Buddhism and Gender Roles
Buddhism and Gender Roles
Buddhism and Gender Roles
Working Papers
CHAPTER 6
Abstract
This paper discusses how the current practice of Buddhism shapes the concept of
Additional methods include the use of field observations at Pagoda’s within Phnom
Penh, and the content analysis of online preaching materials. Primarily, this paper
finds that female (and male) roles continue to be shaped by the current teaching
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From domestic to international affairs, Cambodian women have always taken part
labor force, and 65% of small and medium enterprises are owned and operated by
women (Kem, 2016). Despite these valuable contributions, Cambodia ranks poorly
predominant across low-skilled sectors of the economy, mainly the garment and
footwear sectors (Kem, 2016). Moreover, 70% of employed women, compared to
59% of employed men, are found undertaking additional unpaid family work.
Women have the additional burden of remaining more vulnerable than men when
Rattanak 4, 2014). From the ages of 18 to 64, women work an average of 3.5 hours
per day more than men (ADB, 2015). Even women who are well educated, working
outside the home and bringing in a high monthly salary are still expected to at least
know how to do the chores (UNIFEM, WB, ADB, UNDP and DFID/UK, 2004).
burdened its members with cultural constraints in which men and women
(women). In the Cambodian context, the social norm, “Chbab” draws a line that
separates women and men into certain roles that require them to conform
(Brickell,2010). This line is further demarcated by the role of Buddhism, such that
may promote conservative roles as the status quo. The interpretations and
evaluations of the local people on the roles of men and women creates a hierarchy
nation where Buddhism is the majority belief system, this paper seeks to identify
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
the role that its teachings play on reinforcing gendered roles in Cambodian culture
and society.
To further understand the issue, this paper will use in-depth interviews and field
womanhood, and explore how the practice of Buddhism might have shaped the
concept of womanhood in Cambodia.
Buddhism in Cambodia
A major transformation of religion in Cambodia took place between the 12th and
13th centuries when King Jayavarman VI and his family began to adopt Buddhism
with a collection of Mahayana and Theravada practices (Kent & Chandler, 2008).
Between the 13th and 18th centuries, Buddhism was nationalized and became the
do this day Khmer people find spiritual security in a pagoda. The pagoda is a
Buddhism. Their respect of the yellow-saffron robe that represents religion has
The flourishing of Khmer society is seen as having been assisted by the teachings
of Buddhism whereby laypeople were able to learn and eliminate all worries and
concerns from their daily lives through meditation (Khlot, 1997). The concept of
Khmer Sok is described as ‘good security and the absence of suffering’ which is
provided by the Buddhist monastery (Kent, 2010). Inside the pagoda, Dhamma
teaching guides the people to be calm and create peaceful states of mind, while
Sangha provides the chance for people to make merit and hope to have a better
era has eroded the power and the presence of Khmer Buddhism (Kent, 2007). Many
of the Buddhist pagodas were destroyed and monks were banned from religious
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The absence of Khmer Buddhism at this time downgraded its power in Khmer
teachings appear to promote an unequal sense of role between the genders. The
practice of equal treatment between both sexes dramatically changed during the
early eighteenth century. This aligned with the emergence of the Khmer code of
conduct, the “Chbab Srei”. The code was composed by monks for the purpose of
outlining virtue in society (Kent, 2011) and outlines the correct behavior for women.
In particular, it outlines how women should be nice, soft and silent. This has led to
the cultivation of increased male dominance in society (Santry, 2005).
When discussing Buddhism and feminism, we must look at the equal spiritual
capability of women and men within the Buddhist boundaries (Byrne, 2012). Since
the life of the Buddha was about living far from home and the search for
enlightenment, early Buddhism did not mention much about women (Armstrong,
2002). Initially the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women, but the first was his
Buddha included an extra 85 roles for women to maintain their second position to
monks and eight rules among the eighty-five have been strictly followed
toward monks (Mrozik). Despite the fact that these rules were created to be
imposed on women, it did not mean that Buddhist teaching discriminated against
women by their gender, and status (Keown, 2013). Buddhist teachings state that
there should be equal treatment between males and females. Women and men
born female is a result of karma (Falk, 2008). Women have to earn merit and pray
to be born a man in the next life (Andaya, 2002). In Cambodia, the Khmer cosmos
focuses on the reciprocity between both females and males. The male’s center of
power is in the middle or core and the female’s is in the periphery where the
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
strength and power are in the hands of women (Ledgerwood, 1994). In this sense,
Judy Ledgerwood explains that men, in order to have the power, need to control
the female’s power. If the men are not capable enough to govern the female’s
power, it could create chaos. When we talk about Buddhism, it resembles the
Research Design
reality of women living in Cambodia today. To this end one will undertake a series
same table.
womanhood?
Research
2. How has the formal and informal practice of
Questions
Cambodian Buddhism affected the meaning of
womanhood?
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including:
surroundings
of jobs?
and childcare
households.
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
Empirical Analysis
This section explores the perceptions of women from across three generations
around the expected roles, attitudes, behaviors, and the need for women to have
a job. The analysis will look at the common and divergent perceptions across the
semi-structured interview format was followed. Five main questions were asked
that focus on the role, attitude, behavior, knowledge, and the effect of Buddhism
in daily life were designed. The second half of discussion explores how Buddhism
is practiced and its interplay with the topic of gender. Information for this section
was garnered between two field observations studies and a review of digital
preaching content1
Intergenerational Interviews
Section A contains the discussion and analysis from the interviews with Cambodian
these interviews across generations and key discussion areas. The analysis itself is
contained in Table 3.
1
This content was found across social media sites such as Facebook and YouTube.
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of income
older.
is more important
condition)
Behavior?
The data comes from the interview shows, there is a certain view that has been
passing from one generation to another. The majority of respondents have a fixed
view of the attitude of Khmer women. The ideal Khmer woman should be soft,
gentle, humble, friendly, and polite. Also, being soft is a distinguishable trait that
defines a person as a woman. Moreover, women should not behave like men. A
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
Khmer woman has to walk silently and talk with a soft voice. Besides, a dutiful
“We don’t behave like a man. It is okay for men to behave aggressively since that is their
nature. Women should have appropriate behavior. For example, when there are guests
visiting us at home, my daughter has to come out and greet them in a gentle manner
and be friendly” (Interview with the second generation, August 29, 2019).
This particular judgment implies that femininity represents women. All Khmer
women have a sense of being soft and polite. Masculinity needs to be in men where
she assumed it naturally comes when a person is born male. A mother was born
into a family where men take more of a leadership role which is common in other
Khmer family. Her husband is involved a lot in educating and telling their daughter
to do the chores. She based her claim on her experience meaning that in an
environment where she grew up, men are more aggressive, and women tend to be
more feminine. This is not surprising information. The ideas of having a good
attitude and proper behavior are also found in Chbab Srei, the moral code of
conduct where women are expected to be soft and sweet (Brickell,2011). There is
no clear answer on how Chbab Srei has so much influence on the attitudes and
behavior of Khmer women. But it is clear that Chbab Srei has a connection with
Buddhist ideas. The Chbab Srei was published by the Buddhist Institute; most of
“I believe that the Chbab was clearly written with a Buddhist morality in mind. Moreover,
the idea that women should wear a certain type of clothing and behave in a certain
manner came from both Buddhism and Khmer culture. In the Buddha’s time, he was at
first reluctant when a woman wanted to be ordained because men who become monks
have to abstain from sex. So, having men and women living together will increase the
temptation. That led to the prohibition of women staying in specific places or areas.”
The ideas and experiences which women went through and passed from one
generation to another have determined and shaped women’s view on who they
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should be and undermine their ability of expressing their true selves. To a certain
extent, the normalization of gender roles can also equally pressure men and boys
a career
formal education and learning how to do the chores. Then, is the problem which
confronts most married women, deciding to prioritize their career over the
housework or handling both tasks. There are some noticeable changes in how the
norm passes across the generations which is quite positive compared to Theme
One. When the twenty-three women were asked what kind of knowledge a woman
should have, all of their answers involved the knowledge of the chores and formal
education. They missed mentioning information about many other useful skills
which exist for the job market which women should possess. The grandmother’s
woman. On the same question, the mother’s generation places formal education
and housework at the same level of importance. The mothers want their daughters
to learn as much as they can in terms of formal education. But they further their
desire by expressing satisfaction with the idea that girls have to be good at chores
as well. Moving on to the youngest generation, there are two different ideas based
on the educational background. The well-educated women place priority on formal
bright future. Education will create a new working environment where women are
able to occupy an equal position with men, with the same duties and rewards.
Equally important, they have faith that education will help women to make the old
“The status that I really want to challenge is that girls should not study to too high
a level. I grew up in Phnom Penh and I could still see the social expectations on
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
women. Even though women are provided with equal opportunities in the
workplace, they are still living with the burden of doing the chores.” (Interview with
The idea of women who are facing the double burden problem was also mentioned
by Brickell in her paper which she referred to as the first main “stubborn” issue.
Women are involved with many different tasks such as childcare, housework and
Contrasting the previous group, the young women who are not as well educated
the significant value of housework over education. One of the two ladies said:
“I think doing the chores is more important because I am able to share the burden with
my parents. I help them by doing the laundry, wrapping the floor and cooking while they
are busy making money. These kinds of work are not for men. It is my brother’s job to
The obvious evidence which shapes the youngest generation’s perception is how
much they are exposed to a new culture and environment. The well-educated girls
who happened to join many events on gender issues and worked in a diverse group
of people have an opposite view from the girls who were not as well-educated.
ideas. A grandmother from a province said: “It is essential for what I called a proper
lady to possess knowledge of housework. A proper lady knows how to cook, do the
laundry and organize the house. If the woman lets the man do all of the housework,
she would be a useless woman. Why? It is because the housework is what she is
supposed to know and do. Boys only learn from school.” (Interview with the third
Men also hold the view that they are not allowed to do the laundry and cooking
because it violates men’s rights based on Khmer culture. In addition, the ideas of
masculinity view men as the head of the household where women play the role of
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women in the economy. Women should have their own source of income. They all
positively impacts women's decision making in the family. The old proverb that
says that women cannot move far away from the kitchen is out of date. The support
from family for women to work outside motivates women to become exposed to a
purchase with my own money. Also, I can stay at home and take care of children while
I am running my business. The old traditional concept is not suitable in today's context.”
Undoubtedly, this is how society has been evolving over time. The result of today's
society is a combination of two trends. In the past, the pagoda was a learning
center. The monks played a crucial role as teachers when the religious buildings
were used as schools. People who are curious and wish to further their
understanding will become monks or join a class with monks. Men will spend from
between six months to two years as monks to learn. When they finish and leave
many other Chbab including Chbab Srei. Similar to men, when a woman leaves
Chuol Mlup she is ready to be a wife. The tradition has been passed through
The old expectation has never loosened, and the new expectations are gaining
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
more and more attention. Unquestionably, today's ideal type of woman has to
Buddhism Online
About 50% of Cambodian people have access to the internet (Heng, 2018).
Approximately 6.8 million Cambodian people use Facebook according to the
to show how many monks are accessing Facebook, but it is anecdotally well-known
that they are using it as a tool to spread their ideas and teach about Buddhism.
Some of these teachings touch on the role of women in society. In 2019, there were
The purpose of the sermon is to guide the devotees to maintain good behavior as
well as attitudes. The monks show what women should and should not have done
through case studies of Indian women in the time of the Buddha. Most focus on
married women while the rest concern women in general. For example, a wife
should not use violence against the husband, a wife should not be a thief by using his
money without any permission, and a wife should not believe that she is equal to him.
Beyond the daily life of the devotees, the gender issue is also seen in the pagoda.
The nuns are always busy with matters related to chores while the monks spend
most of the day learning. Moreover, in the monastery community, only men are
seen at the leadership and decision-making levels. Women usually are seen as
“Khmer women play a role as a donor in Buddhist culture. Women do the cooking and
donate the food to the monks. This is also seen in the everyday life of women in society.
2
This information was gathered from the social media of two Buddhist monks’ accounts on
Facebook and three YouTube channels. These materials can be found in Appendix 2.
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Ms. CHIN Leabphea
They are caregivers to the husband, children, and parents.” (Interview, October 03,
2019).
The Buddha promoted spiritual equality between men and women which means
Through informal chats and the preaching of monks, women were viewed as being
too emotionally sensitive which makes it difficult for them to abide by all three
home and take good care of all the tasks in lay life. It is extremely challenging for
women to be ordained and the merit they earn will be lost if they are physically
touched by men. We can see some of this disparity in the average day of a monk
compared to the average day of a nun (Table 4).
Buddha.
5:00- After greeting the Buddha, It is time to prepare breakfast for the
5:30 am every monk will prepare monks. Some nuns will prefer to cook
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
chant).
5:30- All of the monks in the
the surrounding
environment
6:30- It is time for breakfast. On All monks will come to have their
7:00 am the way, monks will go in breakfast which has been prepared
the time that they have have breakfast before or after the
10:00am The morning classes end. nuns. Nuns usually learn about the
-1:00 pm Lunch usually takes one Buddha’s life and his incarnations.
hour followed by a
2:00- Before the bell rings again, there is
30minutes of exercise
3:30 pm time to listen, read, and memorize
(walking back and forth). In
the Dhamma. Any questions about
the afternoon, there is a
the Dhamma, can always be referred
one hour break for monks
to the monks for answers.
to take a nap.
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The afternoon classes start. One hour and half in the evening is
5:30- The bell rings and all Another half an hour for walking
Buddha again for one hour. hours, it is time to return to our little
monks.
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
The implications of these particular messages could also be seen in the three
Buddhist, often go to the pagoda, spend time reading and listening to Buddhist
teachings and sermons, and tend to be more traditional in perceiving their roles.
In contrast, those who claimed to be less Buddhist and did not spend time involved
Cambodia. Is it because the Buddha, in the first place, was not a woman? Or
Religion has a significant role in the evolution of each civilization. In the Cambodian
society. The main tasks of women continue to be centered around family and
home. However, this trend has started to change. From low skilled workers to
leaders, there is a noticeable empowerment in women across work and education.
They enjoy more freedom than in the past but continue to face the choice of
checked before books or other publications are distributed. The study of gender
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should be included in the two years academy of monk. Monks should use Facebook
and YouTube in a very effective manner where they can teach the Buddhist Canon
of Sutras to the devotees online. The topics which are specifically related to gender
should not be discussed negatively. Showing how a woman sacrifices her well-
example of perfect women or wives, affects their perception implying that they be
and meditation which benefit the general population. One of the examples is the
Kol Tor Teng pagoda. Finally, the Ministry needs to have a policy restricting
irrelevance use of technological devices within the pagoda.
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
References
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Chapter 6 | Buddhism and Gender Roles
Appendix
https://www.facebook.com/284224271755370/posts/1283057551872032/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/729287344150240/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/1270274959763213/
https://www.facebook.com/MATABALOU/videos/326159281441807/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/470269406869956/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/690101338093264/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/286766355612330/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/2126839870909932/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/298195317739840/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/1186639021508004/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/421607901727154/
https://www.facebook.com/Maniratnaram/videos/193786288202233/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/711294009282907/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/714853478926960/
https://www.facebook.com/100012069425681/posts/715937418818566/
https://www.facebook.com/100012069425681/posts/715938005485174/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/716129328799375/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/719289978483310/
https://www.facebook.com/100012069425681/posts/722641091481532/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/725246141221027/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/749748882104086/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/750712572007717/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/754967424915565/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/760624114349896/
https://www.facebook.com/sansocheateam/videos/678085452606031/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/707674092978232/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/683495938729381/
https://www.facebook.com/100012069425681/posts/692149167864058/
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https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/703616406717334/
https://www.facebook.com/lornsalongpp/videos/707059923039649/
https://www.facebook.com/220962281255188/posts/3293402044011181/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxDc_UVnuq8&fbclid=IwAR3QJGDWOh_58Ga
xI72XjgZPV7rkxOKPeXQN1WXAlYoJ--iXtnmw1VEuIoY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R5MmYjX27Qc&list=WL&index=13&t=0s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W9zHP5xUQZs&list=WL&index=13
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8aaDu38a_30&list=WL&index=14
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6GwfOl7yMg&list=WL&index=15
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9FimEWyRROg&list=WL&index=16
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