
conducting small group teaching:
 Asian Culture: Most students prefer to just stay quiet and to let others do
the talking. Even when institutions invite prominent speakers and after the
talk, they are disappointed by the lack of student participation. Why?
Modesty! Humility! or just plain lack of interest ? Why do students prefer
not to interact in a classroom situation?
 Depends on Subject: It is easier to express views and opinions in certain
subjects such as the social sciences and the humanities. For subjects such
as mathematics and statistics there may be less participation as students are
more focused on understanding the basic concepts. If they are not prepared
with understanding the basic concepts, they may be quiet. Questions raised
may be more related to doing exercises.
 Good Students: Usually, if you have “good” students in the class it is
likely that the class will be more lively and active. Most instructors would
like to teach students who ask ‘intelligent’ questions and who come
prepared having read the assigned readings. How do we deal with students
who come unprepared and do not participate? They may not read beyond
the lecture notes and are more interested in what questions will be asked in
the examination.

3.8 WHY SMALL GROUP TEACHING?

Small group teaching may not always be the most appropriate teaching method. You
will need to need to think about your objectives for the course or subject. Compare
what you want to achieve with the role of group small teaching. In other words,
certain learning outcomes can only be achieved if students discuss in small groups
(McKeachie, 1986). Small group teaching should be used if you:

 Want students to apply concepts and principles learned then you should
provide an opportunity for them to show their skills in application of concepts
and principles in different situations.
 Want students to formulate problems using information gained from readings
and lectures then you provide opportunity for them to show their problem
solving skills.
 Want students to critically evaluate the concepts and principles of your subject
then you should give them practice in critical thinking.
 Want students to propose new ideas and put forward their own positions on
the concepts and principles learned then you should provide an opportunity for
them to practice creative thinking.
 Want students to use the resources of their classmates, then you should
provide an opportunity for members of the group to share and work
collaboratively.
 Want to develop communication skills of students, then opportunity should be
provided for them to express themselves orally.
 Want students to appreciate the need to work in groups rather than
individually, then opportunity should be provided for them to understand and
practice appropriate group dynamics.
 Want students to reflect on the subject matter taught then you should have an
occasion for them to state what the content learned means to them personally
 Want to obtain prompt feedback on how well learning outcomes are being
attained, small group teaching methods are usually most effective.

3.9 ENHANCING SMALL GROUP TEACHING

Yvonne Steinert (2004) asked a group of students what makes an effective

small group. Students highlighted the following teacher characteristics as important
for effective groups work: a positive group atmosphere, active student participation
and group interaction, adherence to small group goals, relevance and pedagogical
techniques such as topics that promote thinking and problem solving.
Discussion is a blend of speech and silence. Some teachers have difficulty
coping with excess of either speech or silence. The teacher should not let his opinion,
words or judgement come between a student’s embryonic understanding of a concept.
It is tough for the teacher to refrain from correcting what students say, from re-
phrasing, interpreting and making “all” the connections on their behalf. He or she has
to impose a severe discipline on himself or herself which is a heroic task for some.
  Clarity of objectives
 Communicate expectations
 Ice-breaker
 Characteristics of effective discussion
SMALL  Extract oneself from interaction
GROUP  Listening
TEACHING  Response and feedback
 Non-verbal communication
 Dealing with silence
 Dealing with dominant students
 Dealing with quiet students
 Showing enthusiasm for subject

Figure 3.1 Factors Enhancing Small Group Teaching

i) CLARITY OF OBJECTIVES
One of the major reasons groups fails to work is because students do not know
what to do, especially new students (Bertola and Murphy, 1994). Giving students a
general topic to discuss and a reading list is not enough. Objectives for the small
group teaching session and communicate them clearly. Are the small groups meant to
discuss specific assigned readings? Are they where students ask questions to clarify
what they do not understand (and if they have no questions are they all excused)? Are
these "mini lectures" in which you are presenting new information?
If you intend to use any of the collaborative techniques discussed, you need to
make it clear to students how it is to be carried out. Students may not be familiar with
these collaborative learning techniques and need explanation on what they are
supposed to do.

ii) CLARIFY YOUR EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS.

Will they be graded on participation? This may not necessarily be a good
incentive because it is difficult to persuade participation and students have the
impression that participation can never be graded fairly, anyway. It is better if they
form more intrinsic reasons for participation such as a feeling of responsibility to the
group or because it is fun and interesting.
Establishing clear ground rules about behaviour provides structure and a sense
of order and security for the students. Ground rules may include:
 Everyone arriving on time
 All members will do some preparation
 Treat each other with respect. e.g. no put downs
 It is OK to make mistakes

Negotiate these rules with the group and review them from time to time, making
changes if necessary. Also, let students know that a discussion is not a series of two-
way exchanges between the instructor and each student. Some students have not had
much experience with group discussions and do not really understand what is
expected of them.

iii) ICE-BREAKER

Plan an icebreaker for the first small-group

session. There are many ice-breaking techniques.
The most common being students introducing
themselves and briefly say what they think they
will learn from the course or what they hope to
learn. One technique is to ask each student to
explain which historical period they would most
like to live in and why. Do you think this will
work in your class?
The advantage of the above exercises is that the instructor or tutor can gain
some useful insight while the students get to know a little about each other. Often the
most effective icebreaker can be a field trip because it moves the students out of the
classroom and gives them a common experience.

iv) STUDENTS IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE

DISCUSSION
Ask students to identify characteristics of an effective discussion then ask
them to list characteristics of poor discussions. Have the students contribute items
from their lists in a "brain storming" method (meaning no criticism) while you make a
list on the blackboard or on newsprint.
Then encourage discussion about how the group can maximize the
characteristics of good discussions while minimizing the characteristics of poor
discussions. Students will take more ownership of the class when they have had a part
in setting the expectation level.

ACTIVITY
a) Describe some of the ice-breaking techniques you have
used in your small group teaching.
b) Do you think getting students to identify an effective
Discussion would work in your class? Why not?

v) EXTRACT YOURSELF FROM THE INTERACTION

To be truly student-centred, the focus must remain on the students and not on what or
how much the instructor knows. It is usually more comfortable to provide information
rather than facilitate a discussion. However, the purpose of small group work is to
assist the learning in acquiring knowledge, skills, and behaviours by directing
involvement, not providing information. By remembering this throughout the session,
you will be able to extract yourself from the bulk of active learning process.
vi) LISTENING
The teacher who listens might encourage the less articulate student to try
saying something; better still to say it in his or her own words. Let him or her finish
what is being said. Do not interrupt which is a habit quite common among many
tutors. Allow 15 seconds to elapse after each contribution and then ask the rest of the
group if the meaning of what was said is clear to them. If so, then “Could you explain
what was said?” and if not, then the original speaker is asked to clarify it.

Examples of Tutor Statements Showing He or She is Not Listening

 “That’s OK, but I think ……………..”
 “That is part of the explanation, I’ll give it to you in full”
 “That’s one of the causes, I’ll give you the other three……..”

Good Listening Behaviours

 Look at the speaker but do not fake it
 Positive listening is more than being attentive; it requires
effort to listen with discrimination and sympathy;
 Defer judgment
 Search for the real meaning of what is being said
 Look for the speaker’s patterns of speech and what is
behind them
 Try to see why what the students said in the way he or she did
 If no student continues with the thread of discussion, then the tutor could say,
o “I didn’t quite understand what you mean by …...”
o “Could you explain a little further what …….?”

Levels of Listening
Brown (1986) identified FOUR levels of listening:
1. Skim Listening – little more than awareness that someone is talking
2. Surveying – building a mental map of what is being said, identifying key
points
3. Search Listening – active searching for specific pieces of information
4. Study Listening – the deepest level of listening, going beyond the information
given to hidden meanings for the content and patterns of thinking of the
speaker.
 ACTIVITY
Listening Activity
Organise students in your group to work in pairs and decide
who will be the ‘listener’ and who will the ‘explainer’.
 The explainer explains a tiny segment of the topic for
3 minutes
 Listener may ask questions but not take notes. Then
reverse role.
 When both have been listener and explainer, the first
listener reports back what she or he was told.
 The explainer should correct any major errors or
omissions.
 Then reverse the procedure.
Discuss with students any difficulties they encountered in listening. Did the
level of listening change? Did the exercise affect they way they explained?

vii) RESPONSE AND FEEDBACK

Students expect a response from the instructor or tutor when they say
something or ask a question. Some instructors or tutors are guilty of ignoring what
does not interest them. Some show they are not interested by saying flatly “Yes” or “I
see”. Even though you may not respond to all comments or remarks made, you should
at least indicate ‘acceptance’ and ‘acknowledgment’. Your response could be non-
verbal such as a nod.
If a student is reluctant to speak up and then makes a contribution that is
ignored, that student is not likely to try again. If you cannot think of anything to say,
thank the student for his or her contribution. But it is much better to build on what the
student has said, add an insight, ask others how they would respond to what the
student said, and otherwise weave that contribution into the fabric of the discussion.
Feedback can be a good means of getting through a lull in the discussion also. A recap
of what has been discussed so far lets students know that you heard what they said,
helps to reinforce main points, and often stimulates further discussion.

viii) NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Don't forget non-verbal communication! Smiling and nodding are very
positive reinforces. Look at the student who is speaking to show that you are listening
and appreciate his or her contribution. Sit upright and a bit forward to show your
interest and anticipation. And watch for non-verbal cues form your students as well. If
they look bored, sleepy, disinterested, then it may be time to change tactics, stand and
stretch, move on to another topic and so forth.

ix) DEALING WITH SILENCE

Don't fear silence. This may be the most difficult thing to do but it is
absolutely essential. Instructors or tutors are often accused for abusing silence.
Students use it as a powerful tool to force the tutor to take over and talk so that they
can sit back. When you are responsible for facilitating a discussion, you tend to feel
that a lack of response within one or two beats is stretching into an eternity. What can
you do with silence?
 Let it continue for a while. See how it is received by students.
However, silence should never be interpreted as hostility!
 If you have very reserved students, you can try asking them to write
down one or two ideas before you open up discussion.
 If it still persists, than you may repeat one or two thing that have been
said to see whether everything that could be said has been expressed,
use a different example.
 You could break up the group into smaller groups called ‘buzz groups’
to get them talking. A buzz group is a pair or 3 students quickly
formed to discuss a topic for a short period.
 You could use a ‘round-robin’ technique to get people talking. A
round-robin involves each person in the group speaking briefly in turn
before anyone speaks a second time.

x) DEALING WITH QUIET STUDENTS

Quiet students appear to be listening, actively thinking, and forming ideas. As
a facilitator, your role is to pull out this thoughtful product for the group discussion.
To successfully integrate quiet students into the discussion:
 request that each student in the group respond to a direct question;
 ask the group to participate in a "whip," where each member must
provide a response, and;
 break down the group into smaller task groups.

xi) DEALING WITH DOMINANT STUDENTS

Just as there are quiet, dominant or outspoken students are also common in small
group sessions. To deal with dominant or outspoken students you could:
 Redirect discussion to another person or another topic,
 Reframe their comments, making them viable additions to the discussion, or
Break down the group into buzz or smaller groups, each with a task.
 Give dominant students a task, such as note taking or summarising the
discussion at the end.
 Use the ‘snowball’ in which students first work alone for a few minutes, then
in pairs, then in fours or sixes, and finally as a whole group in a plenary
session which can take the form of pooling points form each group in turn.

ACTIVITY
a) How do you deal with silence in your class?
b) Are the techniques suggested for dealing with silence
applicable in your class?
c) How do you deal with dominant students?
xii) SHOW ENTHUSIASM FOR THE SUBJECT
Show enthusiasm for the subject. You cannot expect students to become interested in
a discussion topic for which the instructor or tutor shows no enthusiasm. This usually
means that the instructor has not done his or her homework, a part of which is to think
about what is interesting, why the subject is worthwhile or relevant, personal
experience with the subject, how the topic relates to current events and so forth. If you
are interested in the subject, then you will be interested in discovering what your
students think and feel.

xiii) EVALUATING RESPONSE

Avoid expressing an opinion concerning the correctness or quality of any student’s
comments or contributions. Even saying "that’s a good question" may indicate that
any questions not followed by that statement are "bad questions".

ix) POTENTIAL INTERPERSONAL PROBLEMS

Recognize potential interpersonal problems in the group and intervene, if necessary,
to maintain an effective group process in which all members contribute. When the
behaviour of the group or an individual in the group begins to adversely affect the
group process, the group should address their own problem (Gelula, 1997).

x) CONCRETE AND PERSONAL EXAMPLES

To enhance understand and get the discussion moving it may be necessary the
instructor or tutor to give concrete and personal examples and non-examples. For
example, anecdotes from your own experiences maybe brought in to relate it to the
issue being discussed.

3.10 QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES IN SMALL GROUP TEACHING

Do not make statements but question! Questioning is a powerful tool when

used effectively which can determine the success of small group teaching. Planning
for small group discussion should take into consideration the type of questions that
best suit the learning outcomes that you want to achieve. Plan to use a variety of
questions (see Table 3.1). Remember the importance of waiting and giving students
time to think (i.e. ’wait time’). If you do not get an immediate response, wait rather
than answer the question yourself.
a) TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Questions of Fact
 Concerned with truth or falsity of an issue
 What are the factors?
 How widespread is this problem?
 How much will it cost?

Questions of Value/Worth/Judgement
 Is the production of nuclear energy morally defensible?
 Is work-based learning worthwhile in higher education?
 Should business consider the environment?

Questions of Clarification
 What do you mean by…….?
 Are you saying that……….?
 Can you give an example of………?

Questions that Probe Assumptions

 What are you assuming?
 Do you think that assumption is warranted?
 Are there hidden assumptions in that questions?

Questions that Probe Reasons and Evidence

 What are your reasons for saying that?
 Do you agree with those reasons?
 Is that evidence good enough?
 Do you think that source is an appropriate authority?

Questions about Personal Meaning and Interpretation

 What does that image suggest to you?
 How do you interpret that paragraph?
 What do you think are the most important ideas in that article?

Questions about Viewpoints and Perspectives

 Are there other beliefs on this subject possible?
 Are there circumstances in which your view might be incorrect?
 Can you try to see the issue from their point of view?

Questions that Probe Implication and Consequences

 What would be the likely consequences of …….?
 Do you thin you might be jumping to conclusions?

Questions that Seek Closure

 What the points we have discussed?
 What new meanings were constructed or conveyed?
 Table 3.1 Types of Questions that Enhance Small Group Teaching

b) DO’s and DON’Ts in QUESTIONING

 Create a climate conducive to learning. A happy facial expression, nod, or

verbal acknowledgement of a correct response encourages other students to
participate in the discussion. Pose questions in a non-threatening way and
receive answers in a supportive fashion. A harsh tone, especially when used to
interrupt a response from the student, can be devastating for both the student
and his or her peers.

 Avoid trick questions and those that require only a YES or NO response.
Trick questions should be avoided, as they frustrate students and tend to
encourage frivolous responses. YES or NO questions encourage students to
respond without fully understanding or thinking through the issue. When used,
such questions should be followed by other questions to determine the
thinking process of the student.

 Phrase the questions carefully, concisely, and clearly. Improper phrasing

and the use of multiple questions related to the same topic may result in
unintentional cueing and inability to accurately assess student understanding.

 Address questions to the group, versus the individual. Pose the question to
the entire group and wait before identifying a student to respond. The wait
time encourages all students to think about the response, as they do not know
who is going to be called upon to answer the question. Select students at
random to answer questions, as it tends to keep everyone attentive and
involved. Watch the tendency to ask questions directed at the good and most
likeable students.

 Use sufficient wait time. The teacher can significantly enhance the analytic
and problem-solving skills of students by allowing sufficient wait times before
responding, both after posing a question and after the answer is given. This
allows everyone to think about not only the question but also the response
provided by the student. Three to five seconds in most cases; longer in some,
maybe up to 10 seconds for higher-order questions.

 Respond to answers given by students. Listen carefully to the answers given

by students; do not interrupt students while they are responding to questions
unless they are straying far off course, are totally unfocused, or are being
disruptive. Acknowledge correct answers and provide positive reinforcement.
Do not use sarcasm, reprimands, accusations, and personal attacks. Repeat
answers only when the other students have not heard the answers; other
repeats waste time. Keep questioning until the learning objectives for the
session have been achieved; this may be the best opportunity to teach a
particular concept. Handle incomplete answers by reinforcing what is correct
and then asking probing questions.
 ACTIVITY
List those errors in questioning that you may have made in
your career as an instructor or tutor in small group teaching.

3.11 SEATING LAYOUT

One of the important aspects that influences how small groups function is in the
layout of the room and specifically the relationship between group participants and
between participants and the tutor or facilitator. Depending on the group size and the
activities you have planned will influence how you set up the room. Take a little time
before the session to make sure that the layout is appropriate and be confident in
moving furniture around if it is possible so as to facilitate discussion and group
interaction. Here are some examples of room layouts for different activities.

T
1) Here the TEACHER is clearly
leading the group. Chairs are facing
the tutor in the same direction and
in rows. Quite a formal setting and
good for explaining or delivering a
lecture but does not facilitate
group interaction

2) In the U-shaped layout, the

TEACHER is clearly leading the
group, but students are can see one
another and make eye contact and
could talk together in pairs.

T
 3) In this layout, the TEACHER is set
within the group, although there is
still a table which might act as a
barrier to movement and
interaction, although useful if
people need to write or spread out
T papers, This layout would enable
relaxed discussion and some group
work. Note that the teacher cannot
easily make eye contact with all
the group members, especially the
one sitting next to the teacher at
the end of the table so some
members might feel less included.

4) In this horseshoe layout,

T everyone can see everyone else.
The TEACHER is placed so as to
lead discussions easily and the
tutor can back off so as to allow
the group or pairs to discuss issues.
There are no tables.

T
5) This layout enables good group
discussion. The TEACHER is part of
the group rather than in a physical
leadership position. Eye contact can
be maintained between group
members and there is no ‘hiding
place’ so participation is encouraged.
 ACTIVITY
a) Which of the seating layout you currently use in your
small group teaching? Why?
b) If you have not used the 5th seating layout would you
consider using it? Why? Why not?

3.12 GRADING CLASS PARTICIPATION

Should class participation be graded? Some instructors do not agree that class
participation should be graded because they believe that students should take part in
discussion because they want to learn from each other. Other instructors feel strongly
that class participation should be graded. They argue that if marks are not given for
participation, students will not talk in class. Students who know that their
participation in class is taken into consideration tend to work harder, especially when
they learn how well they are doing. When students see their current grade and
suggestions of the instructor, their participant improves (Barnett, 1999, Gibbs, 1992).
What do you think?

a) CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING PARTICIPATION

Maznevski (1996) developed a checklist for grading student participation in

class discussions (see Table 4.2). The checklist lists a set of observable behaviours
indicative of the level of participation. These behaviours are assessed at frequent
intervals. A perfect score of “4” is assigned to the behaviours that are indicators of
ideal participation, a score of “3” is assigned to the behaviours expected on average of
most students in order for the class to meet its learning objectives. Scores of “2” and
below are assigned to behavioural indicators of less participation.
However, it should be noted that the indicators of good participation should
match the objectives of the subject taught. For example, a subject like mathematics,
knowing the facts from assigned reading may be irrelevant compared to the course in
moral education. Instead, good completion of homework problems may be more
important.
 Criteria Grade
 No participation 0

 Tries to respond when called on but does not offer much

 Occasionally involves in discussion
 Not disruptive 1

 Demonstrates evidence of basic reading of the topic

 Offers information straight from the reading without elaboration
 Does not show evidence or trying to interpret or analyse 2
information
 Contributes sporadically

 Demonstrate good preparation and having read the assigned

material
 Offers interpretations and analysis of material to class
 Contributes to discussion by responding to other students; points of
view 3
 Questions others in a constructive way
 Offers suggestions
 Consistent involvement

 Demonstrates excellent preparation and having read the assigned

material
 Offers analysis, synthesis and evaluation of materials
 Contributes significantly to discussion by responding very
thoughtfully to other students’ comments 4
 Contributes to the cooperative argument-building
 Suggests alternative ways of approaching material
 Helps class analyse the appropriate approaches
 Active involvement

Table 3.2 Rubric for Assessing Student Participation

[source: M.L. Maznevski. Grading class participation. Teaching Concerns. January,

1996]

b) EXAMPLE OF GRADING CLASS PARTICIPATION

The following is an example of instructions given to students on grading class

participation.

Participation: Your active participation is required. Participation will be evaluated

not on the amount of talking you do in class, but rather the quality of what you bring
to the class discussion. Class participation will be worth 25 points. Participation will
be assessed in the following manner:

Guidelines for Class Discussion

22.5-25 points (Grade A)

 Always volunteers.
 Always prepared when called upon.
 Verbalises concepts in own words.
 Demonstrates excellent understanding of the subject.
 Is ready to help clarify concepts so that other students may comprehend.

20-22.4 points (B)
 Often (occasionally) volunteers.
 Always prepared when called upon.
 Has a better than average verbal understanding of the subject.
 Can be prompted to understand applications.

17.5-19.9 points (C)

 Seldom volunteers. Usually prepared when called upon.
 Demonstrates a good (average) understanding of the subject. Cannot understand
applications of concepts.

15-17.4 points (D)

 Usually prepared when called upon. Occasionally "absent" when called upon.
 Demonstrates understanding by reading from book or memorisation. Usually has to
be prompted.

Below 15 points (F)

 Usually unprepared or "absent". It is difficult to determine understanding of subject
from student's class participation.
 Instructor is unaware of who the student is by the end of the term.

b) POSSIBLE SIDE EFFECTS OF ASSESSING

Anxiety induced by assessment may inhibit some students’ participation. This
could be reduced by the negotiation over the final mark. Competitiveness and the urge
to make as many contributions as possible could be reduced by clarifying that
quantity is not used a criterion for assessment. If the group is large, forming smaller
sub-groups would provide more opportunities for participation.
Students who are not fluent in spoken a language may feel at a disadvantage.
The inclusion of a criterion such as “progress in participation for those with initial
difficulty, the use of directed questions and the forming of smaller-groups could
alleviate disadvantage (Soliman, 1999).
 ACTIVITY
a) Do you grade class participation in your course? Explain.
b) If you do, is the checklist you have used somewhat like
the two examples given above?
c) Can the examples given be used for your class?

3.13 ASSESSING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

Surely you would like to know how you have performed as a teacher in small
group teaching. Ask a trusted colleague, or ask your students, or honestly assess your
own performance in conducting a small group session using the following criteria on
a scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree and Strongly Disagree (SD).

Criteria SA A D SD

1. Clearly communicated the objectives of the session

2. Gave clear and understandable explanations
3. Was enthusiastic
4. Was well prepared for the class
5. Was sympathetic to the student’s needs
6. Was prepared to answer questions
7. Encouraged students to think
8. Gave students opportunity to express their views
9. Had open and friendly relationship with students
10. Did not dominate the discussion

[source: Soliman, I. (1999). Teaching small groups. Teaching and Learning Centre.
University of New England. p.19]

Reflect upon your assessment of your performance. Identify what you think are your
weaknesses and develop an action plan for improvement over the next few week and
month. Who and what will provide the help you need. You may need to discuss this
with a trusted friend or colleague. Remember not to be too hard on yourself.
Developing professionally is a lifelong activity.
SUMMARY

 Increasingly, schools,, universities and colleges are recognising the need for
education to be more closely aligned with team-playing, project-based
learning and problem-solving approaches necessary for the world of work in
the global and information age.

 Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social

act in which participants talk among themselves.

 However, the use of collaborative learning techniques is not aimed at

abandoning the lecture, but rather using active learning techniques to
supplement lectures.

 Learning is an active process whereby students assimilate the information and

relate this new knowledge to a framework of prior knowledge.

 Learning flourishes in a social environment where conversation between

learners takes place.

 Many people are still unfamiliar with collaboration tools as many of these
tools are not intuitive and hence not easy to use.

 The seminar is a popular collaborative teaching-learning strategy in which a

student presents a paper and others in the group including the instructor
commenting on the paper.

 The syndicate is a technique where groups of 20 to 25 students are broken

down into sub-groups or syndicates of 4-5 students.

 The underlying belief of the jigsaws technique is that no one can know
something well without the aid of every other person in the group and each
member has a unique and essential contribution to make.

 The fishbowl is a technique adopted for the scholarly discussion of an

essential question in which student opinions are shared, proven, refuted, and
refined through dialogue with other students. It consists of an inner and outer
circle of students.

 In the stand-up and share technique, designated students rise and respond on
behalf of the group.

 There are both advantages and disadvantages of using collaborative learning

techniques in higher education.
 Small group work provide opportunity for collaborative learning, for problem-
based learning, for defining, exploring and solving problems, for developing
higher order cognitive skills, such as using and/or transferring knowledge to
new situations, for discussion and for the development of communication
skills.

 Most students prefer to just stay quiet and to let others do the talking.

 In using small group teaching, you should compare what you want to achieve
with the role of group small teaching.

 One of the major reasons groups fails to work is because students do not know
what to do, especially new students.

 Students highlighted the following tutor characteristics as important for

effective groups work: a positive group atmosphere, active student
participation and group interaction, adherence to small group goals, relevance
and pedagogical techniques such as cases that promote thinking and problem
solving.

 Questioning is a powerful tool when used effectively can determine the

success of small group teaching.

 Students who know that their participation in class is taken into consideration
tend to work harder, especially when they learn how well they are doing.

 It is important to have a checklist or rubric for assessing student participation

in class and it should be made known to them.

KEY TERMS
Collaborative learning Fishbowl Stand-up and share
Active learning Snowball Structured problem solving
Seminar Jigsaw Note comparing
Syndicate Buzz groups Paired annotations
Think-pair-share Roundtable Three-stay-one-strayed

KEY TERMS
Small group teaching Dominant students Participation
Clarity of objectives Quiet students Assessing
Communicate expectations Response participation
Types of questions Feedback Unprepared
Silence Reasons for small groups students
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