i* Government

of Canada
Gouvernement
du Canada
A manual for forest tree seed
orchard management in the
Canadian Service
Forestry canadien des Maritimes
Service forets

J.D. Simpson and R .F. Smith

Information Report M- X -167

Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes

,cr

' " ' I- IMF'RnVEMm

 CANADIAN FORESTRY SERVICE — MARITIMES
'

The Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes is one of six regional establishments

.
of the Canadian Forestry Service , within Agriculture Canada The Centre conducts a
program of work directed toward the solution of major forestry problems and the
development of more effective forest management techniques for use in the
Maritime Provinces.

-
The program consists of three major elements research and development,
technical and information services , and forest resources development. Most
research and development work is undertaken in direct response to the needs of
forest management agencies , with the aim of improving the protection , growth, and
value of the region 's forest resource for a variety of consumptive and noncon-
sumptive uses: studies are often carried ouljointly with provincial governments and
industry . The Centre s technical and information services are designed to bong
research results to the attention of potential users, to demonstrate new and
improved forest management techniques, to assist management agencies in solving
-
day to - day problems, and to keep the public fully informed on the work of the
Maritimes Centre.

The forest resources development branch is responsible for development,

implementation, and administration of joint federai /provinciai forest resources
development agreements in the three Maritime provinces, for the creation of
employment opportunities in the development of the forest resources, and for
providing economic information to landowners and decision-makers for identifying
and evaluating forest management alternatives.

Cover photographs:

TOP: Tamarack clonal seed orchard , P.E. J. Forest Service

MIDDLE: Black spruce seedling seed orchard, Fraser Inc.

BOTTOM: Red spruce clonal seed orchard, Bowater Mersey Paper Company
A MANUAL FOR FOREST TREE SEED ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
IN THE MARITIMES

by

J.D. Simpson and R.F. Smith

Information Report M-X -167

Government of Canada

Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes

P.O. Box 4000, Fredericton, N.B. Canada E3B 5P7

1988
QAinister of Supply and Services, Canada 1988

Catalogue no. F046- 19 /167/ E

ISBN 0-662-15809-1
ISSN 0334-406 X

Copies of this report may be Une traduction frangaise de ce

obtained from rapport peut etre mise sans frais
a la disponibilite de quiconque
en fait la demande.
Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes
P ,0. Box 4000
Fredericton, N. B, Canada E3 B 5 P7

The exclusion of certain manufactured products does not necessarily imply disapproval nor does the
mention of other products necessarily imply endorcement by the Canadian Forestry Service.

This publication reports research involving pesticides. Pesticides must be handled and applied properly.
All uses of pesticides must be registered by federal authorities and approved for use by provincial authorities
before they can be recommended.
 UPDATES TO THIS MANUAL

Sections of this manual will be updated as required. If you want to automatically receive these updates,
complete the following and return to:

Scientific Editor
Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes
Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre
P.O. Box 4000
Fredericton, N. B.
E3B 5 P7

Please put my name on the mailing list to receive updates to “ A Manual for Forest Tree Seed Orchard
Management in the Maritimes”.

Name:

Affiliation:

Address:
 I

ABSTRACT

Procedures are outlined for the establishment and management of seed orchards in the Maritime
provinces. Sections are included on site selection and orchard site planning, site preparation, orchard design,
layout and planting, control of competing vegetation , fertility management , protection, cone-crop enhance-
ment, and cone harvesting.

RESUME

Ce manuei indique les methodes a suivre pour bien etablir et amenager les vergers a graine dans les
provinces Maritimes. On y trouve des sections traitant de la selection et planification des sites des vergers,
preparation des sites, plans detailles de vergers et leur disposition sur !e terrain, plantation, suppression de la
vegetation concurrentielle, techniques d’amelioration de la fertility, protection , augmentation de la
production des cones, et recolte des cones.
ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii
PREFACE ix
CHAPTER 1 1-1
PLANNING 1-1
Site Selection , 1-1
General location . . 1- 1
Seedling seed orchards 1-1
Clonal seed orchards 1- 1
Specific location 1-1
Clonal and seedling seed orchards 1-1
Soils 1-1
Topography 1- 2
Insolation 1-3
Air drainage , 1-3
Accessibility 1-3
Isolation from foreign pollen . .. 1 -3
Past land use 1- 3
Orchard Site Plan 1-3
Area requirements 1-3
Seed production 1-3
Pollen dilution zone 1-5
Firebreak 1-5
Roads 1-5
Pond 1-5
Windbreaks 1-5
Equipment shed and offices 1-5
Layout 1-5
Suborchards , 1-5
Roads 1-7
Soil drainage 1-7
Windbreaks 1-7
Irrigation 1-7
Fencing 1- 7
Suggested Readings 1- 9
Literature Cited 1-9

CHAPTER 2 2-1
SITE PREPARATION 2 -1
Soil Drainage 2-1
Forested Sites 2-1
Seedling seed orchards 2-1
Clonal seed orchards 2-2
Field Sites 2- 2
Seedling and clonal seed orchards 2- 2
Cover Crops 2-2
Cover crop characteristics 2 -2
Fertility requirements for seeding . 2 -2
Seeding 2-3
 Ill

PAGE
Maintaining fertility levels 2-3
Maintenance mowing 2-4
Literature Cited 2-4

CHAPTER 3 3-1
ESTABLISHMENT 3-1
Design and Spacing . . 3-1
Seedling seed orchards . 3-1
Design .. 3-1
Spacing 3-1
Clonal seed orchards ... 3-1
Design 3-1
Spacing 3-5
Layout, Planting and Tending 3-5
Seedling seed orchards . 3-5
Clonal seed orchards 3-5
Field Grafting 3-7
. .. .
Suggested Readings . .. . . 3-8
Literature Cited 3-8

CHAPTER 4 4-1
VEGETATION MANAGEMENT 4-1
Localized Control * * 4-1
General Control 4-1
Herbicides 4-1
Vision (glyphosate) 4- 2
Princep Nine-T (simazine) 4- 2
DCPA Dacthal 75W ( chlorthal dimethyl) 4 -2
Kerb SOW (pronamide) 4-2
Velpar L 4- 2
Combined sprays 4-2
Suggested Readings 4-3
Literature Cited 4-3

CHAPTER 5 5-1
FERTILITY MANAGEMENT 5-1
Assessing Site Fertility 5-1
Soil sampling 5-1
Assessing Soil Fertility 5-2
Soil acidity (pH) 5-3
Organic matter content .. .. 5-3
Cation exchange capacity .. 5- 4
Soil macronutrients 5- 4
Correcting Nutrient Deficiencies 5-5
Assessing Foliar Nutrient Levels 5-5
Optimizing Tree Growth 5-5
Suggested Readings 5-7
Literature Cited 5-8
iv

PAGE

CHAPTER 6 6-1
PEST MANAGEMENT 6-1
Assessing Cone and Seed Losses 6-1
Insects and diseases 6- 2
Monitoring Insects and Diseases 6- 2
Controlling Insects and Diseases .. 6 -2
Control of insects 6 -2
Control of diseases 6-3
Controlling Other Pests 6-3
Mammals and birds 6 -3
Vandalism . 6-6
6-6
Fire
Weather 6 -6
Suggested Readings . 6 -7
Literature Cited 6-7

CHAPTER 7 7-1
CONE CROP MANAGEMENT 7-1
Cone Crop Enhancement 7- 1
Fertilizers 7 -3
Type of fertilizer 7-3
Rate of fertilizer application ... 7-3
Timing of fertilizer application 7-3
Tree size 7 -3
Weather 7-3
Size of the current- year cone crop 7-3
Clone / family differences 7- 3
Cover crop 7-3
Root pruning 7-3
Girdling and strangulation .,. 7-4
Growth hormones 7-4
Topping trees 7-4
Pollen Contamination 7-4
Cone Harvesting 7-5
Assessing the cone crop 7-5
Time of collection * * *
»
•
7 -6
.
How to collect . . 7-7
Suggested Readings . 7-8
Literature Cited 7 -8

APPENDIX I ORCHARD OVERLAY MAPS AND GENERAL SITE PLAN 1-1

APPENDIX II CALCULATION OF SEED PRODUCING AREA OF A SEED ORCHARD 11- 1

APPENDIX III SEED ORCHARD SITE PREPARATION SUMMARY 111-1

APPENDIX IV SUMMARY OF ORCHARD OPERATIONS IV-1

APPENDIX V FERTILIZATION RECORDS V -1

APPENDIX VI TABLES FOR MANAGING ORCHARD FERTILITY VI-1

 V

PAGE
APPENDIX VI ! MIXING YOUR OWN FERTILIZERS VII - 1

APPENDIX VIII MONITORING CONE LOSSES Vlll -1

APPENDIX IX LIST OF INSECTICIDES WITH POTENTIAL UTILITY IN SEED ORCHARDS .. . IX -1

APPENDIX X GROWTH MEASUREMENT TABLES FOR SEED ORCHARD TREES X -1

APPENDIX XI REPRODUCTION OF CONIFERS XI- 1

APPENDIX XII GLOSSARY XI 1-1

VI

LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1-1. Estimates of seed orchard area requirements (adapted from Coles 1980b) 1- 4

Table 1- 2. Water qualify criteria for irrigation 1- 8

Table 2-1. Soil fertility levels ( top 10 cm) for establishing a grass cover crop 2-3

Table 2-2. Date and rate of seeding for a seed orchard cover crop 2 -3

Table 2-3. Fertilizer amendments for maintaining healthy sod 2 -4

Table 5-1. Suggested soil fertility levels for seed orchards , Canadian Forestry Service
laboratory 5-3

Table 5-2. Suggested soil fertility levels for seed orchards, Nova Scotia Agricultural College
laboratory 5-4

Table 5-3 . Foliagesampling for nutrient analysis. The suggested numbers of shoots to be collected
is the minimum for the Canadian Forestry Service laboratory, and should provide ample
material for other laboratories 5-6

Table 5-4, Suggested foliar nutrient levels by species for seed orchards (From Mahendrappa
unpub! data ). Orchard trees can be considered as being adequately supplied with the
,

major elements if foliar levels are maintained within these ranges .. 5- 6

Table 5-5. Suggested schedule for fertilizing individual grafts in seed orchards 5-7

Table 7-1. Estimates of times of periods of initiation of potentially reproductive buds, and of
differentration of reproductive structures within buds, for species growing in average
conditions in the Maritime Provinces ( Powell 1983 with modifications by personnal
communications 1986) 7- 2

Table 7-2 . Evaluating cone crop seed yields from a cut -test 7 -6
 VII

LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE

Figure 1- 1. Recommended areas forestablishment of clonal seed orchards in the Maritimes ( from
Coles 1980a ) 1- 2

Figure 1-2- Clonal seed orchard site plan. 1- 6

Figure 3-1. Seedling seed orchard designs: A - row , B -block 3-2

Figure 3- 2. Two systematic clonal seed orchard designs 3-3

Figure 3-3. Portion of a computer generated clonal seed orchard design ( COOL ) using 50 clones
and design type 5. 3-4

Figure 3 - 4. -
Layout patterns for clonal seed orchards: A - rectangular, B square , C-triangular. .. . 3 -4

Figure 3-5 . Proper pruning method on conifer grafts . 3 -7

Figure 5-1. A hypothetical seed orchard with its permanent road system used to subdivide the
orchard for soil sampling 5 -1

Major insect pests and theirfeeding times in Maritime tree seed orchards ( from Forest
Figure 6-1 .
Insect and Disease Survey, 1986., unpublished data ) , . 6- 4

Figure 7-1. The reproductive cycle of white spruce ( adapted from Table 7-1 ) 7 -1

Figure 7- 2. The reproductive cycle of jack pine ( adapted from Table 7 -1 ) . 7-1

Figure 7-3. Diagram of a pollen trap ( from Greenwood and Rucker 1985 ) . 7 -5

Figure 7 -4. Cone and seed maturation stages for eight Maritime tree species. Development stages
can be advanced 1 to 3 weeks with warm and dry weather and sites, and similarly
retarded on cold and wet sites or where growing seasons are naturally later e. g., the
Fundy shore ( from Smith 1985 ). 7-7
VIII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This publication would not have been possible without the assistance of many people. In
particular , we would like to thank Mr. Jim Coles for the initial impetus for a seed orchard management
manual .

We want to thank the following people for their valuable assistance and advice: Mr. R .D. Hallett -
.
Soils and herbicides; Dr . L .P. Magasi and Mr F. A , Titus - Insects and diseases: Dr. M.K . Mahendrappa
- Soils; Mr. T.R . Renault - Insects and diseases; Dr. G.R . Poweil - Tree phenology; and Mr. M.
Oudemans - artwork .

We would also like to thank the following people for reviewing the manuscript: Dr. D.P. Fowler,
Mr . T.J. Mullin, Ms . K .J. Tosh, and Mr. R . G. Wasser.

Finally, we wish to extend our sincere thanks to Nancy Hay and Patricia Gaboury for their
diligence and patience with us and the typesetter.
 IX

PREFACE

Increased emphasis on intensive forest management in the Maritime Provinces is a result of

increasing demand for wood products and the rapidly shrinking supply of sawlogs and pulpwood.
One of these intensive management techniques is reforestation with genetically improved planting
stock. In the Maritime Provinces, cooperative tree improvement programs involving industry, federal
and provincial governments, and the University of New Brunswick are in operation . The programs are
based on the selection of individual trees exhibiting desirable characteristics, establishing seed
orchards and testing the selected trees or their progenies to determine which should be retained for
seed production and future breeding. Genetically improved seed obtained from these orchards will be
used for the reforestation programs in the Maritimes.

The techniques used to plan, establish, and manage a seed orchard vary with the species involved
and the stage in the breeding program. In the Maritimes, for example, first generation seed orchards
for black spruce ( Picea ma /vanajMill ] B.S. P.) and jack pine ( Pinus banksiana Lamb,) , are seedling
.
orchards while second generation orchards will be clonal First and subsequent generation orchards
for most species will be clonal.

This manual outlines in detail , the steps required for planning, establishing, and managing tree
seed orchards in the Maritimes Region. The information is the best available, at present, but will
undoubtedly be updated as more knowledge is acquired.
 1- 1

CHAPTER 1

PLANNING
Forest tree seed orchards are expensive to analyzed the climatic data for the Maritimes and
establish and manage and require continuous fund- identified the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, the
ing. Therefore, careful planning of such a facility is southeast area of Prince Edward Island, and south-
necessary to ensure that funds are continuously western New Brunswick as having suitable climates
available. The planning process involves the selec
tion of a suitable orchard site and the development
- for establishing clonal seed orchards ( Fig. 1-1) ,
although there are also other suitable areas.
of detailed site plans incorporating soil, topography,
and area requirements for seed production, pollen Specific location
dilution , firebreaks, roads, and windbreaks .
Clonal and seedling seed orchards
Site Selection Soils. Texture strongly influences soil struc-
ture, erodibility and compactibility and because it is
Seed orchards are sound investments only if essentially unchangeable, it must be given high
they are fully productive. Environmental and edaphic priority when selecting an orchard site. A deep
variables of site influence seed production so care (30 to 50 cm) zone of sandy loam to loamy sand
must be taken to choose a site on which seed overlaying a friable subsoil presents the fewest
production will be maximized. A well chosen site problems with drainage and compaction. Heavy
can also minimize management problems. Twenty - clay soils must be avoided because compaction
five years of experience in British Columbia and the problems will result from the heavy and frequent
southeastern United States indicates that location is traffic in the orchard. Excessively drained sandy
crucially important in achieving abundant and soils should also be avoided because fertility levels
frequent cone crops. will be difficult to maintain ( low cation exchange
capacity) and trees will be prone to severe water
General location stress during dry weather.

Seedling seed orchards A detailed soil survey should be conducted

For about the first 15 years after planting, before selecting the location of a clonal seed
seedling seed orchards are used to evaluate the orchard ( see APPENDIX I, Fig. 1-1) . Geological and
performance of selected families ( when rogueing ) soil survey maps should be obtained for the area
and to produce seed. The decision as to which trees being evaluated . These provide excellent
will be retained in a seedling orchard, after entire background information about the soils that might
families are rogued using family test results, is be found on site and they help to interpret what is
based , in part , on their performance in the orchard. actually found once the soil is examined. A detailed
Consequently, seedling seed orchards should be discussion on evaluating and managing seed
established on good sites, that are deemed con- orchard soils is given in CHAPTER 5. A series of soil
ducive to cone production and within the range of pits should be dug, to assess soil characteristics
’ typical ' planting sites for the species. They should such as rooting depth, soil texture, soil nutrients,
be located within the region where the future the presence of compacted or hardpan layers, and
improved planting stock will be used. evidence of poor water drainage, e.g, , soil mottling.
Each soil pit should be 0.5 to 1 m deep with the depth
Clonal seed orchards being determined by the soil depth, depth to bed-
rock, etc. The number of soil pits to be dug in a given
The sole purpose of a clonal seed orchard is to
area will vary with the uniformity of the site, but
produce genetically improved seed . Clonal orchards
normally one or two per hectare is sufficient . A
must be located on sites and in environments that
quick method for digging these soil pits is to use a
maximize seed production. It is known that trees
soil auger ( 40-45 cm diameter) run on the power
growing on sites with southerly aspects and in areas
take-off of a farm tractor. The pits for a 20- to 40-ha
with warm, dry, and sunny summer climates generally
produce more cones than those growing on north
site can be dug in one day using this system if most
of the site is accessible. The soil evaluation is
slopes and in cold, wet areas ( Sarvas 1970;
supplemented with fertility samples (see CHAPTER
Schmidtling 1979; Werner 1975 ) . Coles (1980a )
5 , Soil Sampling) .
Figure 1- 1. Recommended areas for establishment of clonal seed orchards in the Maritimes
( from Coles 1980a ).

Adequate soil drainage is necessary for on- site if water remains on the surface more than a day
accessibility in the spring and after heavy rains. It is following a heavy rain, artificial drainage will be
also important for the development of a deep and required.
extensive root system. Soil drainage should be
evaluated, and improvements ( e. g., drainage tile, Topography . The topography of the site
ditches) made before the orchard trees are planted influences insolation, air and water drainage, and
( APPENDIX l, Fig. I-2 ) . NOTE: Correcting a soil ease of equipment movement. Topography is also
water drainage problem 10 years after planting is essentially unchangeable, and is therefore an
virtually impossible without seriously damaging important consideration when selecting a seed
many of the orchard trees. orchard site. Select a site with a gentle (<5%),
uniform slope. A pit- and -mound topography is
The best time of year to determine if there are undesirable . Trees must not be planted in hollows or
drainage problems is in the early spring following depressions into which water drains. Planting in
snowmelt or after heavy rains . Ponding of water in ‘ wet ’ pockets will adversely affect tree survival,
depressions can be noted and the time required for growth, and cone production ( see APPENDIX I,
this water to soak into the soil should be monitored. Fig. I-3).
 1-3

Insolation. In the northern hemisphere, south chemicals, if any, have been used and to have the
facing slopes receive the greatest amount of direct soil tested for potentially harmful residues. A poten-
insolation, consequently they are warmer. Simpson tial orchard site may have to be rejected because of
and Powell ( 1981 ) found that young black spruce the past use of arsenicals or high residues of
trees growing on south - facing sites produced more herbicides such as atrazine.
cones than those growing on sites with other aspects .
In the Maritimes, the only commercial labora -
Air drainage. Frost pockets must be avoided tory for testing for herbicide residues is the Atlantic
because conifer strobili are very susceptible to Provinces Pesticide Residue Laboratory in Kentville,
damage by late spring frosts . Do not locate a seed Nova Scotia (see Shreve and McCarthy 1985).
orchard at the base of a hill or in a depression where Testing for chemical residues is expensive
cold air will settle. Gently sloping sites with good air ( $120/ chemical, M. Shreve, pers. comm. Nov . 1986) .
drainage will be less likely to receive ‘killing’ spring
frosts than completely flat sites from which air does Orchard Site Plan
not drain readily.
Having selected a suitable site, a detailed plan
Accessibility . The orchard must be accessible encompassing all the long -range goals is necessary
and operable during ail seasons of the year par- for a successful and productive orchard complex .
ticularly in early spring. In seedling seed orchards, The components of planning an orchard are dis-
stumps can pose a problem for early mechanized cussed below. Although most items apply specif-
cone collection. A well kept road system MUST be ically to clonal seed orchards they also can be
maintained. It is advantageous to locate an orchard applied to seedling seed orchards. APPENDIX I , Fig.
near a nursery or field office. A close source of I-4 presents a general site plan, which should be
manpower and equipment facilitates monitoring the made BEFORE orchard establishment begins.
orchard and helps control access.
Area requirements
Isolation from foreign pollen. An orchard
should be located on a site where contamination by There are many considerations in determining
pollen of the same or closely related species is total area requirements, such as the number of
minimal . Locating seed orchards either outside the orchards (if more than one) to be combined at one
natural range of the species or in a warmer climate complex, and allowances for roads, drainage
where the orchard trees are out of phase with the ditches, and ponds, equipment storage or main-
local trees have been suggested as potential solu- tenance areas, poor or unusable land , pollen dilu-
tions to the pollen contamination problem ( Gansel tion zone, firebreaks, and windbreaks. These could
1973; Sarvas 1970; Werner 1975). In some areas of double the total area required for an orchard com-
the Maritimes, it may be impossible to locate an plex and must be considered during the planning
orchard outside the natural range of a species such and site selection stages.
as white spruce ( Picea glauca [ Moench ] Voss).
Therefore, a compromise should be adopted such Seed production
as locating the orchard as far as practicable from There is at least a 7 to 10 year lag between
natural stands of the same species, removing trees initiation of a tree improvement program and the
of the same species from the surrounding areas, and production of quantities of genetically improved
locating orchards on warm sites. seed . Consequently, long -range planning of a
reforestation program is a must . The area of seed
Past land use. The history of a site being orchard required must reflect the planting program
considered for an orchard should be known. For 20 to 30 years hence.
land previously farmed, it is vital to determine what
1- 4

The area of seed orchard necessary to produce Table 1 -1 summarizes the actual area of orchard
sufficient quantities of seed for a particular species to be planted to produce one million plantable seed -
can be calculated. The number of seedlings required lings a year by species and is an updated version of a
annually and the quantity of seed produced from a table found in Coles ( 1980b } . APPENDIX II explains
unit area of orchard need to be determined. There the assumptions and calculations. Two important
are, however, a number of other factors involved in points should be emphasized 1) cone production
estimating area requirements. per tree is an estimate falling between early produc -
tion and late production ( time orchard is phased
1. Seedling production system ( bare - root vs.
out) and 2) trees per unit area is the number after
container ) .
final rogueing. Hence, for clonal seed orchards, in
2. Periodicity of cone crops. particular, before rogueing, seed production will
3. Number of trees or grafts per unit area. probably exceed those estimates presented here.
4. Number of cones produced per tree or graft.
5. Number of viable seed per cone.

Table 1-1. Estimates of seed orchard area requirements (adapted from Coles 1980b)
Method of Area required for
Species Interval seedling 1 million plantable
Type of seed Number of Sound Trees / ha between cone production seedlings /year
orchard (S. O. ) cones/ trees1 seed/cone ( spacing) 2 crops ( S.S . - sound seed) (ha )

Black spruce 415 container

Seedling S .O. 200 20 ( 6 x 4 m) 2 1.5 S.S. /seedling 1.8

White spruce 275 container

Clonal S.O . 200 30 ( 6 x 6 m) 2 1.5 S.S./ seedling 1.8

Red spruce 275 container

Clonal S. O. 200 25 ( 6 x 6 m) 2 1.5 S .S. /seedling 2.2

Jack pine 415 container

Seedling S.O . 75 25 ( 6 x 4 m) 1 1.5 S.S./ seedling 1.9

White pine 275 container

Clonal S.O. 200 40 (6 x 6 m) 3 1.5 S.S. /seedling 2.0

Tamarack 275 container

Clonal S.O. 600 8 (6 x 6 m ) 2 1.5 S.S./seedling 2.3

1The number of cones per tree will increase with age and size. The figure given is an estimate which falls
between early production and that of maturity of the orchard.
2The number of trees per hectare will decrease from establishment to maturity. The figure given represents
the number remaining following final rogueing.
 1-5

Pollen dilution zone Windbreaks

An orchard complex should be isolated from Windbreaks may be necessary to reduce wind
contaminating non-orchard pollen . This is especially velocity on large orchard sites to limit the drying
important during the early stages of orchard devel- effect of the wind during winter . Windbreaks also
opment when little pollen is produced within the conserve moisture by reducing evaporation and
orchard. During later stages, 15-25 years, the mass transpiration in summer and by trapping snow in
effect of orchard pollen will reduce the effects of winter. Two or three rows of trees, planted in a
contamination. However , a dilution ' strip’, where all staggered fashion at a 2.5 x 2.5 m spacing , should
trees of the same species as those planted in the provide sufficient protection. A strip at least 10 m
seed orchard are removed, may be warranted. The wide should be left between the windbreak and the
effectiveness of such a strip is questionable because orchard trees to allow for equipment turning and to
of the long distances wind-borne pollen can travel. reduce any shading effect of the windbreak on the
A 500-m strip should be considered as a minimum. orchard trees.
In addition, as many as possible nearby sources of
contamination should be removed. Equipment shed and offices
Depending on the size of the orchard complex
Firebreak or the proximity to existing facilities, it may be
A firebreak around the outer perimeter of the necessary to construct buildings for storing equip-
orchard should be maintained free of trees and ment and chemicals, offices, or a small laboratory
shrubs. This should be 1:5 to 20 m wide and, if the for pollen and seed handling, and insect and disease
orchard is clonal, planted with grass that is kept detection . Proximity to a power supply is a must if
mowed , such structures are to be built.

Roads Layout
Easy access throughout the orchard is neces -
sary. Major roads will normally separate the sub-
Once the areas required for the various com-
ponents have been calculated, a map of the site
orchards in a complex. Secondary roads will sepa-
incorporating the appropriate components (Fig. 1-
rate blocks within the suborchards and occur around
the outer perimeter. A strip 10 m wide for major 2) should be drawn. The map should be drawn to
scale and suitable to overlay other maps containing
roads and 6 m for secondary roads ( sufficient to
accommodate equipment turning ) should be soil and topographic information, and drainage
plans ( see APPENDIX I, Figs. 1-1 to I-3) .
allowed.
Suborchards
Pond
If an orchard complex containing several spec-
An orchard complex cannot be operated suc-
ies is being considered, the positioning of the
cessfully without an adequate supply of water for
individual species in the suborchards should be
irrigation, fire protection, chemical spraying, etc .
considered. Each suborchard must be of sufficient
The Atlantic Committee on Agricultural Engineering
size to produce enough pollen and to accommodate
publication titled "Farm Ponds” (Higgins 1984)
proposed expansion . The minimum size of a sub-
provides all the necessary information for pond
orchard should be 3 to 4 ha and be arranged so that
construction and maintenance. About 0.5 ha should
the prevailing wind at the time of pollination blows
be allowed for a pond area near the centre of the
parallel to the long axis thus promoting within-
orchard complex. An agriculture engineer from a
orchard pollination. Species that readily hybridize
provincial Department of Agriculture can assist in
( e.g., black spruce and red spruce ( Picea rubens
the planning and designing of a pond. Ponds con -
Sarg.) should not be planted in the same complex.
structed in the Maritime Provinces must also meet
any specifications and regulations laid down by the
appropriate provincial Department of Environment.
A well or river is an alternate source of water.
 cr>

'? : ...* • •
• — ’ > <\1
?•

.r
;•/:
->. -
..
i
mism KEY
-
* p > >-K a;- ;? *?.> « 1 -
0 v *y .. ; ;\v
vV ;

^
: »
l *
} • •
.•v.: • *
* 'Hi
<
•
.v t
- >
'*:vv
•
v
Vii-i'vKfeVs’.v.
i

%'&>.V,\K,.-:a.
'

-V *- ? = 25 m
* . ^. * : * • b.i
V'-ii
-v V-"’ ^' . yVt VA
,’ •
cm
• ^
,
?,
^ > - •’V A ;!
* i* v ' *i
* •
vi , TV'T" .;’vV A
*> ' <\ YV :" ' *
• *
"
v
% &i i /V'”*
1 ''
• &< -
^0 ' ' { *V w »u
'" ’
' ip m9 - : , */&A j.%;
- s
'
Firebreak
v",
.-
il v..V'„C-
j
'

v >- *Tr K*'«5 .

^* * ?

\;J‘\ *vv ^' >- &4 > . ^.-

.CS

Poilen Dilution Zone

i

«*»A- «,v <

>» »* ?;•
* 1

^* *?4^
i
I '' I
Pond
*-
'* \ AS
-?“!
> ••> *’i >v •
:. ;•?,
.};# ,>»* <r •*, ®
*m
> m // I
<
t I \\“ Building
i
» »
r=r Main Road
I
I
I
I
l
I forest Secondary Road
Jack ! Pine
V
I
>
i
Black Spruce -- - Windbreak
- ^r .*v
^ mm&srni
i
I
V >.v f «>‘. ':Y ,c: ;>v'’1:»,
f
- 1995 \ I
1997 SUB ORCHARDS
mmmmmm
< i
i
»
i
'

smm
t
»
ripSFsigisSi»fV
» \
\
i
i \
i
BLOCK AREA ( HA )
*
WP - i
i
5.0

mm§
i

m
t
f nr p ^ t ’O'* v .^ Y * J

WP - 2
•• * > *' >
t
4
\ /
i
1
5.0
i
t TOTAL 10
/ !
;
i
»*
\
i k
i WS - 1 3.0
‘ \

*1 W?i.*
i h t
WS - 2 3.9
- ^A
>
WS - 4 * <)*?$?*?-
i < k !
l WS - 3 I k
k j * *.•
WS - 3 2.5
»

—
\

WS - 4
i

-/ / t 2.6
' J• -iat
:k
** & ' • »,’ * !S> T: A
White \

5 k * k '
:
TOTAL 120
< /* White Wi®f&
t

k
t;
Black Spruce 10.5
K*
> Spruce \
Jack Pine 8.5
field k
Pine
*/ \ \
Pond Area 1.2 '
WS - 2 «
WS - I WP - I WP - 2
i feifsi
!

i
k
i
i
t
TOTAL 42.2
KS@S
i l!
*/ -i. \ .»! \

»»
»
t/ m k ii

’ '
\
i \
» ;$
i
i
l
k
k
« ]I
\ *
t

^ v;
i

ilGHV I i
^ 1000
V.

field

Figure 1- 2. Clonal seed orchard site plan.

 1-7

Roads should be avoided where tamarack ( Larix laricina

(Du Roi ) K . Koch) is planted because it acts as an
Major roads separating suborchards should be
alternate host to a rust , Melampsora medusae,
graded or at least kept surface -bare. They can
. which infects tamarack .
double as firebreaks Secondary roads within and
around the suborchards are grassed. All roads
should be as straight as possible. Irrigation
An in - ground irrigation system probably will
Soil drainage not be necessary in Maritimes seed orchards. If
irrigation is required to delay strobilus development,
Areas where drainage appears to be a problem prevent frost damage, or counteract drought, a
should be noted. Drainage may be improved easily moveable above-ground system can be used. Trickle
during site preparation by subsoiling to break up a irrigation systems are effective for watering and
hardpan, installing drainage tile, ordiggingdrainage fertilizing trees and are cheaper than other systems.
ditches ( see CHAPTER 2, Soil Drainage) . If drainage If irrigation is deemed necessary , a system should
on the site is to be 'properly ' upgraded, a drainage be devised in consultation with an agriculture
plan must be made (see APPENDIX I, Fig. I- 2) . An engineer.
agriculture engineer should be consulted for advice.
Agriculture engineering and consulting firms Consideration should be given to water quality.
throughout the Maritimes are capable of doing this Irrigation water quality primarily depends upon its
work . content of silt and salt constituents (Thorne and
Peterson 1954) . Table 1-2 gives some guidelines.
Windbreaks
Tree height is the most important characteristic The soil testing laboratory at the Canadian
of a windbreak because the distance that protection Forestry Service, Fredericton can determine all
extends leeward is proportional to height. When quality characters listed in Table 1 - 2 except
wind direction is at a right angle to the long axis of chlorine and sulphate. The soil and plant testing
the windbreak, windspeed to leeward can be sig- laboratory, Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre,
nificantly reduced for distances up to 20 times the UNB Building, Fredericton has the capability to
average height of the trees ( Dronen 1984). Wind- determine all quality characters. The soil analysis
breaks should be established along the windward laboratory at the Nova Scotia Agricultural College,
side (s) of suborchard blocks. A fast growing species Truro can determine all quality characters except
should be planted, one which provides year-round molybdenum and lead. The federal Department of
protection. Red pine ( Pinusresinosa Ait.) or Austrian Agriculture laboratory in Charlottetown can
pine ( Pinus nigra Arnold) (possibly seed sources analyze water for all Characters except aluminum
from Austria, France, Spain, and Italy ) are suitable and molybdenum. Conductivity is determined in the
because they are relatively fast growing and can field at the time the water sample is collected.
form large, thick crowns when sheared. Other
species such as white spruce, black spruce, and Fencing
jack pine may also be considered, provided they are If serious problems from browsing animals are
not species already planted in the orchard. Hybrid expected, or occur, fencing may be necessary. It is
poplar may be used initially in conjunction with pine also useful to control access.
or spruce to produces windbreak quickly but poplar
1-8

Table 1-2. Water quality criteria for irrigation 1

Content
Constituent Good Fa;r Poor Comments

Dissolved 130 ppm

solids
pH 6 <7 >7 When above 7 . check carbonates, hicarbonates and
calculate the sodium adsorption ratio ( SAR ) and
residual sodium carbonate ( RSC ) .
Conductivity
( micromhos j
250 <750 >750 When above 250. check SAR and salinity hazard

Concentration
of cations ( ppm)
K Beneficial to plant nutrition .
Ca * 120 Higher levels prevent P injection and increase pre -
cipitation in irrigation lines ( see fe )

Mg? 3.6 Higher levels increase precipitation problems.

Na 69 ' 184 >184 Can go as high as 134 ppm If K maintained ai an

equal concent rat ion although 69 ppm can cause
direct root or shoot injury .
,

Concentration of
trace elements ( ppm )
Fe 50 May cause precipitation of phosphates and clog
nozzles

Ai 5.0 This depends on the pH value At low pH. 5 ppm may

be harmful Toxicity of AI and Cu also depends on
the level of organic anions in the water .

Mn 0.2

Zn 20
R 05 *.2.0 >2.0
Mo 0.01

Pb 0.05 Drinking water standard

Concentration of
anions ( ppm )

CP 115 < 350 350 Can injure foliage

NO, 10 Drinking water standard Generally beneficial to

plan! growth.

SO , :480

CO , 0 Check SAR . RSC Significant amounts not present

unless pH exceeds 8 5

HCO , 0 - . 180 >360 Seriousness depends on pH Causes precipitation

of beneficial cations, resulting in greater danger
from any Na contained in the water

Calculated indices
SAR < 10 18 18
*
ASAR * .3 :- 3 indication of potential Na toxicity

AS AH 6 <9 >9 indication of soil permeability

RSC5 , 1.25 . 2.5 2.5

as absolute standards
•
The values in this table are to be used as guidelines and in no way should be construed
(R D .
Haiiett pers. comm. , Nov 1985) .
, extra NH 4 fertilizer may be beneficial
‘Where Ca. Mg. and Cl are higher
-«SAR ••• / /( Ca Mg ) /2
sodium adsorption ratio :: Na
^ -
4 A$AR = adjusted SAR - SAR fl * 8.4
1 (
atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide,
-
pHc)|, where pH<: is the theoretical pH of water m contact with lime at

residual sodium carbonate - ( CO, MCO

*- *
} ( Ca Mg)
-RSC "
 1-9

Suggested Readings Sarvas , R . 1970. Establishment and registration of

seed orchards. Folia For . Fenn. 89.
Cameron, S. l. 1986. Windbreaks for overwintering
. . .
planting stock Gov’t Can , Can. For. Serv. - Schmidtling, R .C. 1979. Southern loblolly pine seed
Marit., Tech. Note No. 163. orchards produce more cones than do northern
orchards, Pages 177-186 In Proc. Flowering and
Himelman, D.; Arsenault, J.P . 1983. Farmstead wind - seed development in trees. Miss. State Univ.,
breaks. P.E.I . Dep. Agric., Agri-fact AGDEX 751. Starkville, MS, May 15-18, 1978.

Shreve, M.; McCarthy, E. 1985. Testing plant soil

Literature Cited herbicide residues. Pages 5-7 In L.J. Lanteigne
and R.D. Hallett, (eds.). Proc. Canadian Forest
Coles, J.F. 1980a. Seed orchard site selection for the Tree Nursery Weed Control Workshop. Can. For.
.
Maritimes. Can For. Serv., Marit. For. Res. Cent., Serv.-Marit., Proc , No. 4, Fredericton, N.B.
Inf . Rep. M-X -105.
Simpson , J.D.; Powell, G.R. 1981. Some factors
Coles, J.F. 1980b . Good seed doesn’t cost, it pays. influencing cone production on young black
Can. For . Serv ., Marit. For. Res. Cent., Tech . Note spruce in New Brunswick. For. Chron. 57:267-269.
No. 14.
Thorne, D.W.; Peterson, H. B. 1954. Irrigated soils,
Dronen, S.l. 1984. Windbreaks in the Great Plains. their fertility and management. 2nd ed. The
North. J. Appl. For. 1:55-59. Blakiston Co. Inc., Toronto.

Gansel, C. R. 1973. Should slash pine seed orchards Werner , M. 1975. Location, establishment and man-
be moved south for early flowering? Pages 310- agement of seed orchards. Pages 49-57 In Seed
.
316 In Proc. 12th South . For Tree Improv . Conf ., Orchards. Faulkner R . (ed.) For. Comm. Bull. No.
Baton Rouge, LA, June 12-13, 1973. 54.

Higgins, J. K. 1984. Farm ponds. Publ . by Atlantic

Prov. Agric. Serv. Coor. Comm. AGDEX 754, -
ACAE Pub. No. 6.
 2-1

CHAPTER 2

SITE PREPARATION

Proper site preparation on ail orchard sites titled “Farm Drainage in the Atlantic Provinces”
facilitates subsequent management operations ( Gartley et al. 1986) provides valuable information
such as layout of planting spots, planting, fertilizer on soil drainage systems. Contact a Department of
and chemical applications, and cone collection. Site Agriculture drainage engineer for advice on the
preparation differs forseedling and clonal orchards appropriate method ( s ) to solve soil drainage
both in methods and intensity. APPENDIX III problems.
includes a table for summarizing and recording the
various operations. Forested Sites

Soil Drainage Seedling seed orchards

If a hardpan is found during initial site assess- Site preparation for seedling seed orchards
ment, the type of problem, if any, that it creates must should not change the environment appreciably
be determined. A hardpan at a depth greater than from that of a normal planting site because the trees
1 m will do little to limit rooting directly but may are evaluated for differences between families
affect it indirectly through impeding water drainage. ( when rogueing ) and for the production of seed.
Hardpans at depths greater than 1 m will, for all Seedling seed orchards are best established on
practical purposes, be too deep to be broken up. cutover forest land. Preparation should aim at
The options for correcting water drainage problems improving the uniformity and operability of the site.
are as follows. A major objective of any type of scarification is to
1. Avoid them. mix the organic matter layer with the mineral soil
Ensure that there is sufficient extra area to meet and not expose mineral soil or strip off the organic
requirements and that these abnormal areas do matter layer. Slash should not be piled and burned
not affect the remaining area, e.g., wet areas on the site, except where roads are planned,
may break up the orchard creating problems in because burning alters soil nutrition regimes.
operation.
During the cutting operation, stumps should be
2. Rectify them,
cut as low as possible. The slash can be removed
a. By deep subsoiling ( break up hardpans).
from the site using a brush rake such as an Eden
b. By installing ditches or drainage tile ( remove rake or Raumfix rake . An experienced equipment
excess water ) .
operator is required because the soil should be ieft
c. A combination of a and b .
intact. If slash is not removed then double crushing
or a double pass with Drum choppers or a Rome
Subsoiling to a depth of 50-100 cm, using a
Disc wilt break up and flatten it. The Madge Roto-
large bulldozer equipped with a ripping claw, breaks
clear , which acts like a rototiller, chews stumps and
up the hard pan. A grid pattern at 3-4 m spacing will
siash and mixes them with the mineral soil to create
provide good coverage of an area. Drainage tile may
be necessary if there are large depressions on the
-
a garden like site. Stumps must be no higher than
12 cm above the ground and be at least 6-12 months
site. A subsurface drainage plow using a laser grade
old.
control system can be used to install plastic drain-
age tubing. A large blade, with a hollow chute into
Competing vegetation must be controlled
which the tubing is fitted, is pulled through the soil.
As the plow moves, the tubing is drawn through the
before it affects the growth of the orchard seedlings.
The most effective and cost efficient time to begin
chute into the soil at the bottom of the blade. The
weed control, is BEFORE planting . However,
laser establishes a pre-determined sloping refer-
because unwanted vegetation does not usually
ence plane over the site allowing drains to be grow until after harvesting, such treatments may not
installed with great accuracy . The Atlantic be applied unfit the seedlings have been planted
Committeeon Agricultural Engineering publication (see CHAPTER 4 for herbicide treatment).
2-2

Clonal seed orchards vegetation growing on the field, the entire area
should receive an application of herbicide in late
The sole purpose of clonal orchards is to spring or early summer ( see CHAPTER 4 for herbi-
produce abundant quantities of seed. Therefore cide application) . About one week following the
everything possible should be done to favor early herbicide application the site may be plowed and
and abundant cone production . harrowed. Fertilizer and lime amendments, as recom-
mended from results of a soil analysis, should be
Slash and stumps should be removed from the applied and harrowed into the soil. This operation
.
site using a root rake As much soil as possible may not be necessary if the site is to be used for a
should be shaken from the roots before they are seedling orchard unless certain nutrients are
removed. Slash and stumps should not be burned limited. If during the summer fallow period, weeds
on the site, except where roads are planned, and grass reestablish on the site, a second herbicide
because of the effect of burning on soil nutrition. application followed by harrowing may be neces-
Large boulders can also be removed from the site at sary, This should be done at least one to two weeks
this time. before the cover crop is sown. Frequent harrowing
during the summer months may be sufficient to
The site should now be harrowed to smooth the control regrowth of weeds and grasses.
surface and raked to collect surface rocks and
pieces of roots and slash in windrows where they Cover Crops
can be removed with a rock picker. Following this
operation, large depressions can be filled and An essential part of a clonal seed orchard is a
mounds removed to produce a flat surface. Plowing permanent grass cover crop. Clare et at. (1984)
the soil to a depth of 25 to 30 cm will mix in the provide guidelines for the establishment and man-
organic matter layer and when harrowed will further agement of the permanent cover crop.
loosen the soil and make it more manageable. Rock
picking may again be necessary. Cover crop characteristics

Fertilizer and/ or lime amendments should be A seed orchard cover crop should be long lived,
applied at this time, based on the results of soil and produce a thick sod that is able to prevent
sample analyses ( see CHAPTER 5, Assessing Site erosion and withstand traffic. If should also exhibit
Fertility ). Harrowing will help to incorporate the short growth (infrequent mowing), low fire hazard
amendments into the soil and prepare the site for ( thatch remains green) , contain no clover (rodent
sowing the cover crop. control ), and be aesthetically pleasing.

Field Sites Fertility requirements for seeding

Seedling and clonal seed orchards Growing and maintaining a grass sod requires
regular fertilizing with N, P, and K . Some soils
When a field site is selected for a seed orchard, require additional Ca and Mg as determined by soil
the site preparation procedures will be similar for analyses. Fertility levels of the orchard site MUST
both types of orchards, but less intensive for seed- be determined BEFORE seeding the cover crop
ling orchards. Seedling orchards are not usually ( Table 2-1).
established on fields because such locations are not
typical planting sites for reforestation programs. Lime is usually required in the year of estab-
However, occasionally field sites are used because lishment. Lime and fertilizer should be mixed into
preparation costs may be lower and initial manage- the soil to a depth of 8-12 cm before seeding. No
ment may be more economical. benefit comes from deep incorporation as most
grass roots are shallow.
Before operations begin, the site should be
assessed to determine if land forming is necessary. Fertilizer and lime can be spread by broadcast
If required, it should be completed before plowing or band type ( Gandy ) spreaders. The band type is
and harrowing. If a hardpan, exists, it must be recommended as the fertilizer can be applied more
broken up by methods discussed earlier. If there is accurately to the grass and not on the trees.
 2-3

Table 2-1. Soil fertility levels ( top 10 cm) for establishing a grass cover crop
Organic
matter P205 K 20 Ca Mg
pH ( %) ( kg/ha) ( kg/ha) ( kg/ha) (kg/ ha)

Recommended 5.5-6.0 4, 0-5.0 150 150 300-400 200-300

Minimum1 5.0 2.0 100 100 250 150

1 At or below minimum values, grass will be less vigorous and may die in stressed areas.

Seeding In the year of seeding, the sod will not be well

established and could be damaged by heavy or
Bestresults are obtained from spring or late summer frequent traffic. This problem will be more severe if
seeding ( Table 2-2). Summer or fall seeding should soil fertility is low and plants are weak.
be avoided. A spring seeded cover crop with a 50:50
mixture of common Kentucky Bluegrass:common Maintaining fertility levels
Creeping Red Fescue produces a good sod that will
withstand light traffic after August 1. It can take up to 5 years for a sod to become
fully established. Consequently, fertilizer may be
Table 2- 2. Date and rate of seeding for a seed .
required each spring and summer ( Table 2-3) After
orchard cover crop year 5, the type and rate of fertilizer applied for the
cover crop should be based on the condition of the
Seeding rate sod and the amount of traffic expected in the
Date ( kg/ha) upcoming year. Apply 2 t/ha lime every 5 years or as
indicated by soii tests.
May 15 - 31 45
June 1 - 1 5 60 The spring fertilizer should be applied in mid-
June 15 - August 15 Do not seed May. NOTE: Never apply fertilizer to frozen soil. The
August 15 - September 15 45 spring nitrogen application should be with nitrate
After September 15 Do not seed fertilizers because the nitrogen is immediately
available in cold soils. In summer , fertilizer should
be applied in late June or early July. Avoid fertilizing
Seed should be placed in the top 1 cm of soil. trees when fertilizing the cover crop, especially in
GRASS SEED SOWN DEEPER THAN THIS WILL late summer. Fertilizing after mid-July increases the
NOT GERMINATE. After the seedbed is prepared, danger of inducing lammas growth on trees, making
seed can be applied with a cultipacker-type seeder them susceptible to fall frost damage. The larches,
( Brillion ) , or a regular seed drill with a forage seed Larix spp., are extremely susceptible to this
box, or broadcast with the fertilizer. To ensure good damage.
coverage of the site, seed at half the recommended
rate, and repeat at right angles to the first seeding
( checkerboard pattern) .
2- 4

Table 2-3. Fertilizer amendments for maintaining healthy sod

Rate
Time Fertilizer (kg/ha)

Years 2 -5

Spring 15-15 - 15 200 - 400

Summer1 -
15-15 15 200 - 400

After year 5, sod in good shape

Spring 34-0-0 -
50 70
Summer 1 34-0-0 50-70

After year 5, sod in poor shape, years of heavy traffic , or low P & K

Spring 15-15 -15 200-400

Summer 1 15-15 -15 200-400

' Summer means late June to early July, not after mid-July. Always do a soil test and use this table only as a
guide.

Maintenance mowing

Two to four mowings during the summer should

control growth of the cover crop. To control rodents,
mowing should be done in the fall after growth
stops. Use a tractor- drawn rotary mower or flail
mower to mulch the growth. Cut at a height of
5-10 cm. An agricultural reciprocating mower leaves
a swath of grass which will create a fire and rodent
hazard.

Literature Cited

Clare, S.G.; Dykeman, B.W . ; Smith, R .F.; Simpson,

J. D . 1984. A guide for establishing a permanent
sod cover in forest tree seed orchards. Can. For.
Serv. , Marit . For. Res. Cent., Tech. Note No. 105.

Gartley, C.; Cochrane, L .; DeHaan, R. 1986. Farm

drainage in the Atlantic Provinces. Publ. by
Atlantic Prov. Agric. Serv. Coor . Comm . , AGDEX
752, ACAE Pub . No, 3 .
 3-1

CHAPTER 3

ESTABLISHMENT

This phase of seed orchard development in- magnitude allow for reasonable selection intensi-
volves selecting a design , spacing, and layout that ties during rogueing and the production of out-
are easy to implement, best satisfy genetic con - crossed seed. When laying out the orchard, a 5 -m-
siderations for seed production, and provide ease of wide strip should be left unplanted at every 15 th row
orchard tending. Extreme care and attention to for access roads. Stakes are placed at the beginning
detail are ‘musts' during the planting and mapping and end of each row and at every 50th planting
stages to ensure good survival and to prevent errors. position within rows. These subdivide the rows into
Tending and maintenance following planting are subsets providing tie- in points ( Fig. 3-1A ).
important to promote quick establishment and early ,
rapid tree growth. APPENDIX IV , Table IV-1 is a When using the block design, blocks must be
form for recording various operations on an annual sufficiently large (50 X 50 m) because area is
basis. required for access roads. Seven to nine seedlings
per family should be planted in each block depend-
Design and Spacing ing on spacing . A minimum of 150 families is
necessary to ensure a sufficient number of unre-
The major objective of a seed orchard design is lated trees remain after final rogueing . To ensure
to maximize out -crossing and panmixis ( random that ample area is planted at any one time, 12-15
pollination) while minimizing self -pollination and blocks are recommended (3-4 ha) . A 5-m- wide
related mating. It is also important to provide for access road is left around each block but no
future expansion and rogueing. Spacing of the provision is made for vehicle access within the
orchard trees should take into consideration blocks. Both endsof the rows are staked ( Fig. 3-1B) .
planned rogueing intensity and easy movement of
equipment. Spacing
Spacing must be close enough to allow for
Seedling seed orchards planting many seedlings per unit area but not so
close that competition for growing space forces too
Design early and intensive rogueing. Conversely, if too
A design incorporating planting a large number wide a spacing is used, the orchard cannot be
of families with many seedlings of each family at rogued as heavily as may be required to maximize
close spacing is recommended for seedling seed genetic gain or too few trees may be left , thus
orchards. The close spacing allows for two to three reducing seed production per unit area .
rogueings with a final rogueing intensity of 85 to
90%. The intensity of each rogueing depends on the The 2 x 1-m spacing generally used in the
need to maintain a full, open crown on the remain- Maritimes, appears to be adequate for black spruce,
ing trees, maximize genetic gain , and assure easy but for jack pine which grows faster and produces a
movement of equipment. larger crown, 1.25 x 2.50 m may be more
appropriate.
The general design that is being used for
seedling orchards in the Maritimes is thesingle-tree Clonal seed orchards
plot. In this design one or more seedlings from each
family are randomly planted in each row or block of Design
the orchard. For clonal orchards, a more sophisticated
design is necessary because fewer unrelated indi-
Using the row design, the number of rows is viduals are planted and rogueing is at a lower
determined by the average number of seedlings intensity than in seedling seed orchards. Forty to 50
available per family. A minimum of 100-150 families clones are sufficient for a clonal orchard or in
with 100 seedlings per family should be planted at separate blocks if the site is large ( greater than 4
any one time (minimum area of 3-4 ha, if no ha). This number will be reduced by 50% by rogue-
additional area is to be planted) . Numbers of this ing and miscellaneous losses.
3- 2

O
<
2
cn
LU
O
CJ ACCESS ROAD
</>
oo
UJ
-
o

e
o
<

A
X X
' xX X
x 5m x
X X
X X

* * ^+ x X X
X
' X
X
X
X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X
X
*
X
• * 5m•$5•m
•
X
M-M T
X X X *
X X
X

• = stake * = seedling

Figure 3-1. Seedling seed orchard designs: A- row, B- block.

Clonal orchards will be rogued primarily on the Using the random orchard design, each ramet
basis of results from control pollinated progeny of each clone has an equal opportunity to be
tests. Clones that do not produce large numbers of selected for any given planting position. The one
cones will be culled. major restriction imposed is that at least two dif -
ferent ramets must separate those of the same
Many designs have been proposed for clonal clone. This design may be implemented by com -
seed orchards. The ramets can be planted either pletely randomizing all the available ramets of all
systematically or randomly. When an orchard lay- clones among all available planting positions, or by
out is designed systematically the ramets are placed dividing the area into blocks each sufficient in size
in a predetermined pattern (Fig. 3-2). Although such to contain one ramet of each clone or a multiple so
designs maximize outcrossing, panmixis is much there are an equal number of ramets per clone.
reduced and the spacing after rogueing may be
unacceptable.
 3-3

1 2 9 1 2

4 5 12 3 5
*• >

7 8 4 7 6

10 11 12 8 10 11

Block 1 Block 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3

7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 3- 2. Two systematic clonal seed orchard designs.

A computer program called COOL (computer Figure 3-3 illustrates a portion of an orchard
organized orchard layouts) , developed by Bell and designed by this program . The diagram shows that
Fletcher ( 1978) to produce random layouts, is being when a design type of 5 is chosen, a ramet of clone
used in the Maritimes by the Canadian Forestry 50 is separated from all other ramets of that same
Service - Maritimes, Fredericton; P.E.I. Department clone by at least four rings of different clones. A
of Energy and Forestry, Charlottetown; and N.S. design type of 5 should be considered as a minimum
Department of Lands and Forests, Debert . The when this program is operated to maximize dis-
design is based on the permutated neighborhood tances between ramets of the same clone .
concept and randomized with two restrictions:
proximity of two ramets of the same clone and Three layout patterns may be used: rectangu-
repetition of the direction of two adjacent clones. To lar, square, or triangular ( Fig. 3-4). The triangular
run the program , the following information is pattern allows more efficient use of growing space
necessary. for the tree crowns than does the square. The rows
in the rectangular design should be oriented east-
1. The dimensions of the orchard as defined by a west to allow the crowns maximum light exposure
specified number of rows and columns. on the south side.
2. The number of ramets per clone.
3. Design type that specifies the number of
planting positions in any direction by which a
clone is isolated and within which no other
ramet of the same clone can appear.
4 . The number of times two clones can occur in the
same immediate position relative to each other.
3- 4

21 44 22 11 43 25 35 19 45 6 46 2

34 15 25 1 5G 37 45 29 18 36 21 42 12 37 34

31 33 16 49 3 4 14 23 28 8 33 49 44 25 35

45 48 19 10 17 31 20 46 11 38 1 26 39

12 28 27 24 8 42 / 30 7 47 16 40 \ 30 18 4 23

1 7 37 26 2// 6 /32 34 19 35 2 \«17 \\43 46 8

* '

*
* .

38 5 47 43 / 22 S 21 29 /44 49 15 \ 6 3\ 5 32 28
«
1
/ _
31 44 16 41 23 i
1
12 ;'45
:• 3 /' 39 ^ 36
\
>!
31 48 [io| 11
» # . - r ]
24 36 14 17 26 ; 31 ! 5 '38 5 o [_ ]
26! 8 ! 10 ! 21 37 35
*
_ /22
%
* *
2?\J6 41 7
45 15 27 4 34 I 19 i30
7 20

11 50 13 40 \ 39 ' ,35 - 20 \7 ® 28/ ' 32 19/ 38 17 46

38 32 3 37 24 \ 42 *» 49 17 3 33 2,'' 14 /25 43 23

10 1 46 6 36 26 \ 11 47 31 23 34 / 5 44 30 6

35 8 12 45 43 28 5 12 18 10 29 24 35 37 27

24 15
® 30 22 41 48 Ho ] 1 4 36 21 3 33 41

Figure 3-3. Portion of a computer generated clonai seed orchard design ( COOL ) using 50 clones and design
type 5.

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

A B c

Figure 3- 4. Layout patterns for clonal seed orchards: A - rectangular, B - square, C - triangular.
 -
35

Spacing Black polyethylene strips (1.25 to 6 mil) can be

laid in rows over tilled soil before planting. This has
Spacing in clonal seed orchards is wider than been used with some success in a black spruce
that in seedling orchards because only about 50% of
seedling orchard and effectively controlled weeds
the trees will be rogued, and to allow easy move -
except where weeds grew through the planting
ment of equipment. However, such orchards are not
holes in the plastic . The seedlings do not suffer
usually rogued until they are 15 to 20 years old. adverse effects from heat or lack of moisture. Thin
Therefore, spacing must also take into considera- polyethylene does not withstand the first winter as
tion that crowns require full exposure to light and well as the higher grade.
that following rogueing, the amount of open, unpro-
ductivearea beminimal. Aspacingof 3 x 6 mshould Seedlings are usually greenhouse-grown and
be sufficient for the rectangular pattern , while 4.5 x
as such are planted at age five to six months, or
4.5 m is adequate for the square and triangular overwintered and planted the following spring.
layouts.
Randomization of the seedlings is greatly facilitated
when they are grown in containers such as Japanese
Layout , Planting and Tending paper pots, Can - Am’s or Ray Leach tubes, one
family per container or tray. Before planting, each
After selecting an orchard design and spacing, seedling must be labelled with a paper adhesive
it is necessary to measure and stake rows, blocks and/or label on which the family number is inscribed.
tree planting positions as dictated by the design. All Seedling identities must be maintained until they
seedlings or grafts must be clearly labelled before
are mapped in the orchard. Such labels are easily
they are taken to the site. Planting a seed orchard produced using a printer and computer.
requires more time, care, patience, supervision, and
planning than does a production plantation Seedlings must be planted at or as close to the
because each tree and its location must be identi- designated planting spots as possible. No seedling
fied and mapped and survival standards are higher. should be offset by more than 15 cm and if so should
Tending and maintenance is necessary to promote
only be offset up or down the row , NEVER to either
quick establishment and early, rapid growth of the
side. The orchard should be mapped at the time of
trees. planting to ensure proper identification of the seed-
lings before the numbers on the labels become
Seedling seed orchards illegible or the labels become detached. The maps
should be double checked to avoid errors.
A transit is the best instrument to use for
accurately placing corner stakes and aligning rows
Close attention should be paid to tree survival
and blocks. However a hand held penta-prism is and competition from unwanted vegetation. If sur-
cheaper, quicker, and almost as accurate. Wooden vival is less than 90% after the first year, dead
stakes treated with preservative are sufficient but seedlings should be replaced with members of the
permanent stakes such as aluminum or steel angle
SAME family only. Applying mulch or fertilizer to
or concrete reinforcement rods are also suitable . each tree is not necessary except when the organic
When all rows and blocks have been established,
matter layer and top soil have been removed ( see
the individual planting spots are marked with plastic
last paragraph, next section).
pot markers. This ensures uniform spacing. If the
individual planting spots are not marked before Clonal seed orchards
planting, the seedlings can be planted at the appro-
priate spacing within rows using a line with the
When the layout and spacing have been deter-
.
spacing marked on it The line is stretched to mined, the next step is to transfer the plan from
include four to six rows with one planter per row and paper to the orchard site. Again, a transit is an
is moved up the rows one planting space at a time. invaluable piece of equipment for this work . All
Care must be taken to keep the line straight and not planting positions should be staked. Using the
skip a row at one end.
3-6

design map, a permanent metal tag containing the The size and fragility of grafts dictate careful
clone number should be attached to each stake. handling - KEEPTHEM IN AN UPRIGHT POSITION.
Other information, such as row number, position Large plastic or metal containers labelled with the
within row, block number, year grafted, etc., may row and planting location can be used. The roots
also be inscribed on the tag. Large wooden stakes must be protected and kept moist by covering them
reduce the aesthetics of such orchards, especially with wet peat moss. Grafts may also be individually
when the grafts are small. Short metal stakes or placed in buckets or plastic bags.
heavy guage wire to which the tags are attached can
be used. A large auger or posthole digger mounted on a
farm tractor is a good combination for digging holes
Herbicide can be applied to an area, up to 1 X 1 but care must be taken to reduce compaction of the
m, around each planting position or a strip down the sides of the holes. If this happens, the sides should
rows before planting the grafts. If the herbicide is be loosened by making vertical cuts with a shovel
applied after the grafts have been planted and they before the grafts are planted. NOTE: Do not bore
are actively growing, extreme care must be taken to holes when the soil is wet.
prevent the herbicide from contacting the trees (see
CHAPTER 4 for suitable herbicides) . Carefui outplanting minimizes losses and plant-
ing shock . The roots must be spread out in an
Only vigorous grafts with heaithy shoots and adequate sized hole and planted at the same depth
buds should be planted in the orchard. Grafts from as they were previously growing in the nursery or
winter greenhouse grafting may either be trans- pot. Forgraftsin pots with roots fully occupying the
planted to the nursery in the late spring or early potting medium, make several vertical cuts through
summer or retained in pots until they are large the roots with a sharp knife to help promote lateral
enough to be planted in the seed orchard. Current- root growth.
year grafts that have grown well can be transplanted
to the seed orchard the same year. Square pots, It is often necessary to have the grafts staked to
4.5 L, with root-trainer ridges on the inside walls are prevent snow and ice damage during the first two or
suitable for growing grafted material for 1 to 3 years three winters in the orchard. This also encourages
with a minimum of root deformation. Such material some grafts to grow upward to form a tree rather
should be overwintered in an unheated, shaded, than to grow in a branch-like fashion (topophysis).
sealed greenhouse to avoid damage. Potted grafts All grafts not having a topophytic growth habit
are easier to transport to the seed orchard for should be untied during the summer months. This
planting than nursery transplants, and may be encourages the development of a more sturdy tree.
planted one year sooner because planting shock is
minimal and root loss and deformation are elimi- Grafts must be carefully pruned for two or three
nated or reduced. The current trend in the Maritimes years to remove all the branches from the root stock,
is away from transplanting grafts to the nursery bed leaving only the grafted scion. Pruning should be
and subsequently to the seed orchard, to planting initiated at the greenhouse/nursery but completed
current-year grafts into the orchard and overwin- in the orchard. Pruning is best done in the spring
tering the remaining grafts for orchard planting the before the buds have flushed and can be repeated in
following spring. early August. Large branches should be removed
first. If large branches are left for several years, the
Grafts should be lifted from the nursery before size of the wound following pruning increases
the buds flush. This must be coordinated with the stress on the graft. If all large branches cannot be
phenology of the species. Tamarack , for example, removed at one time, those remaining may be
should be dug as soon as the ground thaws, whereas pruned back . When removing whorl branches,
red or black spruce can be ieft in the ground longer. never remove more than two at one time and remove
Before lifting, each graft should be tagged with ones opposite each other. Removing most or ail the
plastic nursery tags or permanent metal tags record- whorl branches at one time creates too much wound
ing the clone number. When lifting, as much soil as area thus promoting tissue desiccation and even-
practical should be left on the rootball. The roots tually girdling. Branches should be pruned flush to
and shoots can be pruned as required for handling. the branch collar ( Fig . 3-5) . Damaging this collar by
Figure 3- 5. Proper pruning method on conifer grafts .

pruning too close retards the tree’s natural wound DO NOT apply granular fertilizers until a month
healing processes and allows the entry of micro- after transplanting the grafts in the orchard. Fer-
organisms ( Shigo 1985 ) . Treatment of pruning tilizer is not usually required the first season fol-
wounds is not necessary. Grafts growing vigorously lowing planting as there should be ample nutrition
can be pruned more heavily than slow growing in the potting medium or soil within which the roots
ones. Keep the scion dominant at all times. NOTE: havegrown. However, if fertilizer is to beapplied the
Use discretion when performing this task . same year as transplanting, it should be placed
around the outer edge of the planting hole before
Following planting, a mulch layer of peat moss the mulch is spread . Ammonium nitrate and 10-10-
or sawdust around each graft increases survival and 10 in a 2:1 mix by volume at the rate of 30 g per graft
early growth. Mulch provides a layer of insulation is sufficient and will not harm the roots if applied
moderating soil temperatures at ground level and carefully.
helps retain soil moisture and nutrients while reduc-
ing competing vegetation. Well decomposed saw- Field Grafting
dust should be used as it does not immobilize soil
nitrogen to the same extent as fresh sawdust. Field grafting may produce a healthy, fast
Ground-up cones should be avoided because there growing tree and result in early cone production as
inevitably will be some viable seed present and the it eliminates transplanting the grafts to the orchard.
cones will also immobilize nitrogen from the soil as It also extends the grafting season. The major dis-
they decompose. The mulch should be applied in a advantages are that grafting must be done outdoors
40- to 60-cm-diametercircle 5-cm-thick , around the often under difficult conditions, success is usually
grafts but should not be in contact with the stem. lower than with greenhouse grafting, and growth is
Too thick a layer may encourage nesting or bur - poorer the first two to three years.
rowing by mice or other rodents or attract insects.
3-8

This technique, although not used extensively Tidswelt, K ; Dufour, A . 1984. Field grafting of white
in the past, shows promise for use in the Maritimes. spruce in the Maritimes. Marit. For. Res. Cent.,
Complete sections /blocks of an orchard should be Tech. Note No. 119.
established atonetime. Combining field andgreen-
house grafts often complicates early tending and Literature Cited
management . The root stock, two seedlings per
planting position, is established one to two years Bell, G . D.; Fletcher , A.M. 1978. Computerorganized
prior to grafting. The grafting may be conducted o r c h a r d l a y o u t s ( C O O L) b a s e d o n t h e
during mid - to late spring ( May). NOTE: Be careful permutated neighbourhood design . Silvae
not to leave any ungrafted rootstock. Genet. 27:223- 225.

For spring grafting , use dormant scions col- Hallett , R . D.; Smith, R .F.; Burns,T .W. 1981. Manual
lected in March and stored frozen in snow. The for greenhouse grafting of conifers in the Mari-
scions are grafted using the side-veneer grafting times. Dep. Environ,, Can . For. Serv., Marit. For.
technique ( see Hallett et al. 1981) , Protection from Res. Cent., Inf Rep. M- X -117.
,

desiccation is not necessary.

Shigo, A .L. 1985. How tree branches are attached to
Suggested Readings trunks. Can. J. Bot. 63:1391-1401.

Giertych, M. 1975 . Seed orchard designs. Pages 25 -

37 In Seed orchards. R . Faulkner ( ed.) For .
Comm. Bull. 54.
 4 -1

CHAPTER 4

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT

Orchards can be divided into two broad cate- Herbicides

gories for the purpose of vegetation management;
those with and those without a grass cover crop. AT THIS TIME, THERE ARE NO HERBICIDES
The former includes orchards established in fields, SPECIFICALLY REGISTERED FOR USE IN SEED
and where a cover crop was sown. The management ORCHARDS IN THE MARITIMES. However , there
system differs for each orchard, but in general, for are several herbicides registered for forestry use in
orchards established on formerly wooded sites Canada. The following sections include a general
without a cover crop, a combination of manual discussion on the use of herbicides in seed orchards
cleaning and herbicide application is effective. For followed by a brief description of some herbicides
seedling seed orchards established in fields and with potential use.
clonal orchards with grass cover crops, grass can be
controlled by mowing and herbicides ( see For seed orchards, as with any plantation, the
APPENDIX IV ). steps to follow BEFORE using any herbicides are.
1. Determine the need to control the competition.
Regardless of the type of orchard, unwanted 2. Is the use of herbicides justified or would spot-
competition should be killed or its growth retarded cleaning with saws or axes be cheaper, as effec-
so that orchard tree growth is not hindered. Control tive and long-lasting?
of competition in seed orchards involves two
3. If herbicides are deemed necessary, identify the
aspects.
target weed species and MATCH the registered
1. Localized control - ensure that trees are not herbicide with the target.
subject to direct competition for light, water ,
4. Select the proper time and rates of application
nutrients, etc. Grass competition can signifi- (read the instructions on the label). “The regis-
cantly reduce early height growth of conifer
tered herbicide label is the final authority and
seedlings (Sims and Mueller-Dombois 1968) .
source of information on how a herbicide may
2. General control - regulate aesthetics and acces- be used safely and properly" ( B.C. Min. Environ.
sibility within the orchard. 1986).
5. Obtain spray permits.
Localized Control
6. FOLLOW ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE
In orchards with sod cover, it is often desirable HERBiCIDE/CHEMICAL HANDBOOK ( Ont. Min.
to use a herbicide or mulch to kill a patch of grass
Agric. Food 1986 ) . APPLICATORS MUST BE
PROPERLY TRAINED.
immediately surrounding the trees . This facilitates
mowing , because the crowns of young trees do not
produce sufficient shade to control the grass around Conifer seedlings are especially susceptible to
them ( see CHAPTER 3, for details on mulching
herbicide injury the year of planting. Therefore,
around trees) . Applying herbicide to kill grass herbicides should not be used adjacent to the trees
around trees eliminates hand-mowing. The size of the same year as planting. If herbicides such as
this patch is determined by efficiency of mowing, simazine and velpar, which have considerable soil
residue activity have been used, wait at least one
e. g., minimize the number of passes between rows.
year before planting. When post-planting brush
Killing a strip of grass along the rows eliminates
mowing across the rows. control is required, several herbicides are suitable
for use the year after planting. The choice of
General Control herbicide and application method and rate depends
on the target species, the severity of competition
and the tree species. For detailed information on
In orchards with sod cover, mowing is the most
common method to control vegetation . For herbicide use consult the annual “ Guide to Chemi -
cal Weed Control” ( Ont. Min. Agric. Food 1986)
orchards without a sod cover, manual cleaning,
alone or in combination with herbicide applica- distributed in the Atlantic region by authority of the
tion ) is required. Atlantic Ministers of Agriculture.
^
 4-2

There are numerous types of herbicide appli- DCPA Dacthal 75 W (chlorthal dimethyl)
cators, which can be used to apply herbicide around
trees, minimizing the risk of herbicide accidentally Dacthal is effective in controlling annual
contacting foliage . Sprayers equipped with grasses and some broadleaf weeds but is not as
"shrouds ” can be used when the seedlings are effective forperenniai weeds or grasses ( Kersting et
young to protect them against the spray. For larger al. 1983). It is a mainstay in many nurseries for
trees, a field sprayer can be modified with a shroud control of weeds in seedbeds. Like other preemer-
to direct the spray to the ground and under the lower gence herbicides it must be applied early in spring
branches. Wick-type applicators can also be safely before weed seed germination or growth commen-
used but are time consuming. Descriptions of the ces. A major advantage of DCPA is that there are
equipment available and their calibration can be generally no phytotoxicity problems with most of
found a handbook published by the B.C. Min. our native conifers (Hallett and Burns 1984).
Environ, (1986) ,
Kerb 50 W (pronamide)
Several of the chemicals that potentially could
be useful for vegetation control in seed orchards are If the buildup of simazine residues or its toxicity
briefly described below. is of concern then Kerb is an alternative. Kerb,
applied to the soil as a spray in the fall, controls
Vision (glyphosate ) many overwintering annuals and perennials. It is
applied only on cold soil because at warm soil
Vision (formerly called Roundup) was regis- temperatures, it readily volatilizes. By summer of
tered in 1984 for forestry use. It is effective against the year following application, most of the Kerb will
many species of weeds and hardwoods, is of low have dissipated. Kerb is absorbed through the roots,
toxicity to wildlife, fish, and humans, and is quickly thus to be effective, moisture from rain, irrigation, or
inactivated and degraded in soil. Woody species are snowmelt is essential to move it into the rooting
most sensitive in August or September before frost zone.
( Kersting et al. 1983). During the growing season,
Roundup can be used as a knockdown herbicide, Velpar L
but it must be applied around the tree seedlings as a
directed spray and not applied on the crop trees. Velpar L was registered in 1984 for woodland
use. It is effective against grasses, broadleafed
Prlncep Nine- T (simazine) weeds, and woody perennials. At low application
rates, black and white spruces and jack pine may be
Simazine inhibits seed germination. Therefore, planted immediately after application, but ALL
it must be applied either when the ground is free of OTHER conifer species should not be planted until
weeds or in combination with another herbicide the following year regardless of the application rate
such as Vision which provides the knockdown. used (Teskey and Boyer 1984).
Simazine is best applied when trees are dormant as
it has considerable soil residue activity. Larch and Combined sprays
container stock are especially sensitive to damage
by simazine while spruces are more sensitive than Some herbicides can be combined to achieve a
pines and fir. Conservative rates should be used for broad spectrum of control for a long period. For
the more sensitive tree species and stock types. At example, Vision and Princep can be combined, the
low application rates, grass control may not be former being used as a knockdown spray while the
complete. Because of its residual activity, annual latter provides residual weed control. Princep can
applications may not be necessary. Soils should be be combined with Dacthal to provide a broad
tested for toxic buildups of simazine if repeated spectrum control of grasses and broadleaved weeds
applications have been used (see CHAPTER 1, Past throughout the growing season (Hallett and Burns
land use) . 1983) .
 4-3

Suggested Readings Hallett, R .D.; Burns, T.W , 1983. Control of weeds in

conifer seed orchards and progeny tests estab-
British Columbia Ministry of Environment . 1986. lished in fields. Marit. For. Res. Cent., Tech. Note
Handbook for pesticide applicators and pesticide No. 1 ( revised).
dispensers. A . V. Miller and S.M. Craig [ Eds.]
Pesticide Control Branch, B.C. Min. Environ . Hallett, R.D.; Burns, T.W. 1984. Herbicide trials in
233 p. Maritime forest nurseries. Pages 37-41 In Proc.
Workshop: Weed Control in Tree Nurseries.
Meister, R . T. ( Editorial director ) . (1984a). 1984 Indian Head, Sask ., July 17-18, 1984.
Farm chemicals handbook. Meister Publish. Co.,
Willoughby, Ohio. Kersting, E.J.; McNeill, H.M.; Padberg, D.; Heckel,
M.C.; Dvorak, C.F.; Shimnel, W.A. 1983. New
Meister, R .T. (Editorial director). Weed control England guide to chemical weed and brush con-
manual, 1984 and herbicide guide. Meister trol in Christmas trees. New England Extension
Publish . Co., Willoughby , Ohio. Serv. Publ .
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 1985. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 1986.
1985- 86 production recommendations for orna- 1986 Guide to chemical weed control. Ontario
mentals and turf. Ont. Min. Agric . Food. Weed Committee, Publication No. 75.

Weed Science Society of America. ( W.S.S. A .) . 1983. Sims, H.P.; Mueller-Dombois, D. 1968. Effect of
Herbicide Handbook. 5th ed., Weed Sci. Soc. grass competition and depth to water table on
Amer., Champaign, III., 515 p. heightgrowth on coniferous tree seedlings. Ecol.
49:597-603.
Literature Cited
Teskey , K.K .; R. Boyer, L. G. 1984. Velpar L is now
British Columbia Ministry of Environment. 1986. registered for woodland areas. Dupont Canada,
Handbook for pesticide applicators and pesticide Industry News.
dispensers. A.V. Miller and S.M. Craig [ Eds.] .
Pesticide Control Branch, B.C. Min. Environ .
 5 -1

CHAPTER 5

FERTILITY MANAGEMENT

Soil fertility will affect the quantity and quality It is not practicable to try to manage a seed
of seed produced in the orchard. The control of orchard on an individual-tree basis, nor should a
orchard fertility can be regarded as a two-stage 100 ha orchard be managed as one entity. There-
process: assessment and maintenance. The assess - fore, workable management blocks, that can be
ment stage involves determining the fertility status treated as homogeneous units must be identified.
of the site and alleviating any deficiencies The . To do this, blocks/ areas are identified which can be
management stage involves maintaining nutrients managed separately. The management blocks are
at optimal levels for both tree growth and cone usually determined by some logical subdivision of
production . Annual fertility management opera- the orchard such as species, suborchards, or year of
tions should be recorded ( APPENDIX IV ) . establishment within a given species ( Fig. 5-1).

Assessing Site Fertility In the hypothetical seed orchard ( Fig. 5-1) , four
management units are delineated by roads. Infor-
Soil sampling mation on the type ( s) of soil is obtained from soil
pits ( P ) and fertility samples ( * ). Before establishing
Soils in an orchard must be systematically the orchard, this information is used to identify
.
sampled Soil pits should be dug and bulk soil differences in soil types both between and within
samples collected for nutrient assessment. the management units.

—— ©- * * © * *
r

^
u t If
* * *®
* * * * ©*
\

©* ®*
* * * * ©* * ©\
A = 8.5 ha * * © * * -K ** * * * *© * * *** * **
B 3
10.5 ha * * ** * * *© * * * * * © *
C« 12.0 ha ©* * © * * © * * © * * * *© *
D 3
I0.0 ha
f* * * * * * * * * * * *
;
*© * *- * * -* * ®* **
® Soil pit
®
* © * * ®** * * *
© * ** © * * * *
* IPood} * * * * * * * *
'

fertility © ©
* Soil
sample
/ *
* * * * ** * *
* © * * © -* * ©* * © * - * ® * * ®- * * I©*1
** * * * * * * * * *
• •

* * * * * * * * * * ®* * * * * +* ©* **
* •*- ©
© •

* ® * * © * * ©- * * * *® * © *
** * * * * * * * * *
.

* * * ®* * * ® * ** **
•

/ ** ® * * * * ** ®* * © *- © * © * ® * ® *
'
/
* * * * * * * * * * * * * -*
•
* * * * * * * * * *© *
*© * © * © * © * *
•

* ® * * ® * ® * * ® * *® *
#

* * * * * ** * * * *
x
* * * * * * **
* * *

for soil
Figure 5- 1. A hypothetical seed orchard with its permanent road system used to subdivide the orchard
sampling.
5- 2

Soil pits are systematically located to represent 2. Using a soil auger , take cores to a depth of 15 to
soils from the entire orchard area. The number of 20 cm. Small diameter augers, e.g., 2 cm, or
soil pits required increases with increasing variation larger sizes can be used. THE SAME NUMBER
on the site. Soil types often change with slope OF SAMPLES SHOULD BE COLLECTED
position, distance from a body of water ( old river- REGARDLESS OF THE SIZE OF THE AUGER .
bank terraces), etc. The three pits located around 3. Mix all the samples from each sampling area,
the pond in Fig. 5-1 are necessary to determine how removing large roots, clumps of sod, etc.. Use a
far the influence of the low wet area extends. The CLEAN “ ship n’shore” container in which to mix
boundaries of any other abnormal areas should be the soil. DO NOT use old oil barrels or similar
similarly delineated, e.g., hardpans. NOTE: This containers that might contain residues which
assessment is done BEFORE orchard trees are could contaminate the soil .
planted ( see CHAPTER 2, Soil drainage). 4. If a large diameter (10 cm) sampling auger is
used the total amount of soil collected will be
Sampling to determine variation in a single much more than is needed for analysis. Mix the
orchard block should be done in one year. DO NOT soil thoroughly and takea 1-Lsubsample random-
collect a small number of samples and if the varia- ly from the total soil sample.
tion is high, collect more samples the following 5. Place each sample separately in a heavy paper
year. If samples are collected in year 1, and subse- .
bag (sugar bags are ideal) Label the bags with
quently the site is disturbed , e.g., plowed and waterproof ink , and map the exact locations in
harrowed, nutrient levels of soil samples collected .
the orchard where they were collected If the
immediately after the disturbance may be signi- blocks have not yet been planted and no perma-
ficantly higher than before the disturbance. This nent reference points are available, the samples
nutrient flush is temporary, but still inflates the must be plotted as ciosely as possible on maps.
nutrient levels in the second samples.
6. Air-dry the samples and store them in a cool,
dry, environment until they are shipped to a
After the variation in soil types has been deter-
laboratory for analysis. DO NOT store soil
mined, soil fertility samples should be collected.
samples in plastic bags.
The variation in the soil types in each sampling area,
as determined by the soil pits, should be used to
Sampling for annual fertility assessment should
determine the minimum number of samples
be done in the fail e.g., September to November
required. NOTE: Chemical analyses of the upper
each year. Samples MUST be collected the same
horizon ( s) , the top 15 to 20 cm, from the soil pit
way each year, e.g., the depth to which the sample is
samples can also be used to supplement the cores.
collected will influence the nutrient levels .
It is important to collect samples distributed
Assessing Soil Fertility
throughout the sampling area. The following pro-
cedure is designed to ensure that the entire area is
Armson (1973) lists three objectives of soil and
sampled and that sufficient sample is collected. The
plant tissue analysis which apply to monitoring seed
major costs arise from processing and analyzing the
orchard fertility.
samples, NOT from collecting them. DO NOT CUT
CORNERS WHEN COLLECTING SOIL SAMPLES. 1. To determine why a tree exhibits poor growth
and/ororgan abnormalities such as discoloration.
1. Previously unsampled sites, sites with known 2. To detect nutrient deficiencies that inhibit
high variability e.g., seedling seed orchards on growth in a tree or stand.
cutovers: A minimum of 10 to 15 cores per 3. To control and regulate the nutrient supply to a
hectare should be collected. Sampling in a grid tree necessary to produce a crop to meet spe-
pattern at a 25 X 25 m spacing equals 16 samples cific objectives of management.
per hectare.
Previously sampled sites, and existing orchards In seed orchards, it is unacceptable to wait until
with the top 15 to 20 cm plowed and mixed to .
deficiency symptoms appear Nutrient deficiencies
create a homogeneous plow layer e.g., clonal that might inhibit tree growth and development
orchards: A minimum of 5 to 10 cores per must be detected before growth is seriously affected.
hectare should be collected. Sampling at 40 m X Therefore, the third objective given by Armson
40 m equals 6 samples per hectare. (1973) is the most important.
 5-3

Soil acidity (pH) Organic matter content

Soil acidity ( pH), should range between 5.0 and The organic matter content influences the
6.0 (Tables 5-1 and 5-2). At soil pH levels below 5.0, chemical characteristics and moisture holding
phosphorus availability decreases because of the capacity of the soil . Soils low in organic matter are
formation of insoluble complexes with iron and more susceptible to compaction by machinery than
aluminum ( Armson 1979) . The more soluble or soils with high organic matter content. The mini-
available forms of P occur in soils of pH from 5.5 to mum level of soil organic matter in the orchard
7.0. NOTE: Soil pH alone does not determine the should be between 4 and 5% (Tables 5-1 and 5-2) .
lime requirements. The clay and organic matter
content of the soil determines its buffering capacity
and hence the amount of lime required to change
the pH ( see APPENDIX VI).

Table 5-1. Suggested soil fertility levels for seed orchards, Canadian Forestry Service laboratory
Equivalent
extractable
Recommended nutrient
Units level1 (kg/ha)

pH 5.0 - 6.0

Organic (%) 4.0 - 5.0

matter

Cation
exchange meq /100g 10 - 15
capacity

N Total N O. IO - O . I 5 1000 - 1500

(%)

P Available P -
75 100 450 - 600
( ppm) ( P205)

Exchangeable K 0.30 - 0.50 3I5 - 525

K
( meq/100g ) ( K 20)

Ca Exchangeable Ca I.8 - 2.5 790 - II00

(meq /100g)

Mg Exchangeable Mg I.0 - I.5 270 - 405

(meq/100g)

Ca/Mg ratio 4:1 - 10:1

1 Units as given on soils analysis lab report.

5 -4

Table 5 -2. Suggested soil fertility levels for seed Cation exchange capacity
orchards. Nova Scotia Agricultural Col-
lege laboratory The cation exchange capacity ( CEC) of a soil is
its capacity to hold and exchange positively
Recommended charged particles ( cations) which include the nutri-
ents potassium ( K +) , calcium ( Ca 2 ) , magnesium
t
Units level 1
+
(Mg2+) , ammonium (NH/) , hydrogen (H ) and sodium
pH 5.0 - 6.0 ( Na+). The CEC of a soil is determined primarily
from its clay and organic matter contents and
organic (%) minimum 5.0 should be between 10 and 15 meq / 100 g.
matter
Soils with a low CEC have a low water holding
cation capacity, and lose N and K to leaching more readily
exchange than soils with a high CEC.
capacity meq/100 g
Soil macronutrients
N Total N
(%) The soil macronutrients include N , P, K , Ca and
Mg. They are required in relatively large quantities
P Extractable P 340 - 460 by trees. Fertility recommendations for seed
(P205) ( kg/ha) orchards in the Maritimes are based on tree growth
and fertilization studies. The optimum soil and
K Exchangeable K 280 - 380 foliage nutrient levels for cone and seed produc -
( KfeO) ( kg / ha ) tion are not known but can be estimated.

Ca Exchangeable Ca minimum 600 Recommended soil fertility levels for seed

(kg/ ha) orchards are presented separately for two labora-
tories. Soil fertility levels differ slightly between the
Mg Exchangeable Mg minimum 125 two labs. These differences, however , arise largely
( kg/ ha) from the assumptions used by the labs to calculate
nutrient levels, e.g., soil bulk density, weight of soil
Ca / Mg ratio maximum 5:1 per unit area, etc. and minor differences in their
analytical methods ( see MacDonald 1977; NSAC
1
Units as given on soils analysis lab report. 1986). Orchard managers in these two provinces
should determine theirfertilizer requirements based
on the nutrient levels reported from their respective
labs . Soil samples from Prince Edward Island
orchards are currently being analyzed at the CFS
lab. Regardless of the laboratory being used to have
Soil organic matter can be increased through
soil samples analyzed, BE CONSISTENT.
either sowing a grain crop such as rye, oats, or
buckwheat and plowing it into the soil or through 1. Be consistent in how YOU sample, e. g., collect
organic amendments such as peat. The increase in samples uniformly within and between blocks,
organic matter content by additions of peat is collect all samples to the same depth , and by the
difficult to determine reliably. Krause ( 1985) notes same method each year.
that applying peat at 200 m3 /ha corresponds to a 2. Be aware of the methods used by the laboratory
2-cm thick layer ( this would correspond to a 6- to to which you submit soil/ foliage samples.
8 -cm thick layer of loose, bulk peat ) and would raise 3. Insist that the laboratory inform you if and when
the organic matter content by about 0.7% assuming they change their analytical methods.
that all was eventually incorporated into the soil. 4. DO NOT CHANGE LABS FROM YEAR TO

Regardless of the method used, increasing soil

YEAR .
organic matter content is expensive and must be
done BEFORE either a cover crop is sown or
orchard trees are planted.
 5- 5

Correcting Nutrient Deficiencies 3. Combine ail the shoots.

4. Put the foliage in paper bags, and label. NOTE:
Once soil fertility levels have been determined, If the foliage is to be stored on-site for more than
measures must be taken to correct any deficiencies. two or three days prior to shipping for analysis,
APPENDIX VI contains tables for fertilizer appli- then they should be put into plastic bags and
cations. Recommendations are provided for frozen. However, do not leave the foliage in the
nutrients individually. APPENDIX VII contains plastic bags unfrozen!
some helpful hints on mixing your own fertilizers. 5. Ship to the lab as soon as possible.
This can reduce fertilizer costs. 6. Foliage should be analyzed for the macronutrients
( N,P, K,Ca,Mg). Suggested foliar nutrient levels
Assessing Foliar Nutrient Levels are given in Table 5- 4.
Soil macro- and micronutrient levels vary con- Optimizing Tree Growth
siderably between sites, depending on parent
material, organic matter content, pH, etc. These During the early years of orchard establish-
factors not only affect the quantity of nutrients ment, tree growth MUST be optimized. All other
present in the soil but also their availability to the factors being equal, large trees will produce cones
orchard trees, Therefore, while soil analyses deter- earlier and in greater quantities than small trees.
mine the levels of nutrients in the soil, foliar analysis Therefore, even though orchard soil fertility is
must also be done to determine whether or not the assessed, and amendments made to bring nutrient
trees are actually obtaining adequate supplies. levels up to desired levels, the individual trees
should be fertilized regularly until their root systems
Early research results have shown that there are fully occupy the site. For most clonal orchards in the
differences in foliar nutrient levels between clones Maritimes, this will take at least 5 to 10 years.
and families in white pine and jack pine respectively
( Smith unpublished data) . A similar pattern can be The following fertilization schedule was
expected for many of our other species. To assess designed to ensure, as much as practicable, that the
tree nutrition through foliaranalyses, the number of orchard trees receive an optimal supply of nutrients
samples collected must be sufficiently large to mask throughout the growing season ( Table 5-5). DO
these genetic differences, e.g., samples must not be NOT try to translate these individual-tree applica-
collected from only one or two clones or families. tion rates to broadcast equivalents: the conversion
1. For each species/sub- orchard/ orchard block , on a per unit area basis would suggest fertilizer
randomly select 50 trees. application rates much higher than normally advis-
2. In September or October ( after shoot lignifi- able for broadcast applications.
cation has ceased) , collect one current-year
shoot from the upper one- third of the crown of
each tree ( Table 5-3). Tamarack foliage must be
collected just prior to color change. Shoots
should be collected from the same position in
the crown for all trees ( nutrient levels vary with
height in the crown e.g ., shoot vigor ).
5-6

Table 5-3. Foliage sampling for nutrient analysis. The suggested numbers of shoots to be collected is the
minimum for the Canadian Forestry Service laboratory, and should provide ample material for
other laboratories

Species Wt./100> Approx , no. Minimum no. shoots

needles needles per required to obtain a 3 g sample
<
g) 15 cm shoot oven dry wt

Black spruce 0.180 -0.250 300-350 4-5

Red spruce 0.180 - 0.250 300-350 4-5
White spruce 0.180 -0.250 300-350 4-5

Jack pine 0.500-0.600

4.000-4.500
-
150 175
150-175
3- 4
1- 2
Red pine
White pine 0.900-1.000 75-100 3 -4

Tamarack 2 0.050-0.075 100-125 10

1 From M.K . Mahendrappa ( unpubl. data) .

2 Absoiute minimum; 10 shoots will not produce the full 3 g .

Table 5-4. Suggested foliar nutrient levels by species for seed orchards ( from Mahendrappa unpubl. data).
Orchard trees can be considered as being adequately supplied with the major elements if foliar
levels are maintained within these ranges

Element ( % dry weight )

Species N P K Ca Mg

Black spruce 1.2 - 1.6 0.15 - 0.20 0.70 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 0.10 - 0.15
Red spruce 1.3 - 1.7 0.15 - 0.20 0, 60 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 0.06 - 0.10
White spruce 1.3 - 1.7 0.15 - 0.25 0.70 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 0.06 - 0.10

Jack pine 1.2 - 1.6 0.15 - 0.20 0.60 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 -
0.06 0.10
Red pine 1.2 - 1.6 0.20 - 0.25 0.60 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 -
0.10 0.20
White pine 1.7 - 2.0 0.20 - 0.25 0.70 - 0.80 0.20 - 0.30 0.10 - 0.20

Tamarack 1.8 - 2.5 0.20 - 0.25 0.70 - 0.90 0.30 - 0.40 -

0.07 0.12
 5-7

Table 5-5. Suggested schedule for fertilizing individual grafts in seed orchards

Rate, type, and timing of fertilizer applications

Early to Early to Mid-July

Stock mid-May mid-June
type ( 2nd week ) (2nd week ) ( 2nd week )

New transplants 10-10-10 +

(spring of year) ammonium nitrate
(2:1 ratio) 1
rate: 30 g/ graft

Small grafts 10-10-10 + 10-10-10 + ammonium

(1-2 years from ammonium nitrate ammonium nitrate nitrate
transplanting and ( 2:1 ratio) ( 2:1 ratio)
older grafts of rate:30 g/ graft rate:30 g /graft rate:15 g / graft
low vigor )

Established 10 -10-10 + 10-10-10 + ammonium

grafts ammonium nitrate ammonium nitrate nitrate
( 2:1 ratio) ( 2:1 ratio)
rate:50 g per rate:50 g per rate:15 g per
1.5 m of tree 1.5 m of tree 1.5 m of tree
height height height

12:1 ratio by weight.

NOTES: Fertilizer should be applied in a band (evenly distributed) around each graft. The band should be
located approximately half-way between the crown dripiine and the stem or, when applicable, at the outside
edge of the mulch. Do not DUMP the fertilizer at the base of the grafts. This can result in root damage and
possibly kill small grafts!

If heavy spring rains follow the early May application, it may be desirable to refertilize the grafts at the same
rates ( heavy leaching losses) . If this is done, the second scheduled application (mid-June) should be made
one month following the refertilization.

Suggested Readings Ontario Ministry of Agricultureand Food ( O.M.A . F.)

1985. 1985-86 production recommendations for
Atkinson, D.; Jackson, J. E.; Sharpies, R.O.; Waller, ornamentals and turf. Ont. Min. Agric. and Food,
W.M. 1980. Mineral nutrition of fruittrees. Studies 56 p.
in the agricultural and food sciences. Butterworth
& Co. ( Canada) Ltd, Toronto, Ont., 435 p . Potash and Phosphate Institute. 1983. Soil fertility
manual. Potash and Phosphate Institute, Atlanta,
.
Meister, R .T. ( Editorial director ) 1984 1984 Farm GA , 93 p .
chemicals handbook . Meister Publish. Co.,
Willoughby, Ohio.
 V- 11

ORCHARD FERTILITY RECORD

AGENCY : ORCHARD :
BLOCK F
o DATE DATE DATE DATE DATE
NUTRIENT UNITS LEVEL LEVEL
SPECIE : NO
L L DD MM YY LEVEL DD MM YY DD MM YY LEVEL DD MM Y Y DDIMMIYY LEVEL
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11 !2 I 3 I 4 I 5 16 I 7 I 8 I9 2C 2 l 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3I 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4 i 42 43 44 45 4647 4849 505 I 52 53 54 55 56 57
58 59 60 6i 62 63 64 65 66 7I 7272 74 75 76 77 78 79 8C
5-8

Literature Cited

Armson, K . A . 1973. Soil and plant analysis tech-

niques as diagnostic criteria for evaluating ferti-
lizer needs and treatment response. Pages 155 -
166. In Forest Fertilization, Symp. Proc., USDA
For . Serv ., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-3.

Armson, K .A . 1979. Forest soils: properties and

.
processes University of Toronto Press, Toronto,
Ont.

Krause, H.H, 1985. Forest nursery soil management

in the Atlantic region: A review of current prac -
tices. Marit. For . Res. Cent., Tech. Note No. 135.

MacDonald, C.C. 1977 . Methods of soil and tissue

analysis used in the analytical laboratory . Can.
For. Serv., Marit. For. Res. Cent., Inf. Rep. M- X - 78.

Nova Scotia Agricultural College ( NSAC) 1986.

Laboratory methods manual . N.S. Dep. Agric.
and Marketing, Soils and Crops Branch.
 6 -1

CHAPTER 6

PEST MANAGEMENT

Seed orchards must be protected from damag- attributable to insects and diseases. Computer cod-
ing agents. Potential seed losses can be minimized ing forms for this system are found in APPENDIX
by isolating orchards from forests that provide VIII.
natural habitats for harmful insects, birds, mam- 1. Randomly select 10 ramets from each of five
mals, and alternate hosts of fungi. Adopting routine clones (10 seedlings from five families) foreach
cultural practices such as close mowing of the cover species and / or suborchard. These 50 trees
crop ( reduced small rodent habitat ) , and removing should be permanently tagged as they will be
old cones (several cone and seed insects overwinter used each year whenever possible. However ,
in old cones) will also afford some protection. All some replacement trees ( of the same
pest management operations must be recorded family/clone) may be necessary as not all trees
( APPENDIX IV ) . However, regardless of cultural will bear strobili every year.
practices, pests will invade the orchard.
2 . From early May to early June, preferably
BEFORE pollination, depending on species,
Assessing Cone and Seed Losses
count the total number of female strobili on the
sample trees . For large trees, tag two branches
An effective means of quantifying the impact or
and count the strobili on them. The tagged
potential impact of pests on a cone crop and
branches should be in the middle portion of the
concomitantly determining if a control program is
female cone -bearing region of the crown, and
warranted can be done through developing cone life
should have AT LEAST 20 strobili each. Tag as
tables. After the causes of losses have been IDEN-
many branches as necessary to obtain a total of
TIFIED and QUANTIFIED control efforts can be 40 strobili.
efficiently and cost-effectively undertaken. Gener-
ally , five steps are involved for each species in an 3. About 1 to 2 weeks following pollination, use a
orchard . hand lens to examine 10 strobili collected from
each tree for the presence of eggs or larvae.
1. Select sample trees . Many insects that feed directly on cones and
2. Obtain strobilus counts. seeds lay eggs during the pollination
3. Periodically monitor strobilus/ cone devel- period. If larvae or eggs are found, immediately
opment and quantify the losses over the grow- send a sample to the Canadian Forestry Service
ing season . - Maritimes, Forest Insect and Disease Survey
4. Determine actual seed yields from those cones ( F.i. D.S) for identification ( see APPENDIX VII) .
at the end of the growing season (at the end of 4. In August /September count the mature cones
the second year for pines). on the sample trees/branches. For pines, cone-
5. Compare actual yields with expected yields to lets are counted in the fall of year one and
determine the percentage of the potential mature cones the fall of the second year.
obtained. 5. Collect 10 mature cones from each sample tree.
Do a cut - test or extract the seed from these
APPENDIX VIII has detailed instructions on cones (see CHAPTER 7 for information on cone
developing cone life tables. maturation and assessing seed quality).
6. Calculate the seed yield and compare these
The following system for monitoring cone and values with the expected seed yield ( see
seed production is used to assess all aspects of seed APPENDIX VIII).
production efficiency, not just the losses directly
6 -2

Insects and diseases Controlling Insects and Diseases

Insects and diseases in orchards can be Control of insects

grouped into two categories based on the type of
damage they cause . Those that directly damage the There are two major classes of insecticides
cones and seeds and those that indirectly affect available, systemic and contact. Systemics such as
seed production through reducing tree growth and dimethoate and carbofuran, when applied intern-
vigor. To minimize the damage caused by these ally , or externally to the tree, are absorbed and
agents, an orchard pest management system translocated throughout the tree, rendering it toxic
should be implemented to: to insects. Systemic insecticides offer many
1. Monitor the insects and diseases and their advantages.
population levels. Monitoring also detects the 1. They are selective and minimize the effects on
introduction of new pests, nontarget organisms such as beneficial para-
2. Assess the damage they cause, ortheirpotential sites, predators, and pollinators.
for damage. 2. They kill insects in roots, buds , galls, cones,
3. Determine if control measures are warranted. bark , seeds, and leaves.
3. They often render the tree toxic to insects for
Monitoring Insects and Diseases long periods, thus reducing the number of applica-
tions required and sometimes eliminating the
Forest Insect and Disease Survey staff regularly need for precise timing .
visit seed orchards in the Maritimes. However,
orchard staff must also conduct their own surveys. Systemic insecticides also have some dis-
Ruthefa /. (1982 ) give guidelines on how to sample advantages.
and identify the major insect and disease pests in 1. Extreme care in handling and application is
British Columbia seed orchards. Much of the infor- required because of their high toxicity to
mation in this publication pertains to pests that are humans and animals.
also potential problems in Maritime seed orchards.
2. They may damage or kill plants if dosage
recommendations are exceeded.
The feeding periods of the insect pests of cones
and seeds of Maritime tree species are shown in 3. I nsect control among closely related plant species
Fig. 6-1. When a problem or suspected problem is is often erratic and ineffective because of intrin -
detected, follow these procedures: sic chemical and physical factors associated
with each species and the soil on which it is
1. Collect a sample. The sample should include grown ( Merkel 1969) . Some chemicals require
some of the affected tissue ( shoots, foliage) and one to two years buildup in the tree before they
WHEN PRESENT , the suspected pest ( insects, are effective in insect control. It may also be
spores, etc.). difficult to obtain high concentrations of insecti-
2. Complete in detail a FIDS Seed Orchard cide in the cones.
Sample Submittal Form (a copy for reproduc -
tion is included in APPENDIX VIII , Fig. VIII-2) . Contact insecticides may provide sufficient pro-
3. Send both the sample and the completed form tection depending on the type of insect involved and
to Canadian Forestry Service Forest Insect and its ease of control. Cone and seed insects that do
Survey , P . O. Box 4000, Fredericton, N. B . much of their damage while inside the strobili/ cones
E3B 5P7. Mailing containers are available from are however, difficult if not impossible to control
your local office. with contact insecticides.
 -
63

There are currently NO insecticides registered Spruce cone rust ( Chrysomyxa pyrolae D.C.),
for the control of cone and seed insects in forest tree which can pose a problem for all spruce species, is
seed orchards in the Maritimes. Dimethoate, for use best controlled by eradicating the alternate hosts,
on Douglas-fir, is presently the only chemical regis- plants in the wintergreen family [ Pyrola spp. and
tered in Canada, specifically for the control of cone Moneses spp.) , within the vicinity of the orchard.
and seed insects in seed orchards. However , several Summers etal. (1986) obtained adequate control of
experiments testing the efficacy of different chemi- a western cone rust ( C. pirolata ) in a white spruce
cals in controlling cone and seed insects of Maritime seed orchard using the fungicide Ferbam. Ferbam
tree species have been conducted. Results from 76 WDG was recently registered for use against
these and other trials indicate that most of the pests spruce cone rust. One or two treatments applied
thus far encountered in Maritime orchards can be between one week before pollination and the end of
effectively controlled by one or more insecticides. pollination, provided effective control and increased
The major insect pests encountered to date in seed production in years of severe disease. How-
Maritime seed orchards and, where possible, ever, there were some indications that the fungicide
‘ promising ’ control measures are listed in affected seed quality. Further studies on the effects
APPENDIX IX. of Ferbam on seed viability are needed.

These trials also indicate that if cone and seed Controlling Other Pests
insects in Maritime seed orchards are to be control-
led effectively , orchard managers will require better Mammals and birds
tools than are currently available and better know-
ledge of the use of these tools. If these tools are to Mammals and birds can also cause consider-
become available, registration must be obtained for able damage to orchard trees. Voles and field mice,
the desired chemical (s). The demand for chemicals which girdle young trees , may be effectively
for orchard use is not likely to be sufficient to controlled by close mowing of the cover crop and
persuade most chemical manufacturers to conduct other vegetation (especially in the fall) , but toxic
the research required for full registration. The most baits are still the most effective method of control-
viable alternative is for Minor Use Registration. Taky ling field mice ( Peterson 1982). Examine the orchard
(1986) provides details on Minor Use of Pesticides in September or October for signs of mouse activity.
Program in Canada ( copies of this publication are Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food (1986) lists
available from Agriculture Canada ). Orchard some of the mouse baits that are available as well as
managers in the Maritimes must make a coordina- their application rates:
ted effort to ensure that some of the chemicals with 1. Waxed zinc phosphide bait- 5.5 to 11.0 kg /ha. If
potential use in seed orchards are registered under further mouse activity detected, repeat when
this minor use program. rain is not expected.
2. Ramik Brown- 22 kg / ha in two applications of 11
Control of diseases kg with 20 to 40 days separating treatments.
3. Rozol paraffinized pellets ( 0.005 % chloro-
Diseases may also affect orchards. Disease phacinose) - 11 kg/ ha .
problems will be reduced by carefully selecting a
proper site and practicing good sanitation To minimize the danger of poisoning nontarget
techniques . animals such as birds and dogs, establish a series of
feeding stations around the orchard. The bait can be
Needle rusts ( Pucciniastrum spp.) may also placed in several types of containers including T-
pose a problem in orchards. They can cause defolia- shaped pieces of PVC pipe, ice cream containers
tion and subsequent growth loss, however, they do with holes cut in them, or styrofoam cups with holes
not usually kill large trees. Needle rusts can cause ( two cups with their tops taped together ). Stations
considerable damage to cones and seeds ( see should be concentrated around the perimeter of the
Smith et al. 1986) . To date, the use of fungicides in orchard ( reducing influx of mice) and several
seed orchards to control needle rusts has not been stations should be located within the orchard to
required. control existing populations:
6- 4

insect species May June July Aug Sept

AcJeris valiana
Adelges abietis
Adelges lanciatus
82
Adelges piceae

Adelges strobilobkis
Aphrophora spp.
Asynapta hopkinsi
Barbara mappana

Choristoneura fumiferana
Choristoneura pinus
Cmara spp
Goleophora laricelia
Cofeotechnites I arid s
Corjopftffton/s banksianae
-
4

3BB8W
Conophthorus coniperda
Conophthorus resinosae
Cydia si rob HeIla
Cydia toreuta

Dasineura canadensis
Dasineura rachiphaga
Dendroctonus rufipennis
Dendroctonus simplex m

Dtoryctria abietivorella
Dioiyctria disclusa
Dioryctria renlculelloldes
Ectropis crepuscularia

Endoptza piceana
Eucosma monitorana
Eucosma tocullionana
Eupithecia albicapitata

Eupithecia. mutata
Exoteleia nepheos
Formica spp.
Gif pin !a hercyniae
Henricus fuscodorsanus
Holcocerina immaculella

Figure 6-1. Major insect pests and their feeding times in Maritimes tree seed orchards (from Forest Insect and
Disease Survey , 1986., unpublished data)
 6- 5

Insect species May June July Aug Sept

Hylemya anthracina
Hylemya viarium

Hylobius spp ,
Lambdina fi seel lari a fi seel laria
Mayetiofa carpophaga
Mayetiola piceae

Megastigmus atedius atedius

Megastigmus laricis
Megastigmus specular is
Mindarus abietinus
Neodiprion abietis

Neodiprion nanulus nanulus

Neodiprion sertifer n

Neodipnon swainei
Neodi prion Virginian a
Ofigonychus milled
Ofigonychus ununguis BOB

Orgyia leucostigma

Petrova albicapitana

Physokermes piceae

Pikonema alaskensis
•''• ••*'**'*'
W i 1 I

Pineus pin if ohae

Pineus sir obi

Pissodes strobi
Pissodes spp.
Pleroneura brunneicornis
Pristiphora erichsonii
Resseliella spp,
Rhabdophaga swainei
Rhyacionia buoliana
Spilonota lariciana

Tetyra bipunctata
Toumeyella parvicornis

Xyela spp.
Zeiraphera canadensis
Zeiraphera improbana na
6 -6

Snowshoe hare and porcupines, which chew when there is a person residing at the orchard year -
bark off trees and squirrels which cut cones, can be round. However, for most orchards, this is not
controlled by placing metal bands around the stem .
practical Placing signs around the perimeter of the
of each tree. To be effective, bands must extend up orchard indicating that the area is a seed orchard
the tree higher than the hares or porcupines can may act as a deterrent. Public education, including
reach when standing on deep snow. Banding is tours of the facility for local residents may be most
expensive and is NOT practical in young seedling beneficial. Employing a trusted and respected local
seed orchards ( 2500 stems / ha) before final rogue- resident to conduct periodic checks may also be
ing or for small grafts. Small trees can be protected worthwhile.
by surrounding them with chicken wire, hardware
.
cloth, or plastic ‘sleeves' Fire

Squirrels can do considerable damage to A firebreak, at least 15 - 20 m wide should be

orchard trees, especially to jack pine. The squirrels maintained around the orchard (see CHAPTER 1) .
often remove a strip of bark as they cut the cones, For seedling seed orchards, all trees and shrubs
which frequently girdles branches. It is best to try to must be removed from the firebreak. Forclona! seed
exclude them from the orchard by using one or orchards, it can be maintained as a well- mowed
more methods: green belt, but should not be kept vegetation -free
because of potential soil erosion. Fire -fighting
1. Poisoned bait.
equipment should be available on site. A source of
2. Not allowing branches of adjacent trees to water such as a pond or well is also mandatory.
touch. This forces squirrels to climb each tree During periods of high fire hazard, access to the
rather than moving between trees. orchard should be restricted.
3. Maintaining a 30- to 40-m-wide bare strip
around the orchard ( increased predation) . This Weather
is accomplished if a proper firebreak is
maintained. The best method of reducing the liklihood of
4. Placing bird perches around the orchard to -
frost damage is to avoid high risk sites. Frost can
attract birds of prey . cause severe damage to emerging strobiii in the
spring . The orchard MUST be closely monitored
Fencing orchards is the most effective method during late spring when danger of frost damage is
to control deer browsing. However, fencing greatest. In general, strobiii are most susceptible to
orchards is usually prohibitively expensive. frost damage from the time the bud cap starts to
separate from the base of the bud ( e. g., for spruces,
Birds perching on newly established grafts can when the reddish-purple color of the strobilus
be a serious problem, but one that is transitory, and bracts is visible) to just after pollination (bracts
diminishes as the grafts grow. Control techniques closed) .
such as scaring, shooting, and the use of chemicals
have had limited success. Perches may be placed The most effective method of monitoring
throughout the orchard to discourage the birds temperature is to distribute temperature sensors
from perching on the trees. There are no practicable such as maximum/minimum thermometers through-
methods to control birds such as pine grosbeaks out the orchard. However, for most orchards, a
which may feed on reproductive and vegetative weather station centrally located will suffice. This
buds. Limited control but at high cost can be station should be equipped with a thermograph, a
achieved by using plastic sleeves on the branches. rain guage, and an anemometer. If the orchard has
known frost pockets, then temperature should be
Vandalism monitored in these abnormal areas.

Access to seed orchards by tree poachers, Above-tree mist -irrigation systems are effective
vandals, all-terrain- vehicles and snowmobiles is in reducing frost damage. Other means of reducing
difficult to control. The best control can be obtained frost damage include distributing heaters through -
in those orchards which are completely fenced and out the orchard and fanning the morning frosts with
 6- 7

helicopters. All frost protection methods are expen - Miller, G.E. 1983. When is controlling cone and seed
sive, but the potential ramification of doing nothing insects in Douglas- fir seed orchards justified?
is to lose entire cone crops. For. Chron. 59:304-307.

Snow and ice can cause serious damage to Literature Cited

trees, especially young grafts. Staking each graft
during the early years of development will minimize Merkel, E. P. 1969. Insect control in forest tree seed
winter damage. Desiccation can also be a problem, orchards. J. For. 67:748-750.
especially on sites and in years when there is little
snow cover. Snow fences distributed throughout Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food (O.M.A.F.)
the orchard perpendicular to the direction of the 1986.1986 Guide to chemical weed control. Ont .
prevailing winds can be used to promote snow Weed Committee, Publ. No . 75., 153 p. + Atlantic
accumulation for a distance of 2-15 times the height supplement.
of the fence depending on porosity. Good winter
protection has been obtained by surrounding indi - Peterson, J.W . 1982. Controlling meadow mice in
vidual trees with burlap or feed bags with the orchards. U.S. Fed. Wild. Serv., Wildlife Mgmt.,
bottoms cut open. Several stakes are placed around Misc. Note.
the grafts to ensure that the bags do not chafe the
trees. Ruth, D.S.; Miller, G.E.; Sutherland, J.R . 1982. A
guide to common insect pests and diseases in
Suggested Readings spruce seed orchards in British Columbia.
Environ. Can., Can. For , Serv., Inf . Rep .
British Columbia Ministry of Environment ( B.C.M. E.) . BC-X -231.
1980. Fiandbook for pesticide applicators and
pesticide dispensers. A.V. Miller and S.M. Craig Smith, R.F.; Magasi, L. P.; Harrison, K.J, 1986. Cone
[ Eds. ]. Pesticide Control Branch, B.C . Min . rust, a potential problem in white spruce seed
Environ. orchards. Can. For. Serv.-Marit. Tech. Note No.
161.
Cameron , S.l . 1986. Windbreaks for overwintering
.
planting stock. Can . For. Serv.-Marit , Tech. Note Summers, D.; Sutherland, J.R.; Woods, T.A .D. 1986.
No. 103. Inland spruce cone rust ( Chrysomyxa pirolata )
control: relation of Ferbam application to basi-
Hedlin, A.F.; Yates, H.O.; Tovar , D.C.; Ebel, B . H.; diospore production, rainfall and cone pheno-
Koeber, T.W.; Merkel, E.P. 1980. Cone and seed logy. Can. J. For. Res. 16:360-362.
insects of North American conifers. Joint Publ.
Can. For. Serv., USDA and Secretaria de Agric. y. Taky, J. 1986. Minor use of pesticides program
Recursos Hidraulicos, Mexico. handbook . Pesticide Information . Special
Edition. Agric. Can., Res. Branch. Ottawa.
Meister, R.T. (Editorial director ) . 1984. 1984 Farm
chemicals handbook. Meister Publish. Co.,
Willoughby, Ohio.
 7 -1

CHAPTER 7

CONE CROP MANAGEMENT

The objective of a seed orchard is to produce APPENDIX XI ) . Benefits from treatments to

regular and abundant cone crops. Several tech- enhance cone production will, therefore, not be
niques are available that can enhance cone and realized for two or three years, depending on
seed production but if the full benefits are to be species.
realized, the cones must be harvested in a safe and
efficient manner. Cone crop management opera- Bud initiation and bud differentiation ( see
tions must be recorded ( APPENDICES IV, X ) . APPENDIX XII for definitions) are the phases in
conifer reproductive cycles that are keys to the
Cone Crop Enhancement timing of any cone stimulation treatment. Cone
stimulation treatments must be applied before init-
The reproductive cycle of most local conifer iation and / or differentiation if they are to be
species occurs over two successive calendar years, effective.
but for pines, it is three years ( Figs. 7-1 and 7- 2;

SUMMER i SUMMER

JUNE 21 .SEPT 21 JUNE 2 1 j Cfl'T ('•if -WHVJ SEPT 21

\ / \ /
/ \
. -i. /
.-
C W'i uT
/ /

r
V? (S'feC
Uyn
.
;••>•/ » Tc'Wlrr
(

/ ytr; .!
* ''
/ Cwn /
/
Co -
'- i’S I
r;
: . * .>#< 0>
Ca< cS \ -
*>V F

SPRING C&nn
- ,
FtrtBe ta
X FAU •
SPRING
FWhj S

iXCilfV
\
X PALL
* / \
/ \
/ \ \
/ \ \
/

/ \ s \
/ \ / \
/ \ / \

MARCH 21 DEC 21 MARCH 21 DEC 21

INTER i ; WINTER;
•* *

Figure 7-1. The reproductive cycle of white spruce Figure 7-2. The reproductive cycle of jack pine
(adapted from Table 7-1). (adapted from Table 7-1).
7-2

Estimates of times or periods of initiation and Limited research has been conducted into cone
differentiation are given in Table 7-1 for average and seed enhancement forspecies in the Maritimes.
years in the Maritimes . A late or early spring will The recommendations given are based largely on
alter these times by as much as two weeks. Warm, trials with black spruce in New Brunswick , white
southern locations tend to have earlier dates for spruce in Nova Scotia, and the remainder are from
initiation than cool, northern locations. Similarly , reports in the literature. A detailed review of the
favorable aspects ( southerly) elicit earlier develop- literature on many aspects of cone production in
ment than less favorable aspects ( northerly). The forest trees is available in Owens and Blake (1985) .
times of differentiation are less diverse than those of
initiation. For the spruces, initiation occurs during
the 10 days before vegetative buds burst, and
differentiation occurs at or just after shoot elonga-
tion ceases.

Table 7-1. Estimates of times of periods of initiation of potentially reproductive buds, and of differentiation of
reproductive structures within buds, forspecies growing in average conditions in the Maritime
Provinces ( Powell 1983 with modifications by personnal communications 1986)
Species Initiation Differentiation

Black spruce Early to mid-June Pollen cones: mid -July

Seed cones: mid-July ( to late July on
young trees)

Red spruce Early to mid-June Pollen cones: mid-July

Seed cones: mid- July
( to late July on young trees )

White spruce Late May to early June Pollen cones: mid-July

Seed cones: mid-July ( to late July on
young trees)

Jack pine Potential pollen cones: Pollen cones:continuous through

continuous through June August
Potential seed cones: Seed cones: late September to late
late July to late September October
Red pine Potential pollen cones: Pollen cones:continuous through
continuous from mid-June August
to late July Seed cones: late September
Potential seed cones: to late October
late August to late September
White pine Potential pollen cones: Pollen cones:continuous through
continuous from mid- August
June to late July Seed cones: May to June
Potential seed cones: of the next year
September to late October
Tamarack 1 Early May to mid-June Pollen cones: mid-July to mid-August
Seed cones: mid-July to late August

’Provisional dates. Investigations are continuing (Powell personal communication Dec . 1987) .
 7-3

Fertilizers Weather

Fertilizing orchard trees to stimulate and Nitrogenfertilizersarewatersoluble. Aheavyrainfall

enhance cone production has met with varying immediately following fertilization may negate the
success but still is the most practical method avail- beneficial effects on cone production ( Ebell 1972) .
able. Applying fertilizer to induce cone production Conversely, if there is a lack of moisture, the
is a separate treatment from fertilizing to alleviate fertilizer may not reach the tree roots in sufficient
nutrient deficiencies. The type of fertilizer may time to effect a response that year.
differ, and, in most cases, the rate and timing of
application differ from fertility maintenance appli- Size of the current - year cone crop
cations. There are several factors that influence the
effectiveness of fertilizing to induce cone produc-
tion in black spruce ( Smith 1983; 1986) . These Cone crops place a heavy nutrient demand on
factors also apply equally to other species. trees. The number of cones produced one year
affects the potential number of buds produced the
Type of fertilizer next year ( number of potential cone production
sites) ( Powell 1977; Smith unpubl. data). A heavy
cone crop one year is usually followed by a light
High nitrogen (N) fertilizers have been used success- crop the next .
fully for inducing cone production, but not all types
are equally effective. Ammonium nitrate increased Clone / family differences
cone production in black spruce whereas urea had
no effect (Smith 1986) .
Clones or families may differ greatly in their
Rate of fertilizer application ability to produce cones. The magnitude of these
genetic effects will be determined only when
orchards are older, but studies from pine orchards
A sufficient amount of fertilizer must be applied in the southern United States indicate they could be
before the desired effect is realized while over- considerable ( Schmidtling 1983; Shoulders 1967) .
fertilizing may not only fail to increase, but may
actually decrease cone production. In black spruce, Cover crop
pollen production is particularly sensitive to over-
fertilizing . Applying 200-300 kg N/ha as ammonium
nitrate ( 240-360 g fertilizer / tree) to trees 12 to 16 Much of the fertilizer applied may be taken up
years old increased both seed- and pollen- cone by the cover crop thereby reducing the effect. When
production whereas at higher rates (up to 600 kg this occurs additional fertilizer will have to be
N/ha) response was either absent or negative. applied to obtain the desired response ( See
CHAPTERS 3 and 4 on using mulch and herbicides
Timing of fertilizer application to control vegetation around individual trees
respectively).

Fertilizer should be applied at least 1- 2 weeks Root pruning

before bud differentiation ( Table 7 -1) This .
allows forthe lag time between fertilizerapplication, Root pruning induces a water stress in the tree
dissolution and uptake . and has been effective in promoting formation of
cone buds in both white and black spruce (Fraser
Tree size 1975). Root pruning using spades or a single disc is
usually done to a depth of about 15 to 20 cm. Care
must be taken not to damage the trees severely.
Large trees (heightand diameter) generally produce Only prune one or two sides per year. Some tree
more cones than small trees regardless of fertilizer mortality may result from severe root-pruning ,
treatment. Similarly, large trees require a higher especially in dry years. Do not prune closer to the
fertilizerapplication rate than small trees to elicit the tree than the crown drip-line.
same response. Exact prescriptions for application
of fertilizer per unit of tree size ( e.g., per centimeter
diameter ) are not available for Maritime tree species.
 7-5

Seed can be both physically and physiologi-

cally .damaged during cone collecting and handling.
Vaseline or
two- sided tape Considerable monies will have been spent before an
orchard reaches the stage when cones can be
collected. The orchard manager MUST maximize
Aluminum the quantity of seed collected from the orchard and
fin Slide ) Clothes pin
( epoxied to ensure it is the best quality possible. DO NOT
i / 2" dowel ) TREAT CONE HARVESTING CASUALLY.
Nail
?
^
45°
/ Assessing the cone crop

6" Stake r \y
/
Wooden bearing

on t o p )
^-
( I / 2" dowel tapered
The numbers of pollen and seed cones must be
evaluated in the spring ( strobilus counts) see
APPENDIX X and again in late summer/fall ( seed
quality assessment). The same trees used for monitor-
ing cone development should be used e.g. , 10
Figure 7-3. Diagram of a pollen trap (from ramets from each of five clones or 10 seedlings from
Greenwood and Rucker 1985 ). five families (see CHAPTERS 5 and 6) .

Although this sampling scheme gives reason -

able estimates of cone crops with relatively few
sample trees, in clonal orchards it gives only limited
information about individual clones. Every clone is
not represented. Orchards with many clones or
After pollen has been monitored for several
years the necessity ( or lack thereof ) of implement - families can be highly variable and may require a
large number of sample trees. In contrast, rogued
ing a program to reduce pollen contamination can
clonal orchards have fewer clones, so the variation
be determined. Fashlerand Devitt (1980) found that
within the orchards should be less and correspond-
bud development in a Douglas-fir orchard could be
ingly , the number of sample trees required might
delayed 10 to 14 days using an overhead irrigation
decrease. Regular cone crop assessments can also
system. This effectively eliminated about 85% of the
pollen contamination. Supplemental Mass Pollina - be used in a young orchard to identify clones or
families that are not fecund, and hence should be
tion ( SMP ), the broadcast application of pollen, can
rogued.
be used to dilute the background pollen thus max-
imizing potential genetic gains, and to increase
In late summer seed yield per cone is assessed,
seed yields in orchards ( Bridgewater and Trew
usually with a cut test. Five of the 10 cones collected
1981) . The necessity for, and effectiveness of these
from each of the 50 sample trees should be cut in
types of management techniques for Maritime seed
h a l f l o n g i t u d i n a l l y, a n d t h e n u m b e r o f
orchards has yet to be determined.
exposed full seeds in one half of the cone counted
( Table 7 -2) . A full seed should have an embryo
Cone Harvesting
about as long as the embryo cavity in the gameto-
phyte, that is, almost as long as the seed itself . Until
Factors affecting costs of cone collecting are
staff are experienced in doing cut-tests and extrapo-
species ( ease of collecting), tree size ( method of
lating the results to actual seed yields, the seed from
collecting), number of cones per tree, and total
the otherfive cones from the sample trees should be
number of trees. It is important to assess a cone
extracted. When the staff is confident in the corre-
crop well in advance of the time it is to be harvested
lations between the two methods, only the cut-test
and then use this information to ensure that
will be necessary.
sufficient funds and manpower are allocated.
7-6

Table 7-2. Evaluating cone crop seed yields from a The number of cones per tree and number of
cut -test seeds per cone are used to estimate the total
expected seed yield from the orchard, and to com-
Species Number of full seed per half cone pare estimated seed yields with those actually
obtained (see next section) .
Low Medium High
When orchards are young, seed production
Black spruce <6 6 -9 > 10 varies considerably between trees, often with most
Red spruce <6 -
6 9 > 10 of the seed being produced by a small number of
White spruce <6 6-9 > 10 clones or families. Also, since little within- orchard
pollen may be produced , the genetic quality of the
Jack pine1 <10 10-15 > 16 seed may be low because of pollen contamination
Red pine < 6 6-9 > 10 and/ or self -pollination, or seed-set may be low
White pine <10 10-15 > 16 because the orchard is well isolated from contami-
nating pollen. Although the quality of seed from
Tamarack < 2 -
24 > 5 such crops may be low, they must be collected to
reduce habitat for cone and seed insects.
jack pine cones is difficult so it might be
’Slicing
preferable to extract the seed. Time of collection

The time of year that seed embryos begin to

mature is about the same for most conifer species in
the Maritimes. However , the total time required for
seed to mature, and the time at which cones should
Thefoilowing describes a procedure for extract - be collected varies considerably between species
ing seed from cones collected from the sample ( Fig . 7-4) .
trees:
High variability both between and within trees
1. Air dry the cones in screened trays ( plywood
means that attempts at developing physical indices
sides, screen bottom) under warm, dry conditions
of cone maturity such as cone color and specific
for 8 to 10 days.
gravity have proven unreliable . The most reliable
2. After cones have opened shake out the loose indicator of when cones are ready to be collected is
seed. If they have not opened go to step 4. the condition of the seed itself.
3. If the cones are well opened, the remaining seed
1. The gametophyte is opaque, white, and firm,
can be picked out of the cones with tweezers.
NOT milky or liquid. Leave the cut seed over-
4. For species with resinous cones which may not night and if much shrinkage of the gametophyte
open readily after air drying, soak the cones in occurs then the seed is not ripe.
hot tap-water for 15 to 20 minutes. Jack pine
2) The embryo should be 90% or more developed
cones may be dipped in boiling water for 15 to 20
e. g., it should fill the embryo cavity .
seconds.
5. Dry the wet cones in an oven at 50° C for 24 to 48 Experience is necessary to assess seed
hours (until cones open). The oven should be maturity accurately. The time at which seed matures
well ventilated to allow moisture to escape. varies between trees and years. A cone-crop log
6. Shake the dry cones, and pick out remaining should be kept for the orchard in which dates of seed
seed. maturity/cone harvesting are recorded ( APPENDIX
7. Repeat steps 4 to 6 if necessary. VIII ). The log should also be used to correlate the
time of seed maturation with tree growth and devel-
Determine the total number of full seed either opment and weather ( growing degree-days). In
with X-ray or a cut-test . The cut-test shows full seed New Brunswick , white spruce and tamarack cones
as having a firm, white gametophyte with a distinguish- can be safely collected when 1350 and 1150 degree
able embryo. days , respectively , have accumulated ( Smith
 7-7

August September October

Species 1- 8 9 - 16 17 - 24 25- 31 1 - 8 9 -16 17- 24 25- 30 1 - 8 9 - 16 17- 24 25-31

Black spruce BIBB

!

Red spruce iiimiiKiiimiHiE& raBaraBara ^ BiBBii

White spruce 111III IIIIIIIIIIBKB B3 Ha Bl Bl ra B3 QJ ra E9

Jack pine iiiiiiiimmiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiBara &araraia &s m m m m m m m

Red pine iiiiiiii!iKiiKiiiiiiiimiiiiiiirara & & rara 1B1CB1BBVSt tSS 8BB

White pine
Tamarack IIIIIIIIIIHIliillBIBBBB

tllllllllllllllll Embryo maturation : too early to collect cones , ie. , seed will probably not
complete development regardless of subsequent cone handling .

|& HS 0 ES9 63 J23 Cone ripening : cones can be collected but will require after - ripening
before seed is extracted.
Cone collecting : cones are mature and can be collected .

Figure 7- 4. Cone and seed maturation stages for eight Maritime tree species. Development stages can be
advanced 1 to 3 weeks with warm and dry weather and sites, and similarly retarded on cold and
wet sites or where growing seasons are naturally later e.g., the Fundy shore (from Smith 1985 ).

1981;1983). Correlations of seed maturity with ficult to remove by twisting and pulling, while white
degree day accumulations should be determined and red spruce cones are easily removed by the
for each orchard and each orchard species since latter method.
seed will probably be shed earlier from orchard
trees than from trees in mature stands. When trees are short , ladders, particularly
tripods can be efficiently used to collect cones
How to collect ( Yeatman and Nieman 1978). As the trees grow, and
access to cone producing parts of the crown is more
Cone collection crews must receive proper difficult, hydraulic platforms and moveable
training in collection techniques ( see Dobbs et al. scaffolds ( scaffolds mounted on trucks ) are
1976). Seed loss cannot be tolerated. Only cones necessary. 'Cherry-pickers’ or bucket booms offer
and not shoots should be removed, because a shoot good maneuverability around tree crowns but are
that bears seed cones one year, will eventually expensive to purchase and can compact the soil.
produce other shoots which will bear seed and Hallman and Casavan (1979) evaluate much of the
pollen cones. Ease of removing cones from the equipment currently available for collecting cones.
shoots differs between species. Jack pine cones Most of the equipment reviewed has not been tested
should be cut off with clippers because they are in the Maritimes.
firmly attached by a stout stem making them dif-
7- 8

Cone handling is an extremely important step in Dobbs, R .C.; Edwards, D.E.W.; Konishi, J.; Wallinger,
the cone collecting process. Cones must not be D. 1976. Guidelines to collecting cones of B.C.
collected and stored ‘ wet ’. They should be packed .
conifers British Columbia For. Serv./ Can. For .
loosely in half filled burlap bags, placed in a well Serv., Joint Rep. No. 3.
ventilated garage or cone- shed, and shipped as
soon as possible to the extractory . Label each bag Ebeli, L.F. 1972. Cone induction response of
inside and outside according to species, orchard, Douglas-fir to form of nitrogen fertilizer and time
sub -orchard or orchard block , date collected, and of treatment. Can. J . For. Res. 2:317-326.
any other necessary information ( see Smith 1985).
The orchard managers’ responsibility and interest Fashler, A.; Devitt , W.J.B. 1980. A practical solution
in the seed should not stop when the cones are to Douglas-firseed orchard pollen contamination.
shipped to the extractory. The manager should For. Chron. 56: 237-240.
ensure that:
1. The cones are stored properly at the extractory. Fraser , D. A . 1975. Management of tree growth and
research plantations. Pages 192-201 In Proc. 12th
2. The extraction of the seed is both safe and
Lake States Tree Improv. Conf. USDA For.
efficient.
Serv. , Gen, Tech. Rep. NC-26.
3. The seed yield information and results from any
seed tests that have ( or should have) been Friedman, S.T.; Adams, W.T. 1981 . Genetic effic-
conducted are received. iency in loblolly pine seed orchards. Pages 213-
224 In Proc. 16 th South . Forest Tree Improv.
This information combined with the other Conf., Virginia Polytech. Instit. State Univ., May
orchard records is necessary to assess orchard
productivity accurately and to compare on -site
27-28, 1981 .
estimates of seed yields and quality with those Greenwood, M.S.; Rucker, T. 1985. Estimating pollen
reported from the extractory . Over the long term, if contamination in loblolly pine seed orchards by
these records are accurately maintained, the pollen trapping. Pages 179-186 In Proc. 18 th
experienced orchard manager will know if the cones South. For. Tree Improv. Conf ., Long Beach,
were handled properly after they left the orchard. Miss., May 21-23, 1985 ,

Suggested Readings Hallman , R.G.; Casavan K . 1979. An analysis of seed

and cone collection. Project record, USDA For.
.
Bramlett, D.L ; Godbee, J.F. Jr. 1982. Inventory- Serv., Equip. Develop. Cent., Missoula , Montana.
monitoring system for southern pine seed
orchards. Georgia For. Comm., Georgia For . Owens, J. N.; Blake, M.D. 1985. Forest tree seed
Res . Pap. No. 28. production. Gov. Can., Can. For, Serv., Petawawa
Nat . For. Inst ., Inf, Rep. PI- X -53.
Huber, R.F. (compiler) 1981. High-quality collection
and production of conifer seed. Environ . Can., Powell , G.R . 1977. Biennial strobilus production in
Can. For. Serv., North. For. Res. Cent. Inf . Rep. balsam fir: A review of its morphogenesis and
NOR - X-235. discussion of its apparent physiological basis.
Can. J. For. Res. 7:547-555 .
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1983. Guide-
lines for tree seed crop forecasting. Queens Schmidtling, R . C . 1983. Genetic variation in fruit-
Printer . fulness in a loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) seed
orchard. Silvae Genet. 32:76-80.
Literature Cited
Shoulders, E. 1967. Fertilizer application, inherent
Bridgewater , F.E.; Trew, I. F. 1981. Supplemental fruitfulness, and rainfall affect flowering of long-
mass pollination. Pages 52 -57. In Pollen Mgmt. leaf pine. For. Sci. 13:376-383.
Handbook E.C. Franklin [ Ed . ]. USDA For Serv.
Agric. Handbk. No. 587.
 7-9

Smith, R . F. 1981. How early can tamarack cones be

collected? Can. For. Serv., Marit. For. Res. Cent.,
Tech. Note No. 35.

Smith, R.F. 1983 a. How early can white spruce

cones be collected? Can. For. Serv. , Marit. For.
Res. Cent., Tech Note No 92,

Smith, R . F. 1983b. Effects of fertilizers and spacing

of trees on cone production in young black
spruce ( Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. ) plantations.
MSc. thesis, University of Wisconsin .

Smith, R . F. 1985. Cone collection and handling.

Pages 63- 80 In Proc . Sym. Reforestation in the
Maritimes, 1984. R.D. Hallett; M.D. Cameron, and
T.S. Murray ( Eds.) April 3-4, 1984, Moncton, N. B.

Smith, R .F. 1986. Managing black spruce seedling

seed orchards for cone and seed production.
Pages 187-190 In Conifer tree seed in the Inland
Mountain West, Univ. Montana, Aug. 5-7, 1985 .
Yeatman, C.W.; Nieman, T.C. 1978. Safe tree climb-
ing in forest management. Can. For. Serv., Gen.
Tech. Rep. No. 24.
 1 -1

APPENDIX I

ORCHARD OVERLAY MAPS AND GENERAL SITE PLAN

Figure 1-1. Soils

-
Figure I 2. Drainage

Figure I-3. Topography

Figure I-4. General site plan

 Silt loam N
overlying
clay loam

Sandy loam
^Shaltow
soil overlying
sandy > loamy sand
loa

Figure 1-1. Orchard soils map overlay.

 drainage
map overiaV -
-
Figure i 2
Orchard
 map overlay -
_ . Otcha
Figure \ 3
 N
Future
Future Block Spruce
jock P'ne pond}
’

White White
Spruce Pine

verify *
an map °
'
ral site P
gene
r,gure V 4 Orchard
'
 11-1

APPENDIX II

CALCULATION OF SEED PRODUCING AREA OF A SEED ORCHARD

Species: white spruce

Orchard type: clonal
Required annual seedling production: 5 million
Grafts/ ha: 275 (following final rogueing)

ASSUMPTIONS
No. cones /graft: 200
Sound seed/ cone: 30
Seedling production method: container; 1.5 sound seed/seedling
Interval between cone crops: 2 years

No. sound seed/ ha = (grafts/ha) x ( no, cones/graft ) x ( sound seed/cone)

= 275 x 200 x 30
= 1,650,000 sound seed/ha

No. plantable seedlings = (no. sound seed/ha) /(no. sound seed/seedling)

= 1,650,000 / 1.5
= 1,100,000 plantable seedlings/ ha

Area required to
produce seed for
1 million seedlings = (1,000,000 seedlings) / (1,100,000 seedlings/ ha)
= 0.91 ha

Because of 2 year periodicity between cone crops, twice this area is required to produce enough seed for
1 million seedlings annually.
Total area required to produce
5 million seedlings/ yr = 1.82 ha x 5
= 9.1 ha

This area requirement is dependent on the assumptions. For example, if the average number of cones per
graft increases to 300 because of good management, then the orchard area requirement is reduced by
one-third or if 2 full seed are required to produce a seedling, the orchard area is increased by one-third.
 IIM

APPENDIX III

SEED ORCHARD SITE PREPARATION SUMMARY

Seed Orchard:

Species: Block no.:

Total area treated:

Site History

Former cover type/land use:

Date land cleared:

Clearing method ( s):

Site Preparation

1. method: Date (s):

2. method: Date(s):

3. method: Date (s):

Cover Crop Establishment

Plowing: Date (s):

Harrowing: Date (s):

Pre-sowing amendments:

Amendment Rate Application date

7- 4

Root -pruned trees are tempora'rily weakened seed orchards Fast growing species such as
and may be more susceptible to infection from root tamarack can grow a metre or more per year when
rots . When pruning, whether by discs or spades, be maintained under the high fertility regimes in seed
sure to fill in the line of disturbance. Exposed roots orchards. Such trees quickly become too tail for
increase the chance of attack by insects and disease. easy cone harvesting. Top-pruning should begin at
Trees that are repeatedly root -pruned may not be as an early age. For mostspecies in the Maritimes, this
wind - firm as unpruned trees and may be more will probably be between age 7 and 10 years,
susceptible to drought. whereas vigorous grafts of larch will require pruning
before age 7 . During the early years of orchard tree
Girdling and strangulation development trees can be topped regularly to pro-
mote large bushy crowns capable of carrying a large
Girdling by making cuts in the tree or branch number of cones. However, topping may not be
and strangulation by placing bands, usually metal, used in seedling seed orchards until they have been
on the tree to constrict growth can induce water .
rogued at least once The degree to which top-
stress and affect the movement of carbohydrates pruning can and should be used for Maritime tree
and nutrients in the tree. Results from girdling and species, needs to be further investigated.
strangulation experiments have been variable, but it
appears that, when timed properly, both can stimu - Pollen Contamination
.
late a ‘one-time’ heavy cone crop However, these
methods are not recommended in seed orchards. To maximize the genetic quality of the seed
Tree mortality can result if damage is too severe and produced in an orchard, pollen contamination must
long - term cone production may be less on treated be minimized. Studies in the southeastern United
trees than on control trees because of the overall States indicate pollen contamination can be as high
reduced vigor. as 30 -80%, even in mature orchards in which the
trees are producing large quantities of pollen. This
Growth hormones can reduce genetic gain by at least 2-4% ( Friedman
and Adams 1981 ) . Preliminary studies in several
In recentyears, trials with growth hormones, parti- Maritime orchards indicate background pollen
cularly gibberellins, have been successful in enhanc- levels are high.
ing both pollen and seed cones in many species.
This is particularly useful for stimulating individual Foreach orchard, establish a pollen monitoring
trees orclones to produce cones for use in breeding system to determine the amount of contaminating
programs. Three major drawbacks to operational pollen and to assess its potential impact on the
use of growth hormones in seed orchards are quality of seed. Pollen arriving either before or after
evident; the period of strobilus receptivity is of little
consequence.
1. The concentrations most effective in field trials
have sometimes resulted in problems with phyto- 1. Estimate background pollen levels by measur -
toxicity associated with the surfactant. ing pollen levels while the trees are young ,
2. Cost of the hormone is prohibitive. BEFORE they produce significant quantities of
pollen.
3. The techniques for large-scale applications are
not yet sufficiently refined. 2. Continue monitoring pollen as the orchard trees
mature. The difference between the two levels
However, hormones may be an important tool provides an estimate of within -orchard pollen
for seed orchard managers in the near future. production.

Topping trees Greenwood and Rucker ( 1985 ) describe a

reliable and inexpensive system for monitoring
Topping trees by removing a maximum of 1- 2 pollen contamination (Fig. 7 -3).
years growth at one time, while not a cone-induction
treatment perse, may become important in Maritime
 IV-1

APPENDIX IV

SUMMARY OF ORCHARD OPERATIONS

Table IV -1 provides a form to record an annual summary of all operations conducted to aid the orchard
manager in planning year to year operations and time and manpower requirements. The remarks section
should contain general comments such as manpower used, time to complete work , area, block number,
number of trees treated.

Operations to Include

Establishment
planting
herbicide application
mulch application
graft pruning
Vegetation management
cleaning
herbicide application
Pest management
insect /disease monitoring
pesticide application
Fertility management
broadcast applications
individual tree applications
soil/ foiiage sampling
Cone crop management
monitoring/ forecasting
pollen monitoring
fertilizer application
root pruning
hormone application
top pruning
harvesting

Rogueing

Grass mowing

Graft staking/ winter protection

IV- 2

Table IV-1. Annual summary of orchard operations

Year:

Operation Date Remarks

 V- 1

APPENDIX V

FERTILIZATION RECORDS

The Fertilization Record field sheet (Table V-1) can be used to record the day- to- day operations. This
information is then copied onto the Fertilizer Application Record form ( Table V-2) for computer entry. The
Orchard Fertility Record form ( Table V -3) , is used to record results from soil and foliage analyses. After the
data from these forms are entered in the computer, programs can be used to produce detailed fertility
assessments/reports. These records can be updated as required.

NOTE: Although there are two separate forms, (convenience of data input ), the data from both can be merged
and a comprehensive summary produced, e.g., monitor changes in soil fertility levels with fertilizer
applications.
V-2

Instructions for completing the Orchard Fertilizer Application Record - field sheet . All details regarding
fertilizer applications should be recorded. Each form contains the data for one block and may be used for one
or several years, as deemed necessary.

NOTES ON THE TYPE OF INFORMATION TO INCLUDE

1. Broadcast applications

Application date: Day, month, year

Application method: Type of equipment used e,g„ drop-type ( GANDY ) spreader vs. cyclone spreader.

Fertilizer type: e.g., ammonium nitrate, 10-10-10, etc.

Fertilizer rate: e.g ., 200 kg / ha.

Remarks: Make note of

1. Any 'problems’ with applying the fertilizer e.g., equipment calibration . Can also note any equipment
settings for future reference.

2. Weather e.g ., very heavy rains shortly after applying fertilizer (especially important for fertilizers, such
as ammonium nitrate, that are prone to heavy leaching losses) .

II. Individual tree applications

Application date: Day, month, year

Fertilizer type: As per broadcast applications

Fertilizer rate: e. g., grams of fertilizer per tree

Fertilizer placement: e.g., band around the crown dripline, bands on two sides of the trees, etc.

Remarks: as per broadcast applications.

V- 4

Table V-1. Orchard Fertilizer Application Record - field sheet.

 V- 5

Instructions for completing the Orchard Fertilizer Application Record form.

Column
No.

1- 2 Species: Genera - species code

Le Larch, European Pw Pine, white
Lj Larch, Japanese Sb Spruce, black
Lt Larch, tamarack Sn Spruce, Norway
Pj Pine, jack Sr Spruce, red
Pr Pine, red Sb Spruce, black

others as required

3-5 Block / field number

BROADCAST APPLICATIONS

6-15 Fertilizer type: use the nutrient contents of the fertilizer

6-7 % N
8- 9 % P2O5
10-11 % K 2O
12-13 % Ca
14-15 % Mg

Listing of some common fertilizer types and their contents:

Fertilizer code Common name

10-10-10 10-10-10 ( triple 10)

15-15-15 15-15-15 ( triple 15 )

34-0-0 ammonium nitrate

46-0-0 urea
20-0-0 ammonium sulphate

0- 46-0 triple-super-phosphate

0-0-48 ( -17 sulphur ) potassium sulphate

etc.

16-21 Date:
16-17 Day
18-19 Month
20- 21 Year

22-26 Rate of fertilizer applied (kg/ha)

V- 6

INDIVIDUAL TREE APPLICATIONS

28 -37 Fertilizer type: See cols. 6-15 above

38 - 43 Date: As above

44- 48 Rate: grams fertilizer per tree or if fertilizer was applied in a band, specify the
rate expressed as grams fertilizer per square metre, etc .

REMARKS

-
49 80 Note any factor that could affect the effectiveness of the fertilization operation
etc.
V- 8

Table V-2. Orchard Fertilizer Application Record form.

 V- 7

ORCHARD FERTILIZER APPLICATION FORM

BLOCK BROADCAST APPLICATIONS INDIVIDUAL TREE APPLICATIONS
TYPE I DATE REMARKS
Spocies NO. FERTILIZER
K 2 O Ca rnMiimT T RATE FETILIZER TYPE DATE RATE
Ca DD YY
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 I I 12 13 14 !5 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 24 25 261128 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38B9 4C 41 4243 4^ 454647 48 4S 50 51 52 53 54 5556 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 6465 6667 68 697C 71 72 7274 7576 77 78 79 80
 V- 9

Instructions for completing the Orchard Fertility Record form

Column
No.

1- 2 Species: 2 letter species codes.

3- 5 Block /field number.

6-10 Nutrient: expressed in the “form” reported

N
. °
P P2 5
K, K 20
Ca, CaO
Mg, MgO
pH
Cation exchange capacity ( C.E.C.)
. .
Organic matter ( O M ) .

11-18 Units

kg/ha, ppm, meq/100g, percent, etc.

19- 20 Soil/ foliage.

Put an ‘x’ in the appropriate column.

21- 26 Date:
Date that the samples were collected.

21- 22 Day
23-24 Month
25- 26 Year

27- 32 Level: the nutrient level expressed in the units defined in cols. 11-18.

33- 44 As per 21-32.

45- 56 As per 21-32.

57-68 As per 21-32.

69- 80 As per 21-32.

V- 12

Table V-3. Orchard fertility record form.

 FERTILIZATION RECORD
ORCHARD : BLOCK :

BROADCAST APPLICATIONS INDIVIDUAL TREE APPLICATIONS

APPLICATION I APPLICATION FERTILIZER FERTILIZER REMARKS APPLICATION FERTILIZER FERTILIZER FERTILIZER REMARKS
DATE METHOD TYPE RATE DATE TYPE RATE PLACEMENT
 VI- 1

APPENDIX VI

TABLES FOR MANAGING ORCHARD FERTILITY

List of tables included:

Table VI-1. PH
Table VI-2. Phosphorus

Table VI-3, Potassium

Table VI-4. Calcium

Table VI -5 . Magnesium

No attempt was made to assemble a nitrogen table because soil nitrogen varies with time of collection,
organic matter content , etc.
VI- 2

Table VI-1. Soil pH ( adapted from Meister 1984a)

Amount of dolomitic lime1 (kg/ ha) required

to raise the pH 1 unit
(assumes a 20 cm plow layer)

Soil pH
texture
3.5-4.5 4.5-5.5 55-6.5

10002 1250 1500

Sand and loamy sand
Sandy loam 2000 3200
Loam 3000 4200
3700 4900
Silt loam
4700 5700
Clay loam

.g , all material passes through a 2-mm mesh and at least half

ndations are for a fine limestone e .
’Recomme
passes through a 0 15-mm mesh . Coarser lime will require higher application rates. Recomme
,
nded for
soils in the classes of podzol, gray -brown podzol, brown forest , brown podzol, etc .
zQuantities rounded to the nearest 100 kg.

Table VI-2. Soil phosphorus. Available P 2O5 calculated for a kg -ha-15 cm.

Amount of
Available p o / triple super Amount of
2 5
P ha-15cm phospate re- P2O5 added
(ppm ) ( kg ) quired (kg/ha) (kg/ha) Comments

10 59 600 276 Do not apply more than 600 kg / ha

20 118 600 276 TSP in 1 yr as a surface dressing .
30 177 500 230
40 236 375 173 May use up to 1000 kg / ha if applied
50 295 250 115 and incorporated prior to planting.
60 354 125 58
70 413 Marginally acceptable P.
80 472
90 531 Ample P.
100 590
 VI- 3

Table Vi-3. Soil potassium. Available K 2O calculated for a kg-ha- 15 cm.

Amount of
Exchangeable K 2SO4 Amount of
K K 20/ha-15 cm required «20 added
meq/100 g ( kg) (kg / ha) (kg ha )
/ Comments

0.05 61.3 300 147 Very low. May require a 2nd appli-
0.10 122.6 300 147 cation. Do not apply more than 300
0.15 183.9 300 147 kg/ ha K 2 S04 in one year as K
0.20 245.2 250 123 leaches readily.
0.25 306.5 150 74
0.30 367.8 100 49 Low K .
0.35 429.2 50 25
0.40 490.5
0.45 551.8
0.50 613.0

-
Table VI-4. Soil calcium. Available CaO calculated for a kg ha-15cm.

Amount of Amount of
Exchangeable CaO dolomitic lime CaO
Ca ha-15cm required added
meq/100 g (kg) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) Comments

0.4 294 3000 1128

0.6 440 2000 752
0.8 587 2000 752
1.0 733 1000 376
1.2 880 1000 376
1.4 1027 1000 376 Marginally acceptable
1.6 1173 1000 376
1.8 1320
2.0 1466
2.2 1612
2.4 1760
2.6 1907

Note: TheCa:Mg ratio should not exceed 10: 1. Therefore the Caand Mg levels should be evaluated together.
The pH of the soil must also be considered before applying dolomitic lime.
VI - 4

Table VI-5. Soil magnesium. Available MgO calculated for a kg-ha-15cm.

Amount of Amount of
Exchangeable MgO dolomitic lime MgO
Mg ha-15cm required added
meq/100 g (kg) (kg/ha) ( kg/ha) Comments

0.1 52 3000 704

0.2 104 2000 569
0.3 156 2000 469
0.4 209 1000 235
0.5 261 1000 235
0.6 313 1000 235 Marginally acceptable
0.8 417 1000 235
1.0 521
1.2 626
1.4 730
1.6 834

Note: The Ca:Mg ratio should not exceed 10:1. Therefore the Ca and Mg levels should be evaluated together .
The pH of the soil must also be considered before applying dolomitic lime.
 VII-1

APPENDIX VII

MIXING YOUR OWN FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers can be mixed in different ratios depending on how much nutrient you want to apply per given area.

These mixes will have the nutrients in the same proportions as commercial mixes. However, LESS total
material will have to be applied to obtain the same nutrient additions than were a commercial mix used.

Advantages of mixing your own fertilizers.

1. It is usually cheaper on a per kilogram nutrient basis, to purchase fertilizers separately and mix your
own than it is to purchase the premixed fertilizers. Commercial mixes use sand or a similar filler to make
up the volume. When you mix your own, you do not pay for fill .
2. You have the flexibility to make different mixes and/or to apply the separate nutrients.

Drawbacks arise because you need to purchase several different fertilizer types ( need to buy in bulk ) and you
.
require the equipment to mix the materials. THEY MUST BE MIXED THOROUGHLY!!!! e. g , in a large cement
mixer.

Examples of how several single-element fertilizers can be combined to produce a desired mix are given below.

Fertilizer type Formula Actual nutrient content

Ammonium nitrate 34-0-0 = 34% N

Potassium sulphate 0-0-48 = 48% K 20
Triple-super -phosphate 0-46-0 = 46% P205

Calculations

1. Start with the fertilizer with the nutrient which has the lowest percentage e.g., ammonium nitrate 34%
( versus 48% K 20 and 46% P2Og).

2. Calculate ratios of the nutrient percentages, i.e., smallest over each of the other two:
34/48 = 0.71
34/46 = 0.74

3. The proportions ( by weight ) of the three fertilizers which must be added to obtain a balanced mix, e.g.
10-10-10, would then be

ammonium nitrate 1.00

potasium sulphate 0.71
triplesuperphosphate 0.74
VIJ- 2

Example I

A 10-10-10 fertilizer contai ns 10% N, 10% K 20, and 10% P 205 and if you wanted to apply the equ ivalent of 500
kg/ha of 10-10-10

500 kg X 0.10 = 50 kg N

50/0.34 = 147 kg ammonium nitrate required to add the same total amount of elemental nitrogen ( N) .

Therefore the mix would be

1.00 X 147 - 147 kg ammonium nitrate

0.71 X 147 = 104 kg potassium sulphate
0.74 X 147 = 109 kg triplesuperphosphate

From the practical standpoint the quantities would be rounded. You would only be applying 360 kg fertilizer
mix whereas with the premixed 10-10-10 you would have to apply 500 kg.

Example II

If you want to apply the equivalent of 500 kg/ ha of 10-10-10

Fertilizer type Formula Actual nutrient content

Urea 46-0-0 = 46% N

Potassium sulphate 0-0-48 = 48% K 20
Triplesuperphosphate 0-46-0 = 46% P205

46/ 46 = 1.00
46/ 48 = 0.96
46/ 46 = 1.00

Ratios

urea 1.00
potasium sulphate 0.96
triplesuperphosphate 1,00

500 X 0.10 - 50 kg N

50/.46 - 109 kg urea required to add the same total amount of elemental nitrogen (N).

Therefore the mix would be

-
1,00 X 109 109 kg urea
0.96 X 109 - 105 kg potassium sulphate
-
1.00 X 109 109 kg triplesuperphosphate

You would apply only 323 kg fertilizer mix whereas with the 10-10-10 premix you would apply 500 kg.

Note: For all practical purposes, the percent nutrient content for these three are close enough that they can
be mixed equally and produce a balanced mix .
 VIII-1

APPENDIX VIII

MONITORING CONE LOSSES

Strobilus and cone pest damage assessments, and instructions for constructing cone life tables. The
assessment codes for insects and diseases include most pest species directly attacking cones and seed of
Maritime conifer species.

Instructions for completing Figure VIII-1, Damage Assessment Form.

Column
No,

1- 21 TREE IDENTIFICATION

1- 2 Orchard Number: Agencies with several different orchard sites or suborchards within a single
complex may wish to assign a 2-digit code to distinguish them.

3- 4 Species: Genera-species code.

Lt Larch, tamarack
Pj Pine, jack
Pr Pine red
Pw Pine, white
Sb Spruce, black
Sn Spruce, Norway
Sr Spruce, red
Sw Spruce, white

Other codes can be developed as required.

5-7 Block

8- 10 Row These entries are used to locate EXACTLY which tree was sampled. This
makes identifying the same tree easier .
11-13 Column

14- 19 Clone / family no.

20- 21 Cone year: The year the strobili first appear.

VIII- 2

22- 26 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

The damage assessment columns are repeated 3 times, e,g„ allows for sampling 3 times in the same
year. For pines, sampling is done over two years, a separate line is used per year.
22-25 Strobili/cone (number): Counts of the numbers of healthy and damaged strobili/ cones ( see
CHAPTER 7 for sampling scheme) , e.g., If 20 strobili tagged
Strobili/cone
number Pest Spp. ID
15 00 00 N
3 01 C1 N
2 01 D1 Y

If desired, more intensive sampling may be done, e.g., conelet tagged individually and its position
noted.
0101 whorl 1 conelet #1
0102 whorl 1 conelet #2
0201 whorl 2 conelet #1
0202 whorl 2 conelet #2

This system applies more to a research study than to operational monitoring. However, the results;
can be used for operations as well.
26 Branch number: If individual branches are tagged, a separate number is used for each.
27- 66 DAMAGE CODE
27- 28 Pest: Number code to distinguish the type of damage ( if any) observed. See Table Vlli-1 for a
suggested coding system.
29-30 Species: A combined letter-number code to identify the pest species ( Table VIII-2) .
.
e.g , A1 Adelges abietis
If more than one pest is found in one cone, then each should (can ) be listed separately and noted in
the comments section. The number of healthy cones is the check to ensure the total is not changed.
31 ID: In many instances, the orchard manager will not be able to identify the insect species on the
.
samples When this occurs the sample should be shipped to the local FIDS office for identification.
The ID code can be used to indicate whether or not a sample was sent to FIDS.
Y - Yes
N - No
A copy of the form for submitting samples to FIDS is given in Fig, VIII-2.
32- 36 Date sampled
37- 51 as per 22-36 above,
52- 66 as per 22-36 above.
67-80 COMMENTS
General notes on developmental abnormalities, etc. Other cross-reference notes should be made
here (e.g., branch damaged after sampling). Agencies can develop their own coding system for
comments, e.g.,
brdam branch damaged after sampling
 VIII-3

Table VI 11- 1. Pest codes.

Pest code Assessment

00 Cones healthy, no evidence of insects, disease or other damage

01 Insects either present or evidence of insect damage

02 Diseases

03 Weather e. g,, frost damage

04 Mechanical damage e.g., damage to shoots, breakage of cone axis

05 Abortion e. g., physiological ( insufficient pollen)

06 Unknown

Table VIII-2. Species codes.

Species
code Scientific name Common name

INSECTS

A1 Acleris variana eastern blackheaded budworm

A2 Adelges abietis eastern spruce gall aphid
A3 Adelges lariciatus spruce gall adelgid
A4 Adelges strobilobius pale spruce gall adelgid (on larch)
A5 Adelges piceae balsam woolly aphid
A6 Aphrophora spp. spittlebugs
A7 Asynapta hopkinsi cone resin midge

B1 Barbara mappana cone moth

CO Choristoneura fumiferana spruce budworm

C1 Choristoneura pinus jack pine budworm
C2 Cinara spp . aphids
C3 Coleophora laricella larch casebearer
C4 Coleotechnites lands larch needle tubemaker
C5 Conophthorus banksianae jack pine tip beetle
C6 Conophthorus coniperda white pine cone beetle
C7 Conophthorus resinosae red pine cone beetle
C8 Cydia strobilella spruce seed moth
C9 Cydia toreuta eastern pine seedworm
vm- 4

Species
code Scientific name Common name

D1 Dasineura canadensis spruce cone gall midge

D2 Dasineura rachiphaga spruce cone axis midge
D3 Dendroctonus simplex eastern larch beetle
D4 Dioryctria abietivorella fir coneworm
D5 Dioryctria disclusa webbing coneworm
D6 Dioryctria reniculelloides spruce coneworm

E1 Ectropis crepuscularia saddleback looper

E2 Endopzia piceana spruce micro moth
E3 Eucosma monitorana red pine cone worm
E4 Eucosma tocullionana white pine cone worm
E5 Eupithecia albicapitata spruce cone geometer
E6 Eupithecia mutata spruce cone geometer
E7 Exoteleia nepheos pine candle moth

F1 Formica spp . ants

G1 Gilpinia hercyniae European spruce sawfly

H1 Henricus fuscodorsanus cone cochylid

H2 Holcocerina immaculella conifer micro moth
H3 Hylemya anthracina spruce cone maggot
H4 Hylemya viarium larch cone maggot
H5 Hylobius spp. root weevils

L1 Lambdina fiscellaria hemlock looper

fiscellaria

M1 Mayetiola carpophaga spruce seed midge

M2 Mayetiola piceae spruce gall midge
M3 Megastigmus atedius atedius spruce seed chalcid
M4 Megastigmus iaricis larch seed chalcid
M5 Megastigmus specularis balsam fir seed
chalcid ( also on white pine)
M6 Mindarus abietinus balsam twig aphid

N1 Neodiprion abietis balsam fir sawfly

N2 Neodiprion nanulus nan ulus red pine sawfly
N3 Neodiprion sertifer European pine sawfly
N4 Neodiprion swainei jack pine sawfly
N5 Neodiprion virginiana redheaded jack pine sawfly

01 Oligonychus milleri spider mite

02 Oligonychus ununguis spruce spider mite
03 Orgyia leucostigma whitemarked tussock moth
 VIII- 5

Species
code Scientific name Common name

P1 Petrova albicapitana northern pitch twig moth

P2 Physokermes piceae spruce bud scale
P3 Pikonema alaskensis yellowheaded spruce sawfly
P4 Pineus pinifoliae pine leaf aphid
P5 Pineus strobi pine bark adelgid
P6 Pissodes strobi white pine weevil
P7 Pissodes spp. root weevils
P8 Pleroneura brunneicornis balsam shootboring sawfly
P9 Pristiphora erichsonii larch sawfly

R1 Resseliella spp. midges

R2 Rhabdophaga swainei spruce bud midge
R3 Rhyacionia buoliana European pine shoot moth

S1 Spilonota lariciana brown larch tubemaker

T1 Tetyra bipunctata shield-backed pine seed bug

T2 Tourneyella parvicornis pine tortoise scale

X1 Xyela spp. xyelid sawflies

Z1 Zeiraphera canadensis spruce bud moth

Z2 Zeiraphera improbana larch needleworm

DISEASES ( FUNGI)

01 Armillaria mellea armiilaria ( shoestring ) root rot

10 Chrysomyxa ledi needle rust

11 Chrysomyxa ledicola needle rust
12 Chrysomyxa pyrolae spruce cone rust
13 Coleosporium asterum needle rust
14 Cronartium ribicola white pine blister rust

20 Endocronartium harkenessii globose gall rust

30 Gremmeniella abietina scleroderris canker

40 Lachnellula wiUkommii European larch canker

41 Lirula macrospora needle cast
42 Lophodermium piceae needle cast

50 Pucciniastrum americanum spruce needle rust

60 Sirococcus strobilinus sirococcus shoot blight

VIII- 8

Figure VIII-1. Damage assessment form.

 vm 7-

TREE IDENTIFICATION DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

co
B DAMAGE B DAMAGE COMMENTS
LLI
<CD o o 5
CLONE /
FAMILY LLKT STROBILI R
A CODE DATE STROBILI eA CODE DATE STROBI 1A DAMAGE
CODE DATE
LLI
0:2 0-
_l
O O 3
NUMBER
/ CONES N
OIJJ ( NO . ) c S
/ CONES / CONES N
SAMPLED ( NO. ) cN I Sp D SAMPLED ( NO.) C PE pS 1 SAMPLEC
O CO m GC o o> H
p D
H s H S
O P P P D
,
I 2 3 4 5 $ 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2C 2.1 22 2324 25 26 27 28 25 30 31 32 3334 35 36 37 38 39 4C 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 46 49 50 5 ! 525354 55 56 5758 59 6061 62 63 6465 66 6768 69 7C 71 72 72 74 75 76 7778 75 80

!
 VIII- 9

Figure VIII- 2. Seed orchard Forest Insect and Disease Survey (F.I.D.S.) sample submittal form.
VIII- 10

SEED ORCHARD SAMPLE SUBMITTAL FORM

( To Accompany Each Sample Submitted For Identification)

A. CORRESPONDENCE TO BE ADDRESSED TO:

Telephone: Collector:

B. SAMPLE (SEND ONLY ONE HOST PER SAMPLE):

Seed Orchard
Host (species)
Type of sample (no.) Soil
Date Collected
Foliage _ Cone
Stock Type: graft rooted cutting _ seedling
other (describe)
Number of ramets /clone or seedlings/ family sampled

Describe how the samples were collected: e.g. for soils-state whether composities were made or just
single cores, depth of soil sample; for foliage-where in the crown foliage was collected, etc...

NOTE: It is recommended that both soil and foliage samples be collected when nutrition, or other abiotic
problems are suspected.

C. PROBLEM:

Percent (or number) of affected trees in affected area:

CONDITION: Describe problem: include information on first appearance, present symptoms, rate of
spread, mortality, unusual problems (such as soil nutrient, water or climate), etc. Be as complete as
possible, include helpful “hints”.

D. DELIVERY: Include submittal form, mark package PERISHABLE and send to: Forest Insect and
Disease Survey, Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes, P.O. Box 4000, Fredericton, N. B. E3B 5 P7.

E. OFFICE USE ONLY: Date received Insect/Disease/Other

Pest ID:
Register No. Culture No.
Receipt ackn’d ( Date): To RFS (Date): _
Date Replied: Phone by Letter by
 vm-11

Instructions for completing Figure VIII -3 Seed Yield form, and examples of cone life tables based
on the
procedures given in Bramlett and God bee (1982) . The data from Figures VI 11 -1 and VIII-3 can be combined in
the computer and all necessary calculations performed.

Instructions for completing Figure VIII-3, Seed Yield Form.

Column
No.

1-21 TREE IDENTIFICATION

1- 2 Orchard Number: Agencies with several different orchards sites or sub-orchards within a
single complex may wish to assign a 2-digit code to distinguish them.

3- 4 Species: Genera-species code.

Lt Larch, tamarack
Pj Pine, jack
Pr Pine red
Pw Pine, white
Sb Spruce, black
Sn Spruce, Norway
Sr Spruce , red
Sw Spruce, white

Other codes can be developed as required

5-7 Block These entries are used to locate EXACTLY which tree was sampled. They
make returning to the same tree easier.

8-10 Row

11-13 Column

14-19 Clone/ family no.

20-21 Cone year: The year the strobili first appear.

22- 34 DATA ON STROBILI

22- 24 Number of strobili (NS ): Number of strobili counted on the sample tree.

25- 27 Number of branches (NB ): Number of branches on the sample tree on which strobili
were counted.

28-30 Total number of branches (TNB): Predicted total number of cone-bearing branches on the
sample tree.
VIII- 12

31- 34 Predicted total number of strobili ( PTNS): If all the strobili on a given sample tree were
counted, then

PTNS = NS,
otherwise
PTNS = NS x TNB/NB.

35-53 ESTIMATING SEED PRODUCTION PER TREE

35- 38 Sound seed ( SS ): Number of sound seed obtained from the cones. Either one line per single
cone or a total for the cones (see 39- 41 below) .

39- 41 Cone number ( CN): This is the number of cones used to obtain the sound seed yield data, e.g,
not all the cones on the sample trees will be sampled and have their seed extracted.

42- 45 Seed potential per cone ( SPPC): This value is the number of fertile cone scales times two, e.g.,
the biological potential per cone. Values for this should be determined for each species and
orchard by counting the number of cone scales in the middle two- thirds of the cone. Few good
seed is obtained from the scales at the top and the bottom of cones. These values should not
vary greatly between clones or families nor between years within a given orchard.

If this information is not obtained, or not known for a given orchard, the following approximate
values can be used.

Species Approx no, fertile

,

scales per cone

Larch, tamarack 8-10

Pine, jack 55-60
Pine, red 25 -30
Pine, white 35-40
Spruce, black 30-35
Spruce, Norway 75-80
Spruce, red 35-40
Spruce, white 35-40

46- 49 Predicted sound seed per cone (PSSC): The PSSC values are determined based on past seed
yield data . For the first sampling year,

PSSC = SS/CN

50- 53 Predicted total number of seeds per tree ( PSPT): Once the total number of strobili on the
sample trees has been determined, a PSPT value is calculated:

PSPT = PTNS X PSSC

 Vill- 13

54- 65 ESTIMATING TOTAL SEED PRODUCTION

54-57 Number of trees ( NT ): This is the total number of ramets or seedlings in the orchard or
orchard block .

58- 61 Cone size ( CS): Number of cones per litre. This value should be determined for each orchard.
Cone size will vary with parent tree, species, and orchard site ( fertility ) .

62-65 Predicted orchard seed production ( POSP): The predicted orchard seed production ( POSP) ,
expressed in thousands of seeds is the cumulative total of all the sample trees. The total count
( PSPT ) is averaged for all the sample trees and then multiplied by the total number of
seedlings /ramets in the orchard.

e. g.,

POSP ~ (( PSPT1 + PSPT2 + PSPTn) /n) x NT

where:

POSP = predicted total number of seeds from the orchard

PSPT 1 = predicted total number of seeds from sample tree 1

PSPT2 = predicted total number of seeds from sample tree 2

PSPTn = predicted total number of seeds from sample tree n

n = total number of sample trees

NT = total number of seedlings/ramets in the orchard.

66- 80 CONE AND SEED EFFICIENCY

66- 69 Predicted cone efficiency ( PCE): The predicted cone efficiency is an expected value for a
given years ’s actual cone efficiency ( ACE). It is not measured but is the best estimate available
based on knowledge of past orchard performance.

We do not as yet have accurate ACE values for Maritime orchards . Cone efficiency values from
the southern U.S. ( Bramlett and Godbee 1982) are as follows:

ACE Level of orchard management.

0.70 + Intensively managed orchards with effective insect control.

0.50-0.70 Moderately managed orchards.
<0.50 Poorly managed orchards or natural stands.

Accurate estimates for ACE will be obtainable only after cone efficiency values have been
measured in an orchard forseveral years. Until thattime, the values from Bramlettand Godbee
(1982) can be used.
VJII- 14

70- 73 Predicted seed efficiency (PSE ): Predicted seed efficiency is the ratio of filled seeds (SS )
to the seed potential ( PSSC) . A similar procedure to calculating PCE is followed.

For the first year of inventory, a "best estimate" should also be used. Again, as there are
no values for Maritime seed orchards, suggested estimates are taken from Bramlett and
Godbee (1982 ).

PSE Level of orchard management.

0.55 + Intensively managed orchards with effective insect control.

0.35-0.55 Moderately managed orchards.
<0.35 Poorly managed orchards or natural stands.

For subsequent years, PSE values should be obtained from the average of previous years.

74 -76 Estimated extraction efficiency (EEE ): The estimated extraction efficiency measures the
percentage of the sound seed removed from the cones.

Orchard predicted extracted seed ( OPES ) ; The OPES is based on the results from previous
cone analyses and is calculated as follows:

OPES = POSP X EEE

77- 80 Seed use efficiency (ESU ); The ESU is a measure of reductions from the total seed potential
which occur at the nursery. The two main sources are;

77-78 1. Excess seed usage (ESU):i.e., two seed sown per cavity without transplanting the extra seedlings.

79- 80 2. Reduced germination ( RG ): It is not reasonable to expect 100% germination, hence this
figure will be less than 1.0.

The ESU is calculated as follows;

ESU * 100/ESU X RG
e.g., two seeds per cavity; ESU = 2
90% germination; RGE = 0.90

ESU = 100/2 X 0.90 = 0.45

The data from these procedures must be collected accurately and regularly if the productivity of an orchard
is to be correctly assessed. When cone life tables (Figure VIII-4 ) have been constructed , measures can be
taken to identify which sources of seed loss are most important, and consequently where to direct
preventative measures to best rectify the problem ( s ) .
VIII-16

Figure VIII-3. Seed yield form.

 vm- 15

TREE IDENTIFICATION
a: DATA SEED PRODUCTION ESTIMATING EFFICIENCY
oo <
CLONE / LJ ON TOTAL SEED
PILLI PER TREE
STROBILI
FAMILY >-
LU
< CDo O z> PRODUCTION P
X o $ LLI P E SUE
O 2 LLJ o J
C S
o NUMBER Z E
gl co CL
CD r
< o o NS
o
NB TNB PTNS SS CN SPPC PSSC PSPT NT CS POSP E E E ESU RG
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 M I 2 I3 |4 15 16 17 18 19 202 ! 22 2324 25262 ? 2E 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 3 E 4 C 4 ! 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 5E 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7 C 71 7273 74 75767776 7 80
‘
 vm-17

100 5%
o,
V20%
Q.
2 80-
o
a;
c
5 60-
o
' o White spruce
A
§ 40-
<v
QL

20-

May July Sept May July Sept

Year I Year 2

100

80-
C
a> 80
o
a)
CL
60-
“O
a>
40
a) 54
cn 5I
o
c
40- B
CD
o
CL

20-

80 % 75 % 90 % 95 %
Cone Seed Extraction Seed Usage
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
( PCE ) ( PSE ) ( EEE ) ( SUE )

Figure VIII- 4. Cone life- tables A - cone efficiency ( survival) , and B - seed orchard to nursery efficiency
(adapted from Bramlett and Godbee 1982).
 XI- 1

APPENDIX XI

REPRODUCTION OF CONIFERS

This publication is available free upon request from:

Canadian Forestry Service

Distribution Centre
151 Jean Proulx
Hull, Quebec
K 1 A 1C7
 IX- 1

APPENDIX IX

LIST OF INSECTICIDES WITH POTENTIAL UTILITY IN SEED ORCHARDS

Taky (1986 ) 1 lists some insecticides and their formulations which are registered in Canada which have
.
potential utility in seed orchards under the pesticide Minor Use Program As most are NOT registered
specifically for use in seed orchards, refer to the compendium of registered pesticides ( Agric . Can . 1984) 2 for
the exact restrictions placed on these chemicals.

The following criteria must be met before a proposal for minor use will be entertained:

1. The pesticide must have been evaluated and registered for other purposes under the Pest Control
Products Act.

2. The use must be for a crop or pest for which adequate pesticides are not already registered.

3. There must be adequate reasons, or experience, to believe that the pesticide will be effective for the
expressed, intended purpose.

All of the chemicals listed in this section meet these criteria for the target insects given. Recommendations are
not given for all insect species on the list ( see tables IX-1, IX-2) .

1Taky, J. 1986. Minor use of pesticides program handbook. Pesticide Information. Special Edition. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch. Ottawa.

Agriculture Canada. 1984. Compendium of pest control products registered in Canada: Control of
arthropods and molluscs. Agric. Can. Pesticides Division, Plant Health and Plant Products Directorate.
1984.
IX - 2

Table IX -1. Insect species listing cross-referenced with ‘potential’ control measures
Code Species Control Codes ( see table IX-2)

A1 Acleris variana
A2 Adelges abietis IV,XII, XV,XVI
A3 Adelges lariciatus
A4 Adelges piceae IV, XV
A5 Adelges strobilobius
A6 Aphrophora spp.
A7 Asynapta hopkinsi

B1 Barbara mappana

CO Choristoneura fumiferana . .
VI VII XII
C1 Choristoneura pinus
C2 Cinara spp. I,IV,V,XII
C3 Coleophora laricella IV, XII,XVI,XVII
C4 Coleotechnites laricis
C5 Conophthorus banksianae
C6 Conophthorus coniperda
C7 Conophthorus resinosae
C8 Cydia strobilella
C9 Cydia toreuta

D1 Dasineura canadensis
D2 Dasineura rachiphaga
D3 Dendroctonus rudpennis
D4 Dendroctonus simplex
D5 Dioryctria abietivorella
D6 Dioryctria disclusa
D7 Dioryctria reniculelloides

E1 Ectropis crepuscularia
E2 Endopzia piceana
E3 Eucosma monitorana
E4 Eucosma tocullionana
E5 Eupithecia albicapitata
E6 Eupithecia mutata
E7 Exoteleia nepheos

F1 Formica spp. III,IV

G1 Gilpinia hercyniae

HI Henricus fuscodorsanus
H2 Holcocerina immaculella
H3 Hylemya anthracina
H4 Hylemya viarium
H5 Hylobius spp.

L1 Lambdina fiscellaria fiscellaria VI,VII,XII

 IX-3

Code Species Control Codes ( see table IX-2)

M1 Mayetiola carpophaga
M2 Mayetiola piceae
M3 Megastigmus atedius atedius
M4 Megastigmus lands
M5 Megastigmus specularis
M6 Mindarus abietinus

N1 Neodiprion abietis
N2 Neodiprion nanulus nanulus .
IV, XII, XIII, XIV, XVI, XVII
N3 Neodiprion sertifer
N4 Neodiprion swainei IV,XII , XVI
N5 Neodiprion virginiana

01 Oligonychus milleri
02 Oligonychus ununguis I,IV,V,VIII,IX,X, XII
03 Orgyia leucostigma XII, VII

P1 Petrova albicapitana
P2 Physokermes piceae IV , VI, XII
P3 Pikonema alaskensis XII,XIII,XIV , XVI, XVII
P4 Pineus pinifoliae IV,XII XV
(

P5 Pineus strobi IV,XI ,XII, XIV,XV

P6 Pissodes strobi XII
P7 Pissodes spp. XII,XVI, XVII
P8 Pleroneura brunneicornis
P9 Pristiphora erichsonii . . .
XII XIII XIV XVI

R1 Resselieila spp.
R2 Rhabdophaga swainei
R3 Rhyacionia buoliana IV,VI, XVI, XVII

S1 Spilonota lariciana

T1 Tetyra bipunctata
T2 Tourneyella parvicornis XII

X1 Xyela spp.

Z Zeiraphera canadensis 11, VI, XII

^
Z2 Zeiraphera improbana
IX - 4

Table IX - 2. Products with potential for insect control in seed orchards.

Compound Formulation Target insects

Name (rate) ( see Table IX -1)

I Acephate ( orthene) 75 SP

a) Hydraulic sprayer 40 g /50 L C3,02

II Bacillus thuringiensis (dipel, thuricide)

a ) Hydraulic sprayer 20 g /50 L Z1

b) Mist blower 45 g/50 L Z1

III Chlordane 40% WP or EC Mix into hills F1

IV Diazinon 50 EC

a ) Hydraulic sprayer i) 70 mL /50 L C2,C 4,02, P4,P5

ii) 85 mL/50 L A2,P2,R3
iii) 115 mL/50 L A 5, N2,N4

b) Mist blower i) 70 mL/10 L C3,P4,P5

ii) 115 mL/10 L A2
iii) 140 mL /10 L N 2, N4
iv) 290 mL/10 L A5
v) 340 mL/10
mL /10
L
L
C 2 F1
P2 R3
.
.
vi) 425
vii ) 570 mL /10 L A5

V Diazinon 50 WP

a) Hydraulic sprayer 70 mL /50 L C2,02

VI Dimethoate 40 EC ( Cygon 2E, 4E Rogor 40) ,

if 2 E used double the
quantity

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 115 mL/50 L C0,L1,R 3, Z1

b ) Mist blower ii) 140 mL /10 L Z1

iii) 570 mL/10 L C0, L1,P2,R 3

VII Dylox 80 SP

a) Hydraulic sprayer 45 g/50 L . .

C0 L1 O3

b) Mist blower 225 g/10 L C 0.L1.O3

 IX -5

Compound Formulation Target insects

Name (rate) (see Table IX-1)

VIII Genite 50 EC

a) Hydraulic sprayer 85 mL/50 L 02

b) Mist blower 115 mL/10 L 02

IX Kelthane 18.5% EC

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 85 mL/ 50 L 02

ii) 140 mL/ 50 L 02

b) Mist blower i) 115 mL/10 L 02

ii) 710 mL / 10 L 02

X Kelthane 18.5 % WP

a ) Hydraulic sprayer i) 25 g/50 L 02

ii) 85 g/ 50 L 02

b) Mist blower i) 110 g/10 L 02

XI Lindane 20 EC

a) Hydraulic sprayer 570 mL /50 L P5

b) Mist blower 425 mL/10 L P5

XII Malathion 50 EC

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 55 mL /50 L P7

ii) 115 mL/50 L .
A 2 C0,C 2,C3, L1,N2, N4,

.
P6 T2 Z1 . .
02,03,P2 P3, P 4, P5,

b) Mist blower i) 140 mL/10 L A 2,02,P3, P4,P5,P8,Z1

ii) 340 mL /10 L P6
iii) 570 mL/10 L C0,C 2, C3, L1, N2,N4,O 2,
03,P 2,T2

XIII Methoxychlor 50 W

a) Hydraulic sprayer 100 g /50 L N2,P3,P 8

IX - 6

Compound Formulation Target insects

Name ( rate) ( see Table IX -1)

XIV Methoxychlor 24 E

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 290 mL/50 L P5

b ) Mist blower 0 170 mL /10 L N 2, P3,P8

ii) 290 mL/ 10 L P5

XV Miscible oil (superior dormant oil)

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 1.13 I/50 L A5

ii) 1.36 I/ 50 L A5
iii) 1.42 I/50 L A2,P4,P5

b ) Mist blower Not recommended

for use

XVI Sevin 80S or 85 W (carbaryl)

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 60 g /50 L N2,N4, P3,P7,P 8

ii) 115 g/50 L .
A 2 C3
iii) 135 g/50 L R3

b ) Mist blower i) 70 g/ 10 L N2,N4,P3,P7,P8

ii ) 185 g/10 L A 2,C3
iii) 680 g/10 L R3

XVII Sevin 50 W

a) Hydraulic sprayer i) 55 g/50 L N2

ii) 85 g/50 L P3
iii) 90 g/50 L P7
iv ) 185 g/50 L C3
v) 230 g/50 L R3

The information in Table IX -2 was compiled from the following sources.

Agriculture Canada. 1984 . Compendium of pest control products registered in Canada: Control of arthropods
and molluscs . Agric. Can. Pesticides Division, Plant Health and Plant Products Directorate. 1984.

Brown, N .R.; Amirault, P. A . 1985. Studies on the biology and control of cone and seed insects of selected
conifers in the Maritime Provinces. Final Report: Contract No: 08 SC.KH209-3-0137 Supply and Services.
Canada ( for Agriculture Canada) 65p.

Canadian Forestry Service - Maritimes. 1985. Tree Pest Control Leaflets.

 X -1

APPENDIX X

GROWTH MEASUREMENT TABLE FOR SEED ORCHARD TREES

Instructions for completing Orchard Tree Growth Measurement Table.

Column
No.

1-19 TREE IDENTIFICATION

See instructions in APPENDIX VIII.

20- 51 NOTES ON TREE DEVELOPMENT

It is important to record the dates of the different stages of tree development. This information can
be “tied-in” with weather data and used for operations such as frost protection ( Determine if the
trees are at a ‘frost-sensitive’ stage BEFORE an expected heavy frost and then assess if frost
protection is necessary ).

20- 23 Year

24-35 Dates of bud flush

Dates at which MOST of the buds have flushed, e. g., for the spruces, bud cap has separated from
the base of the bud .
24- 27 Seed cones

28-31 Pollen cones

32- 35 Vegetative

36- 43 Pollen Shed

36- 39 Start: The first date that pollen is released when the buds / branches are shaken.

40- 43 End: Pollen shed is deemed as finished when the spent pollen cones start to dry out and little pollen
is released when the buds/ branches are shaken.

44-51 Data on seed cone receptivity

44- 47 Start: Bracts are open

48-51 End: Bracts have closed

X- 2

52-58 TREE GROWTH MEASUREMENTS

52- 54 Leader length (cm)

55-58 Tree diameter: Total tree diameter ( mm) at breast height

59- 80 COMMENTS
X- 4

Figure X -1. Orchard tree growth and development measurement table.

/
 X- 3

TREE IDENTIFICATION NOTES ON TREE DEVELOPMENT TREE COMMENTS

-
LJTT
I 1;
ft
o
UJ
y
o
O
5
O
s CLONE / YEAR
FAMILY
BUD FLUSH POLLEN
SHED
SEED CONES
RECEPTIVE
GROWTH

CL
co CD
CC
o NUMBER 9
M D
cf0 VEG, START END START END LEADER TREE
LENGTH D 1 AM
o M M D M D M D M D M D (cm) y in m)
I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I ! 12 13 14 15 16 ( 7 10 19 2C 21 22 23 24 25 2627 2829 3031 3233 34 35 363738 39 4641 42 43 44 45 46 47 46 49 50 51 52 53154 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 6465 66676869 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 76 7960
 XII-1

APPENDIX XII

GLOSSARY

Clone: A group of genetically identical plants derived asexually from a single individual by grafting, rooting
cuttings or tissue culture techniques.

Cone: One of the reproductive structures of conifers. A female cone or seed cone bears seeds while the male
cone or pollen cone bears pollen.

Conelet: An immature female cone of conifers. A young cone from the time following pollination until it has
almost attained full size before maturity.

Contact insecticide: A chemical which is toxic to insect ( s) directly through contact.

Contamination: The introduction of foreign matter that may alter the behavior of material under observation,
e.g ., foreign pollen in seed orchards or in single-tree pollens used for controlled pollination.

Controlled pollination: The transfer of pollen from a known tree to the female strobili of another known tree
excluding any foreign pollen.

Cross (noun): The plant resulting when two plants which are different genetically are control pollinated
[ hybrid ], ( verb ) To cross-polImate [ hydridize ].

Cutting: Detached portion of leaf , stem, or piece of root which is encouraged to form roots thus producing an
entire plant.

Differentiation: See primordium.

Embryo: The portion of the seed resulting from the union of male and female gametes which develops into a
mature plant.

Family, full- sib: The offspring of a single pair of trees, usually resulting from controlled pollination.

Family, half - sib: The offspring of a single tree ( usually female parent) having different parents of the other sex.
A half -sib family may result from open pollination or from controlled pollination using a mixture of pollen.

Family test: Evaluation of groups of open-pollinated seedlings originating from separate plus trees. The
information is used to rogue seedling seed orchards and to indicate superiority of the plus tree if so desired.

Gamete: The single male cell ( pollen ) and female cell (egg) which form the zygote that develops into the
embryo.

Gametophyte: ( in a coniferous seed) Food storage tissue contained in the seed and surrounding the embryo.

Genotype: The entire genetic constitution of an individual.

Genotype- environment interaction: The reaction of trees from different families or clones to various external
stimuli, e.g., fertilizer, climate.

Graft: The completed or successful union of a detached branch ( scion) with a rootstock.
XII- 2

Graft incompatibility: A failure of the scion and rootstock to maintain a successful union due to physiological
factors.

initiation: See primordium .

Megastrobiius: The reproductive structure on conifers which bears seed i.e,, the seed cone.

Microstrobilus: The reproductive structure on conifers which bears pollen i.e., the pollen cone.

Open pollination: Natural pollination effected by wind or insects and not influenced directly by man .

Ortet: The orginal ancestor of a vegetatively propagated clone.

Outcrossing: To mate (cross) unrelated individuals.

Panmixis: Random cross-pollination.

Phenotype: The result of the interaction between genetic make-up of an individual ( genotype) and the
environment . The tree as we see it.

Pollen cone: The male reproductive structure on conifers which bears pollen.

Pollen dilution zone: An area adjacent to or surrounding a seed orchard within which most foreign pollen will
settle out.

Pollination: The act of bringing pollen into close contact with a receptive female strobilus.

Primordium (pi. primoridia): A microscopic mound of tissue (group of cells) at its earliest stage of
development of an organ, e.g., bud primordium, leaf primordium. Two phases of development are involved.
During the initiation phase, the mound of tissue forms. The differentiation stage occurs later when the
tissue develops into a particular type of bud ( vegetative, pollen cone, or seed cone) , or it may not
differentiate and remain latent.

Progeny test: Evaluation of a parent ( or parents) from the performance of its (their ) offspring (progeny ) . The
seed from these tests is usually derived from controlled pollinations.

Progeny: The offspring of a particular tree or pair of control pollinated trees.

Ramet: An individual member of a clone resulting from vegetative propagation .

Rogue: To systematically remove undesirable individuals from a seed orchard.

Rootstock: A seedling onto which a scion is grafted.

Scion: A detached part of a plant grafted onto a rootstock.

Seed cone: The female reproductive structure of conifers which bears seeds .

Seed orchard: An artificial population of trees, isolated to reduce influx of genetically inferior pollen and
intensively managed to produce early, frequent and abundant cone crops.

Seed orchard, clonal: A seed orchard composed of vegetatively propagated trees (grafts /rooted cuttings).

Seed orchard, seedling: A seed orchard composed of seedlings.

 Xll-3

Seedlot: A group of seeds used to describe a collection from a single tree, group of trees, seed orchard block,
etc.

Self -pollination: The pollinaton of a female strobilus with pollen from the same tree or clone.

Sound seed: Those seed full of viable tissue.

.
Strobilus: (pi. strobili): One of the reproductive structures of conifers A female cone or megastrobilus bears
seeds while the male cone or microstrobilus bears pollen.

Systemic insecticide: A chemical, when applied either externally or internally to various parts of a tree, is
absorbed and translocated to untreated plant tissue, rendering the tissue toxic to insects.

Topophysis: A physiological condition whereby a grafted scion continues to grow in a branch- like habit
instead of upright.

Viability: The capacity of a seed to germinate.

The following references were consulted to compile this glossary.

Anonymous. 198 . Management techniques for seed orchards. Ontario Min. Nat. Res., Tree Seed and Forest
Genetics Unit., Draft.

Snyder , E.S. 1972. Glossary for forest tree improvement workers. USDA, For. Serv., South. For. Exp, Sta., New
Orleans.

Wright, J.W. 1976. Introduction to forest genetics. Academic Press Inc., New York.