High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy: Innovations, Applications and Future Prospects
High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy: Innovations, Applications and Future Prospects
High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy: Innovations, Applications and Future Prospects
J O H N F. A I T K E N 1 & J O H N A. H O W E L L 2
1Geology & Cartography Division, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus,
Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
2 S T R A T Group, Department o f Earth Sciences, University o f Liverpool, PO Box 147,
Brownlow St, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
In recent years there has been a huge expansion 1992, 1995; Posamentier & Allen 1993a, b, Hel-
in studies using high resolution sequence strati- land-Hansen & Gjelberg 1994; Kolla et al. 1995)
graphic techniques. Sequence stratigraphy has although the basic tenets remain unchanged.
evolved from the original concepts of seismic Despite the shortcomings of the original general-
stratigraphy to a scale above seismic resolution. ized models, sequence stratigraphy is now widely
Concepts developed at outcrop are now being applied both within the hydrocarbon industry
successfully applied to sub-surface data sets and and by academic researchers and there has been
are providing a greatly improved understanding a rapid expansion in publications dealing with
of facies geometries and reservoir architecture. the application of sequence stratigraphy at
Sequence stratigraphy has developed into a increasingly higher resolutions (e.g. Loucks &
powerful, predictive facies analysis tool for both Sarg 1993, Posamentier et al. 1993; Dalrymple et
the hydrocarbon industry and academic re- al. 1994; Weimer & Posamentier 1994a). This
search. The papers in this volume illustrate the has led to the geological reappraisal of some
depth and breadth of current sequence strati- well-studied areas, such as the Upper Carboni-
graphic research. ferous in the UK (e.g. Maynard 1992; Martinsen
Although sequence stratigraphy has a long 1993; Church & Gawthorpe 1994; Read 1994,
history (Sloss 1988 and papers cited therein), the 1995; Hampson 1995; Hampson et al.; this
interpretation of ancient sediments has tradi- volume). A number of reviews addressing
tionally relied on comparisons with modern specific sequence stratigraphic issues have been
depositional environments and transport pro- published (Posamentier & James 1993; Posa-
cesses within the context of facies models and mentier & Weimer 1993, Shanley & McCabe
Walther's Law (e.g. Walker 1984; Reading 1994; Weimer & Posamentier 1994b; Zaitlin et
1986). The more widespread application of a al. 1994).
chronostratigraphic approach was initiated by
the development of seismic stratigraphy (Vail et Perspectives
aL 1977b). Seismic stratigraphy is a tool applic-
able at hydrocarbon exploration scale whereas Sequence stratigraphy has two main aspects,
sequence stratigraphy uses a chronostratigraphic firstly the construction of and correlation with
approach at hydrocarbon production scales to global eustatic cycle charts (e.g. Vail et al. 1977a;
cores, wireline logs and outcrops, and brings the Haq et al. 1988) and, secondly, lithology
Vail concepts to the everyday working environ- prediction within time equivalent successions.
ment of most academic geologists. The first of these has been severely criticized on
Modern, high resolution, reservoir scale se- the basis that many of the assumptions under-
quence stratigraphy was formalized by the pinning the curves are invalid (Miall 1986, 1991,
publications of Jervey (1988), Posamentier & 1992; Summerhayes 1986; Burton et al. 1987;
Vail (1988), Posamentier et al. (1988) and Van Underhill 1991). In particular, the precision of
Wagoner et al. (1990). These publications have the palaeontological, palaeomagnetic and radio-
generated much discussion about the application metric dating used to constrain the curves is
of sequence stratigraphic concepts (e.g. Miall insufficient to delimit the duration of the
1986, 1991, 1992; Summerhayes 1986; Boyd et published third-order curves. Consequently,
al. 1988; Walker 1990; Shanley & McCabe 1994) diachronous curves from different basins may
which has led to modifications to the original be erroneously superimposed to produce mean-
models (e.g. Schlager 1991; Hunt & Tucker ingless global eustatic curves. Nowadays it is
From Howell, J. A. & Aitken, J. F. (eds),High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy:Innovationsand Applications,
Geological Society Special Publication No. 104, pp. I-9.
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of the Western Cape
on November 16, 2020
2 J.F. AITKEN & J. A. HOWELL
more common to use regional rather than global previously established allostratigraphie frame-
sea-level curves (e.g. Partington et al. 1993; work. More controversy, however, lies between
Armentrout this volume). In this respect it is genetic and sequence stratigraphy. Genetic
notable that within this volume only two of the stratigraphy has been widely applied within the
papers mention the global eustatic curves. North Sea (e.g. Partington et al. 1993), and the
U l i ~ , & .~pi~,~kov~ (this volume) correlate their recognition of condensed sections and maximum
parasequences in the Bohemian Basin to the flooding surfaces is often easier than the
Haq et al. (1988) curve, whilst Armentrout (this recognition of unconformities, especially in well
volume) argues that only by the careful doc- logs. It is commonly the starting point for
umentation of regional cycles through high correlation. Subsequently the identification of
resolution biostratigraphy and chronostrati- unconformities (Exxon-style sequence bound-
graphy can local events be distinguished from aries) may be possible. The two techniques are
globally synchronous events to construct a not mutually exclusive, both have their advan-
global eustatic chart. Despite the shortcomings tages and disadvantages and as long as it is made
of the present global cycle charts, Posamentier & clear which technique is being applied there is no
James (1993) and Posamentier & Weimer (1993) reason why both techniques should not be used
argue that the global cycle charts are of value in in the same study. However, genetic strati-
basins where there is little or no age information graphic sequences have less potential to predict
available. when and where sand may have been deposited
The validity of the eustatic cycle charts, than unconformity-bound (Exxon-style) se-
however, does not influence the validity of quences.
sequence stratigraphy as a lithological predictor As a lithology predictor, high resolution
and as a tool in unravelling basin-fill history. sequence stratigraphy has important implica-
This use of sequence stratigraphy is more tions in terms of reservoir correlation and
widespread and more valuable than the con- modelling and the definition of anisotropy
struction of eustatic charts and is dependent (Cross et al. 1993; O'Byrne & Flint 1993). High
upon the concept of accommodation (Jervey resolution sequence stratigraphi¢ approaches
1988). It is applicable in a wide variety of have been applied to well log correlations of
tectonic and depositional settings as long as it is strata at production scales (e.g. Eschard et al.
realized that the original models are general- 1993; Pulham 1994) and to object-based and
izations and that local factors (e.g. sediment stochastic modelling systems (e.g. MacDonald et
flux, basin physiography) must be accounted for al. 1992; Kaas et al. 1994; Knight et aL 1994).
before applying sequence stratigraphic concepts This results in geologically more realistic de-
(Posamentier & Allen 1993a; Posamentier & scriptions of reservoir units away from well
James 1993; Posamentier & Weimer 1993; control points and reduces the stochastic re-
Weimer & Posamentier 1994b). There has been quirement within reservoir models. Conse-
discussion (e.g. Walker 1990, 1992; Posamentier quently sequence stratigraphic interpretations
& James 1993) concerning the relative merits of are routinely applied within the hydrocarbon
allostratigraphy (NACSN 1983), genetic strati- industry and yet few detailed accounts of the
graphic sequences (Galloway 1989) and Exxon- benefits of sequence stratigraphic analyses at the
style sequence stratigraphy (Jervey 1988; Posa- reservoir scale have been published (e.g. Eschard
mentier & Vail 1988; Posamentier et al. 1988). et al. 1993; Posamentier & Chamberlain 1993;
Each of these approaches to event stratigraphy Pulham 1994; Reynolds 1994). Jennette & Riley
are based on cyclicity within the rock record and (this volume) describe cyclicity within the Lower
the determination of a relative time stratigraphic Brent Group, North Sea, which was controlled
framework. The major difference between them by variations in relative sea-level and exerts a
is in the bounding surfaces between cycles. fundamental control on the geometry, stacking
Allostratigraphy uses any disconformity to pattern and distribution of both reservoir and
bound allostratigraphic units, genetic stratigra- seal facies. The establishment of a sequence
phy uses maximum flooding surfaces and stratigraphic framework has resulted in more
sequence stratigraphy uses unconformities. As efficient reservoir management plans. In a
such, both genetic and sequence stratigraphy can complementary study, Wehr & Brasher (this
be viewed as specialized, interpretative subsets of volume) focus on permeability simulation mod-
descriptive-based allostratigraphy, hence there is els for the Rannoch, Etive and Ness Formations
no conflict between genetic stratigraphy, se- (Brent Group), using both sequence strati-
quence stratigraphy and allostratigraphy. This graphic- and lithostratigraphie-based well log
is illustrated by Plint (this volume) who develops correlations. Predicted recovery efficiencies from
a sequence stratigraphic interpretation within a the Rannoch lower shoreface sandstones were
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of the Western Cape
on November 16, 2020
INNOVATIONS, APPLICATIONS, FUTURE PROSPECTS 3
systems tracts (e.g. Shanley & McCabe 1993; surface coals are basinward of the bayline.
Quirk this volume). Despite the problems out- However, many Upper Carboniferous, laterally
lined above sequence stratigraphic techniques extensive coal seams contain contemporaneous
have been applied to predominantly alluvial sand-filled channel deposits (e.g. Guion et al.
successions (e.g. Shanley & McCabe 1993, 1994; 1995; J. H. Rippon pers. comm. 1995), which
Wright & Marriott 1993; Aitken & Flint 1994, implies that sediment was not trapped up dip,
1995; Olsen et al. 1995; Hampson this volume, and that the bayline lay basinward of the
McKie & Garden this volume, Plint this volume, transgressive surface mires. In this case, it is
Uli~n~ & Spir~ikov~i this volume). Despite this the fact that once incised valleys are filled, a
research the application of sequence stratigra- broad plain is created encompassing the top of
phy to fluvial systems remains controversial the valley fill and the adjacent interfluves, over
(Schumm 1993; Wescott 1993; Shanley & which the sediment supply, that was originally
McCabe 1994; Quirk this volume) and more concentrated within the confines of the incised
research is warranted. Generally parasequences valley, is distributed.
are not identifiable within alluvial strata (Aitken
& Flint 1994, 1995), however, Ulirn~, & Spi~,~i- Future prospects
kovh (this volume) examine the characteristics
and preservation of parasequences in fluvial to Since the publication of Wilgus et al. (1988)
estuarine strata in the Cretaceous Bohemian sequence stratigraphy has developed rapidly, but
Basin. Although bounded by erosional surfaces it is still evolving and there are a number of
these are interpreted as parasequences rather aspects which are still poorly understood.
than high frequency sequences because there is Perhaps the least studied depositional environ-
no basinward shift in facies tracts across the ment in terms of sequence stratigraphy is the
boundary, internally there are no notable deep marine realm and turbidite systems. In
changes in palaeobathymmetry and correlation deep marine settings changes in relative sea-level
indicates that the bounding surfaces pass down- will be very subtle and therefore difficult to
dip into marine flooding surfaces. identify. Nonetheless it is possible to identify
As a consequence of the difficulty in identify- a hierarchy of cycles within turbidite systems
ing parasequences within alluvial strata, a which can be interpreted in terms of sequence
variety of criteria has been developed to define stratigraphy (e.g. Mutti 1994). More recently
systems tracts and their bounding surfaces Shanmugam et al. (1995) have shown that basin
including tidally influenced channel fills to floor fans are far more complex than predicted
indicate maximum flooding surfaces (Shanley by the sequence stratigraphic models. More
& McCabe 1993), coal seams to indicate published research is required into the applica-
transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces tion of sequence stratigraphy to turbidites and
(Arditto 1991; Aitken & Flint 1994, 1995; Flint deep marine fan systems.
et aL 1995; Hampson 1995) and the relative Although sequence stratigraphy has been
development of palaeosols to indicate systems applied with some success to alluvial successions
tracts (Wright & Marriott 1993). Although coal (see above), it is more difficult to apply sequence
seams have been proposed as transgressive stratigraphic concepts to aeolian systems, and
surface equivalents this is largely on the basis few examples have been published. In general,
that, as a consequence of relative sea-level rise, studies on aeolian strata have developed entirely
accommodation potential increases and palaeo- independently of sequence stratigraphic con-
ground water tables rise, initiating ideal condi- cepts. However, Kocurek & Havholm (1994)
tions for the establishment of mires (e.g. Aitken describe a conceptual model for aeolian systems,
& Flint 1995; Flint et al. 1995; Hampson 1995). proposing that the major controls on stratal
No mechanism has been proposed to exclude architecture in such depositional settings are
elastic sediment supply, other than the establish- ground water table fluctuations, sediment sup-
ment of raised mires (e.g. Flint et al. 1995) and/ ply, climatic change and subsidence, the last
or the trapping of sediment up dip (Aitken & providing the accommodation space for preser-
Flint 1994, 1995). Similarly, Hampson et aL (this vation. Yang & Nio (1994) document one of the
volume, p. 238) propose that transgressive sur- first applications of sequence stratigraphic con-
face equivalent mires in the UK Upper Carbo- cepts to aeolian strata with an example from the
niferous Rough Rock Group develop as a Rotliegend Group in the North Sea. McKie &
consequence of sediment being trapped up dip Garden (this volume) describe the stratigraphy
by rising base level reducing fluvial gradients of a mixed fluvial, aeolian and lacustrine
and consequently reducing sediment transport depositional system from the Devonian Clair
efficiencies. This implies that the transgressive Group, North Sea, and argue that the cyclicity
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of the Western Cape
on November 16, 2020
INNOVATIONS, APPLICATIONS, FUTURE PROSPECTS 5
UK Ltd, BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd, Shell UK BURTON,R., KENDALL,C. G. St. C. & LERCHE,I. 1987.
Exploration & Production Ltd, Mobil North Sea Ltd. Out of our depth: on the impossibility of
and Badley Ashton & Associates Ltd. The conference fathoming eustasy from the stratigraphic record.
from which this volume is a partial outgrowth was Earth Science Reviews, 24, 237-277.
supported by the Petroleum and British Sedimentolo- CHURCH, K. D. & GAWrnOm'E, R. L. 1994. High
gical Research Groups of the Geological Society and resolution sequence stratigraphy of the late
the Petroleum Exploration Society of Great Britain. Namurian in the Widmerpool Gulf (East Mid-
We would also like to thank our colleagues who have lands, UK). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 11,
assisted in the preparation of this book, in particular 528-544.
Steve Flint. The scientists listed below are thanked for CROSS, T. A., BAKER, M. R., CnAV~, M. A., CLARK,
their reviews of the manuscripts: Ron Boyd, Pat M. S., GARDNER,M. H. EraL 1993. Applications
Brenchley, Ian Bryant, Steve Cannon, Pete Ditchfield, of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy to reser-
Steve Flint, Jon Gluyas, Bob Goldstein, Malcolm voir analysis. In: ESCHARD,R. & DOLIGEZ,B. (eds)
Hart, Adrian Hartley, Nicky Hind, Dave Hunt, Dave Subsurface reservoir characterization from outcrop
Jennette, Diane Kamola, K. Kennard, Lee Krystinuk, observations, l~ditions Technip, Paris, 11-34.
Mike Leeder, Alister MacDonald, Jim Marshall, Tom DALRYMPLE, R. W., BOVD, R. & ZArrntN, B. A. (eds)
Mckie, Pete McCabe, Rory Mortimer, David Oliver, 1994. Incised-valley systems: origin and sedimen-
Mark Partington, Chris Paul, Guy Plint, Sarah tary sequences. SEPM Special Publication, 51.
Prosser, Bill Read, Tony Reynolds, Ron Steel, Finn ESCHARD,R., TVEITEN,B., DESAUBLIAUX,G., LECOMTE,
Surlyk, Maurice Tucker, Fred Wehr, Andrew Whi- J. C. & VAN BUCHEM, F. S. P. 1993. High
tham. We also thank those reviewers who wish to resolution sequence stratigraphy and reservoir
remain anonymous. prediction of the Brent Group (Tampen Spur
We are also grateful to Steve Flint and Dave Quirk area) using an outcrop analogue (Mesaverde
for their constructive comments on a previous version Group, Colorado). ln: ESCHARD, R. & DOLmEZ,
of the manuscript. We thank our respective employers, B. (eds) Subsurface reservoir characterization from
Oxford Brookes University and University of Liver- outcrop observations. #.ditions Technip, Paris, 35-
pool, for support during the editing of the volume and 52.
to the many colleagues who have influenced our FrrzSIMMONS, R. J. 1994. Identification of high order
thoughts on sequence stratigraphy. sequence boundaries and the land attached forced
regression, ln." JOHNSON, S. D. (ed.) High resolu-
tion sequence stratigraphy: innovations and appli-
References cations. Abstract volume. Department of Earth
•AklNSWORTH,R. B. 1994. Marginal marine sedimentol- Sciences, University of Liverpool, 332-333.
ogy and high resolution sequence analysis: Bear- FLINT, S. S., An'KEN, J. F. & HAMr'SON, G. 1995.
paw-Horseshoe canyon transition, Drumheller, Application of sequence stratigraphy to coal-
Alberta. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, bearing coastal plain successions: implications
42, 26--54. for the UK coal measures. In: WHATELEY,M. K.
- - & PATTmON,S. A. J. 1994. Where have all the G. & SPEAR.S,D. A. (eds) European Coal Geology.
lowstands gone? Evidence for attached lowstand Geological Society, London, Special Publication,
systems tracts in the Western Interior of North 82, 1-16.
America. Geology, 22, 415--418. GALLOWAY, W. E. 1989. Genetic stratigraphic se-
AriSEN, J. F. & FLINT, S. S. 1994. High-frequency quences in basin analysis I: architecture and
sequences and the nature of incised-valley fills in genesis of flooding surface bounded depositional
fluvial systems of the Breathitt Group (Pennsyl- units. American Association of Petroleum Geolo-
vanian), Appalachian Foreland Basin, eastern gists Bulletin, 73, 125-142.
Kentucky. ln: DALRYMPLE, R. W., BOYD, R. & GAWTHOm'E, R. L., FRASER, A. J. & COLLIER, E. L1.
ZArrLIN, B. A. (eds.) lncised Valley Systems: 1994. Sequence stratigraphy in active extensional
Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. SEPM Special basins: implications for the interpretation of
Publication, 51, 353-368. ancient basin-fills. Marine and Petroleum
& 1995. The application of high- Geology, 11, 642-658.
resolution sequence stratigraphy to fluvial sys- GUION, P. D., BANKS,N. L. & RIPPON,J. H. 1995. The
tems: a case study from the Upper Carboniferous Silkstone Rock (Westphalian A) from the east
Breathitt Group, eastern Kentucky, USA. Sedi- Pennines, England: implications for sand body
mentology, 42, 3-30. genesis. Journal of the Geological Society, London,
Aa~Drrro, P. A. 1991. A sequence stratigraphic analysis 152, 819-832.
of the Late Permian succession in the Southern HAMPSON, G. 1995. Discrimination of regionally
Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South Wales. extensive coals in the Upper Carboniferous of
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 38, 125-137. the Pennine Basin, UK using high resolution
BOVD, R., StrrER, J. & PEm~,~D, S. 1988. Implications sequence stratigraphic concepts. In: WHATELEY,
of modern sedimentary environments for se- M. K. G. & SPEARS, D. A. (eds) European Coal
quence stratigraphy. In: JAMES, D. P. & LECrOE, Geology. Geological Society, London, Special
D. A. (eds.) Sequences, stratigraphy, sedimentol- Publication, 82, 79-97.
ogy: surface and subsurface. Canadian Society of HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J. & VAIL, P. R. 1988.
Petroleum Geologists, Memoir, 15, 33-36. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of the Western Cape
on November 16, 2020
INNOVATIONS, APPLICATIONS, FUTURE PROSPECTS 7
eustatic cycles. In: WILGUS, C. K., HASTINGS,B. ous) depositional systems of the Craven-Askrigg
S., KENDALL,C. G. St. C., POSAMENTIER,H. W., area, northern England: implications for sequence
Ross, C. A. & VANWAC,ONER,J. C. (eds) Sea-level stratigraphic models. In: POSAMENTmR, H. W.,
changes: an integrated approach. Society of SUMMERHAYES,C. P., HAQ, B. U. & ALLEN,G. P.
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, (eds) Sequence stratigraphy andfacies associations.
Special Publication, 42, 71-108. International Association of Sedimentologists,
HELLAND-HANSEN, W. & GJELBERG, J. G. 1994. Special Publication, 18, 247-282.
Conceptual bias and variability in sequence MAWARD, J. R. 1992. Sequence stratigraphy of the
stratigraphy: a different perspective. Sedimentary Upper Yeadonian of northern England. Marine
Geology, 92, 31-52. and Petroleum Geology, 9, 197-207.
HUNT, D. & TUCKER, M. E. 1992. Stranded para- MIALL, A. D. 1986. Eustatic sea-level changes inter-
sequences and the forced regressive wedge systems preted from seismic stratigraphy: a critique of the
tract: deposition during base level fall. Sedimen- methodology with particular reference to the
tary Geology, 81, 1-9. North Sea Jurassic record. American Association
& - - 1995. Stranded parasequences and of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 70, 131-137.
the forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposi- - - 1991. Stratigraphic sequences and their chro-
tion during base level fall - reply. Sedimentary nostratigraphic correlation. Journal of Sedimen-
Geology, 95, 147-160. tary Petrology, 61,497-505.
JERVEY, M. T. 1988. Quantitative geological modeling - - 1992. Exxon global cycle chart: an event for
of siliciclastic rock sequences and their seismic every occasion? Geology, 20, 787-790.
expression. In: WILGtJS, C. K., HASTINGS, B. S., MUTTI, E. 1994. Sequence stratigraphic aspects of
I~NDALL, C. G. St. C., POSAMENTIER, H. W., turbidite systems. In: JOHNSON, S. D. (ed.) High
Ross, C. A. & VA~ WAC,ONER,J. C. (eds) Sea-level resolution sequence stratigraphy: innovations and
changes: an integrated approach. Society of applications. Abstract Volume. Department of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Earth Sciences, University of Liverpool, 323-325.
Special Publication, 42, 47-70. NACSN 1983. North American stratigraphic code.
KAAS, I., SVANES,T., VAN WAC,ONER,J. C., HAMAR,G., American Association of Petroleum Geologists
JORGENVAr, S., S ~ , P. I. & SUNDT,O. 1994. Bulletin, 67, 841-875.
The use of high resolution sequence stratigraphy O'BvRNE, C. J. & FLINT, S. S. 1993. High-resolution
and stochastic modelling to reservoir management sequence stratigraphy of Cretaceous shallow
of the Ness Formation of the Statfjord Field, marine sandstones, Book Cliffs outcrops, Utah,
offshore Norway. In: JOHNSON, S. D. (ed.) High USA application to reservoir modelling. First
-