HISTORY Complete Material EM PDF
HISTORY Complete Material EM PDF
HISTORY Complete Material EM PDF
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Salient features of Indus Valley Civilization: Society and Culture. -Early and Later
Vedic Civilizations; Religious Movements in Sixth Century B.C. –Jainism and
Buddhism. Socio, Cultural Contribution of Mauryas, Guptas, Pallavas, Chalukyas,
Cholas Art and Architecture - Harsha and the Rajput Age.
EXTENT OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The centre of the civilization was in Sind and Punjab in undivided India, from this
centre, the civilization spread towards all direction. In West the last extent is
seaboard of South Baluchistan at the Suktagendor which can be called its western
border. In east Alamagirpur in Uttar Pradesh (District Meerut) can be called its
Eastern Border. In North it extended up to Manda in Jammu & Kashmir and in
south it extended up to Bhagvatrav in Narmada Estuary of Gujarat. However, later
at Diamabad (District Ahamed Nagar Maharashtra) was the site where four
figurines of Bronze on the bank of Pravara River found. This pushed the
civilization's extension in further south. Indus civilization remnants have been
discovered from as far south as Mumbai in Maharashtra State.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Most settlements in Indus Valley Civilization are on banks of rivers.
2. As far as extension is concerned, the Indus civilization was largest of the
four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and
China
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• The second most important feature is town planning. The main features of
town planning were use of baked as well as sundried bricks, well planned
straight roads and a system of drainage.
• Most urban centres had a fortified citadel.
• A house held a kitchen, well or a water reservoir.
• Use of standard weights and measurement has been found throughout the
civilization.
• They used to make pottery on wheels.
• They used to bury the dead.
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT HARAPPA AND MOHEN JO-DERO
1. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are 500 kms apart from each other. These, along
with Dholavira, are called the nucleus cities of the civilization.
2. Harappa, the first discovered site of this civilization was on bank of river
Ravi, while Mohenjo-Daro was on banks of Indus River. Each of them has
two prominent mounds where excavations took place.
3. Notable findings at Harappa are rows of granaries, Citadels, Furnaces and a
crucible to melt the bronze.
4. Notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are the magnum opus Great Bath,
uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the
civilization. This is the site where most unicorn seals have been found.
Mohenjo-Daro is also sometimes known as largest urban centre of the
civilization.
GREAT BATH
1. The most famous building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a great bath. It is a
6x12 meter specimen of beautiful brick work. The water for the bath was
provided from a well in an adjacent room. The floor was made up of bricks.
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2. Floor and outer walls were bituminized so that there is no leakage of water.
There are open porch’s on four sides of the bath. There is use of Burnt
bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but NO use of stone is there.
The largest building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a granary. Then, there was
also a pillared hall for social gatherings.
3. The other notable findings at Mohenjo-Daro are instruments of cotton
weaving, Bronze figurine of dancing girl, evidence of violence and killing,
seal of the mother goddess, the figurine of beared man, the seal of Proto
Shiva, a seal in which a man is sacrificing a woman with his knife.
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT OTHER SITES
Third important centre of the civilization is Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch area.
The site is relatively newly discovered and here the historians found a tantalizing
signboard with Indus script. Dholavira is different from Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro on the account that its drainage system is much more elaborated then these
two cities. While the two cities had two mounds each, leading to conclusion that
there were two citadels, Dholavira had three citadels. Each of these three citadels
of Dholavira was improved than Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and had an inner
enclosure as well. The Dholavira is the largest Indus Valley Site in independent
India. The second largest is Rakhigarhi near Hissar in Haryana. Near Hissar, there
is another site called Banawali where Barley was a common crop in Indus valley
times. The westernmost site Suktagendor is located near present borders of Iran
and it was an important coastal / port town. Another important port town was
Lothal. One more coastal city was Balakot, which is located near Karachi in
Pakistan. The presence of horse has been doubtful in Indus Valley Civilization.
The site where the historians were able to collect some bones of Horse is
Surkotada in Bhuj area of Gujarat. The Kalibangan site in the Hanumangarh
district of Rajasthan has given evidence of both Pre-harappan and harappan
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civilization. Here the historians have found a ploughed field and bones of camel.
The peculiar type of circular and rectangular graves is another feature of
Kalibangan. In terms of town planning, Kalibangan was not as developed as
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira because here we neither find use of
baked bricks nor a drainage system. A different kind of town planning we found
at Lothal; this city was divided into 6 sections and each section had a wide
platform of earthen bricks. Lothal and Rangpur are two sites where historians
found rice husk. The magnum opus of Lothal is an artificial dock. Lothal's dock—
the world's earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati
river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of
Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian
Sea. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads,
gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. A
bead making factory has also been found in Lothal. A seal from Iran has been
found which indicates its link with overseas countries. Then, Lothal is different
from other sites of Indus Valley Civilization in terms of town planning that it has
entry to the houses on the main street while in other sites have shown lateral entry.
The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was
Chanhu Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro. Alamagirpur
was the eastern boundary of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidences say that
this site developed in mature Harappan phase. Kot Diji and Amri were pre-
harappan sites.
1. Not a great deal of knowledge we have because the Harappa script has not
been deciphered.
2. left to right (→→→)
3. proto-Sanskrit or proto-Dravidiani
4. inscriptions are on Seals, copper tablets, bone, ivory but NOT on Bricks.
Religion
1. Unicorn, Pashupatinath, Seven mothers (sapta matrika) and compound
creatures.
2. The later three are now inculcated in Hindu religion.
3. mother goddess was dominant shows that the society was predominantly
matriarchal.
Linga Worship
Stone symbols of both male and female sex organs have been found which gives in
indication that Phallus or Linga worship was in practice.
Tree Worship and other rituals
1. The peepal tree has been depicted on many seals which gives a sense that it
might be a sacred tree.
2. Humped bull was a venerated animal and there are evidences of snake
worship and snake charmers.
3. No temples, No special places of worship, no castes. There are no
indications in the Rig-Veda of any "temples reared by mortal hands” and
consecrated as places of worship.
4. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the
sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Somajuice and
prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and
wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black
aborigines
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Talisman
On a seal is depicted a six-rayed motif which may signify the sun. Swastiks and
cross signs were harbingers of good luck. A shell inlay, shaped like a heart, was
probably used as a Talisman.
Food:
Both veg and nonveg life. There are evidences of cultivation of Wheat, Barley,
Rice, Date, melon, lemon etc. people were cattle herders and used milk and milk
products. There are evidences that people made sweets. Half burnt bones give
evidence of nonveg life.
Dress:
A figure of a bearded man has been found in Mohenjo-Daro which indicated that
they used sewn clothing’s. The cloth used to cover the torso in the upper part of the
body in such as way that it kept right hand Free. There are evidences that they
people took interest in cosmetics and had great aesthetic sense. Men kept long hair
and kept bread or also shaven beard. The people of Indus valley civilization were
aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, antimony rods but NOT hair dyes.
Sports and Entertainments:
The large number of terracotta figurines and toys such as cart, bull, elephant,
monkeys, chariots; whistles etc. indicate that the children entertained themselves.
There are no clear evidences of Music in the civilization; however, the finding of a
dance girl bronze igurine gives some insight about the social entertainment.
Tools, arms and weapons:
They are made up of Copper and Bronze. They were unaware of the use of Iron.
Science & Technology
1. both the concept of numbers and the numerical system originated.
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4. The Mesopotamian records mention the word Meluha for Indus region. The
ancient name of the river Indus was Meluha. Sindhu is Sanskrit name, given
by Hindus (Aryans), who invaded India.
Consumer Affairs
1. weights and measurements. The measures were standardized and perhaps
there is binary system in use.
2. A scale made up of Elephant tusk has been found at Mohenjo-Daro and
Lothal.
Finance, Business and Industry
1. metals including Gold, Silver, Copper, Lapis Lazuli , Turquoise, Amethyst,
Alabaster, jade etc.
2. This economic zone was along the bank of the Sirhind river.
Metallurgy
1. aware of Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Bronze and Tin but did not know
much about Iron.
2. Copper was the most widely used metal.
3. Ganeshwar in Sikar District of Rajasthan is supposed to be the supplier of
Copper to the cities of Indus Valley; however, the largest hoard of Copper
came from Gungeria.
Pottery
1. Harappanwares were shaped on a potter’s wheel.
2. The potters wheels, being made of wood, have not survived.
3. The kilns in which the pots were baked have been unearthed.
4. The heating was skilfully controlled as most of the pottery was carefully
fired.
5. Once the vessel was shaped on the wheels, the ochre was painted over it.
6. Then the designs were painted on this red surface with a brush in black.
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VEDIC PERIOD
THE VEDIC POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE
The Geography in Vedic Texts
Based on the geographical data in the Vedic literature, we can analyse about the
Aryan expansion in India.. The country of Aryans The Aryans used the term Sapta
Saindhavas as the region where they settled down. They used this term in the
context of country. The country of the Aryan was also designated as Aryavarta in
the latter Scriptures. The Rig-Vedic Aryans had not yet established settlements in
the southern India. The Sapta Saindhavas country of the Rig Vedic period was
bounded by the Himalayas and Tibet in the east, Turkistan in the north,
Afghanistan, in the west and the Aravallis in the south. The Ganga and the
mountains of the Vindhya were the barriers not easy to cross in those days.
The Rivers
When the early Rig Vedic hymns were written, the focus of Aryan culture was the
region between the Yamuna and Sutudri (Sutluj), and along the upper course of the
river Saraswati. The Saraswati river is now an insignificant stream, losing itself in
the desert of Rajasthan, but then it flowed broad and strong. Out of thirty-one
river mentioned in the Vedic texts, about twenty-five names occur in the hymns
of the Rig-Veda alone. In the Nadistuti, the Rig-Veda enumerates several streams
most of which belong to the Indus system.
The Mountains
The Rig Vedic people knew about the Himalayas but did not mention about the
land south of the Yamuna, and they did not mentioned the Vindhyas Mountains or
Satpura even. The other hills referred to are Arjika, Mujavant, Silament (Suleman
range), etc., which were all ridges of the Himalayas.
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The Seas
The reference of seas in the early rig Vedic text is doubtful. However, in the later-
Vedic literature, Samudram actually means the sea. There are references to eastern
and western oceans in the Satapatha Brahmana, which indicate acquaintance with
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the later Vedic era.
The Deserts
The Rig Vedic Aryans were not familiar with any kind of desert. However, an
implied reference to Maru as the country of desert mounds near Kurukshetra has
been traced in Taittiriya Aryanka.
Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are
said to be Aryan tribe while the later 5 are said to be Non-Aryan tribes.
In the bloody and decisive battle on the banks of river Parusni, the Bharatas
emerged victorious. The Purus were another very important tribe in the days of the
Rig-Veda. They were closely connected with Tritsus and the Bharatas, and lived
on either side of the Saraswati. The Anus, Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas were the
allies of the Purus against the Bharatas. These five are the five peoples
(Panchjanah) fo the Rig-Veda. The Name Yadu and Turvasa normally occur
together in the Rig-Veda.
Rig-Vedic Period.
Here we must note that the Rajan was the leader of the people belonging to a
particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. This is why he was known as
Janasya gopa or Gopati Janasya. The rajan was one of the equals whose position
was hereditary position generally but there are several reference, which suggest
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that the Rajan owned his office to the choice of the people. The Atharvaveda gives
references for the election of the king by the tribesmen (visa).
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Samiti
The references to samiti come from the latest books of the Rig-Veda showing that
it assumed importance only towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period. Samiti was a
folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business.
It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies and
prayers. References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the
Samiti.
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The Parishad
The early parisad seems to be a tribal military assembly, partly, matriarchal and
partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references lead to the non-Vedic
character of the parisad. In later-Vedic period, it tended to become partly an
academy and partly a royal council dominated by the priests, who functioned as
teachers and advisers.
Patriarchy
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The family was a joint unit and patriarch society and birth of a son was desired
repeatedly. The institution of marriage was established. Status of women was equal
to men and they received the Upanayan samskaras. They studied Vedas and some
of them composed Vedic Hymns. There was presence of practice of polygamy
as well as Polyandry. The eldest male member of the family was known as
Kulapa (protector of the family). The social structure was based on kinship, which
was rather simple. Terms for father, mother, brother, sister, son and daughter
existed distinctly but nephews, grandsons and cousins were known by a common
term naptri. Father’s and mother’s were known by a common term
offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Five women have been mentioned as
composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous.
Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age of 16 and 17).
Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their parents. Some unmarried woman like
Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of
widow remarriage in the Rig-Veda. Marriage as an institution was well.
Education
In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was given orally. Art of writing does
not seem to have developed yet. In the wellknown Gayatri mantra there is a prayer
to savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were women teachers. Many of
them possessed the highest spiritiual knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted
scholars. Rishis who composed hymns founded their own schools separately to
teach their pupils and every person among the vis was entitled to learn Vedic
mantras. In the later-Vedic phase, with the development of varnaasramas,
education began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since Upanayan was
confined to three upper Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education.
Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When teacher was satisfied with the
student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was delivered.
Institution of Gotra
Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening social ties a new relationship were
established between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible that animals were
herded in common and such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired
the character of an exogamous institution.
Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. We have been told that the
Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of drums
and cymbals. Some authors claim that Dhrupad of Indian classical music
originated in Vedic Era. Dancing was common. The chariot race was a favourite
sport and source of entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political
authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin caused by its
addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.
House holding
The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of the
manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all
times and special guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were
given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint, moral purity,
abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some of the virtues. Cleanliness was a
passion. Daily bath, washing of the feet and hands every now and then, and
purifying the atmosphere with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual when ritualism
acquired special significance in the later-Vedic age. It became one of the many
sources of the development of hierarchy and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.
Eating Habits
The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat
and rice where not known to them. Godhuma or wheat is mentioned in several
later-Vedic texts only. Yava was also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. In
later-Vedic times we have evidence of rice (Vrihi), bean-pulse (masa), sesamum
(tila), millet (syamaka), kidney bean (mudga) mustard (sarshapa), etc. Milk, Milk
products and cattle meat was popular. Alcoholic drinks were known and common.
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Soma and Sura are two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer and Soma
was acceptable to Gods.
Dress code
Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called uttariya
and the lower one was known as antariya. The dress for the male and the female
did not differ much.
divided among the families. Cattle formed an important item of donation and it
may also have formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or vis
members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the main medium of
exchange during the Rig Vedic period. The economy was based upon
agriculture. The people were well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting,
threshing and various agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered
but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of
number of Cows and women slaves but NOT in measurements of lands.
protector of men and giver of happiness. This implies that the religion of the
Vedic Aryans was a form of nature worship. There were no places of worship
like temples. Natural phenomena were conceived as the expression of some
spiritual different appearances of various gods. For the different appearances of the
sky different deities were imagined, such as Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Dyus. Most of
these natural events were personified and it was the birth of first mythology in the
world.
world). He is one of the most prominent Devas in the Rig-Veda, and lord of the
heavens and the earth.
Next to the sky, the sun was the most prominent object of the worship of the
ancient Hindus. Aditi was the limitless light of sky, and her sons, the Adityas were
the suns of the different months of the year. Surya was coterminous with Greek
Helios, the Latin Sol, and the Teuton Tyr. Savitri is another name of the same
deity Sun, and the sacred hymn, the Gayathri Mantra, which is still repeated every
morning by pious Hinuds all over world; is a verse dedicated to Savithri. Please
note that Vishnu, which in later Hindu mythology has become a name of the
Supreme Preserver of all beings, was a name of the sun in the Vedic age. The
rising sun, the sun at Zenith, and the setting sun were considered the three steps of
Vishnu striding across limitless space.
Agni:
Fire or Agni was an object of worship. No sacrifice to the gods could be performed
without libations or offerings to the fire, and Agni was therefore considered to be
the priest among the gods. But Agni is not only the terrestrial fire in the Rig
Veda; he is also the fire of the lightning and the sun, and his abode was in heaven.
The early sages Bhrigus discovered him there, and Atharvavan and Angiras, the
first sacrificers, installed him in this world, as the protector of men. Thus, Agni is
the God of fire and acceptor of sacrifices. He was considered an intermediary
between Gods and men. 200 hymns have been devoted to only Agni in Rig Veda
while Agni is mentioned in 218 hymns.
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Maruts, is the Thunder, and in later Hindu mythology, this name has been
appropriately chosen for the Supreme Destroyer of all living beings.
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Visvedevas:
They are various Vedic gods taken together as a whole headed by Indra. 70 hymns
are dedicated to Visvedevas in Rig-Veda.
Ashwins or Ashwinikumars
Light and Darkness naturally suggested to the early Aryans the idea of twin gods.
The sky (Vivasvat) is the father, and the Dawn (Saranyu) is the mother of the twin
Ashwins and the legend goes on to say that Saranyu ran away from Vivasvat
before she gave birth to the twins. There is a similar legend in Greek mythology,
where and Erinnys (corresponding to Saranyu) ran away from her lover, and gave
birth to Areion and Despoina. The original idea is that the Dawn and Gloaming
disappears, and gives birth to Light and to Darkness. Please note that later, Aswins
lost thier original charecter and simply became the physician gods, responsible for
healing of the sick and the wounded, tending mortals with kindness. There are
other twins Yama and Yami, who are kids of same parents - the Dawn and Sky.
They also acquired different chareters in Rig Veda.
Usha
Usha has been described as far - extending, many - tinted, brilliant Dawn, whose
abode is unknown. She harnesses her chariots from afar and comes in radiance and
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glory. She is the young, the white-robed daughter of the sky, and the queen of all
earthly treasures. She is like the careful mistress of the house who rouses every one
from his slumbers and sends him to his work. Yet she is radiant as a bride
decorated by her mother for the auspicious ceremony, and displaying her charms to
the view. Such are the fond epithets and beautiful similes with which the Hindu
Aryans greeted the fresh and lovely mornings of a tropical sky.
Changes in Economy
The life became sedentary and the domestication of animals and cultivation
increased. Cattle were still the currency and principle movable property. The idea
of private possession of lands started taking shape. Ironsmiths, weavers, jewelers,
dyers, potters, are the new classes of artisans. Trade was also boosted. The Gold
piece of specific weight Satamana was used as a currency rate. Use of Gold as
currency is mentioned in Satapatha Brahman. Nishka was another popular
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currency. The other matellic coins were Suvarna and Krishnala. Barter system still
existed. Money lending as a trade was prevalent.
The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from lower Varna was called
“Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of
higher Varna with a man of a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was
NOT allowed in the texts.
New castes by Intermarriage of four castes: Account of Vashishtha
The offspring of a Sudra and a Brahman woman becomes a Chandala.
That of a Sudra and Kshatriya woman, a Vaina.
That of a Sudra and Vaisya woman, an Antyavasayi.
The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Brahman woman becomes a
Ramaka.
The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Kshatriya woman, a Paulkasa.
The son begotten by a Kshatriya on a Brahman woman becomes a
Suta.
Children begotten by Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas on women
of the next lower, second lower, and third lower castes become
respectively Ambashthas, Ugras, and Nishadas.
The son of a Brahman and a Sudra woman is a Parasava.
Four Purushartha
Purushartha refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. The Four
Purushartha of Hinduism are as follows:
Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Today, it
coresponds to religious, social and/or moral righteousness
Artha: material and/or financial means of living
Kama : pleasure including sensual pleasures
Moksha: Liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment
The Hindu Philosophy says that Dharma is the gateway to Moksha.
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Ashrama System:
Four stages of the lifespan of 100 years were not established in the early Vedic era.
They were well established in the later
Vedic era and 4 Ashrams were:
Brahamcharya Ashram: The first 25 years were set for student life
Grihastha Ashram: The age from 25 to 50 years was kept for having a family
and discharging the worldly duties such as giving birth to children and
raising them
Vanaprastha Ashram: Age from 50-75 years was fixed for partial retirement
and living life in forests.
Sanyas Ashram: The last age of 75-100 years was fixed for complete
retirement from the world.
Please note that 4th ashram has not been mentioned in early Vedic texts. The
Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.
Domestic Ceremonies
Garbhadhana (ceremony to cause conception)
Pumsavana (ceremony to cause the birth of a male child)
Simantonnayana (arranging the hair of the pregnant wife)
Jatakarman (ceremony on the birth of a child)
1. naming the child
2. the first feeding
3. the tonsure of the head
4. the initiation;
5. the four vows for the study of the Veda;
6. the bath of completion of studentship
7. marriage
8. and the five sacrifices to gods, manes, men, spirits, and to Brahma
Objective of Garbhadhana rite, was supposed to secure conception.
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14.Gargi was daughter of Rishi Vachaknu and is mentioned in the Sixth and the
Eighth Brahmana of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
15.Atranjikheda is the place where largest deposits of the Iron weapons have
been found.
Comparison of the Harappa and Vedic Civilizations
The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly
archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary
sources.
Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the
Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia.
The Harappan civilization was urban in nature, Vedic culture was rural and
pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by
mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.
In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as
industries were the main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially
postoral and later became based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.
The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better
known to the later-Vedic people.
Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze
culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to
iron.
The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was
not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of
a horse-like animal have been unearthed from surkotada.
Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers,
arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in nature.
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Aryans were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional
arms and armour and had devised a fullfledged science of war.
Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, aditi and a large number of other deities
which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed
sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods. The Harappans wo
rshipped Pashupati, mother goddess, animals , snake and nature. The fire-
altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced
cremation.
Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very
distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW
(painted grey ware).
The Harappans were short statured, black in complexion, Aryans were tall,
well-built and handsome. The Harappans ate all birds and animals including
cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred
Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma
drink.
Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on
woollen garments too.
Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages , Indus script
still remains undeciphered. It was quite clear that Indus people were literate
whereas the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because there
is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.
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BUDDISM
Life of Gautam Buddha
Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme Buddha or
ammāsambuddha or samyaksaṃbuddha. He was born in Lumbini, a little
principality of Kapilvastu in modern day Nepal. His childhood name was
Siddhartha. He was son of Shuddodhana a leader of the Shakya clan. The capital of
this Sakya clan was Kapilvastu and it was not a monarchy but a sort of Republic.
Queen Mahamaya was the name of mother of Gautam Buddha. Hathras district of
Uttar Pradesh was renamed as "Mahamaya Nagar", after Buddha's mother.The
birth of Buddha is celebrated as Vesaka in some countries. In India, it is Buddha
Purnima. Queen Mahamaya died soon after his birth and Maha Prajapati or
Prajapati Gautami raised him. He was a prince so he had lived his early childhood
in luxury. His father wished him to be a great king and so he was shielded from the
religious teachings or human sufferings. However, as a child Gautama used to be
absorbed in philosophical musings. He got married at the age of 16 with
Yashodhara. She gave birth to a Son, Rahula. At the age of 29, while going to
meet his subjects he encountered human sufferings such as old age, death and
diseases. He used to ask his charioteer Channa about these sufferings. He deeply
depressed by the truth that human life is momentary and one has to suffer a lot. He
left his home at the age of 29 years, so that he could overcome old age, illness and
death by living a life of an ascetic. This is called "the great departure' or
Mahabhinishkramana. He first went to Rajgriha Rajgaha or Rajgir. He started
begging alms over there and living life of an ascetic. The King Bimbisara after a
request from Shuddodhana, launched a search and Siddhartha was recognized by
the men of Bimbisara. Bimbisara offered him a throne, but Gautama refused. He
left Rajgir but promised Bimbisara to visit his capital Magadha, later. Siddartha
studied under two hermits Alara and Udaka. He achieved high knowledge and was
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asked to succeed Udaka, but he was not satisfied with the path and his goal so he
refused. The experiments with the life of ascetics could not bring desired fruits for
Gautama. He left the Udaka, and moved on with 5 companions who were led by
Kaundinya. They set out for more austerity. They tried enlightment through total
deprivation of possessions including food. This led him to starving near death
condition, and one day he collapsed into a river and almost drowned. This led him
to reconsider the path. He started moving away from ascetics and moving closer to
meditating and this is called the Middle Path, the path of having oneself away from
extreme self-indulgence and extreme self-mortification. He accepted milk and rice
pudding from a village girl called Sujata. While meditating under a Pipal tree on
the bank of river Niranjana at Gaya, he came across the desired truth, at the age of
35 years and after 49 days of meditating. He was now called Buddha or
“Shakyamuni Buddha” which means the Buddha of Shakya Clan. The first
disciples of Buddha after becoming enlightened were two merchants named
Tapussa and Bhallika. After becoming enlightened, he sought to find his former
teachers Arada and Udaka to teach them, but they had died. He then looked for
Kaundinya and other companions. Gautama Buddha now preached his first
sermon which deals with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, the
core pillars of Buddhist teaching regarding the intrinsic suffering of existence and
how to deal with it. This was called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Kaundinya
& 4 others became the first human beings to be taught Buddha 's teaching and
become an arhat (spiritual practitioner). This event took place at Deer Park near
Varanasi. Two gems of Buddhism viz. Buddha and Dhamma ware now ready. The
five disciples and Buddha formed the first union of Buddhism, which is called
Sangha. So, with the formation of a Sangha, the three gems of Buddhism (Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha) were completed. The reaming years of life, Buddha
travelled many parts of the country, established the Sangha, and propagated his
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teachings. Thousands of people joined Sangha and these Sanghas spread in many
parts. As promised previously Buddha now travelled to Magadha, the capital of
King Bimbisara. During this visit Sariputta(who later founded Theravada tradition)
and Mahamoggallana became Buddha's disciples. Sariputta, Mahamoggallana,
Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples. His ten
foremost disciples were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula,
Mahakaccana and Punna. Rahula was his son, who became disciple at the age of 7.
Buddha's parinirvāṇa happened at Kuśinagara at the age of 80 years.ife
Event Symbol
1. Buddha’s Birth Lotus & Bull
2. The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana) Horse
3. Enlightment (Nirvana ) Bodhi Tree
4. First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan) Wheel
5. Death (Parinirvana) Stupa
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life of moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8 fold path is essential
to prevent the Dukkha.
Concept of Nirvana:
The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism.
Buddhism denied the concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting
rid of Cycle of Death and birth. It is achieved in the lifetime itself and not after
death. To achieve nirvana one should follow moral code of Conduct.
MAURYAN EMPIRE
After Alexander's invasion, India particularly North West region was in a state of
ferment as the people from this region tolerated the blows of the repetitive foreign
invasions. On the other side, the Nandas were not popular because of its
covetousness and greed leading to financial extortions by Dhanananda. These
conditions were offering excellent opportunities for somebody to ride the wave of
popular discontent to verthrow the unpopular rule. Chandragupta Maurya was that
hero, who tried his luck and due to his efforts coupled with his spirit & boldness,
India was politically united for the first time in thousands of years.
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Chandragupta Maurya:
The Purana account says that Chandragupta was a son of last Nanda Monarch
Dhanananda from his Shudra concubine Mura and that is why is name is Maurya.
This account has been rejected as well as accepted by many scholars and has been
quite controversial. As per the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Chandragupta was a scion
of Moriya Clan, which was branch of Sakyas Khatriyas. These Kshatriyas had
received a share in the relics of Buddha. Some other traditions link his an cestry to
peacock tamers. So there is no single theory about the ancestry of Chandragupta.
One thing on which all scholars agree is that he was from a “humble” background.
He is mentioned in the Greek texts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos and
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After death of Alexander, Seleucus, one of the generals of Alexander; became his
successor. He launched a campaign against India in 304 BC to recapture the
territories won by Alexander. He crossed Indus but his mission failed and an
alliance with Chandragupta ended the mission. By this treaty, Seleucus returned
the Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade (Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia
(Baluchistan) to Chandragupta. The alliance was cemented by Chandragupta.
Following were the acts that cemented the ties:
1. Chandragupta gave 500 war elephants to Selucus.
2. Seleucus sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta’s Court.
3. Possibly, there was a marital alliance in which son/ daughter of one was
married to daughter / son of other.
We know about Chandragupta’s empire from the rock edicts and inscriptions of
Asoka and other rulers. The Girnar Rock Inscription gives an indication that his
empire was expanded to the borders of modern Gujarat & Saurastra. In south India
we find Asoka’s inscriptions and edicts, however, there are no evidences that
Asoka or Bindusara conquered these areas. However, some sources say that
Bindusara won the southern areas. Therefore, scholars agree that either
Chandragupta or Bindusara conquered the parts of South India.
Later Life of Chandragupta:
In the later years of his life Chandragupta abdicated his throne in favour of his son
Bimbisara. He became a disciple of Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint. He is believed to
have spent his last years at Shravanabelagola. He is believed to have died by
practicing Santhara at the Bhadrabahu Cave near Shravanabelagola.
Chanakya
Vishnugupta, Kautilya are other names of Chanakya. He was born around 350 BC
and is known for his being the chief architect of Mauryan Empire and writing the
pioneering work in the Economics and Political Science that is Arthashstra. He is
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known as Indian Machiavelli in the western world, which is wrong in the sense that
Chanakya worked two millenniums earlier than Machiavelli. Chanka was his
father's name and Kotil was his Gotra explaining his two names. Chanakya was
identified with Vishnugupta in a verse in his Arthashstra and also in Panchatantra
of Gupta age by Vishnu Sharma. Mudrarakshasha of Vishakhadatta mentions that
he was Dravid. Pali texts say that he was a Brahmin from Taxila.
• Strabo (a Greek Geographer) gives him the name Palibrothus.
• In Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta he has been depicted by names
Piyadamus, Vrishal, Chandrasiri & Kulihin.
• In Mudrarakshasa , Chandragupta has been depicted as a weak insignificant
young man and Chanakya being the real ruler.
• Historian Sir Thomas R. Trautmann has mentioned that Chanakya was born
with a complete set of teeth, which gave a sign that he would become a King.
However, his teeth were broken so he would rule through someone else.
• Chanakya mixed poison to the food eaten by Chandragupta Maurya, now
king, in order to make him immune. Unaware, Chandragupta feeds some of
his food to his queen, who is in her ninth month of pregnancy. In order to save
the heir to the throne, Chānakya cut the queen open and extracts the foetus,
who is named Bindusara because he was touched by a drop (bindu) of blood
having poison.
Arthashstra
Kautilya’s Arthashastra was one of the great political books of the ancient world.
Max Weber recognized it as "truly radical 'Machiavellianism", however it is
wrong because Machiavelli’s The Price (Il Principe) was published in the 16th
century, while Kautilya wrote Arthashstra long before birth of Jesus Christ.
Despite of this Arthashstra is little known outside India.
Arthashstra is divided into 15 books:
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1. Concerning Discipline
2. The Duties of Government Superintendents
3. Concerning Law
4. The Removal of Thorns
5. The Conduct of Courtiers
6. The Source of Sovereign States
7. The End of the Six-Fold Policy
8. Concerning Vices and Calamities
9. The Work of an Invader
10.Relating to War
11.The Conduct of Corporations
12.Concerning a Powerful Enemy
13.Strategic Means to Capture a Fortress
14.Secret Means
15.The Plan of a Treatise
These 15 books though tagged as theoretical by many scholars, have been accepted
as a source to describe the Mauryan Administration.
Bindusara
His son Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta. His other name is Amitraghata which
means destroyer of foes. The Greek scholars write him as “Amitrachates” or
“Allitrochates”. Chanakya served as Prime Minister of Bindusara for some years.
Later, Khallataka became his prime minister. During the initial years of his reign
Bindusara subdued a revolt in Taxila & Avanti. At Avanti, he sent his son Asoka,
the fearsome general and a great warrior right from his childhood to subdue the
revolt. Bindusara had good foreign relations. He was friendly with the Greek King
Antiochos-I and asked him to send sweet wine, figs and a philosopher. The two
things were sent but third "a philosopher" was not sent as the land of the law at
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Greece did not permit. Deimachos was a Syrian ambassador who came in the court
of Bindusara.Bindusara ruled for approximately 25-26 years and his succession
was disputed which ultimately gave India a great king called Asoka.
The Reign of Asoka
Ashokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of
his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts represent Asoka as “wading through a
pool of Blood” quoting that he terminated all 99 of his brothers except his uterine
brother Tisya. The scholars have disputed this. For example, Rock Edict V of
Asoka mentions about his brothers. It may be a falsified version of his bravery by
the Buddhist monks who might have been interested in dark background of Asoka,
who became the gentlest king after his conversion. The Buddhist texts mention his
mother’s name as Subhadrangi. His first wife was a princess of Ujjaini called
Devi or Vedisa. His two other wives were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. Asoka’s
only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was born to Karuvaki. The name
of Karuvaki and Tivara are mentioned in Queen’s edict.
Conquest of Kalinga:
Conquest of Kalinga is mentioned in Inscriptions. Kalinga was modern Orissa.
Asoka’s coronation took place in 269-68 BC and eight years after his coronation he
campaigned for Kalinga. Conquest of Kalinga took place in 9th year of Asoka’s
reign. Its worth note that the Mauryan Empire was probably in friendly terms with
the southern kings such as Cholas and Pandyas. Kalinga was strategically located
in the heart of his territory and that is why his campaign to Kalinga was
strategically important. Once Kalinga was won, there was no much need to win
over further territories. The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It mentions that
hundred and fifty thousand people were displaced, hundred thousand people were
killed and many hundred thousands perished. The vivid description of Kalinga war
is given in 13th Rock Edict. After the war of Kalinga Asoka realized the gravity of
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war and the event had a profound impact on his mind. He vowed to never wage
such war and also directed his sons and grandsons. The 13th Rock edict mentions
Asoka’s remorse after the war and his changed attitude from Dig-vajay to
Dhammavijay. Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign after winning
Kalinga. Nigrodha, a boy monk, inspired him. Later, he met Moggaliputta Tissa,
who ultimately become his mentor. Later his brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also
adopted Buddhism.
Three languages have been used viz. Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic. 4 scripts have
been used Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi. Rest written
in Greek or Aramaic. The Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual. The inscriptions
found in Pakistan area are in kharoshthi script. The inscriptions found in the
eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi
script. In the western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using
the Kharoshthi script, one extract of Edict 13 in the Greek language, and one
bilingual edict written in Greek and Aramaic. British archeologist and historian
James Prinsep decoded
Asoka’s Names & Titles
• Only inscriptions in the Maski edicts refer his name as Asoka.
• Puranas refer his name as Ashokavardhana
• Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions him as Asoka Maurya.
• In Babhru Inscription he refers himself as Piyadassi laja Magadhe (Piyadassi,
King of Magadha).
• He assumes two titles Devanampiya and Piyadassi in his inscriptions.
Devanampriya Priyadarsi, Dhammarakhit, Dharmarajika, Dhammarajika,
Dhammaradnya, Chakravartin, Samrat, Radnyashreshtha, Magadhrajshretha,
Magadharajan, Bhupatin, Mauryaraja, Aryashok, Dharmashok,
Dhammashok, Asokvadhhan , Ashokavardhan, Prajapita,Dhammanayak,
Dharmanayak all are his titles. these edicts. Major themes are Ashoka’s
conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his
moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.
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The spotted and white sandstone was sourced from Mathura. Buff colored
Sandstone and Quartzite was sourced from Amravati.
Major Rock Edicts
1. Major Rock Edict I: Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive gatherings and
killings of animals. Only two peacocks and one deer were killed in Ashoka’s
kitchen. He wished to discontinue this practice of killing two peacocks and
one deer as well.
2. Major Rock Edict II : Provides for care for man and animals, describes about
Chola, Pandyas , Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India
3. Major Rock Edict III: Generosity to Brahmans. Issued after 12 years of
Ashoka’s coronation. It says that the Yuktas (subordinate officers and
Pradesikas (district Heads) along with Rajukas (Rural officers ) shall go to
the all areas of kingdom every five years and spread the Dhamma Policy of
Asoka.
4. Major Rock Edict IV: Dhammaghosa is ideal to the mankind and not the
Bherighosa. Impact of Dhamma on society.
5. Major Rock Edict V: Concerns about the policy towards slaves. He mentions
in this rock edict “ Every Human is my child…”Appointment of
Dhammamahamatras is mentioned in this edict.
6. Major Rock Edict VI: Describes King’s desire to get informed about the
conditions of the people constantly. Talks about welfare measures.
7. Major Rock Edict VII: Requests tolerance for all religions
8. Major Rock Edict VIII: Describes Asoka’s first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya
& Bodhi Tree.
9. Major Rock Edict IX: Condemns popular ceremonies. Stress in ceremonies
of Dhamma.
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10.Major Rock Edict X: Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on
popularity of Dhamma.
11.Major Rock Edict XI: Elaborates Dhamma
12.Major Rock Edict XII: Directed and determined request for tolerance among
different religious sects.
13.Major Rock Edict XIII: Asoka’s victory over Kalinga . Victory of Asoka’s
Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas,
Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is the Largest Edict. It mentions
Kamboj, nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra etc.
14.Major Rock Edict XIV: Describes engraving of inscriptions in different parts
of country.
Separate Edicts
They were found at sites in Kalinga
15.Separate edict I : Asoka declared all people are my sons
16.Separate Edict II : proclamation of edicts even to a single person.
Other Edicts
1. Queen Edict : mentions about second queen of Asoka
2. Barbara cave Inscription: giving away the Barbara cave to Ajivika sect
3. Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Expresses satisfaction over asoka’s
policy
Pillar Edicts:
Asoka’s 7 pillar edicts have been found at Topra (Delhi) , Meerut, Kausambhi,
rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli. Minor pillar edicts have been found at Sanchi,
Sarnath, Rummindei, Nigalisagar.
1. Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people
2. Pillar Edict II: Defines dhamma as minimum of sins, many virtues,
compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity
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3. Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride etc
4. Pilar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas
5. Pilar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some
days and another list of animals which have not to be killed at all occasions.
Describes release of 25 prisionars by asoka.
6. Pilar Edict VI: Dhamma Policy
7. Pilar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma Policy . He says that all
sects desire both self control and purity of mind.
Other Pillars
1. Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asoka’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of
Lumbini from tax.
2. Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: It was originally located at Kapilvastu. It
mentions that Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana
to its double size.
Asoka’s Dharma
In the Bhabru edict Asoka says that he has full faith in Buddha, Sangha and
Dhamma. But he never forced his ideal on people. The Pillar Edict II says:
Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti? Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane,
sace, socaye.
The meaning is: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes)
little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. In his Pillar
Edict VII, he says that all sects desire both self control and purity of mind. In the
Major Rock Edict XII, he directed and determined request for tolerance among
different religious sects. He says that he honors all sects and both laymen and
monks. We can say that Asoka’s Dhamma is a moral code of ethics. Asoka
propagated his Dhamma with zeal and earnestness of a missioanry. He mentions in
Minor Rock Edict I that as a result of his efforts for 1 year (or more) "Human
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beings who were unmixed were cause to be mixed with Gods throughout
Jambudweepa. This was because of his well planned measures such as celestial
Chariots (Vimana), luminous balls of Fire (used for showing light in nights) and
elephants. Asoka abandoned the pleasure tours (vihara yatras) and hunting.
Death of Asoka and Decline of Maurya Empire
Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. His policy of ahimsa partially
contributed to the decline of Maurya Empire. None of the successors of Asoka rose
to his status. His only son who was named in edicts was Tivara and there is a
possibility that he died before his father's death as not much is heard about him
later. Jaluka was one of his sons who is mentioned in Rajtarangini of Kalhana and
became independent ruler of Kashmir. Kunala is said to have reigned for 8 years
but in southern traditions he is mentioned as a blinded person. Ashokvadana says
that Asoka was compelled to abdicate his throne in favor of his Grandson
Samprati who was son of blind Kunala. Samprati was a great patron of Jainism
with his seat was at Ujjain. Another grandson Dasaratha is mentioned in
Vayupurana & Matsya purana, who has been testified by scholars. It is possible
that the empire was partitioned into eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha
getting eastern and Samprati getting western parts. In the last module of history,
we studied about various kings of the Mauryan Empire. The strength and influence
of Mauryan Empire declined so dramatically after Asoka that after Asoka, 6 rulers
of the same dynasty could rule only for 52 years. The
last ruler of the Maurya Dynasty was Brihadrath who around 185-184 BC was
killed by his own Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga and thus a new
“Shung Dynasty” started.
Reason of Decline of Maurya Empire
There are several reasons of declining of the Mauryan Dynasty. Some of them are
as follows:
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1. Immediately after the death of Asoka, the Mauryan dynasty was partitioned
into two parts viz. east and west. This partition disturbed the unity of the
empire.
2. The successors of Asoka were weak rulers and they appeared to not been
able to handle the highly centralized tradition of domestic policy of the early
Mauryas.
3. Some scholars say that pious policy of Asoka was responsible to the decline
of the empire as it undermined the strength of the empire. Some scholars
contradict this theory because Asoka only left policy of annexation but never
dissolved or weakened his army.
4. Some scholars say that a Brahminical revolution was a reason of decline;
however it is not accepted because Asoka, though patronized Buddhism, but
never forced his religion on others.
5. Some scholars say that there was a pressure on Mauryan economy, which is
evident from the low quality punch marked coins in the later Maurya period.
However, this idea is not adopted because foreign accounts give details of a
flourished economy.
6. Some scholars such as Romila Thapar say that Mauryan administration was
highly centralized and only a prudent ruler could handle this machinery.
7. Some scholars hold the oppressive policy of the later Mauryan for decline of
the empire.
8. Whatever may be the reason, one thing is clear that Maurya Administration
was Highly centralized administration.
13.Suradhyaksha (Excise)
14.Navadhyasksha (Shipping and maritime)
15.Mudradhyaksha (Government documents)
16.Pattanadhyaskha (Ports)
17.Lakshanaadhyaskha (Mint)
18.Samstha (Trade Routes )
19.Other departments
The Gudhapurusha or Spies
There was a well knitted espionage system in the Mauryan administration. The
detectives were known as Gudhapurushas. As per the Arthashastra, there were two
kinds of spies viz. Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). These spies
were ears and eyes of the King, who kept the king informed about all the details of
the bureaucracy. The agents included householders, merchants, disciples, ascetics,
poisioners, Poisonous girls which were called “Vishkanyas”. The ambassadors who
were appointed in the foreign countries were also sort of spies.
The Army:
The overall in charge of the Mauryan army was Commander in chief, who was
immediately junior to the King. He was appointed by the king. The army included
6 Lakh infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 war elephants, 1000 chariots and other
things such as transport equipments. There was a War Council, which was further
divided into 6 sub-councils each with 5 members which formulated policy for
infantry, cavalry, elephant forces, chariots, navy and commiserate. Navy,
Transport in forces and commiserate were Mauryan innovations.
Transport
There was a separate department of road. The width of the cattle tracks,
pedestrians, chariots and other traffic were different. There were trunk roads which
were managed by the department of Roads. Trees were planted on both sides of the
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roads. Inns were constructed at places on the road. Nurseries and drinking water
facilities such as wells, canals were provided
The Agriculture:
1. King
2. Viceroys
3. Council of Ministers
4. Heads of Departments
5. Subordinate
6. Civil Service
7. Rural Officers
8. Mantriparishadaddhyaksha
9. Purohita (High Priest)
10.Senapati
11.(Commander in Chief )
12.Yuvraj (Heir Apparent)
13.Amatyas Civil Servants
Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department. There was full-fledged
irrigation department as well. There was a network of canals which provided the
water for irrigation as per the measurements of the land i.e. requirements.
Pushyagupta, who was a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya, constructed
“Sudarshan Lake” at Girnar in Gujarat. Rice of different verities was grown,
Kondrava was a kind of coarse grain. Wheat, Pulses, Saffron, Mustard, Linseed,
Sesamum etc. were grown.
Royal art and popular art. • The Yaksha image from parkam and Yakshini Image
from Besnagar are examples of Popular art. While, the pillars are example of Royal
art. Asoka erected a Pillar to mark the spot in Deer Park Sarnath near Varanasi,
where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma and where the Buddhist Sangha
was founded. It has four lions standing back to back. The four lions symbolize the
Power, Courage, Pride and Confidence and rest on a Circular abacus, which is
girded by four animals. These four animals viz. Lion, Elephant, Horse, and Bull
are the guardians of four directions viz. North, East, South and West respectively.
The Chakra with 24 spokes has been chosen to be placed at the center of the Indian
Flag on 22 July 1947. The Chakra symbolized Dhammachakraparivartan.
Census
There was a proper system of census, which registered all the details of the deaths
and births. Nagarika was the census officer who was responsible to keep a ready
reference data of the farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that
proper tax is levied.
Public health:
There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (Doctors) appointed along with a team
of midwifes, nurses etc. Treatment was free universally. Food adulteration was a
punishable offense which invited a death sentence.
Crimes and Judiciary:
Suppression of crimes, maintenance of peace and protection of the subjects were
the chief duties of the King. The antisocial elements were called “Kantakas”.
There were two kinds of courts “civils” and criminals. The civils courts were
Dharmastheya and the Criminal Courts were “Kantakashodhna”. The idea of
Kantakashodhna was to weed out the antisocial elements. The king was the source
of Supreme Justice. Death Sentences were common and Asoka’s edicts detail that
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he gave additional time to the persons under the Capital punishment to offer
donations and repent so that they get a better life in next birth.
Economy: Revenue & Taxes
There was an advanced concept of "responsibility accounting' which envisaged a
preparation of budget and activity planning, reporting on the revenue and
expenditure, responsibility for both the revenues and expenditures. The “full
treasury” was guarantee to the prosperity of state says Arthashastra. Treasury
received revenues from farms, mines, forests, pasture lands etc. Tributes were
received when a prince was born. Chief source for revenue was “land tax”. It was 1
6 to 1 4 of the total produce and it was collected by the revenue officers. The more
productive lands and irrigated lands invited more tax. All craftsmen (except royal)
and traders paid taxes. Taxes were of two kinds viz. Bali & Bhaga. The Bali was
religious tribute. Bhaga was the part of the produce. Asoka edict says that Lumbini
was exempted from Bali and Bhaga was reduced to 18 parts of the reduce. Bhaga,
which was 1/6th of the produce, was called shadbhaga (6th part) or Rajbhaga
(state part). Maintenance of the Royal palaces, members, ministers and public
welfare were the main avenues to use the revenue.
Foreign Trade:
Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it was regulated by
passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded property.
Antiochus I with his joint rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather
than the Attic Standard. This shows that the Mauryan Economy was world’s
largest economy and the currency of Mauryas was accepted Worldwide and
was main currency of those time. The trade routes were called Vanikpatha.
Provincial Administration:
The Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces (probably). They were as
follows:
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a. The Northern Province Uttarpatha was having its capital at Taxila and some
mandals were Shakal, Kandhar and Saurastra.
b. The Southern province Dakshinpatha’s capital was Suvarngiri. The eastern
Prachyapatha was having its capital at Toshali near Kalinga. Magadha was
the Central province & Capital of the entire kingdom.
c. The provinces were administered by either a prince or a member of the royal
family which was the viceroy of the king.
District Administration:
• Each district was administered by three officers’ viz. Pradeshika, Rajuka, &
Yukta.
• Pradesika was senior and Rajuka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to
both of them.
• It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year and collect
details of the administration.
Village Administration:
Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama. The head of the
grama was a Gramika. The Gramika was not a paid employee of the government
but was elected by the village people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by
a Gopa and 100 villages were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Gramika in Open
Panchayats solved most disputes.
Important Observations
The Insignificance of Coins
About the Mauryan Empire, we know from the literary sources, Epigraphic
Sources and Foreign Accounts but the Numismatic Sources are least significant
because the coins were punch marked and not beard much details. The coins
became a major source of historic information only much later after Mauryas.
The Maski Edict revealed name of Asoka
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Magadha Empire under Asoka was extended from the foot of the Hindu Kush to
the borders of the Tamil country. After the Kalinga war, Asoka became a monk
and expansion of Buddhism in other countries took place during his time. None of
the later Mauryas was efficient to keep such a vast empire intact. The sources of
history after Mauryas are scant. There was no account left by Kautilya and
Megasthenes about the later Mauryas. Our knowledge about the later Mauryas is
based upon Puranas, Jain and Buddhism texts. Different Puranas give different
accounts of Asoka’s successors. The account given by Vayu Purana says that
Kunala succeeded Asoka while the Matsya Purana says that Suyasas succeeded
Asoka. Nevertheless, all Purana accounts as well as Harchacharita of Banabhatta
says- that the last Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was a weak ruler
and his Senapati Pushymitra Shunga while a parading the entire Mauryan army
before Brihadratha to show him the strength of the army assassinated him and this
was the end of the Mauryas.
The Shungas, Kanvas and Mahameghavanas Shunga Dynasty
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around 185-183 BC. Capital
of Shunga Dynasty Was Pataliputra and its major centers were Ujjain, Mathura,
Saket, Sanchi, and Kapilvastu. Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers. West
Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa, Chhattisgarh and
Madhya Pradesh. In South India, the contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were
Saatvahanas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.The extent of Saatvahana was modern
Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala
(Cheras derived from Keralaputra).
Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC)
Pushyamitra Shunga was the founder of the Shunga dynasty.He was viceroy of the
Mauryas at Ujjain and was a real war hero. He was not happy with his king
Brihadratha, who failed in containing the Yavanas and attacks from the western
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sides. He is credited to repulse the two attacks of Greeks and also conquest over
Vidarbha. The first of these attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by
Pushyamitra Shunga, was under Demetrius and another was under Meander.
Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the Kalinga’s king Kharvela conquest.
Some evidences say that Pushyamitra Shunga destroyed many stupas of
Asoka. However, there are also evidences that Barhut Stupa was built during the
Shunga Empire only. His son Agnimitra succeeded Pushyamitra.
Agnimitra and later Shungas
Agnimitra was the second king of Shunga dynasty, who succeeded his father
Pushyamitra Shunga. He had a short reign of 8 years.He is the hero of
Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which he has been referred to as R aja. By the
times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become independent of the Maurays. Agnimitra
was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC.Who succeeded Vasumitra , not much
details are available. Different accounts mention the name of different kings such
as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra. The last rulers of Shunga dynasty
were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have some details.
Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC)
We know about the king Bhagabhadra by a Heliodorus pillar, which was found in
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh near modern Besnagar.Heliodorus was a Greek
ambassador and he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu).The Heliodorus
pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.
Devabhuti (87-73 BC)
Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own minister
Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. Vasudeva Kanva thus assassinated the last ruler
of Shunga Dynasty and founded the Kanva Dynasty.
Kanva dynasty
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Vasudeva Kanva killed the last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty. The Kanvas were
Brahmins and considered themselves as descendents from Rishi Kanva. At the
time of Vasudeva Kanva’s accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as
the Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the Gangetic planes was
under different rulers. One of the Shunga rulers named Sumitra; who rules around
133 BC, was killed by Muladeva. Muladeva founded the independent Kosala
Kingdom. Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva. Bhumimitra after reigning for 14
years was succeeded by his son Narayana, who was succeeded by Susharman.
Much detail about these kings has been ascertained only based on Numismatics.
Only these four kings of the Kanva dynasty are known. This dynasty is said to
have been overthrown by the Satavahana dynasty.
Mahameghavahans of Kalinga
After the decline of Mauryas, Kalinga rose to power around 1st century BC in the
area of modern Odisha. We best know about the Third ruler of this dynasty, named
‘’ Kharvela’’. Kharvela is known to have revived the past glory of Kalinga.
Kharvela (209-170 BC)
King Kharvela belged to the epic time Chedi dynasty. His capital was
Kalinganagara. We know about Kharvela from Hathigumpha inscription, found
in a cave in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar. Kharvela reinstated the army and
military of Kalinga. Kharvela led successful campaigns against the kingdoms of
Magadha, Anga, and Satavahana. The Kalinga Kingdom was expanded till Ganga
to Kaveri from north to south by Kharvela.Kharvela was a Jain follower, but
despite being a Jain follower he never hesitated in warfare.He patronized the Jaina
ascetics by making provision for their maintenance, constructing the
house/dwellings.
Hathigumpha inscription
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of ‘’ maharaja mahatma ‘’ and his coins are bearing the images of Indian deities’
viz. Shiva, and Buddha. He used Greek and Kharoshthi in coin legends. The
famous Taxila Copper Plate is ascribed to him as Moga Inscriotion. It was
found in area of Taxila in modern Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a precise data
and it is written in Kharoshthi. Taxila Copper Plate mentioned about the dedication
of a relic of the Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist monastery by the Shaka ruler
Patika Kusulaka. Patika Kusulaka is also mentioned in Mathura lion capital.
Azes-I & Azes II
Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara, they
were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the Jhelum river
in eastern Punjab. Azes-I put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India. He
annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long resistance. In 58
BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in India.
Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II. There are some
coins issued jointly be Azes-I and Azilises and jointly issued by Azilises and Azes
II. Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last
Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas. Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana
Empire in North West India.
The Satrap system
The pressure from the Parthians (Iranians) and later from Kushanas, the Shakas got
divided into 5 branches with their different seats of power at different places in
modern Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. These rulers were known as satraps and
Mahasatraps. Thus, Shakas are known to have proliferated the Satrpa system. The
Satrap system was directly influenced by the Achaemenid and Seleucid
administrations. The satraps were in Kapisa in Afghanistan. Taxila in western
Punjab, Mathura, Ujjaini and upper deccan.
Kapisa satraps
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The Moga inscription or copper plate mentions two names Liaka Kusulaka and
his son Patika Kusulaka. They ruled Chuksha and Pusha Pura. Patika Kusulaka
had adopted the title of “Mahadandapati”. Both of them were straps under Moga.
Mathura satraps
First known satraps of Mathura are Hagana and Hagamasa. One of their
successor named “Rajuvula” has been mentioned as Mahasatrapa in the Mora
inscription , that was found near Mathura. Other satrapas are Sodasha, Sivadatta,
and Sivaghosha. The coins of the Mathura Satraps have been engraved with
standing image, which resembled Laxmi and Three Elephants.
Satrapas of Western India
First known satrapa in the Western India was Bhumaka, who ruled in Saurastra.
Bhumaka’s successor Nahapana was an important ruler of the Western satrapas.
Some sources say that Nahapana was son of Bhumaka. Bhumaka has been
discussed in the Periplus of Erythrean Sea.
Ujjain Satrapas
Founder of the Ujjaini Satrapa is considered Castana or Shastana or Chastana.
Chastana is considered to have won a battle against Saatvahanas. Chastana used 3
scripts viz. Greek, Kharoshthi and Brahami, in his coin legends. He has been
mentioned as Tiastenes of Ozene (Chastana of Ujjain) in Ptolemy’s Geography.
Rudramadaman-I
Chastana’s son was Jayadaman and grandson was Rudradaman. Rudradaman was a
great figure. His exploits are described in the Junagarh Rock inscription dated
Shaka Year 72, which means 72+78 = 150 AD. (Christian era +78 = Shaka Era).
He represents himself as a Mahasatrapa. The Junagarh rock inscription says that
he was chosen as a protector by all castes and thus adopted the ‘’Mahasatrapa’’
title. He defeated Satvahana king “Saatkarni” for two times and thus is considered
to be the greatest of the Shaka rulers. The long rivalry between Rudradaman and
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Saatkarni was tried to be done away with the family relations (probably
rudraman’s daughter was given in marriage to the Satavahanas), but this could not
stop the enmity between them. In one of the wars, Saatkarni’s life was spared
because of the family relations. Rudradaman conquered Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat,
Konkan end Yudehas of Rajputana.Rudradamana is known to be good in
knowledge of Grammar. The successors of Rudradaman ruled till the end of the
4th century AD and finally lost their power to the Arab Chieftains. Junagarh
Rock Inscription credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and
Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam built by the Mauryans. This refers to the
repair of Lake Sudarshana, which was constructed by Mauryas probably to contain
the floods.
Yavanesvara
Yavanesvara was a Greek writer who translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to
Sanskrit. It had influenced astrology in India. This work was done in the times of
Rudradaman.
Indo-Parthian Kingdom
Indo-parthian kingdom is also known as Gondopharid Dynasty. This dynasty
ruled Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, during the 1st century AD.
Parthians were some Iranian tribes and in this tribe, the kings assumed the title
Gondophares. Gondophares-I seems to be the first rulers. Since the Parthians
lived with Scythians for quite a long time, the features on coins mix up a lot. After
the Gondophares, The Indo-Parthian rule in India ended and soon Kushanas
overpowered them.
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The Rabatak inscription mentions that Vima Kadphises was son of Vima Takto
and the father of Kanishka. He was one of the most important kings of the Kushana
Empire who is best known for issuing large number of Gold Coins. Vima
Kadphises was probably the first to introduce the Gold Coins in India in
addition to the Copper and Silver coins. This testifies the prosperity of the
Kushana Empire. Vima is also known to have maintained the Silk Route and
trade with all sides including the China, Alexandria, and Roman Empire.
Kanishka I
Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kushana Empire and is known for his
military prowess.His main capital was Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional
capitals were Taxila (Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India).
His date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that Kanishka was
the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78. This has been mentioned as Saka kala or
Saka Nripa kala, probably because he was thought to be a Shaka. Under Kanishka,
Kushana Empire reached its climax and it extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to
Mathura and Kashmir. As per the Tibetan Sources, Kanishka is considered to have
conflicted with the Pataliputra and Saket and had taken Aśvaghosa, the Buddhist
Monk to Purushpura. A city kanishkpur in Kashmir is also connected to
Kanishka. Kanishka conflicted with Chinese general of King Han Ho-ti, the
emperor of Han Dynasty and defeated him in second attempt. He is also known to
have subjugated the rulers of Khotan, Yarkand etc. and is considered to have
established a great kingdom only after the Mauryas in India. He was a patron of
Buddhism and convened the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of Kashmir
(or may be in Jalandhar) in 78 AD. Vasumitra headed this council and it marked
the collection of Buddhist texts and engraving of the commentaries on Copper
sheets. Some scholars are of the view that the Abhidhama Mahavishasa was
prepared in the fourth Buddhist council. Some of the scholars in the Court of
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Buddha's curls were altered into wavy hair. The Buddha or Gandhar art is
sometimes very thin, which is opposite in Mathura art. It looks like the
Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky
Mathura Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan
image. The result of this synthesis ennobled, refined, and purified the Buddha
image that appeared in the Gupta period. This Gupta style became the model for
Southeast Asian Buddha images. Gandhara School was based on Greco-Roman
norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as
Graeco-Buddhist School of art. The foreign influence is evident from the
sculptures of Buddha in which they bear resemblance to the Greek sculptures.
Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist to be precise) is used in Gandhara School
of Art. The Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were the example of the Gandhara
School. The other materials used were Mud, Lime, Stucco. However, Marble was
NOT used in Gandhara art. Terracotta was used rarely. Bimaran Casket has
yielded the earliest specimen of the Gandhara Art.
The Mudras of Buddha
The Buddha later evolved in various themes. One important theme is the Thai
culture’s Sukhotai period Buddha (c. 1240– 1438). The Sukhotai-style image is
known for Thailand's two most known styles viz. Maravijay or Bhumisparsha
Mudra and Abhayamudra. In the maravijaya seated posture where the Buddha
extends his right hand to touch the earth—a gesture known as bhumisparsa-
mudra—signifying the defeat of Mara, lord of darkness, and the walking image
with the abhaya-mudra (gesture of fearlessness and reassurance). In all the Buddha
depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this
is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:
• Abahayamudra : Don’t fear
• Dhyanamudra : meditation
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9. Kujala Kadphises and Kanishka-I adopted and patronized the Buddhism, but
Vima Kadphises adopted Shaivism and was a Shiva Devotee.
10.The 4 important schools of Jainism viz. Kottaka, Varana, Aryayudikiya and
vesavadiya have been mentioned in the Epigraphic Records of the Kushana
Period. 9. Satavahana Empire
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Kanha was the second ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty. He extended the empire to
further south. He was succeeded by Simuka’s son Satkarni-I.
Satkarni-I
Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great ruler among the
Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of his queen and he has been
described as the Lord of Dakshinpatha. Kanha extended the empire to further
south, Malwa and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and Rajsuya
Yajna.
Satkarni II:
Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana Dynasty and date of his
accession is considered to be 166 BC. He has been mentioned in the
Hathigumpha inscription of the kharvela, in which he is depicted as enemy of
Kharvela. In this inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela disregarded Satkarni
and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry. Satkarni II was
succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka and some other rulers like Hala.
Hala:
Hala was one more great king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King of the
Satavahana line. He had compiled the "Gatha saptasati" or Gaha Sattasai which
mainly a text on love theme. Gatha saptasati is in Prakrat. He is also mentioned in
another text Lilavati. These rulers were small rulers only and are considered to be
under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The
expansion of the Satavahanas was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas
pushed them southwards and the western Deccan was occupied by the Shaka King
Nahapana.
Gautamiputra Satkarni (Reign 78-102 AD)
Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described as the Destroyer of the Shaka, Pahalava
and Yavana Power revived the lost power of Satavahana. Gautamiputra Satkarni is
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known to have made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His mother
Gautami has mentioned his achievements in the Nasik Inscription. His empire
extended from Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha,
Western Rajputana, Saurastra and even Kalinga. Nasik Prasasti describes
Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and
Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He assumed the title of raja-
raja and Maharaja. After Gautamiputra Satkarni, the Puranic inscription name
other Satavahanas such as Pulumayi, Sri Satkarni, Siva Sri, Sivaskanda Satkarni ,
Madhariptra Sakasena, Sri Yajna Satkarni. One more important is Vasithiputra
Pulumayi-II.
Pulumayi-II
Pulumayi-II is known as Vasithiputta or Vashishthi Putra Satkarni. He was son of
Gautamiputra Satkarni and was an efficient king like his father. He extended the
power of Satvahanas to further south and it was now extended up to Bellary district
of Modern Karnataka. The Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions that
Rudradaman defeated the Dakshinapathpati Satkarni twice, but did not kill him
because of the close family relationship. This has been corroborated as “that
Pulumayi-II was married to daughter of Rudradaman. (However, there is confusion
in this)Pulumayi-II has been described in largest number of inscription and this
proves that he had a vast empire. In the evening of Pulumayi-II ‘s life, the Shakas
revived under Chastana. The last Satavahana Ruler was Pulumayi-IV. Not many
details have been found about him except that he built a tank in Vepura.
Saatvahana Empire: Observations
Satavahanas are considered the flag bearers of Aryanism to Deccan. They were
the first Native Indians who had issued the coins with portraits of their kings. All
the coins of Satavahanas used Prakrit dialect and also on backside the southern
language (Telugu or Kannada). Prakrat seems to be the official language of
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GUPTA EMPIRE
The one century gap between the extinction of Kushana & Satavahanas (around
220-230 AD), till the rise of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty a century later, is known
to be one of the darkest in the whole of history of India. After the disintegration of
the Mauryas, the Kushanas kept the North united and Satavahanas kept the Deccan
united. Further south there were three Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. In north, the
Malvas, Yaudheyas, Kunidas etc. contributed to the extinction of Kushanas and in
Deccan, the Vakatas and Ikshwaku contributed to the death of Satavahana dynasty.
This dark period of one century was followed by a dawn of classical age which is
also known as the Golden Age of Indian History. The classical age refers to the
period between 320 AD to 550 AD when India was united again under the Gupta
Dynasty. This period marks the crystallization of Hindu Culture and known for
developments in all walks of life including the science, technology, engineering,
art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy.
The founder of this dynasty was Sri Gupta. But there were other early Guptas
mentioned in many inscriptions such as Shiva Gupta in Nasik Inscription and
Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. The origin of Gupta is shrouded in mystery.
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A.S. Altekar Gupta were vaishyas as the ancient texts mention that the surname
ending with Gupta were Vaishyas.
Dr. H C Raichaudhury Guptas were Brahmins
R C Tripathi Guptas were Brahmins
Dr. V Upadhyaya, Hira Chand Ojha Guptas were Kshatriyas
K P Jayaswal & Dasharatha Sharma Guptas were Jats and same Gotra still exists
in Rajasthan
R C Mazumdar Guptas were from Ikshwaku Clan
D. R. Regmi They are closely related to the Abhira Kings of Nepal.
The Kshatriya Origin of the Guptas has been maintained on the account that
Chandragupta II wedded to a princess named Kumara Devi, who belonged to
an ancient Licchhavi clan. The Licchhavi clan was celebrated during the period of
Bimbisara and Ajatshatru but for next 9 centuries the history is lost. Therefore, it is
the marriage of Kumaradevi with the Chandragupta II, which has been the basis of
arguments that Guptas were Kshatriyas.
Sri Gupta (240-280 AD)
Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. The details about the Sri-Gupta,
the first ruler of the Gupta Dynasty come from the accounts of ITsing who came to
India in around 690 AD. Sri Gupta has been identified with Che-li-ki-to of ITsing,
who as per his details, had built a temple 500 years back from is visit for Chinese
Pilgrims. Some of the scholars are of the view that Sri-Gupta was a feudatory of
the Kushanas.
Ghatotkacha: (c. 280-319 A.D.)
Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he succeeded him after his death. Not many
details are available about Ghatotkacha.
Chandragupta I (c. 319-335 AD)
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of Jaydev-I that is 320 AD. from Himalaya to Narmada in south and he subdued
the Shakas and Kushanas. The dominion under the direct government of
Samudragupta in the middle of the 4th century was thus comprised of all the
populous and fertile areas of the Northern India. He established diplomatic
relations with the Kushana Kings of Gandhar and Kabul and also the Buddhist king
of Ceylon. In 330 AD, Meghavarna, the Buddhist King of Ceylon had sent two
monks, one of whose was his brother to visit a monastery built by Asoka. But they
got scant hospitality and returned with complaints. Later, Meghavarna sent a
mission laden with gems and gifts to Samudragupta with a request to built a
monastery on the Indian Soil. The flattered Samudragupta gave permission. This
monastery was built near the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya. The purpose was recorded
in a copper plate and it described the monastery with a height of 3 stories and
containing 6 halls. When Huen Tsang visited it he saw it occupied by
Thousands of Monks and it extended ample hospitality to visiting monks.
Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)
Chandragupta II, the great was son of Samudragupta and Datta Devi. Not much
is known about the character but the corroborated facts about his life prove that he
was a strong, vigorous ruler and was well qualified to govern and extend his
empire. Before Chandragupta II, his elder brother Ramagupta ascended the throne
after death of Samudragupta. Through, not many details about Ramagupta are
available; the drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta gives an account that
at Shringararupakam, Ramagupta was badly defeated by a Saka chieftain. To
secure the people, he agreed to surrender his queen Druvadevi to the Sakas.
handragupta II objected this and, Chandragupta-II in disguise of queen Druvadevi
entered enemy’s camp and killed the Saka king to restore the huge empire, queen
and the dynasty. Ramagupta is portrayed in this drama as a Coward king and
impotent. Chandragupta II killed his brother and married to his widow, Druvadevi.
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Chandragupta reign covered a wide territory whose northern limit was Vahlakas
Country, Southern Limit was the Ocean, Western Limit was the Mouth of Indus
and Eastern Limit was Vanga. Marraiage alliance and conquests were one of the
ways of Chandragupta II to extend his power and kingdom. His daughter
Prabhavati was married to a Vaktaka prince. The prince died in due course and his
young son became the ruler but the virtual ruler was Prabhavati. This helped
Chandragupta II to exercise indirect rule over the Vaktataka Kingdom also. The
most important event of Chandragupta II’s reign was conquest of Sakas. He
destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom. His victory
over Malwa helped in prosperity of the Malwa region and Ujjain became a
commercial hub. Some scholars call Ujjain his second capital. Chinese traveler Fa
Hien had visited India during the time of Chandragupta II. Numerous scholars and
artists adorned the court of Chandragupta.
one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don't keep
pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only
Chandals did all these. Fa Hien mentions about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and
they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their approach so that
other folk might not get polluted. Chandals were the only offenders of Dharma, as
per Fa Hien. About administration, Fa Hien mentions that the authorities interfered
as little as possible with the subject and they were left free to prosper and grow
rich in their own way. Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Pataliputra and two
years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or hindrance. The Roads were clear and
safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India
was probably never governed better than the era of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
The prosperity of the Indians and tranquility of the empire have been testified by
the account of Fa-Hien and his unobstructed itinerary all around gives the details
about the Golden Era of Mother India.
9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta Vikramaditya
Chandragupta II was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine gems
or Navratna adorned his court. The various fields of these 9 gems prove that
Chandragupta gave patronage to arts and literature. Brief description about the nine
Ratnas is as follows
Amarsimha
Amarsimha was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a
vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda
as it has 3 parts viz. Kanda 1, Kanda 2 and Kanda 3. It has 10 thousand words in it.
Dhanvantri
Dhanvantri was a great Physician.
Harisena
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Vararuchi
Vararuchi is the name of another gem of Chandragupta Vikramaditya who was a
grammarian and Sanskrit scholar. Some historians have identified him with
Katyayana. Vararuchi is said to be the author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first
Grammar of Prakrit Language.
Vetalbhatta
Vetalbhatta was a magician.
Kumaragupta –I (415-455 AD)
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I or Mahedraditya. The
period assigned to him is 415-455 AD and his reign spanned for a long period of
40 years. He was an able ruler and there is no doubt that his empire suffered no
diminution but extended. Like his grandfather, he celebrated the horse sacrifice
(Ashvamedha) as an assertion to his paramount supremacy. The records furnish
that at the close of his reign, Kumaragupta's dominion suffered severely from the
invasion of Huna Hordes, all over North India. The invaders from South India also
disturbed him. He issued coins with images of killing a lion. He also issued a coin
which bear the picture of Kartikeya.
Skandagupta: (455-467 AD)
Kumaragupta–I was succeeded by Skandagupta. Skandagupta was the last
powerful king of the Gupta Empire. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya, Devraj
and Sakapan and subdued the invaders (Pushyamitras and Hunas) and brought
back the peace and glory of his father. He faced invasion of White Huns, the
central Asian tribes. He issued 4 types of Gold coins and 4 types of Silver coin.
Bhitari Inscription details about the prowess of Skandagupta. After his death in
467 AD, the Gupta empire declined rapidly.
The Life in Gupta Empire
Caste System:
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Samudragupta and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied
to a Yupastambha. The coins of Chandragupta bear Garuda preying a snake.
Guild System:
In ancient history, the glimpses of guild systems are seen in Jatakas Tales. Guilds
refer to organizations of artisans, and traders, which have high place in the society.
In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are
recorded in various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of
Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription
mentions about a guild of oilmen. The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of
silk weavers. The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
There was an efficient administration established in the Gupta Empire. All powers
were centered in the Kings but, the rulers did not interfere in the administrations of
those regions which accepted their suzerainty. Elaborate administration system was
evolved in the regions which were under the direct control of the Gupta Kings. The
element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked as Gods and
God’s representatives. The Kings adopted high-sounding titles such as
Maharajadhiraj, Paramabhattaraka, Chakravarti, Paramesvara etc. The King was
assisted by a council of Ministers. The minister’s office was almost hereditary. The
supreme judicial power was invested in the King but the Mahadandnayaka carried
out the judicial functions. The Gupta Kings created two new classes
Sandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace) and Kumaramatyas (Offices of the
crown Prince). Civil and criminal crimes were demarcated in Gupta Era.
The following table presents the list of important officials:
Official Functions
1. Mahabaladhikrita Commander in Chief
2. Mahadandnayaka Chief Justice
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were the instruments of irrigation which were known earlier and now became more
popular in Gupta Era.
Types of Taxes in Gupta Era
a. Bali: The Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to
the King became compulsory in Gupta Era.
b. Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part
of produce.
c. Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits
etc.
d. Hiranya: This was thetax paid in cash (Gold) Hiranya means Gold.
e. Halivakara: Hal means a Plough, so Halivakra was a kind of tax slab,
those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
f. Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
g. Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi in
modern times.
h. Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax.
i. Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.
Religion in Gupta Era
Buddhism was generally prevalent in Northern India including Kashmir,
Afghanistan and Swat Valley two centuries prior to Christian era and 2 centuries
after it. Jainism was prevailing but did not attain much popularity. Hinduism never
ceased to exist and retained the large share of both the popular as well as Royal
Favor. It is evident from the coins of Kadphises II, the Kushana emperor who
adopted Hinduism with such a great deal that he repeatedly put images of Shiva
on his coins and described himself as a devotee of Shiva. The development of the
Mahayana School of Buddhism from the time of Kanishka was in itself a testimony
to the reviving power of Brahminical Hinduism. This newer Buddhism was very
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much common to the Hinduism. The revival of the Sanskrit was first made
possible by the western Satraps as evident from the Girnar inscription of
Rudradaman, the Saka King who registered his achievements in elaborate Sanskrit.
The Gupta Emperors made the Sanskrit fostered by the Satraps in the 4 th and 5th
century AD. In Gupta empire both Buddhism and Hinduism received support and
the Gupta Kings were perfectly tolerant about the three religions prevalent at that
time, but they were beyond doubt zealous Hindus who were guided by the
Brahmin advisors and skilled in the Sanskrit language. The Jainism remained
confined to the merchant communities of western India. Christianity had also
arrived in India but it was confined to the Malabar Region.
Changes in Hinduism
However, Hinduism also underwent some important changes during these times.
The sacrifice was replaced by Worship and mediation of the Brahmins was
somewhat replaced by Devotion and Bhakti. The Shakti cult emerged in the
Gupta era, which was based upon the fact that the male can be activated only
through union with females. Therefore, this was the beginning of worship of wives
/ consorts of Indian Gods such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali and other
goddesses. The worship of Mother Goddess, which was prevalent in the Harappan
India, finally got incorporated in the Hinduism by Guptas times. By the end of 5th
century, Tantrism had also become prominent.
Rise of Occult Practices
The emergence of Tantrism and worship of female deities also led to occult
practices, which kept sexual union in the center. The sexual rites started becoming
prominent and now they started taking shape of religious sexuality, which reached
its zenith in India by the end of the 6th and 7th century, as evident from numerous
temple arts centered on the religious sexuality in that era.
Rise of six schools
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The six schools of Hindu Philosophy viz. Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankya, Yoga,
Mimansa and Vedanta started taking definitive shape because of the philosophical
debates between the Hindu and Buddhists on the question of presence of God,
attaining salvation, karma, fate, Birth and Death and rebirth.
Gupta Art
Gupta Period is called the "Golden age of India" or the "Classical Age of India"
partially due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts,
architecture, sculpture, painting and literature.
Temple art
The rock cut architecture reached its zenith in the Gupta Era and this era marked
the beginning of the Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples
built in the Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of
Vishnu and Lingams) and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is
Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. Following is a brief description
of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era: Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar
Pradesh: Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in
Uttar Pradesh. The temple was discovered by Captain Charles Strahan and was
named so by Alexander Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a
large and elaborate edifice with typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara)
and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has also been linked to the "Sarvatobhadra
temple" mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara Purana by several scholars.
Bhitargaon Temple : Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar
Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in
6th century. Dhamekha Stupa: The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km
away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park or Rishipattana where Buddha gave
his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD, recovered from the site, its
older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander Cunningham in
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search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the
foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an
inscription.....Ye Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu.....written in Brahmi script. This
inscription is of 6th or 7th century. Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan
bricks has been found which gives in indication that Asoka might have
commissioned it.
Other Temples
Other temples of the Gupta Era are as follows:
a. Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur
b. Shiva Temple of Bhumara
c. Parvati Temple of Nachria Kathura
d. Mukund Darra Temple of Kota
e. Lakshaman Temple of Raipur
f. Shiva Temple of Koh.
g. Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur
Salient features of the Gupta Temples:
In Gupta period, the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting
of a square sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged. The Shikhara
was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent in later
Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch. Gupta style temple
was modeled on the architectural norms of the Mathura school.
Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples
Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof.
Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh , Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at
Nachna Kuthar have a square tower of Shikhara.
Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era.
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Main style of temple architecture in i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style
actually began from the Gupta era.
The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh.
The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.
Cave Architecture of Gupta Era: Ajanta Caves
Out the 31 rock cut cave monuments at Ajanta, five are Chaitya Grihas viz. cave 9,
10, 19, 26 and 29. Cave 26, 27 and 29 are most important as far as development in
the Buddhist art is concerned. Cave 26 is a Chaitya Griha which is perhaps the last
excavation. It is an elaborate cave. The grandest depiction in all Buddha arts is
Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (22 ft). The Ajanta caves are divided into 2 groups.
The first group of caves which were great shrines and monasteries was carved out
in the second century BC, at the magnificent site of Ajanta, which is located in the
horse shoe shaped gorge of Waghora river, in Aurangabad district of Maharastra.
The second group of caves was created in 5th and 6th century AD during Gupta
and Post Gupta periods under the rule of the Vaktaka Kings (Gupta Era), with a
renewed activity that was richer and more ample. The Buddha was represented in
Human and these representations are found both on the facades and in the interior.
Finally, the wall painting, profuse and sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most
striking artistic achievement of Ajanta. One of the most prominent and outstanding
figures are of humanized serpents, a Nagaraja and Nagini with an attendant figure
as finest sculptures in human forms. The Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, when
he finally achieves release from the mortal world, is a profoundly moving scene.
The Gupta Period, grand Viharas were excavated which were considerably larger
than the earlier Viharas. Every inch of the wall and ceiling space was originally
covered with fine paintings, the mural paintings are greatest treasure of the entire
heritage of Indian Art.
Inscriptions of Gupta Era
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Gupta era is known for a large number of pillars erected at a number of places. Out
of them two most important are
1. Prayag Prasasti : Also known as (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of
Samudragupta. Composed by Harisena. Very simple and refined Sanskrit in
Champu kavya style.
2. Garuda Pillar: Garuda Pillar refers to the Mahrauli Pillar Inscription/
Mahrauli Iron Pillar) of Chandragupta II.
3. Mandsaur Inscription: It is ascribed to Vattasbhatta.
4. Eran Stone Inscription of Samudra Gupta
5. Sanchi stone inscription and Mathura stone inscription.
6. Nalanda Inscription
7. Gaya Copper Plate (Speaks of Samudra Gupta)
8. Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Speaks of Chandragupta II & Kumaragupta)
9. Junagarh Rock inscription speaks of Skandagupta.
Literature in Gupta Era
Sanskrit literature reached its climax in the Gupta period. This era is known for
equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became the Ligua franca of India in
that era. The final editing of the Ramayana and Mahabharta took place in Gupta
Period. Puranas, Smritis and Dharmashashtra literature was developed in the Gupta
period. Yajnavalkyasmriti is almost regarded as the official law book of Guptas.
Naradasmriti was also written during the Gupta period. All the successive
redactions in the Manu’s Dharmashastras were carried out in Gupta Period.
Kalidasa
There are several stories about life of Kalidasa, though none of them seems to be
authentic. However, the most famous story about life of Kalidasa says that
Kalidasa was an illiterate idiot and was a dumb fool to start with. A king's daughter
was a very learned lady and the story goes as she wanted to marry only a person
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who will defeat her in "Shastarthaa" (scriptural debate). However, if anyone is not
able to defeat her, would be black faced and kicked out of the country. The idea
was enough to irk the Pundits. Nobody wanted to get his face blackened and sent
out of the country, so these witty people took Kalidasa to her. These Pundits
spotted Kalidasa cutting a branch of a tree on which he was sitting himself. They
told the princess that Kalidasa does only mute or symbolic debates. The debate
started and the princess showed him one finger, which she meant that "Shakti is
One". However, Kalidasa took its meaning that she will poke his one eye and he
showed him two fingers. The princess took this answer to be a valid one
manifesting that Shakti is in duality (Shiva and Shakti). Continuing the debate,
princess showed her five fingers manifesting that there are 5 elements earth, water,
fire, air, and void. Kalidasa manifested it as that she will slap him. So, in answer he
showed her his Fist. The princess again took this as a valid answer as she
manifested that all five elements combine and make the body or srusti. Thus, she
married with Kalidasa. But after marriage she came to know that it was a
fraudulent marriage and thus kicked him out of the house. After this humiliation,
Kalidasa straightaway went to Kali's temple and dedicated himself to Kali.
Goddess Kali was appeased and granted him profound wisdom and art and
speaking ability. He returned home and his wife spoke these words:
asti kashchit vaag-vishesha
Which literally mean you are an expert now in speaking?
These three words spoken by his wife are the opening words of his three great
works as follows:
a. Asti : Kumarasambhavam starts with asti-uttarasyaam dishi
b. kashchit : Meghdoot starts with kashchit kaantaa
c. Vaag : Raghuvamsha starts with vaagarthaaviva
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Please note that the above story may be neither historically correct nor there are
any evidences to prove it. It goes as it is so no need to prove it.
Works of Kalidasa
Mālavikāgnimitram
Mālavikāgnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero.
Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love. This was known to his
chief queen, who imprisions her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal
birth and she was accepted as queen of Agnimitra. Mālavikāgnimitram gives
account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.
Abhijñānaśākuntalam
Some Smriti works of Gupta Era:
1. Parashara (100-500 CE)
2. Katyanayan (400-600 CE)
3. Pitamaha (400-700 CE)
4. Pulatsya (300-700 CE)
5. Vyasa (200-500 CE)
6. Harita (400-700 CE)
7. Abhijñānaśākuntalam is a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of
Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage
Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
Vikramōrvaśīyam
Vikramōrvaśīyam is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Puruvas a
Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualitites of
Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Pururavas is a mythological entity representing Sun
and Vikramaditya means the "Glory of Sun".
Raghuvamśa
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Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, which was the first
commentary on Gautama's Nyaya Sutras. Kamasutra is a treatise on Human
Sexual behavior and makes the part of the Kamashashtra. The first transmission of
the Kama Shashra is attributed to Nandi, the bull of Shiva, as per the traditions.
The Nandi bull is Shiva’s doorkeeper and he overheard the lovemaking of the
Gods and recorded his utterances, for benefit of humankind. However, Kama sutra
seems to be the first treatise on the principles / advices in sexuality.
Science and Technology in Gupta Era
The Gupta era is known for tremendous development in the development of
astronomy, astrology, mathematics and metallurgy. The 230 foot high Mahrauli
pillar speaks of the well developed metallurgy in that era which has not rusted in
last 15 centuries. The coins of Gupta era were finely struck and engraved.
Aryabhatta:
Aryabhatta was the legendary mathematician of the Gupta Era. He wrote
Aryabhattiya at the age of 23 years and later, Arya- Siddhanta. He worked on the
approximation for pi to 3.1416. In trigonometry, he concluded for a triangle, the
result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the area. He also worked on the
motions of the solar system and calculated the length of the solar year to
365.8586805 days. Aryabhatta lived in Kusumpur in Pataliputra.
Contributions of Aryabhata (476 AD)
Aryabhata is the author Aryabhatiyam which sketches his mathematical, planetary,
and cosmic theories. This book is divided into four chapters:
a. The astronomical constants and the sine table
b. Mathematics required for computations,
c. Division of time and rules for computing the longitudes of planets
using eccentrics and epicycles,
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Skandagupta in 467 AD there were repeated attacks on the heart of the dominions
and the empire succumbed to the repeated attacks of the foreigners.
Successors of Skandagupta
Who was successor of Skandagupta is a mystery. The genealogy has been
corroborated from four royal seals from Nalanda and one from Bhitari that
Purugupta succeeded Skandagupta. When Skandagupta passed away, the empire
perished but the dynasty remained. It is thought the Skandagupta could not leave
any male capable heir and was succeeded by his half brother Purugupta, who was
son of Kumaragupta I and Queen Ananda. The later kings / princes were
Kumaragupta III, Buddhagupta and Narsihmgupta. In the western provinces of
Malwa, the names of rajas Buddhagupta and Bhanugupta are found. They cover
the period of around 484 to 510 AD. The death of Buddhagupta is thought to have
occurred in around 495 AD. It was followed by the accelerated feudalization of the
state structure, and the later of these two princes (or Kings) occupy a
dependent position probably subordinate to the Huna Chieftains.
tribes have been mentioned as Malechhas and Malechhas included several tribes
such as Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Paundras and Kiratas,Khasas,
Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas etc. Practice of Polyandry was common in Hunas
(several husbands one wife). The Hunas moved westwards and divided into two
major streams. One directed towards the valley of Oxus (today known as Amu
Darya, a boundary between Iran and Central Asia and in Indian texts known as
Vaksu) and another towards Volga River (Westwards towards Europe). The latter
are thought to have poured into Eastern Europe and forced the Goths to the south
and causing the Gothic wars, indirectly. Hunas filled the land between Volga and
Danube but they could not make full use of their advantageous position. The Hunic
Empire in Europe was finished within 20 years by a fresh swarm of barbarians
from Northern Asia. However, the Asiatic domain of the Hunas lasted a bit longer.
In Persia (Iran), the former are known to have attacked the Sassanid King of
Persia, Peroz I and captured him. Peroz I was killed in the hands of Hunas and
these Hunas assailed the Kushan Kingdom of Kabul and then from from there
poured into India. Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to
have conquered Gandhara. About Ramanila, we know only through his coins.
Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is known to have consolidated under
Toramana.
conquest. Toramana acquired the Malwa region by 510 AD and the local prince
Bhanugupta was unable check him. Toramana was succeeded by Mihirkula, his
son.
Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrrant
Mihirkula means "one from the Sun Clan", In Persian Mihirkula refers to Mehr Gul
that also refers to Sun Flower. Mihirkula came to power in 510 AD and was an
antibuddhist, known for his cruelty against the Budd hists. He destroyed the
temples and monasteries and was tyrannical to the Buddhists. His reign extended
up to Gwalior. His contemporary Gupta King was Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II.
Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II is known to have a devout Buddhist. He fought with
Mihirkula and was supported by Yasodharman of Malwa in this fight. Mihirkula
was defeated, captured by Yasodharman but was allowed to take refuge in Kashmir
where he died shortly afterwards, probably due to a fatal attack by a King of
Kashmir. This was the end of White Hunas in India. The year was 528 AD. Thus,
Yashidharman is credited to check the Huna expansion in India.
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the 12 Instruments as follows: Sphere, ring, dial, bow, time measuring water
vessel, Gnomon, divider, scissor. Circular seat with central stick, semicircle with
stick, combination of sticks, are the twelve instuments along with a stick. The 12
instruments are as follows:
• The Gola yantra is a type of armilliary sphere used to locate planetary
positions.
• Bhangana is a ring with angular graduations alonge its circumference, it is a
type of protractor.
• Chakra is a circular disk with angular graduations; it is also a type of
protractor.
• Dhanu is a semicircular disk with angular graduations and a stick pivoted at
the center, it is a type of protractor with a plumb bob arrangement.
• Ghati is a small vessel with a hole at the bottom. It was used to measure time.
• Shanku is a type of gnomon, a long vertical cone used to identify East-West-
North-South direction based on shadow of its tip. A special geometrical
construction known a 'Matsya' was used for the above purpose. Altitude of
sun and day time was also measured with this instrument based on the
shadow.
• Shakata consists of two 'V' shaped sticks, pivoted at the end.
• Kartari means a seizer. This instrument is made up of two sticks both pivoted
together. It was used like a caliper, and also to measure angle with the help of
protractor.
• Pitha is a horizontal disk with a vertical stick at its center. It was used to
measure local time based on its shadow, it was used to measure the height
with the help of special geometrical contruction.
• Shalaka is combination of two sticks with a string.
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• Yasti is just a long stick having standard dimensions; it was used to measure
height and distances. Special geometrical constructions were framed to
facilitate the use of this stick. These proposed geometrical constructions were
to construct the proportionate triangles with the help of which heights of
terrestrial objects could be calculated.
The Siddhant Shiromani & Yasti Yantra of Bhaskaracharya (1072 AD)
He was one of the promonent Indian mathematicien and astronomer, who wrote a
book ‘Sidhantshiromani'. In his book he has documented valuable ancient
liturature and given the references of many of the instrments used by the
astronomers before him. Similarly he has documented the various methods for the
use of these instruments. Yasti means a stick. Yasti Yantra was developed by
Bhaskaracharya and has also been refered to as Dhi Yantra. The same type of
instrument has also been described by ancient sages and astronomers, but
Bhaskaracharya has developed this Yantra as unique methods to calculate the
height of terrestrial objects like trees and mountains. The usage and principles have
been described in the 'Shidhantashiromani' of Bhaskaracharya.
The concept of this Yantra is to mount a stick on a pivot at a height d above the
ground, and take sightings of the top and bottom of the object such as a tree using
the stick. The projected length of the stick on a horizontal line at the two sightings,
L1 and L2, and the heights to which the stick is raised, h1 and h2, can be marked
on an adjoining board. If the overall height of the object is H, and the horizontal
line at the height at which the stick is mounted splits it into H1 and H2, the lengths
form similar triangles, and we can write h1/L1 = H1/L and h2/L2 = H2/L, where L
is the distance to the object. Eliminating L from the equations using L = H2
(L2/h2), and since H2=d, we get H = H1 + H2 = (h1/L1) L + H2 == ( (h1/L1)
(L2/h2) + 1 ) d .
Angles: Vikala, kala, bhaga, bhagana
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We refer to the following shloka from Surya Siddhanta The above shloka means
Sixty vikala is one kala, sixty units (kala) is one bhaga, it is said this way that,
thirty units (bhaga) makes one rashi, twelve rashi makes one bhagana. The Vikala,
Kala, Bhaga,Bhagna are the Units of Angle used in Surya Sidhnata. This
knowledge about the division of the angles in a circle is one of the earliest
knowledge. Today, Vikala, Kala and Bhaga are coterminous with the Second,
Minute and Degree respectively. Please note that Rashi was also used as a unit of
angle.
Length: Yahodara, Angula, Hatha, Danda, Krosha and Yojanas
We refer to this shloka from Lilavati
Meaning of above shloka is as follows:
Eight rice grains (yahodara) makes one fingure width (angula), twentyfore
fingures make one hand (hasta), four hands make one stick (danda), 2000 danda
make one krosha (unit of length). Four krosha make one yojana (unit of length),
ten hasta make one vamsha (unit of length), one nirwatan (unit of area) is equal to
400 square vamsha.
examples are as follows: The Ritual consisted of coverting the Circle into a square
of identical area. As per a paper by Seidenberg: Babylonia [1700 BC] got the
theorem of Pythagoras from India or that both Old-Babylonia and India got it from
a third source. The source quoted was Sulvasutras.
Sulvasutras deal with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks
of specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully
respected. This proves that despite of no existance of algebra, there was an
awareness of precise purely geometrical calculations. Seidenberg's conclusion of
India being the source of the geometric and mathematical knowledge of the ancient
world has been included now in chronology of the texts. Please note that Sulva
sutras belong to a bigger text Shrauta Sutras. The four
major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those
composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana. Out of them
the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the
cases of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples. The Baudhayan
Sulbasutra 1.48 says: The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas produced
seperately by its two sides.It is represented as follows
1. In the Baudhayan's Sulva Sutras we should note that the Right angles were
made by ropes marked to give the triads 3, 4, 5 and 5, 12, 13 (32 + 42 = 52,
52 + 122 = 132)
2. Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included “Squaring the circle” (and
vice-versa), thus geometrically constructing a square having the same area as
a given area. It has worked out the square root of 2 to 1.414215, up to last 5
decimals.
Knowledge of Days of Year
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There have been found symbols that prove that the Aryans knew about the year. In
a ritual, pebbles were placed around the altars for the earth, the atmosphere, and
the sky. The number of these pebbles was 21, 78, and 261, respectively. These
numbers add up to the 360 days of the year. There were other features related to
the design of the altars which suggested that the ritualists were aware that the
length of the year was between 365 and 366 days.
Model of Sky
The Vedic People took Earth as Centre of Universe. The system they identified
was as follows: Thus Earth was taken on mid of the planetary system.
Saraswati Script
Most probably, the first true alphabetic script was Saraswati Script that was
practiced on the banks of Saraswati River. It has been hypothesized that symbol of
Zero was devised by unknown Indians who were inspired with the Fish sign of
Brahmi script that refered to 10. However, it was not till 6-8th century AD, when
practical calculations were carried out using zero.
Knowledge of Binary Numbers- Pingala
The Indian scholar Pingala (circa. 5th-2nd century BC) used binary numbers in the
form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables).
This was very much simialr to today's Morse code, shown in the following picture.
Kindly compare them:
Morse Code Pingala’s Binary numbers
Pingala used the above in his Chhandahshastra. The knowledge of binary
numbers indicates his deep understanding of arithmetic. Binary repersentation has
now become the basis of information storage in terms of sequences of 0s and 1s in
modern-day computers.
Ghati Yantra
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Kindly go thru the following Shloka The meaning of the above shloka is that a
Ghatika or (bowl) is a hemispherical vessel made of copper with a small aperature
at the bottom so that it sinks into the water 60 times in a day and night. The Ghati
Yantra looked like this:
The clepsydra (Ghatī -yantra) was used in India for astronomical purposes until
recent times. The above Shloka is of Bharamagupta. Brahmagupta of Bhilamala in
Rajasthan, who was born in 598, wrote his masterpiece, Brahmasphuta Siddhanta,
in 628. His school, which was a rival to that of Aryabhata, has been very infuential
in western and northern India. Brahmagupta's work was translated into Arabic in
771 or 773 at Baghdad and it became famous in the Arabic world as Sindhind.
One of Brahmagupta's chief contributions is the solution of a certain second order
indeterminate equation which is of great significance in number theory. Another of
his books, the Khandakhadyaka, remained a popular handbook for astronomical
computations for centuries. The gahtiyantra theory interprets that the vessel sinks
in 24 Minutes.
Panini's Grammar
The Panini's grammar was composed in 6th century B.C or earlier. This grammar
has provided 4,000 rules that describe the Sanskrit of his day completely. It has
been shown that grammar of Panini represents a universal grammatical and
computing system. From this perspective it anticipates the logical framework of
modern computers.
Concept of Tridosha in Ayurveda
Ayurveda adopts the physics of the five elements viz. Prithvi(earth), Jala(water),
Agni (fire), Vayu(air) and Akasha (ether)). It notes that these five elements
compose the Universe as well as human body. The Ayurveda divides the human
body in Sapta Dhatu or 7 constituent elements viz.
Rasa dhatu (Chyle, Lymph, Plasma)
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invaders from Central asia. Jaypala faced frequent raids of Turkic rulers of Ghazni
such as Subuktgeen, who founded the Ghaznavid Empire. In 977 AD, Subuktgeen
captured Kandahar and prompted the Jayapala to launch a strike against him.
Overconfident Jayapal's one lakh strong army was defeated and he was compelled
to pay heavy tributes. He defaulted in the payments and was again attacked and
defeated. In 1001, Subuktgeen’ son Mahamud Ghazanavi came in Power. Once
more Jayapala attacked the Ghaznavid but again defeated. Thus, repeated defeats
against the Ghaznavid humiliated him and unable to tolerate these humiliations he
committed suicide by burning himself in funeral pyre. Another Shahi king
Anandpala stood against Mahmud Ghazanavi and is said to have entered into a
peace treaty with the later, so that he could die in peace. Some historians compare
Anandapala to ancient King Porus.
Sindh
After changing hands from Harsha to many others, at the time of Arab invasions,
Sindh was under Raja Dahir who reigned till 712 AD from his capital
Brahamanabad. He was the last Hindu Ruler of Sindh and parts of Modern Punjab
(Pakistan). The Arab conquest of Sindh is mentioned in the oldest Chronicle of
Sindh called "Chach Nama". He was attacked, defeated and killed by Mohammad
Bin Qasim, a general of the Umayyad Caliphate. Enormous wealth was looted
from Brahmanabad. Qasim was sent by the Caliph Walid I to conquer India. This
was time of fanatic Muslim rulers in Arab whose sole aim was to strengthen Islam
and punish those who do not accept Islam. After Sindh, Qasim conquered Multan
and sent Abu Hakim to win Kannauj. The Presence of Qasim was short. For the
Umayyads , this was first alien land brought under their territory which was
inhabitated by the non-Muslims. The Arab rule continued for 3 centuries in Sindh.
It was later under the Ghaznavid Empire and finally came under the Delhi
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Sultanate and Mughals. In 1747, Sindh became a vassal state of the Durrani
Empire of Afghanistan. In 1839, British occupied Sindh.
Delhi's name is associated with a Tomar King named Anangpal, who founded the
Red Fort (Lal Kot) in the middle of the 11th century. The Lal Kot is the place
where Qutub Mosque stands now. The name of Anangpal is inscribed in the Iron
Pillar of Delhi. This celebrated pillar of Chandragupta Vikramaditya was removed
by Anangpal from its original position (probably Mathura) and set up in 1052 AD
as adjunct to some temples in Delhi, which were later destroyed and the
Mohammedans constructed a great mosque. Anangpal was a ruler from Kannauj.
His reign was from Agra to Hansi (Haryana) and Ajmer to Ganges. His dynasty
lasted until 1151 when Chauhan King Bisal Deo of Ajmer overthrew it. The first
reference to the name of Dilli as Dhilli comes from the work of an Apabhramsha
writer Vibudh Shridhar. After Mohammad Ghori, his Turkic slaves distributed the
empire among themselves. In 1206, before death Muhammad had appointed his
slave Qutub-ud-din as Naib us Sultanate (Viceroy) of his empire in India and
bestowed him the title of Aibak (The axis of faith). Thus, Qutb-ud-din Aibak
became the first of the 34 Muslim Kings who ruled between 1206 to 1526. These
34 Kings belonged to five dynasties and are collectively called "Delhi Sultanate".
Meanwhile Bakhtiyar Khilji who was one more slave of Muhammad Ghori raided
the oldest universities of the world i.e. Nalanda and Vikramshila in 1193. At
Nalanda, he is said to have committed mass execution of the Buddhist monks and
many of the monks were burnt alive and beheaded. Bengal's ruler Lakshaman Sen
was defeated and Bakhtiyar made Lakhnauti his capital. The five dynasties of the
Delhi Sultanate are
1. Mamluk Dynasty also known as Slave Dynasty. Turkish Origin
2. Khilji dynasty (1290–1320) : Turkish Origin
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with Aaram Shah at Jud (Delhi). Aaram shah was defeated easily and after that
what happened to him, nobody knows. Iltutmish rule of two and half decades was
full of many experiments in Indian administration. He died in 1236. He is buried at
Qutub Complex in New Delhi. During the times of Iltutmish, the Mongols
attacked under Chengez Khan. The Mongols were able to conquer the area around
Indus River and crossed to invade Punjab. However, fortunately, their eyes were
set at the west and they returned quickly from the Punjab towards Sind, Multan &
Qabacha. Chengez Khan died in 1227. Once relieved from Mongols, Iltutmish
attacked on Western territories won by Mongols and placed Lahore and Multan
under Delhi Sultanate. After that, he campaigned against the Rajput territories viz.
Ranathambore, Mandsaur, Bayana, Ajmer, Sambhar, Nagaur, Gwalior etc. In 1235,
Iltutmish sacked Ujjain and destroyed the Mahakal Temple.
Iltutmish should be noted for the following:
• Hauz Shamsi: Iltutmish is known to have built the Hauz-i-Shamshi near
Mahrauli in Delhi. On the edge of this reservoir, the Lodhi Rulers built the
Jahaz Mahal. His eldest son when died he built the First Islamic Mausoleum
Sultan Garhi in Delhi.
• Qutub Minaar: The Qutub Minar was a complex of temples built by
Tomaras and Chauhans. However, it was turned into a Minar of victory by
Qutb-ud-din who used the same material to build the Minar. The first storey
was built by Qutub-ud-din and Iltutmish completed rest of the work.
• Iqta System: The Iqta system was a practice of grant of revenue from a
territory in lieu of salary. This grant was not hereditary during the times of
Iltutmish and was subject to passing from officer to officer. Iqta system
linked the farthest part of the Sultanate linked to the Central Government.
Iqta System from Iltutmish to Khiljis
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The land of the empire was divided into several large and small tracts called Iqta
and Iltutmish assigned these Iqtas to his soldiers, officers and nobles. This system
saw numerous changes in the sultanate system. In the beginning, an Iqta was based
upon salary, later under Firoz Shah Tughlaq, it became hereditary. Literally, Iqta
means land or land revenue assigned to an individual . on certain conditions There
were two kinds of Iqtas viz. Large Iqtas and Small Iqtas. The holders of Iqta were
the provincial governors while the holders of the small Iqtas were the small troops
holders who had no administrative responsibilities. . The holders of these Iqtas
were the trustful agents of the Sultan. The small Iqta holders called Khuts and
Muqaddams held and appropriated all the income the obtained from the cultivators.
But as a quid pro quid, they were bound to present themselves with horses and
arms whenever called upon by the Central Government. The Khuts and
Muqaddams became fond of luxurious living over the period of time, later,
Alauddin Khilji suddenly abolished the system of small Iqtas with a stroke of pen
and brought them under the central Government, it is regarded as one of the most
important agrarian reform of Alauddin Khilji. But, at the same time, Alauddin
made some harshest hike in tax part. Half of the produce was to be liable to be paid
to the Government, which was disastrous to the peasants. This scale of agrarian tax
at 50% was the highest under Khilji among all other sultans. Not only that, Khilji
made the Khuts and Muqaddams to pay arrears into a new arrear department called
Mustkharaj. This Mustkharaj reduced these people to beggars literally. As soon as
Alauddin died, the system lost into oblivion. To add more, he also imposed a
grazing tax called Charai. Mohammad Tughlaq somehow tried to return to the
Khilji’s system. Land Revenue System in Mughal Era . He did so as a pilot project
in a local area in Doab, but this pilot project failed. Centrally recruited Army:
Iltutmish organized the army of the sultanate and made it the "King's army" which
was centrally recruited and centrally paid. Tanka and Jital - The coins of Iltutmish:
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Iltutmish introduced Silver Tanka and Copper Jital, the two coins of the Delhi
Sultanate. The coins prior to Iltutmish were introduced by the invaders, which bear
the Sanskrit characters and even Bull and Shivalinga. For example, Muhammad
Ghori is known to have adopted the seated goddess Lakshmi type of the coins of
Gahadavalas for circulation in the Gahadavala territories. Iltutmish was the first
to introduce a "Pure Arabic Coin" in India. The Coins were engraved with "The
Mighty Sultan, Sun of the Empire and the Faith, Conquest-laden, Il-tutmish," after
he received an investiture of Sovereign Sultan of Delhi from the Caliph of
Baghdad. The Silver Tanka issued by Iltutmish was weighing 175 grains. Balban
later issued gold Tanka of the same weight.
Razia Sultan (1236-1240)
Sons of Iltutmish either died prematurely or were inefficient so Raziya , his
military trained daughter was declared heir apparent. She could not do all that she
could do because the Chahalagani had become very strong and they did never want
that a woman sit above them. She sat on the throne of Delhi in 1236 and reigned
for only three and half years until 1240. The wise politician in Raziya was able to
keep the Turkish Nobles in check but her preference for the Abyssinian Yakut,
though seems innocent, roused the jealousy of the dominant Turks. After the four
year tryst with the 13th century throne of Delhi, Rajiya lost her life to Jats of
modern Haryana.
Balban (1266-1287)
Balban was a purchased slave of Iltutmish, he worked as a Bhisti (water bearer)
initially but was fir for other better jobs. The feeble successors of Iltutmish invited
frequent rebels among the Hindus and Balban had dedicated his energy in leading
his troops through Doab, Ranthambore, Malwa, Kalinjar etc. He was the de facto
ruler of Delhi serving under sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud for 20 years. Nasir-ud-
din Mahmud was a religious person. He lived a life of Darvesh, spending his time
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in copying the Holy Koran, and had no female servants, mistresses etc. He was
actually not worthy of becoming the 13th century Sultan of India, but it was
Balban who could fill his space and care for the Government. Balban first became
the top Sardar of the nobles and became Sultan following the death of his master
Nasirud- din Mahmud. The first thing he did was to take over the power of Chalisa.
Once became Sultan, he mercilessly executed the Chahalgani. Subdued Mewatis
by clearing forests and killing Lakhs of Mewatis. Subdued the dacoits of Doab. He
refused to entrust any authority to Hindus. There was a rebel by Tughril Khan in
Bengal, Balban subdued that also. Balban, who ruled for 20 years was first king
who understood the conditions and requirements of being a Sultan of Delhi and
fulfilled them practically. He is known as one of the severest kings of India. He
introduced "Zaminbosi" of "Practice of Sijda”, the people would Kneel down and
touch the ground with their head to greet the Sultan. He forwarded the Iranian
Theory of Divine Rights, that Sultan is the representative of God on Earth. To
counter the Mongols, he organized his military. For this he made some changes
like abolition of the post of the Naik and creating a new department of military
affairs known as Diwan-i-arz. The in-charge of Diwan-i-arz was Ariz-i-Mumalik.
He kept Hindus away from army or other authorities. He instructed the Ulemas to
confine themselves to the religious affairs only. Balban's eldest son died
prematurely. Second son Bughra Khan was governor of Bengal and loved to be in
Bengal than to come at Delhi. So, Balban left the throne to his deceased son's son
named Kaikubad, a young lad of 17 years as his heir apparent. Kaikubad, the
young chap was carefully brought up under his grandfather. He was never allowed
to see the young girls and enjoy the wine. This young man had been
taught of all the good things and none of the bad things. All of a sudden, he found
himself as master of India and now everything his youth desired was available to
him. The result was that he indulged in so much of drinking and debauchery, that
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he found himself struck with paralysis. When a mercenarily was sent to kill him,
he was found in his bedroom in a lovely Sheesh Mahal (palace of mirrors) at
Kilughari, a few miles from Delhi at the Bank of River Yamuna and was sent to
hell without much hassle.
THE KHILJI DYNASTY
JALAL UD DIN FIRUZ KHILJI (1290-1296 AD)
NOTABLE OBSERVATIONS:
The Khilji clan was from the Afghan village of Khalj was of most probably
Turkish origin but had become Afghan in character. Khilji and the Turkish slaves
were partners in many successful campaigns in India. Under Muhammad
Ghori, Bengal was won by Bakhtiyar Khalji, who ruled there. They were in many
high level posts in the Ghor army
and successive armies in India. Jalaluddin Khilji was a merciful oldman who paid
the price of loving his kith and kin
too much. During his times, Mongols attacked under Halaku and Ulugh Khan. The
later accepted Islam and the happy Sultan gave his daughter to this convert
Mongol.
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marched with an army to dethrone the new Sultan of Delhi, he was defeated,
captured but freed and posted at Manikpur. Jalauuddin was obsessed with mercy.
He pardoned all kinds of criminals alike thugs, traitors, conspirators etc. etc. In his
time, Mongols attacked once more but this time (under Halaku), negotiations
caused the "partial" retreat of the Mongols and not the open war. The next invasion
of Mongols was under Ulugh Khan. Ulugh Khan accepted Islam and the old Sultan
gave his daughter o him in marriage. He started staying near Delhi and later
created sorts of troubles for the kith and kin of Sultan. Sultan also sent his
powerful army to Kandhar, Ghazni and Kabul to teach a lesson to Mongols. These
campaigns crippled the Mongols and they could not gather courage to invade India
again till next invasion took place only under Timur during the Tughlaq Dynasty.
Alauddin was absolutely illiterate, not even able to read his name. The military
successes took him to a fool’s paradise and he thought that he is another Hazarat
Mohammad, so he should establish a new religion. Then he also dreamt of
becoming second Alexander to subdue the earth, ordered the Muslims to take his
name in the Namaz and ordered to engrave his name as “Second Alexander” in his
coins. However, there were some wise people around who advised him to leave the
job of establishing new religions to the prophets and rather
than subduing the whole of earth, subdue the parts of India, which were under the
infidel Hindus such as the Rajputs of Rajasthan, and rulers of Malwa, Dhar, Ujjain
etc. Thus, he was shown the right path by the wise people around him. Once shown
the right path, he found out that just Ranathambore was enough to make his lose all
his energy. His army besieged the fort of Ranathambore in 1299 to teach a lesson
to Raja Hammir, who dared to give shelter to one of the rebels of the Sultan,
named Muhammad Shah. The fort was besieged by the Sultan's army in 1299 and
returned in 1301 exhausted. Only a conspiracy could help him to capture the fort of
Ranathambore that too with the help of a Rajput traitor Ranmal. Hammir Dev as
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well as Muhammad shah was killed and Ranathambore was given to Ulugh Khan.
Sultan Returned to Delhi. Then, one foolish pariah told Alauddin about the beauty
of Rani Padmini, the wife of Rawal Ratan Singh. In 1303, the marauding army of
Alauddin Khilji, who had coveted Padmani, besieged Chittor. The siege was
followed by "Jauhar" wherein Rani Padmani, led the ladies of the fort into death by
self-immolation, "to find security from dishonor in the devouring element” as says
James Tod. The next morning, the men folk of Chittor rode out to face certain
death on the field of honor. Meanwhile Daughter of Raja Karndev, the ruler of
Gujarat was taken to Delhi and was married to Khijra Khan, son of Alauddin
Khalji. Khijra Khan was made governor of Chittor and its name was changed to
Khijrabad. To subdue Deccan, Sultan sent an army under Malik Kafur , a
handsome castrato (male castrated before puberty) from Gujarat who was Hindu by
birth and converted to Islam, fascinated the Sultan and allegedly had (homo) sexual
relations with him. Alauddin had so much faith on Malik Kafur that he became the
most important person after Sultan in due course of time. The Raja of Devagiri was
captured and taken as prisoners. Malik brought the Raja and his son to Delhi. The
Sultan treated them with all honor, gave him a royal canopy and a title of "Rai
Rayan" (King of Kings) and returned him to Devagiri to rule as a vassal of the
Delhi Sultanate. In the following years he proceeded to Warangal and was able to
get the famous (infamous rather) Kohinoor diamond from the King Prataprudradev
of the Kakatiya dynasty. The next campaign was against Veera Ballala III , the
great Hoyasala , who was able to repulse the armies of Delhi Sultanate, but Kafur
returned with a great Booty.
Reforms of Allauddin Khilji
Alauddin introduced the reforms in the army and started the system of branding the
horses “Dagh” and biometric information about the soldiers “Chehra”. He
introduced regular muster for army. He organized and introduced a countrywide
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spy system. He was the First Sultan who set up a “permanent Standing Army” of
the sultanate. Alauddin Khilji abolished the system of small Iqtas with a stroke of
pen and brought them under the central Government. At the same time, Alauddin
made some harshest hike in tax part. Half of the produce was to be iable to be paid
to the Government, which was disastrous to the peasants. This scale of agrarian tax
at 50% was the highest under Khilji among all other sultans. Not only that, Khilji
made the Khuts and Muqaddams to pay arrears into a new arrear department called
Diwan-i-Mustkharaj. This Mustkharaj reduced these people to beggars literally. As
soon as Alauddin died, the system lost into oblivion. He confiscated the lands
granted to nobles and checked free grants of lands. He forbade them to marry
among each other’s families and hold celebrations. He is known to have
established separate markets for food grains, cloths etc. He also created new posts
of Diwan-i-riyasat and Shahna-i-mandi to control the markets.
Succession of Alauddin
Alauddin died in 1316. None of his successors was able to fit in his shoes. Malik
Kafur enthroned the 6-year-old child prince Shihabuddin as Sultan of Delhi and
became his protector. Malik Kafur sent two of Sultan's elder sons to the next world
mercilessly. This reprobate was plotting a mass murder of the Nobles, when one
night he himself was killed by the soldiers in his bedroom. Another son of
Alauddin, Mubarak Shah became the acting regent over his younger brother. Soon,
he blinded that child and sent him to jail. What happened to the ill-fated child,
nobody knows. As soon as he became Sultan, to gather cheap publicity, he released
17 thousands of prisoners and abolished all the taxes and penalties his father had
imposed. Mubarak, the young chap of 17 years was a slave of his own desires and
orgies. He paid the army 6 months advance salary and distributed the grants
indiscriminately. The result was that wine started flowing in Delhi, which was
banned by his father. The markets went wrong, commodities became costly. All
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the market reforms introduced by his father tottered like a building and there was a
general corruption in Delhi. Like his father, Mubarak also had a beautiful Hindu
pariah from Gujarat whom, he had styled
Khusru Khan. He openly started calling the dancing girls and prostitutes took him
to the height to indecency and debauchery. Mubarak had flayed alive late Raja of
Devagiri. The haunting shades of past gave him the fate he deserved. One night his
favourite Khusru Khan murdered him. Khusru Khan mounted the throne as Sultan
Nasiruddin. He ordered mass killing in the Harem of the Sultan and everybody
alive was killed. Khusru, a Hindu convert, took the revenge of his forceful covert
by eliminating the whole of the Khalji dynasty and this was the end of another
dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate in 1320 AD.
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320–1413)
GHIYAS UD-DIN TUGHLUQ 1321-1325
After eliminating Khusru, Ghazi Malik , a Governor of Alauddin became the
Sultan of Delhi with the name Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq in 1321. He reintroduced
the food market laws which were earlier implemented by his master. He tried to
revive all the reforms which were necessary and were earlier implemented. Ghiyas
ud-Din Tughluq successfully attempted to bring the peace and prosperity. Under
his elder son Fakhr Malik or Jauna or Ulugh Khan, Deccan Provinces were
recovered. A campaign was launched against Bengal, which had never subject to
Delhi since demise of Balban. This gallant old Sultan met his end in 1325 when a
roof fell and crushed him beneath its ruins. His son Fakhr Malik ascended the
throne in 1325 as Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and reigned for 26 years until 1351.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351
This "Man of Ideas" was a trained intellectual, a keen student of Persian poetry and
a philosopher, lover of science and mathematics. He is known for the idea of a
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Central Capital and experiments with a nominal token Currency. These ideas were
all good, but he was in hurry and impatient of the slow adoption of his measures.
All those who could not keep pace with his imagination, became victim of his
wrath and were punished severely. The result was that Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, as
a sultan proved himself a complete failure before the history of forces toppled him.
Foolish Donor: Muhammad Bin Tughlaq generously scattered almost incr edible
wealth among the foreign visitors, learned men, poets, officials, beggars, diseased
and so on. He impoverished the treasury. Project Khurasan: His project to conquer
Persia (Khurasan Expedition), his dream to keep a huge standing army and his
plans to invade China (Quarachil Expedition) finished his finances. His idea of
invading China met with a disastrous in the passes of Himalayas where men and
money got split like water. Horrible Tax Reforms: The empty treasures needed
fresh taxations. He wanted 5-10% more revenue from the Doab region which was
the fertile land of his reign. The oppressive taxes reduced the farmers to beggars.
They stopped tilling the lands, lost confidence and burnt their stacks. The cattle
were turned loose and moved to Jungles. The Tax reforms of Sultan got failed.
Miffed Sultan hounded the wretched Hindu subjects and massacred them. Every
man captured was slaughtered like sheep. This was followed by a famine and the
unfortunate subjects were left in deplorable conditions for many years to come.
Transfer of Capital : The inconvenience to rule the wealthy Deccan induced the
Sultan to take step and transfer the seat of the government to Daulatabad (near
Pune). The idea might have been practical and reasonable if he had ever thought of
shifting the official court of Delhi. But, he wanted to transport the whole
population of Delhi to the new capital. The inhabitants of Delhi were made to leave
their homes and were forced to march 700 miles down south with their women,
children and all such belongings they could carry. Many were killed on the way in
this forty days journey and few could survive. Daulatabad became the burial
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ground of the Sultan’s exiled subjects. Sultan got enough wisdom to realize his
failure and ordered the people back to Delhi; result was only few could survive to
return. Delhi's houses were deserted now. Sultan “imported” learned men, traders
and landholders to repopulate the deserted Delhi, but they could not flourish. We
know about the period of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq from the material
of Ziauddin Barni. Barni's main works are Twarikh-i-Firuzshahi and Fatwa-i-
Jahandari. Then another important work is left by Ibn Battuta. Ibn Battuta has
discussed his travels and incursions in contemporary Islamic world and document
ed them in Rihla. He was appointed as Qazi by Muhammad Tughlaq and was also
appointed ambassador to China. Ibn Battuta gives details about the later part of his
rule. Portrait of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in Batutta’s words, "his gateway is never
free from a beggar whom he has relived and never free from a corpse, he has
slain"Diwan-i-Kohi: Sultan also got enough wisdom to understand the distress
caused by the Famine and the result
of the excessive taxation. In 1341, he abolished all the taxes and started sitting
twice a week to hear the complaints of the oppressed. He started distributing daily
food to the people of Delhi. He also established a loan system to the peasants. He
created a department of Agriculture named as “Diwan-i-Kohi”. He established a
“Famine Code” to relive the victims of Famine. Experiments with Token
Currency: The heavy drains of the treasury led him to do another disastrous
experiment of a token currency. The Idea of token currency was probably
borrowed from Paper Money issued by his near contemporary Kublai Khan in
China. He introduced the Copper/ brass coins, which were to pass at the value of
the contemporary Silver Tanka. The silver coin introduced by Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq was called Adl. The Gold coin, which was finely engraved was called
“Dinar” He did not foresee the consequences of this monetary experiment. He was
aware that the value of the token money depends upon the credit of the treasury
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(which was full with Gold after his Deccan conquests) but forgot that none other
than the state should issue the tokens. Any skilled Hindu engraver could copy the
inscriptions and strike the copper tokens of the values of the Tankas. The result
was that "house of every Hindu turned into a mint and the Hindus produced coins
in tens of millions". They paid their tribute, purchased horses, arms, cloths and all
the other things with this forged currency. The local Rajas and village headmen
became rich but the government became poor. The value of these coins fell so low
that they became worth pebbles. This forced Sultan to repeal the edict and he gave
order to bring the copper coins to the treasury and exchange them with old coins of
silver / gold. Thousands of men from all corners flocked with these copper coins to
the capital and exchanged them with Gold and Silver Tankas. So much of copper
coins were brought to the treasury that heaps of them raised like mountains. The
experiment got its disastrous end.
Death and Succession
The innovations of the Sultan exasperated the people and Sultan became
unpopular. There was widespread discontent and rebellion. Bit by bit the empire
disintegrated, one province after another revolted. Sultan could suppress the rebels
at one point but could not be everywhere. Amid chaos and confusion, in 1351
Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq died. He had no sons but his cousin Firoz Shah ascended the throne.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD)
Once becoming Sultan, Firoz reversed every order of his predecessor. He was a
half Muslim, his mother was Hindu. So he got a religious temperament, probably
to prove himself equal to the Pure Muslims. He started seeking advice of the
Ulemas and ruled as per the Shariat. He abandoned all the taxes, which were
unlawful as per Shariat. He abolished Chungi (Octroi). He ordered that the
Muslim women should not come out of their houses and visit the tombs. The
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Brahmins were NOT exempted from the Jaziya tax levied on their pilgrimages but
abolished Jaziya for
those who accepted Islam. He publicly burnt a Brahmin for daring to preach the
Muslims. A lot of Hindu temples were destroyed and mosques were erected. He
imposed water tax on the agriculture land which was irrigated by the waters of the
canals dug by the state. He acquired numerous slaves and employed them in the
royal workshops. The cities established by him are Firuzshah Kotla (in Delhi) ,
Jaunpur in Bengal in memory of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, Fatahabad in the name
of his newborn son. Second Firozabad on the banks of Yamuna River near Delhi.
Here he established one of the Asokan Pillars which he had removed from its
original places. One more city was Hissar-i-Firoza in the modern Haryana which is
now the town of Hisar. To support the newly founded city of Hissar-i-Firoza, in
1355 he constructed a Double System of Canals from Yamuna to Sutlej. They are
referred to as rajwahas in the Indo-Persian historical texts. This Yamuna canal was
repaired for irrigation purposes during the time of Akbar. The Firoz shah's regime
was utmost gentle towards the peasantry. His predecessor Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
had introduced a system of government loans for the peasants. The peasants were
not able to repay these loans. By the advice of one of his vazirs named Makbul, he
destroyed all the records in his presence, ceremoniously and gave clean chit to the
peasants. This was one of the remarkable decisions taken by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
which brought general peace and prosperity in the sultanate. In 32 years rule there
were almost no rebels in India under Firoz and this might be one of the reasons.
According to Farishta, a later historian, not less than 845 public works were done
during the times of Firoz Shah Tughlaq which included canals, dams, reservoirs,
bridges, baths, forts, mosques, schools, monasteries, and inns for pilgrims and
travelers. He also repaired the Qutub Minar (1368) which had got damaged
previously in an earthquake and many of the tombs of Delhi. Succession: He died
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in 1388 amid sorrow and gloominess because his sons were now departed souls.
His grandson, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II, a young and foolish lad addicted to wine
and licentiousness sat on the throne and was killed within 5 months. Next followed
Abu Bakr, Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah III, one "Alexander” who was
slaughtered after just hanging around for 4 weeks. In the meantime, Timur attacked
India in 1398. Timur left Delhi in December 1398 and marched on Meerut. Then
he attacked Haridwar and overran the city in 1399. At Bhokarhedi, he faced stiff
resistance from the Hindus. In 1399, he returned his capital with numerous slaves
and 90 captured elephants laden with precious stones and gold looted from India.
He returned to his capital Amu Darya and built a mosque at Samarkand. This
mosque named Bibi- Khanym Mosque is located in Samarkand, Uzbekistan was
built by Timur and is named after wife of Timur.
In South India first independent Islamic Kingdom in South Bahamni Kingdom had
already formed by a vassal of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. In Karnataka the
Vijayanagar empire was on its climax.
LODI DYNASTY
The entire 15th century saw the power of Delhi vanished, following the collapse of
the Tughlaq Dynasty, after the invasion of Timur. The Sayyid utterly failed. The
Lodi Afghans showed some energy and wisdom but could not regain the old power
and pomp. Bahlol Lodi supplanted the last feeble Sayyid in 1451. Bahlol Lodi
1451 – 1489: Bahlol Lodi was a good soldier and governor of Sirhind. After taking
some minor principalities near Delhi, he was able to recover Jaunpur and
surrounding territories expanding the territories as far as Bihar. He had married a
Hindu Goldsmith of Sirhind and the offspring of this matrimony was Sikandar
Lodi, who succeeded him after his death in 1489. Sikandar Lodi 1489-1517:
Sikandar Lodi was the second son of Bahlol, so naturally there was a power
struggle between him and his elder brother Barbak Shah, who was then viceroy of
Jaunpur. However, since, his father nominated Sikandar as heir apparent, there was
no bloodshed and Barbak Shah kept ruling Jaunpur. Sikandar
ascended the throne in 1489 AD. The campaigns of Sikandar Lodi began to recall
the earlier supremacy of Delhi. He was able to subdue the rajas of Bihar, Bengal,
Dholpur, Chanderi, Gwalior, Awadh, Tirhut, Bundelkhand etc. In 1503 he
established the city of Agra and in 1506, transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra.
Sikandar, like Firoz Tughlaq was harsh to Hindus and is known to have burnt alive
a Hindu Brahmin who preached "Islam and Hindu are both ways acceptable to
God”. He razed temples such as Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. He imposed
Jaziya on Hindus and did all what he could do to prove the supremacy of Islam.
The dream of conquering the Gwalior fort could never come true in his life. He
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attacked five times to win this mighty fort but each time he was defeated by raja
Mansingh of Gwalior. He died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim
Lodi, who was the last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. Ibrahim Lodi: 1517-1526:
Ibrahim Lodi was obsessed with the Royal prerogative. He made the Afghan chiefs
on whose swords his dominion rested, stand motionless in his presence with folded
hands and they got so much vexed with his petty rules that discontent rose among
them. Ibrahim tried to subdue the inferno with the blood of some of the elite and
result of this bloodshed was that Afghans rose in arms. There was a rebel in all of
his sides. The chiefs of Oudh, Jaunpur and Bihar chose Darya Khan as their leader.
In Punjab there was a revolt under Daulat Khan. The rule of Ibrahim became so
intolerant that one of his uncles Aalam Khan fled to Kabul and invited Babur to
invade India. In Mewar, a new power under Rana Sanga was on its zenith. Under
these circumstances Babur attacked India and closed the chapter of Delhi
Sultanate.
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which was the need of the hour. But, he decided to standby till the quarrel was
fought out. This was an unusual incident where Humayun, despite his capability,
did not attack Bahadur Shah, probably because his Muslim enemy was waging a
"Holy war" against the "Infidel Hindus". After the Chittor fell, Humayun became
active and cut the supplies of the soldier camps of the Bahadur shah so that he
soldiers started starving. In the dead of the night, Bahadur shah fled the scene and
his army immediately dispersed in all directions. Humayun, all of a sudden found
himself in undisputed possession of the camp. Bahadur Shah was chased to Mandu
but was neither killed nor arrested. From here, Bahadur shah fled to Champaner,
then Ahmadabad, then Cambay and finally Diu, where his life was ultimately taken
by the Portuguese. The almost entire region of Malwa and Gujarat now belonged
to Humayun.
Confrontation wirh Sher Shah Suri 1540-1545
Sher Shah aka Farid descended from the Royal house of Sur, the kings of Ghor,
and in early career, rose from the rank of a smalltime administrator (jagirdar) to be
the prime minister of one of the Lohani Afghans. He initially worked under
Baharkhan and later in 1527, he joined the military of Babur. When Babur invaded
Bihar, Sher Khan guided his troops and as a prize, got his Jagir restored. His very
presence in the Mughal army itself was enough for him to learn about the
weakness and strength of the Mughal army and administration. His first
confrontation with Humayun was in 1532, when Humayun had laid siege on the
Chunar Fort which lasted for 4 months and ended in a submission.But this
submission did not let him abandon his dream to become the sovereign. When
Humayun was busy in south, he conquered Gaur, the capital of Bengal. In the
battlefield of Chausa, in 1539, the imperial army was checked by Sher shah. The
two forces camped opposite each other, but none of the two warranted an attack for
two months. In these two months the Mughal forces suffered the scarcity of food
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and supply, leading death of cattle and horses. In the desperate situation, Humayun
opened the negotiations and arrangement for a treaty was made. As per this treaty,
Sher Shah was to retain Bengal and parts of Bihar. In return, he would give
recognition to emperor and accept his suzerainty. The men from two armies on the
point of this possible settlement started coming on friendly terms and all of a
sudden there was a blast. One fine day, on the break of the dawn the Afghans
struck the unsuspecting Mughals from all sides. Many of the Mughal soldiers were
slain in sleep, few killed mounted on horses. Humayun was saved by a Bhisti, who
supported him on his water skin across the river Ganga. Most of the army was
drawn in Ganga or captured or killed and the luckless emperor of India came
almost alone to Agra in 1539. In May 1540, the armies met once again opposite
Kannauj and the Mughal Empire was put to an end for a while. At Kannauj, the
Afghans were able to scatter the Mughal army, which mere by panic, fled in
confusion. Humayun again escaped from the battle field and from that day , for
next 15 years he lived like a wanderer. Via the deserts of Thar, he reached Sind
where he lived for 3 years. Here, he fell in love with Hamida, a 15 year old girl,
who was daughter of a sheikh of his brother. In 1542, on October 15, Hamida gave
birth to Akbar, who would become the most adorable emperor of India, only after
Asoka.
Administration of Sher Shah
In Sher Shah, we find a benevolent autocrat. He introduced many reforms which
are greatly appreciated. The first five year of Sher Shah's administration were used
in setting up a new template for civil administration in India.
He divided the entire Kingdom in 47 divisions and called them "Sarkars". These
Sarkars were divided into Parganas. Every Pargana was under a Shikqdar, who
looked into the law and order of his Pargana. At Pargana Level:
• Munsifs were appointed to collect the revenue.
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Sasaram, that was his home town. It was extended to Multan in west and
Sonargaon in West. (Sonargaon is now in Bagladesh). This road is one of the
greatest legacies of Shershah. During the Mughal era, this Sadak-i-Azam extended
till Kabul. The same road was improved by the British and renamed as Grand
Trunk Road that ran between Calcutta to Peshawar.
Successors of Shershah
The reign of Sher Shah was just 5 years from 1540-45 though, one of the most
impressive reigns. In May 1545, when he was campaigning against the Chandel
Rajputs in Bundelkhand (Kalinjer), a gunpowder explosion fatally wounded him
and thus this Afghan Tiger lost his life in Bundelkhand, laying wounded in his tent
and worrying about the future of his wise schemes. Sher Shah was succeeded by
Jalal Khan, his son who ascended the throne with title Islam Shah Suri. Islam shah
is best known for "Codifying the Laws" for the first time. Thus, in justice and
judiciary, he was one step ahead of his father Sher Shah. His reign was of 9 years
till 1554, when he died of some disease. His successor was his son Firoz Shah, a 12
year child, got soon assassinated by Muhammad Adil Shah. Adil
Shah was a debauched brute who left the real power in his trusted Hindu Vazir
Hemu. There was a struggle among all the Suri cousins such as Sikandar Shah and
Ibrahim Shah. Now the Suri Empire was divided into four Suris, none of them was
important. In 1555, Humayun descended from Kabul with some 15000 horses and
routed Sikandar Suri in Punjab. He proceeded further and took easy possession of
Delhi and Agra. His son Akbar was sent to pursue the fugitive Afghans. Humayun
was now back in power. He had enjoyed the Throne of Delhi merely for 6 months
that one day he slipped down the polished stairs of his palace and died at the age of
49. Humayun tumbled throughout his life and so easily tumbled out of it.
kept with himself. Miffed Akbar marched to Sarangpur and seized the spoils. His
cup was full when, out of envy, he killed Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Ataga Khan,
Akbar's one of the favorite generals and then also stood on the gate of Akbar’s
harem looking inside as if he was standing in a sanctuary . He was thrown twice
from the roof of the Palace, and dispatched to the heaven. The news of his death
was given by Akbar to his mother, thus broken her heart. She survived but only for
40 days. Akbar got rid of both the mother and son.
Wives and Harem
Salima Sultan, widow of his trusted general and tutor became the queen of Akbar
after he was sent for the pilgrimage and died midway. Prior to her, Akbar had a
childless Ruqaiyya Begum as her first wife. The third chief wife of Akbar - Hira
Kunwari, recorded in Muslim books as Mariyam Zamani Begum and popular now
as "Jodha", was daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber with whom he married in
1562. Akbar's union with the Rajput princes marked a new policy. Her father
Bharmal was decorated with the highest rank of the official aristocracy, 5000
Mansabdari, the general of 5000 horsemen. The bride was allowed to freely
exercise the rites of her own faith Hinduism, marking the religious toleration of
Akbar. Later he took other women Hindus, Iranians, Persians, Muslim, Armenian
etc. etc. in his harem, till the number rose to 5000, looks like he wanted to make a
parliament of religions . The immediate result with alliance with the Rajput
princes was that in 1562 Jazia, the tax, which the victorious followers of prophet
charged upon the infidels, was abolished. Next in line was abolition of the tax on
Hindu Pilgrims, on the base that there should be no obstacles in the way of Man's
service to the God. The detested Jazia and the pilgrim tax thus abolished during the
time of Akbar were reemployed only during the times of Aurangzeb, uprooting the
judicious system imposed by his great grandfather. But Akbar did not hesitate in
interfering in the Hindu practices that offended the sense of humanity - such as
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the feel good factor by marrying other princess, the daughter of Raja of Bikaner –
Kalyanmal, who along with his son Ram Singh entered into the service of
Akbar.But Rana Pratap never accepted Akbar as ruler of India, and fought Akbar
all his life. Akbar first tried diplomacy to win over Maharana Pratap but nothing
worked. Pratap maintained that he had no intention to fight with Akbar but he
could not bow down to Akbar and accept him as the ruler. Pratap stopped the
marriage etiquette of Rajputs who had been giving their daughters to Mughals.
Chittor was under Mughal and Pratap was a king without capital. Almost all of
Pratap's fellow Rajput chiefs had entered into the allegiance with Mughals. Pratap's
brothers, Shakti Singh and Sagar Singh, were also serving Akbar. Many Rajput
chiefs, such as Raja Man Singh of Amber were serving as army commanders in
Akbar's armies and members of his council. Akbar sent a total of six diplomatic
missions to Pratap, seeking to negotiate the same sort of peaceful alliance that he
had concluded with the other Rajput chiefs. Pratap roundly rebuffed every such
attempt displaying his self-respect and honor. This culminated in Battle of Haldi
Ghati on June 21, 1576. It was a decisive victory for Akbar’s chieftain Man Singh.
Col. Todd called Battle of Haldighati as Battle of Thermopylae of Rajasthan. Abul
Fazal called this war as “Battle of Khamnaur” Badayuni called this war as “Battle
of Gogunda”. After this battle, Rana Pratap continued Guerilla warfare against
Akbar. His Son Amar Singh fought 17 wars with the Mughals but he conditionally
accepted them as rulers in 1615. This was the terminating end of Freedom of
Mewar.
System in which cultivated area was measured and a central schedule was drawn
up fixing the dues of peasants crop wise on the basis of the productivity of the
land. The state’s share was one-third of the produce’ the produce under the
schedule being valued at prices fixed by the emperor. In fixing the prices, the rates
current in the vicinity of Delhi were probably taken as the basis. This arrangement
created difficulties, because one uniform scheduled of prices of crops could not
reasonably be applied to the whole empire. Prices were lower in rural areas which
were far away from the urban centres and the cultivators found it difficult to pay in
cash at the official rate. In the tenth year of Akbar’s reign, prices of crops
prevailing in different regions were substituted for the uniform schedule and the
emperor reverted to a system of annual assessment.
Karori System
In 1573, Akbar did a third change via which he gave up the annual assessment and
appointed the “karoris” all over
north India. These Karoris were to collect a crore of dams as revenue and to check
the facts and figures supplied by
the Kanungos regarding the actual produce, state of cultivation , local prices etc.
Dahsala System
Then, in 1580, the Karori System was given up and Raja Todarmal introduced a
new Dahsala System or Zabti System. This remained a standard system of revenue
assessment during the greater part of the Mughal empire.In the Dahsala system, the
land was classified in four categories viz.
• Polaj (land which was cultivated every year and never left fallow);
• Parati or parauti (land which had to be left fallow for a time to enable it to
recover fertility);
• Chachar (land which had to be left fallow for three or four years); and
• Banjar (land which remained uncultivated for five years or more_.
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Polaj and parauti lands were classified into three categories- good, middle and bad-
and the average produce per bigha of these three categories was taken as the
normal produce of a bigha. Parauti land, when cultivated , paid the same revenue
as polaj land. The chachar and banjar lands were charged a concessional rate which
was progressively increased to full or polaj rate (i.e. one-third of the produce) by
the fifth or the eighth year. Under the Dahsala system an attempt was made to
work out the revenue rates. The state demand was given in maunds; but for the
conversion of the state demand from kind to cash, a separate schedule of cash
revenue rates (dastura amals) for various crops was fixed. For a period of the
previous ten years, 1570 to 1580 information yields, prices, and area cultivated was
collected for each locality. On the basis of the average prices of different crops in
each locality over the past ten years the state demand was fixed in rupees per
bigha. Each revenue circle had a separate schedule of cash revenue rates (dastur-
amal) for various crops. Thus the peasant was required to pay on the basis of local
produce as well as local prices. Please note that Dahsala was neither a ten-year
nor a permanent settlement, and the state had the right to modify it. Since this
system was associated with raja Todarmal, it is also known as Todarmal
bandobust. This system prevailed from Lahore to Allahabad and in the provinces
of Malwa and Gujarat. During Shahjahan’s era, it was introduced in the Deccan by
Murshid Quli khan.
Other Systems of Mughal Era
During the reign of akbar and his successors three more systems of revenue
assessment were prevalent viz. batai or
Gallabakshi System, Kankut System and Nasaq System. Batai or Galla-bakhshi
was a very old system which continued during the Mughal period. This was a
simple method of crop-sharing in which the produce was arranged into heaps and
divided into three shares, one of which was taken by the state. Under this system
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the peasant had the choice to pay in cash or kind. Kankut system was also an old
prevalent method in which, instead of actually dividing the grain (kan), an estimate
(kut) was made on the basis of an actual inspection on the spot and one-third of the
estimated produce was fixed as the state demand. So, it was a rough estimate of
produce on the basis of actual inspection and past experience. Nasaq System was
widely prevalent in the Mughal Empire, particularly in Bengal. In this system a
rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts of the
peasants. It required no actual measurement, but the area was ascertained from the
records.
Military Administration: Mansabdari System
Mansabdari System was a system introduced by Akbar for military administration
and territorial commands (grant and revenue) to sustain parts of army. His
experiences led him to conclude that rather than relying in the Irani and Turkish
nobles, he should also include the Indian Muslims (Sheikhzadas), Afghans and
Rajputs in the Mughal army. The Mughal officers whether Hindus or Muslims
were granted territorial commands in return for the military service. They had to
bring in some fixed number of men-at-arms, horses and elephants to the field and
were rated as per the numbers which was known as Zats. So they were called
Mansabdars of 10, 20, 100, and 1000 and so on. Mansingh was the first Mansabdar
of 7000 zats and Bhagwan Das with 5000 zats enjoyed the privileged position in
the Mansabdari system of Akbar.
Problems with Mansabdari System:
This system was not perfect. The greed of the Mansabdars ate all the grant or
revenue and no money was left for the soldiers. There was a general corruption that
the Mansabdars dressed their kith and kins, servants, dhobis and Malis as soldiers
and registered them and send them back to do what they were doing earlier. The
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weavers and carpenters were hired to obtain a Mansab and later not a trace of the
horse brought by them would be found.
Bureaucracy
Office of Diwan: The office of the Diwan was the office of today's minister. It got
strengthened in Akbar's reign. The Chief Diwan was called Diwan-i-kul and was
responsible for revenue and finance. He oversaw the imperial treasury and
accounts. The Diwan had to submit a daily report to the emperor. Mir Bakshi: The
office of Mir Bakshi was in existence since Sultanate Era. He was to give
appointments and salary letters to the Mansabs. The branding of the horses named
Dagh was under his supervision. He was assisted by other subordinate Bakshis.
• Mir Saman was the in charge of Royal workshops (Karkhanas).
• Sadr-us Sudur was to protect the laws of the Shariat. Qazi-ul-quvvat was the
chief judiciary.
• The governor of a province (Suba) was a subedar who was directly
appointed by the emperor. The usual
• tenure of Subedar was 3 years.
• Introduction of Persian in official works: There was one more feature of
Raja Todarmal's system that virtually unified the country. It was enactment
that all the government accounts should be kept in Persian, rather than
Hindi. The study of Persian became necessary and it helped Hindus to learn
the Persian language and the Muslims to go hand-in-hand with the "talented"
Hindus.
Religious Policy
Akbar could not see the validity in the custom that the Hindus should pay more
taxes than the Muslims. He also had an insatiable quest in the matters of religion
and faith. He was deeply moved by the mystical doctrines of the Persian
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Sufis which was revealed to him by Faizi and his younger brother Abul Fazal.
Abul Fazal encouraged Akbar for
debates on doctrinal and philosophical enquiries. Akbar displayed a curiosity in
these discussions. The debate took place in the Ibadat Khana or Hall of Worship.
The Ibadat Khana is now recognized to be the Diwan-i-Khas, which was founded
in 1574 at the City of Fatehpur Sikri. It was opened for Sunni Muslims in itially
and was opened to all religions viz. Sufis, Shias, Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus
and Jains. In the Ibadat Khana, initially there were disgusting arguments, some of
which included a question over character of Hazarat Muhammad. These
discussions, rather than clearing Akbar's doubts only increased the insatiable
religious quest of the emperor. These heated arguments, Akbar found that were
only to defend the creeds of their own doctrines. In the emperor's eyes, there was a
truth in all the faiths but none of the creed had the master key of the Supreme
Being. In 1579, Mahzar Nama was
declared by which Akbar pounced upon the dominance of the intolerant orthodox
and allowed free development of a genuine religious spirit. Mazhar Nama , which
was actually an idea of the father of Abul Fazal and Faizi , set that the authority of
the King was higher than that of a Mujtahid (doctor of the faith) and if there is a
variance, the emperor's decision should be binding on the Muslims of India. With
this edict, Akbar's judgment was set above every legal and religious authority, so it
was the promulgation of the doctrine of Imperial infallibility. In 1581 the
discussions at the Ibadat Khana were discontinued. But quest of Akbar culminated
in the Tauhid-i-ialhi (the divine monotheism) or Din-i-Illahi, the word Din was
applied decades later. In 1582, this religious doctrine which combined mysticism,
philosophy and nature worship was propounded by Akbar which recognized no
prophets. Akbar declared himself the spiritual guide of his subjects. His religion
Tauhid-i-illahi favored peace and tolerance. Tauhid-i-illahi prohibits lust,
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sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence
and kindness are the core virtues of this religion. The soul is encouraged to purify
itself through yearning of God. It respects celibacy and forbade slaughter of
animals.
Elements of Din-i-Illahi
Din-i-Illahi was an eclectic doctrine that contained elements from very diverse
fields. It overthrew almost every ceremonial rule whether Islam or Muslim, but
took the good ideas from the Brahmins as well as from the missionaries and
adopted "Sun" as a symbol of the worship of the creator. He started a new Illahi
era. The new religion proposed:
• Forbade cow eating
• Indifference among all Indians
• Instituted worship of Sun as creator
• Incorporated the sacred fire adored by the Parsis
• Encouraged the Havana (hom sacrifice) of the Hindus.
A small band of the courtiers of Akbar including Faizi, Abul Fazal, Birbal and a
few others immediately professed the new cult. But the rest remained indifferent if
not hostile. This hotchpotch of philosophy, mysticism and nature worship of
Akbar's divine faith practically died with him, but left footprints which partially
contributed in creation of a nation, that was never a united nation before.
Faizi
Faizi was a Persian poet who he joined Akbar's suite during the seize of Chittor in
1568. In 1588 was given the status of Malik-ush-Shu'ara (Court Poet) of Akbar. He
was one of the Navratnas of Akbar. Born in Agra to a scholar in philosophy and
Islamic theology, he was educated mostly by his father. Akbar was impressed by
the scholarly aptitude of Faizi and appointed him the tutor of princes Salim, Murad
and Daniyal. Badayuni, the contemporary historian says that he composed over
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100 poetic works in Persian. The collection of poems by Faizi was entitled Tabasir
al- Subah, which includes Ghazals, Qasidas (Eulogies), Rubai's and poems. In
1580 he started working on five projects Nal o Daman , the Markaz ul-Advar, the
Sulaiman o Bilqis, the Haft Kishvar and the Akbarnama, out of which only 2 first
works were completed. Faizi also translated "Lilavati", the celebrated Sanskrit
work in Maths by Bhaskaracharya, into Persian. His brother Abul Fazal penned the
celebrated work Akbarnama.
Abul Fazal
This gentle and enthusiastic younger brother of Faizi later became a Vazir of
Akbar. Abul Fazal was a man of wide culture and pure spiritual ideals. He was also
one of the Navratnas in the court of Akbar. Abul Fazal was the author of Akbarn
ama, the official history of Akbar's reign in 3 volumes. This book gives the history
of Akbar’s forefathers from Timur to Humayun and Akbar's reign till 1602. Third
volume of above work is known as Ain-i-Akabari, which is the administrative
report of Akbar's reign. Another important work of Abul Fazal was Ruqaʿāt, which
is a collection of letters to the princes of Akbar and other contemporaries. It was
later compiled by his nephew Nuruddin Muhammad. Yet another work Inshā-i-
Abu'l Fazl is the compilation of the letters written by Akbar to various
contemporary rulers and nobles. He was also compiled by one relative of Abul
Fazal.Here, please note that one more Akbarnama was written in those times by
Shaikh Illahdad Faizi Sirhindi. This was a derivative work based upon Tabaqat-i-
Akbari. Tabaqat-i-Akbari was written by Nizamuddin Ahmad, Mir Bakshi of
Akbar.
Fatehpur Sikri
Akbar was a devout visitor to the holy places and tombs of Muslim saints. One of
his prime objects was to secure an
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heir to the throne. Up to the 14th year of reign, none of his children could survive
and he was told to visit a holy man
dwelling at Sikri village near Agra. This holy man Salim Chisti, who was one of
the descendents of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of Ajmer promised & blessed Akbar
a son. Akbar placed his wife Hura Kunwari or Jodha under the care of this saint.
The Sikri, due to frequent visits of the emperor became a cradle of development
activities and numerous palaces were erected. Salim Chisti set up a new noble
Mosque in Sikri and the emperor's people built their palaces near this place. The
Sikri village became the town of Fatehpur Sikri. It was blessing of this holy saint
Salim Chisti, that Akbar’s first son was safely ushered in this world. Akbar named
this child as Salim, with due respect to the holy man. This offspring of the Great
Mughal and a Rajput Princess later became Emperor Jahangir. The result of this
auspicious event in Fatehpur Sikri was that Akbar showered all the taste and art of
the age upon the adornment of this blessed town. Thus, Fatehpur Sikri became the
first planned city of the Mughals. It is also the place demonstrating the first
heritage of the Mughal architecture, an amalgamation of the Persian, Hindu and
Islamic architecture. It was virtually the capital of Akbar from 1571 to 1585.
However, later it was abandoned mostly because of the problem of drinking water
supply. Today, this beautiful city, though a great tourist destination, is a deserted.
It was abandoned and ever since has remained the desolate and abandoned city. A
few years back, some Jain & Hindu idols were found which were dated 1010 AD
near the Birbal ka Tila site which have rise to a hot debate that this beautiful city
was actually a great Hindu site, that was vandalized by the great Mughal. Whatever
may be the truth, but palaces, tombs, mosques, baths, lake and everything at
Fatehpur Sikri is a great Indian Heritage through which we recognize the grandeur
and pomp of Akbar, greatest of Indian emperors.
Navratnas
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• Abul Fazal: Abul Fazl was the chronicler of Akbarnama in three volumes
over seven years, the third volume is known as the Ain-i-Akbari.
• Faizi: Faizi was Abul Fazl’s brother, the poet laureat of Akbar. The name of
father of Abul Fazal and Faizi was Mubarak Nagori, a scholar in the
philosophy and literature of Greece as well as in Islamic theology.
• Miyan Tansen: Miyan Tansen was born as Tanna Mishra, in 1520. He was a
disciple of Swami Haridas and later became disciple of Hazrat Muhammad
Ghaus (Gwalior ). He was a court musician with the prince of Mewar and
later was recruited by Akbar as his court musician.
• Raja Birbal: Raja Birbal, a poor Hindu Brahmin Maheshdas was appointed
to the court of Akbar for his intelligence, and became the court jester. The
name Raja Birbal was given by the Emperor. Birbal's duties in Akbar's court
were mostly military and administrative. He was also a poet and his
collections under the pen name "Brahma” are preserved in Bharatpur
Museum. Raja Birbal died in battle, in an attempt to subdue unrest amongst
Afghani tribes in Northwest India.
• Raja Todar Mal: Raja Todar Mal, a Hindu Khatri was Akbar’s finance
minister, who from 1560 onwards overhauled the revenue system in the
kingdom.
• Raja Man Singh: Raja Man Singh, the prince of Amber was a trusted general
in Akbar's army and was the grandson of Akbar’s father-in-law Bharmal.
Raja Man Singh was the foremost (7000 Mansabdari) and ablest among
Akbar's military commanders and assisted Akbar in many fronts including
holding off advancing Hakim
• (Akbar’s half-brother) in Lahore. He was also the Mughal viceroy of
Afghanistan, led campaigns in Bihar, Orissa, Deccan and was also the
viceroy of Bengal.
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Mumtaj Mahal, the “lady of the palace” was a mother of his 14 children and died
on the death of their 14th child. The exquisite monument Taj Mahal is a witness to
her husband's devotion. Through out of the his life, Shah Jahan kept struggling
with revolts. The first big revolt was in Bundelkhand in 1636 under Jujhar Singh.
The revolt was suppressed and Jujhar Singh was eliminated. Another was under the
Lodi remnant Khan Jahan Lodi. This revolt was also suppressed. During
Shahjahan's times, the Portuguese had established a factory at Hugli in Bengal.
Portuguese had a very constringe religious policy. It was learnt that the Portuguese
often lifted the orphaned children and converted them to Christianity. This was
something objectionable under the rule of a Mughal, who was a devout Muslim.
During the reign of Jahangir the Portuguese lifted two slave girls that belong to
Mumtaj Mahal and they were not released even after it was known to the
Portuguese. In 1631, Qasim Khan was appointed as Governor of Bengal and was
given authority to teach a lesson to the Portuguese. The Portuguese were attacked,
massacred and Hugli was in siege for 3 months. The Portuguese surrendered only
after a huge loss of ten thousand lives. Four thousand were made prisoners, who
were given an option to either convert to Islam or face lifelong imprisonment. Thus
Shah Jahan gave the Portuguese a death blow in Bengal. Later life of Shah Jahan
was marred by the war of succession. He was imprisioned and later died in
obscurity.
Aurangzeb 1658-1707
This Bigot Mohammedan created a lot of troubles for himself and lost both energy
and resources in dealing with the rebellions of Jats, Satnamis, Bundelas, Sikhs and
finally the formidable Marathas. He stopped engraving Kalma on coins. Forbade
the Parsis to celebrate their festival Navaroz. Released an order to ban the music
everywhere and arrest those who listen to the music. His drink was plain water and
he used to sleep on ground, something that made him a Zinda Fakir. Aurangzeb
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had claimed the throne as the Champion of the Orthodox Islam against the
heretical practices of his brother Dara. When he was told that in Banaras, the
Brahmins have got habitual of teaching their "wicked science" to the Muslims, an
order from his majesty was given to demolish all the temples. The orders were
carried out and the temple of Vishnu at Banaras and a splendid shrine at Mathura
were broken to make room for a mosque. The idols were brought to Agra and
buried under the steps of the Mosque. His Rajput policy was also filled with the
religious fanaticism, when he asked Raja Jaswant Singh to send his sons to Delhi
so that they can be taught under his "supervision", leading their conversion. All the
Rajputs except raja of Amber were in a state of rebellion. He ended the Mughal
pomp of Jharokha Darshan, use of almanacs, the Mughal custom of weighing the
emperor in gems -distributing the wealth to the poors, on coronation anniversaries.
He reintroduced Jazia. In summary he did all that was never done by his great
grandfather, grandfather and father. This was enough to shake the foundation of
the Mughal Empire which was based upon religious tolerance. Aurangzeb was the
last important Mughal ruler and after him the Mughal empire rapidly decayed and
was finally put to an end by the British. This King reigned for half a century and
died in 1707 leaving behind a war of succession. He now lays in peace at
Khuldabad, near Aurangabad.. Later Mughals
Bahadur Shah I ( 1707-1712): Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Muazzam,
who ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I in 1707. His reign was just 5 years till
1712, and during this time he tried to get rid of the strict edicts of his father. He
was not able to eliminate Jazia but supported music, now people could hear the
songs again. He tried to establish peace with the Sikhs and Marathas. He died in
1712, when he was overseeing the repair works at Shalimar Gardens at Lahore. He
was followed by his son Jahandar Shah. Jahandar Shah 1712-1713: After his father
Bahadur Shah I died, he ascended the throne after eliminating his brother Azim-us-
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Shan. He had married to a dancing girl who became the queen consort. His nephew
Farrukhsiyar attacked him and defeated him. He was arrested and Jailed by
Farrukhsiyar, who later executed him. Farrukhsiyar 1713-1719: Farrukhsiyar was a
despicable poltroon who suffered similar fate 6 years later in 1719. He sat the
throne with the help of two Vazirs of the Mughals Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha
and Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha known as Sayyid Brothers. In 1717, the British
East India Company purchased duty free trade rights in all of Bengal for peanuts
worth Rupees 3000 per year from this so called emperor. He lolled the throne as a
puppet in the hands of the Sayyid Brothers, and when there was an enmity with
these two King makers, they deposed him, imprisoned him, starved him, blinded
him and finally finished him. The Sayyid brothers placed his cousin Rafi ud-
Darajat on the throne in 1719. Rafi ud-Darajat 1719: Rafi ud-Darajat, the 11th
Mughal emperor was proclaimed by the Sayyid Brothers in 1719, who could
survive only for 4 months and died of some mysterious disease. He was succeeded
by Muhammad Shah Rangile or Rangila. Muhammad Shah Rangile 1719-1748:
Mohammad Shah Rangila was able to keep the throne for around 29 years partially
because the first thing he did was to eliminate the Sayyid Brothers. During his time
Nadir Shahattacked and looted Delhi and took the Peacock Throne with himself.
The invasion of Nadir Shah fastened the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
During his time, the states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh were established as
independent Kingdoms.
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But soon Vasco da Gama came back to India for the second time in 1501 AD. He
set up a trading factory at Cannanore. With establishment of trade links, Calicut,
Cannanore and Cochin emerged the significant Portuguese centers in India. Arab
traders became jealous of the rise and success of the Portuguese and hence caused
enmity bred between the Portuguese and the local king Zamorin. The hostilities
grew and led to full- fledged military face- off between them. King Zamorin was
defeated by the Portuguese. With the victory over Zamorin, the military superiority
of the Portuguese was established.
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DECLINE OF PORTUGUESE POWER: But the Portuguese rise in Indian had a short
life as the new rival trading communities from Europe posed a big challenge to
them. Struggle among various rival trading blocs ensued in which Portuguese had
to give way to the more powerful and enterprising competitors gradually rendering
them an atrophied entity.
ARRIVAL OF THE DUTCH: The people of Holland (present Netherlands) are called
the Dutch. Next to the Portuguese, the Dutch set their feet in India. Historically the
Dutch have been experts in sea trade. In 1602, the United East India Company of
the Netherlands was formed and given permission by the Dutch government to
trade in the East Indies including India.
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RISE OF THE DUTCH: The Dutch founded their first factory in Masaulipatam in
Andhra Pradesh in 1605. Subsequently they also established trading centres in
various parts of India. Dutch Suratte and Dutch Bengal were established in 1616
AD and 1627 AD respectively. The Dutch conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese
in 1656 AD. They also took the Portuguese forts on the Malabar coast in 1671 AD.
The Dutch gradually became a potent force capturing Nagapatam near Madras
(Chennai) from the Portuguese thereby establishing their foothold in South India.
In economic terms, they earned huge profit through business monopolizing in
black pepper and spices. The major Indian commodities traded by the Dutch were
cotton, indigo, silk, rice and opium.
DUTCH COINAGE: The Dutch, during their stay in India, tried their hands on the
minting of coinages. As their trade flourished they established mints at Cochin,
Masulipattam, Nagapatam Pondicherry and Pulicat. Even more, Gold pagoda with
an image of Lord Venkateswara, (god Vishnu) was issued at Pulicat mint. The
coins issued by the Dutch were all modelled on the local coinages.
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East India Company in the battle of Colachel in 1741 AD leading to complete rout
of Dutch power in Malabar region.
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END OF DANISH COLONIES IN INDIA: During the Napoleonic Wars (1803 AD–
1815 AD) the British invaded Danish shipping, and devastated the Danish East
India Company's India trade and ultimately captured Danish colonies, making them
part of British India. The last Danish colonial post Serampore was ceded to Britain
by Denmark in 1845 AD.
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The East India Company, which started initially as a trading company, had, by
1773, acquired territorial control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay.
The Nawab of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents. However, after 1765
they had to face stiff opposition from the Marathas, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan of
Mysore, and the Sikhs. The East India Company had to subjugate these powers in
order to be paramount in India.
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Lord Cornwallis defeated Tipu and forced him to sign the Treaty of Siringapatnam
in 1792 A.D.
According to this treaty:
Tipu had to surrender half of his kingdom which was divided among the
English and their allies i.e. the Maratha and the Nizam.
Tipu also had to pay a huge war indemnity of 330 lakhs of rupees. Besides,
Tipu had to hand over two of his sons to the English as hostages.
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EVENTS:
The Maratha chiefs were united under the leadership of Nana Fadnavis who
supported the claim of the infant Peshwa Madhav Rao II. The Maratha army
defeated the British army sent from Bombay. Warren Hastings sent an army from
Bengal. The war dragged on for 4 years. The Marathas won a decisive victory
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Results:
The long war with the Marathas came to an end by the Treaty of
Salbai (1782). It provided for the mutual restitution of each
other’s territories. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off. Madhav
Rao II was recognised as the Peshwa. The British gained little
out of this war except the island of Salsette.
However, the treaty inaugurated an era of 20 years of peace with the Marathas. The
Company used this period to subjugate Mysore and strengthen their position in
Bengal. But the Maratha chiefs frittered away their energy in bitter conflicts among
themselves.
EVENTS:
Alarmed by the growing power of the British, Sindhia and Bhonsle declared war
against them. But their combined forces were defeated.
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RESULTS:
Both Sindhia and Bhonsle had to accept all the terms of the subsidiary alliance.
They had also to surrender large tracts of valuable land. An English Resident was
posted in their territories. Holkar, who had remained neutral in the second Anglo-
Maratha War, took up arms against the English. He was subsequently defeated and
his capital Indore was captured. Wellesley’s policy of conquest was proving to be
very expensive for the Company. So he was recalled from India.Wellesley’s
successor George Barlow signed a peace treaty with Holkar in 1806. He restored
his kingdom to Holkar. The defeat of the Marathas in the second Anglo-Maratha
War was a severe blow to their power and prestige.
Events:
The Third Anglo-Maratha War started in 1817 when the Peshwa, with the support
of Bhonsle and Holkar, attacked and burnt down the British Residency in Kirkee
near Pune. But the English decisively defeated them. Within a year the entire
Maratha confederacy was subjugated.
Results:
Peshwa Baji Rao II was deposed and deported to Bithur. But he was granted a
pension of Rs 8 lakh a year. His territories were annexed. The hereditary post of
Peshwa was abolished. A small state, Satara, was created out of the Peshwa’s
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territories and a descendant of Shivaji was installed on the throne. The Maratha
leaders ceded large portions of their territories to the English. All of them accepted
the system of subsidiary alliance. The Marathas were the only Indian powers who
were capable of succeeding the Mughals. They had risen to power with the decline
of the Mughal Empire, but were nearly wiped out by the British. Only the Punjab
retained her independence.
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In 1843, Ranjit Singh’s minor son, Dalip Singh, became the ruler with Rani Jindan
as the Regent. To weaken the army and keep it engaged, Rani Jindan deliberately
encouraged the army to cross the river Sutlej and attack the English. In December
1845 the Sikh army crossed the Sutlej and invaded the Company’s territories. This
led to the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846).
EVENTS:
The patriotic Sikh soldiers fought very bravely but they were completely defeated.
The British army occupied Lahore.
RESULTS:
By the Treaty of Lahore (1846) the Sikhs ceded the Jalandhar Doab, Kashmir and
its dependencies to the English. A British Resident and a powerful British force
were posted in Lahore. Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh, a Dogra chief. By a
supplementary treaty it was decided that the Sikh state was to be ruled by a
Council under the control of the British Resident. Rani Jindan was removed from
her post.
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CAUSES:
British control over the Punjab aroused a
lot of resentment among the Sikhs. In
1848 a number of revolts against the
British broke out in the Punjab. The
Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie,
declared war. The Sikh army which had
been reduced by the Treaty of Lahore was completely crushed. By a proclamation
in 1849, Lord Dalhousie annexed the whole of the Punjab to the British Empire.
Dalip Singh was pensioned off.
RESULTS:
The Marathas, Mysore and the Punjab had challenged the British presence in the
subcontinent. Each of them had been subjugated. With the annexation of the
Punjab the British conquest of India was almost complete. Only a few small states
retained their independence or were turned into subsidiary allies.
METHODS OF EXPANSION:
Apart from wars, several Governor Generals followed other methods to ensure the
Company’s supremacy in India.
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE:
Lord Wellesley perfected the system of subsidiary alliance to subjugate Indian
powers without going through actual warfare. Any Indian ruler whose security was
threatened could enter into a subsidiary alliance with the British. The British
promised to protect the ruler from external attack and internal revolt.
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The ruler would have to accept the supremacy of the British in India. The ruler
would have to keep and pay for the maintenance of certain number of British
troops who would be permanently placed in the territory of the subsidiary ally. A
British Resident would be posted in the court of the ruler. The Indian ruler was not
allowed to employ any European in his service.
The ruler would not sign any treaty or form an alliance with any other power
without the permission of the British Resident. States like Mysore, Hyderabad,
Awadh, the Rajputs and Marathas were forced to accept this alliance after being
defeated by the English.
The system of subsidiary alliance proved to be disastrous for the Indian rulers.
They became virtual puppets in the hands of the British. The payment of huge
amounts of money for the maintenance of British troops was a heavy drain on their
resources. Indian states became impoverished while the British could maintain a
portion of their army at the expense of Indian rulers.
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE:
In 1848, Lord Dalhousie arrived in India as the Governor General. Dalhousie was
determined to extend British rule over India. His imperialist policy was based on
three fundamental principles, namely:
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REFORMS
The internal reforms of Cornwallis can be studied under three main heads.
(i) Administrative reforms
(i) Revenue reforms or Permanent Settlement
(ii) Judicial and other reforms
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
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The greatest work of Cornwallis was the purification of the civil service by the
employment of capable and honest public servants. He aimed at economy,
simplification and purity. He found that the servants of the Company were
underpaid. But they received very high commissions on revenues. In addition to
that they conducted forbidden and profitable private trade in the names of relatives
and friends. Cornwallis, who aimed at cleansing the administration, abolished the
vicious system of paying small salaries and allowing enormous perquisites. He
persuaded the Directors of the Company to pay handsome salaries to the Company
servants in order that they might free themselves from commercial and corrupting
activities.
Further, Cornwallis inaugurated the policy of making appointments mainly on the
basis of merit thereby laying the foundation of the Indian Civil Service. To cut
down on extravagances, he abolished a number of surplus posts. Another major
reform that Cornwallis introduced was the separation of the three branches of
service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue. The collectors, the king-pins of
the administrative system were deprived of their judicial powers and their work
became merely the collection of revenue.
JUDICIAL REFORMS
In the work of judicial reorganization, Cornwallis secured the services of Sir
William Jones, who was a judge and a great scholar. Civil and criminal courts were
completely reorganized.
1. At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil and criminal courts of
appeal, namely Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar
1. Nizamat Adalat were functioning at Calcutta. Both of them were presided
over by the Governor-General and his Council.
2. There were four provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad
and Patna, each under three European judges assisted by Indian advisers.
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3. District and City courts functioned each under a European judge. Every
district was provided with a court. As already stated, Cornwallis had taken
away from the collectors of their judicial powers and made them solely
responsible for the collection of revenue. As a result, District Judges were
appointed.
Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the
judicial system. In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and followed. In civil
cases, Hindu and Muslim laws were followed according to the religion of the
litigants. In suits between Hindus and Muslims, the judge was the deciding
authority. Cornwallis was merciful by temperament. He hated barbarous
punishments and abolished those like mutilation and trial by ordeal. Cornwallis
was better known as a law giver than as an
administrator. With the help of his colleague, George Barlow, Cornwallis prepared
a comprehensive code, covering the whole field of administration’, judicial, police,
commercial and fiscal. This Code was based upon the principle of Montesquieu,
“the Separation of Powers”, which was popular in the West in 18th century. In
order to curb undue exercise of authority Cornwallis made all officials answerable
to the courts.
POLICE REFORMS
The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the reorganisation of
police administration. The District Judge controlled the police. Each district was
divided into thanas or police circles each of which was about 20 square miles. It
was placed under an Indian officer called the daroga who was ably assisted by
many constables. However, the police organization was not effective. In the words
of Marshman, ‘the daroga enjoyed almost unlimited power of extortion and
became the scourge of the country”.
OTHER REFORMS
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Frenchmen to train his army. The political unrest in the Karnatak region continued
and Tipu Sultan had remained the uncompromising enemy of the British.
Moreover, the policy of neutrality adopted by Sir John Shore, the successor of
Cornwallis, created a kind of political unrest in India and greatly affected the
prestige of the English. His non-intervention policy contributed much to the
growth of anti-British feelings. Further, Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion
created a fear among English statesmen. It was in this light that Wellesley
moulded his policy. Preservation of British prestige and removal of French danger
from India were Wellesley’s twin aims. He was also thoroughly convinced that
only a strong British power in India could reduce and control the existing tyranny
and corruption in Indian states. Therefore, he reversed the nonintervention policy
of his predecessor and formulated his master plan namely the ‘Subsidiary
Alliance’.
The Subsidiary System
The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian princes like the
Nawab of Oudh and the Nizam of Hyderabad. They received subsidies from the
Indian rulers for the maintenance of British
troops, which were used for the protection of respective Indian states. Wellesley
enlarged and consolidated the already existing system.However, his originality was
revealed in its application.
MAIN FEATURES OF SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British
had to maintain a contingent of British troops in his territory. It was
commanded by a British officer. The Indian state was called ‘the protected
state’ and the British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount
power’. It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external
aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace. The protected state
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should give some money or give part of its territory to the British to support
the subsidiary force.
2. The protected state should cut off its connection with European powers other
than the English and with the French in particular.The state was also
forbidden to have any political contact even with other Indian powers
without the permission of the British.
3. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court
and disband his own army. He should not employ Europeans in his service
without the sanction of the paramount power.
4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the
protected state.
BENEFITS TO THE BRITISH
Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British
imperialism. It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the
expense of the protected states. The territories of the Company were free from the
ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the British power in India. The
position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian
enemies. Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.Thus
Wellesley’s diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.
DEFECTS OF THE SUBSIDIARY SYSTEM
The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the introduction
of anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by the
Indian princes. The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in
central India where the menace of Pindaris affected the people.
Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on the princes of the
protected states. Safeguarded against external danger and internal revolt, they
neglected their administrative responsibilities. They preferred to lead easy-going
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The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in the annals of India in
many ways. Although his tenure of office covered only a short span of seven years,
it saw a period of enduring reforms. They may be classified as financial,
administrative, social and educational.
Financial Reforms
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LORD DALHOUSIE
Doctrine of Lapse
Dalhousie also took advantage of every opportunity to acquire territory by peaceful
means. The East India Company was rapidly becoming the predominant power in
India. It had concluded alliances with Indian rulers. It promised to support them
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and their heirs in return for various concessions. Although this type of agreement
favoured the British, Dalhousie sought to acquire even more power. According to
the Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir to inherit the property.
The question arose whether a Hindu ruler, holding his statesubordinate to the
paramount power, could adopt a son to succeed his
kingdom. It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British
Government whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. According to
Dalhousie, if such permission was refused by the British,
the state would “lapse” and thereby become part of the British India. Dalhousie
maintained that there was a difference in principle between the right to inherit
private property and the right to govern. This principle was called the Doctrine of
Lapse. The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was
annexed in 1848. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854. As a result of these
annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came under the British rule. The
new province was governed by a Chief Commissioner from 1861. Although the
Doctrine of Lapse cannot be regarded as illegal, its
application by Dalhousie was disliked by Indian princes. The advantages of the
annexations of Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were substantial to the British. Dalhousie
was blamed for using the Doctrine of Lapse as an instrument in pursuing his policy
of annexation. After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.
Later during the Mutiny of 1857, Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi played an important
role in fighting against the British.
Annexation of Oudh
The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad in
1765. Right from Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab
of Oudh to improve the administration. But, misrule continued there and the
Nawab was under the assumption that the British would not annex Oudh because
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Postal Reform
The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie. A new
Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Consequently, irrespective of the distance
over which the letter was sent, a uniform rate of half an anna per post card was
charged throughout India. Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
Education
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India. The prevailing famine and the political disturbances in the North West
Frontier caused a great worry to the British at that time.
Famine Policy
The famine of 1876-78 had resulted from the failure of two monsoons. It covered
an area of two lakh fifty thousand square miles and affected fifty eight million
people. The worst affected areas were Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay,
Central India and the Punjab. It took a toll of five million lives in a single year. The
outbreak of cholera and fever added to the misery of the suffering population.
Lytton’s Government failed miserably to tackle the situation. The government’s
relief measures seemed to be inadequate. The first Famine Commission (1878-80)
under Sir Richard Strachey was appointed and it made many commendable
recommendations. They include provision of funds for famine relief and
construction work in the annual budget. The Famine Code came into existence in
1883.
The Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act (1878) In 1878, the Vernacular
Press Act was passed. This Act empowered a Magistrate to secure an undertaking
from the editor, publisher and printer of a vernacular newspaper that nothing would
be published against the English Government. The equipment of the press could be
seized if the offence was committed. This Act crushed the freedom of the Indian
press. This created adverse public opinion against the British Government. In the
same year, the Arms Act was passed. This Act prevented the Indians to keep arms
without appropriate license. Its violation would be a criminal offence. The
Europeans and the Anglo- Indians were exempted from the operation
of these legislations.
Other Reforms
Lord Lytton introduced uniform salt tax throughout British India. He also
abolished many import duties and supported the Free Trade After the 1857 Revolt,
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the responsibility ofPolicy. This had seriously affected the Indian economic
interest. The system of decentralisation of finance that had begun in the time of
Lord Mayo was continued during the time of Lord Lytton. The provincial
governments were empowered with some control over the expenditure of all
provincial matters like land-revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice. Lytton
wanted to encourage the provinces in collecting the revenue and thereby strengthen
the financial power and position of the provinces. In 1878, the Statutory Civil
Service was established exclusively for Indians but this was abolished later.
should be elected non-officials. The local bodies were given executive powers with
financial resources of their own. It was perhaps the desire of Ripon that power in
India should be gradually
transferred to the educated Indians. He also insisted on the election of local bodies
as against selection by the government. In all these measures, Ripon’s concern was
not so much for efficiency in administration. Instead, Ripon diffused the
administration and brought the government closer to the people. This was his most
important achievement. It was Ripon who laid the foundations of the system which
functions today.
Educational Reforms
Like Lord William Bentinck, Lord Ripon was a champion of education of the
Indians. Ripon wanted to review the working of the educational system on the
basis of the recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch. For further improvement of
the system Ripon appointed a Commission in 1882 under the chairmanship of Sir
William Hunter. The Commission came to be known as the Hunter Commission.
The Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of the
elementary education of the masses. The Commission suggested two channels for
the secondary education-one was literary education leading up to the Entrance
Examination of the university and the other preparing the students for a vocational
career. The Commission noted the poor status of women education. It encouraged
the local bodies in the villages and towns to manage the elementary education.
This had resulted in the extraordinary rise in the number of educational institutions
in India.
First Factory Act (1881)
Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the service condition of
the factory workers in India. The Act banned the appointment of children below
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the age of seven in factories. It reduced the working hours for children. It made
compulsory for all dangerous machines in the factories to be properly fenced to
ensure security to the workers.
Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)
Lord Ripon wanted to remove two kinds of law that had been prevalent in India.
According to the system of law, a European could be tried only by a European
Judge or a European Magistrate. The disqualification was unjust and it was sought
to cast a needless discredit and dishonour upon the Indian-born members of the
judiciary. C.P. Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish
thisdiscrimination in judiciary. But Europeans opposed this Bill strongly. They
even raised a fund of one lakh fifty thousand rupees and established an
organisation called the Defence Association. They also suggested that it was better
to end the English rule in India than to allow the English to be subjected to the
Indian Judges and Magistrates. The press in England joined the issue. Hence,
Ripon amended the bill to satisfy the English in India and England. The Ilbert Bill
controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism. The Ilbert Bill Controversy is a
high watermark in the history of Indian National Movement. Ripon was totally
disillusioned and heartbroken and he tendered his resignation and left for England.
The immediate result of this awakening of India was the birth of the Indian
National Congress in
1885, the very next year of Ripon’s departure.
Estimate of Lord Ripon
Lord Ripon was the most popular Viceroy that England ever sent to India. The
Indians by and large hailed him as “Ripon the Good”, because he was the only
Viceroy who handled the Indian problems with compassion and sympathy. His
attempt to remove racial distinction in the judiciary, the repeal of the Vernacular
Press Act, the rendition of Mysore and the introduction of the Local-Self
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Government increased his popularity among Indians. His resignation was deeply
regretted by Indians who cherished his memory with gratitude.
LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
Lord Curzon occupies a high place among the rulers of British India like Lord
Wellesley and Lord Dalhousie. He was a thorough imperialist. In order to make the
administration efficient, Lord Curzon
overhauled the entire administrative machinery. His internal administration may be
studied under the
following headsEducational Reforms Curzon took a serious view of the fall in the
standard of education and discipline in the educational institutions. In his view the
universities had degenerated into factories for producing political revolutionaries.
To set the educational system in order, he instituted in 1902, a Universities
Commission to go into the entire question of university education in the country.
On the basis of the findings and recommendations of the Commission, Curzon
brought in the Indian Universities Act of 1904, which brought all the universities
in India under the control of the government.
Police and Military Reforms
Curzon believed in efficiency and discipline. He instituted a Police Commission in
1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer. Curzon accepted all the
recommendations and implemented them. He set up training schools for both the
officers and the constables and introduced provincial police service. As for the
remodeling of the army, it was by and large done by Lord Kitchener, the
Commander-in-Chief in India in Curzon’s time.
Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the Calcutta Corporation
Act in 1899 by which the strength of the elected members was reduced and that of
the official members increased. Curzon gave more representations to the English
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people as against the Indians in the Calcutta Corporation. There was strong
resentment by the Indian members against Curzon’s anti-people measures.
Preservation of Archaeological objects
Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of historical
importance in India. No Viceroy in India before or after him took such a keen
interest in archaeological objects. He passed alaw called the Ancient Monuments A
ct, 1904 which made it obligatory on the part of the government and local
authorities to preserve the monuments of archaeological importance and their
destruction an offence.
Partition of Bengal, 1905
The Partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4 July 1905. The new
province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included the whole of Assam and the
Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions
of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca. Though Curzon justified his action on
administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal. This led
to the anti-partition agitation all over the country. This had also intensified the
National Movement.
Estimate of Lord Curzon
Lord Curzon assumed his office, when he was forty years old. All his reform
measures were preceded by an expert Commission and its recommendations. He
made a serious study of the Indian problems in all their aspects. At the beginning
Curzon earned the popularity and admiration of the Indian people. He lost the
popularity by the act of Partition of Bengal.
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BRAHMO SAMAJ
Bengal was first to undergo significant British influence and to produce the new
English-educated group. By the early 1800s, three distinct groups emerged, the
radicals, the reformers, and the conservatives. Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) was
the first great modern reformer, and has been called 'The Father of Modern India'
for good reason. In the religious sphere Ram Mohan's main target of attack was the
Hindu system of idolization, its mythology and cult. As a social reformer, Ram
Mohan's interest was mainly in the dreadful condition of women in Hindu society,
an interest that dominated the social reform movement for many decades. He is
rightly famous for his long and successful campaign for the abolition of sati, the
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BRAHMO RITES
After the death of Ram Mohan Roy, Debendranath
Tagore (1817-1905) took over its leadership and gave it a
new direction. He drew up a declaration of faith,
established a theological school, sent out the first Brahmo
missionaries, and created a new liturgy, the 'Brahmo Rites'.
He himself was inclined towards the contemplative and
the bhakti movement of Hinduism, and averse to Ram
Mohan's rationalism. With a stress on devotion, ethical
duties, and the near-Vedic but non-idolatrous Brahma rites, the Samaj moved
closer to the mainstream of Hinduism, as it grew quickly in numbers. Later
with Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) a new wind started to blow in the Samaj. He
was an iconoclastic reformer, repudiating all Hindu cults, rejecting caste and the
seclusion of women. In religion he had a new 'universalistic' tendency, with strong
leanings towards Christianity.
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SATYASODHAK SAMAJ
The growing religious and social reform awareness started in Maharashtra from
1840. In this stage, Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823-92), known as Lokahita-wadi,
denounced the absolute intellectual and moral dominance of Brahmins over Hindu
life. His friend and collaborator Jotiba Govind Phule (1827-90), of low caste, took
up this fight against Brahmin oppression in his voluminous prose and poetic works,
and formed an organization for the improvement of the low castes, the
Satyasodhak Samaj.
PRARTHANA SAMAJ
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In 1867 the Prarthana Samaj was formed, in Maharashtra, for religious and social
reform, The theism of the Prarthana Samaj was similar to that of its Bengali
counterpart, but it was consciously linked with the bhakti tradition of the
Maharashtrian saints.
ARYA SAMAJ
Another important figure of Indian Socio Religious
reform movement was Swami Dayananda
Saraswati(1824-83) who in 1875 published his major
work the Satyarth Prakash and founded his reform
society, the Arya Samaj. He attacked polytheism,
idolatry, and the many superstitious beliefs and rites
connected with them, and the stranglehold of the
Brahmins on religious practice. According to him, this
religion was in fact the original Vedic religion, which
was contained in the four Vedas. Thus Dayananda's religion, whilst denouncing
much of contemporary Hinduism, kept close to orthodoxy in several basic ways:
belief in the Vedas, and in karma, allegiance to the six darshanas etc.
From 1880, the predominance of nationalism and politics now began to exert
influence on the ideas of religious and social reform which had previously
prevailed. Among the social reformers of India Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and
Bal Gangadhar Tilak were notable.
BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTERJEE
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-94) found Bengal divided between the
traditionalist orthodox and the progressive reformers. His religion combines the
humanism of positivism with the activist interpretation of the Krishna myth and of
the Bengali cult of the Mother Goddess. His novels in particular awoke in the
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Bengalis, first the middle class, and later the masses, a self-confidence and pride in
their language and their religion.
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK
Another personality from Maharashtra, Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1857-1920) took
initiative to promote Hinduism as the only basis of this new spirit. He also
inaugurated new Hindu festivals, the Ganesh Chaturti and the Shivaji festival,
thus reaching the populace with his ideas of Hindu nationalistic activism, instilling
in them a pride in their glorious Marathi past. He advocated the severance of social
reform and political agitation.
It was in the 1880s, Behramji Malabari (1853-1912),
launched the campaign for the legal checking of infant
marriage by an Age of Consent Bill. Further in 1892 the
Madras Hindu Social Reform Association came into being,
led mostly by radical reformers. During this time, National
Social Conference officially acknowledged the various
associations, which worked for the welfare of various castes, as reform societies. In
1887, the Kayasth Conference was formed in Lucknow, comprising the group of
sub-castes. Another important organization was that of the Vaishyas, established in
1891. In this period the caste organizations kept away from politics, but in the
twentieth century they assumed in several areas of India very great political
importance. The first two decades of the twentieth century saw Indian politics
engaged in the great debate between the moderates, who were completely British-
oriented, and the extremists, who advocated militancy, and in their struggle for
control of the Congress. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century social
reform was dominated by the nationalistic secularists, which eventually changed its
image and its model in the direction of revivalist Hindu nationalism, and focused
on the general public.
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Moreover, under the British rule, India was transformed into one administrative
unit with the same legal system all over the country. The country has also become
united economically with the development of internal trade and foreign trade. This
action was greatly helped by the development of new means of transport and
communication system, such as railways and new postal system and telegraph.
By the 1920s the Indian religious and social reform movement lacked importance
in India. An important factor was agitation for social reform moved into the
practical business of organizing social service, such as the education and uplift of
women by the All-India Women's Conference, village development projects, the
organization of the depressed classes and the foundation of labour unions. These
new approaches, owe their very existence to those leaders and organizations that,
from Ram Mohan Roy to Lala Lajpat Rai, worked for the emergence of national
identity and social reform.
The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipinchandra
Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real founder of
the popular anti-British movement in India.
He was known as ‘Lokamanya’. He attacked the British through his weeklies The
Mahratta and the
Kesari. He was jailed twice by the British for his nationalist activities and in 1908
deported to Mandalay
for six years. He set up the Home Rule League in 1916 at Poona and declared
“Swaraj is my birth-right
and I will have it.” Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the ‘Lion of Punjab’.
He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. He founded the Indian
Home Rule League in the US in 1916. He was
deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition. He received fatal injuries while
leading a procession against the Simon Commission and died on November 17,
1928. Bipan Chandra Pal began his career as a
moderate and turned an extremist. He played an important role in the Swadeshi
Movement. He preached nationalism through the nook and corner of Indian by his
powerful speeches and writingsAurobinda Ghosh was another extremist leader and
he actively participated in the Swadeshi Movement. He was also imprisoned. After
his release he settled in the French territory of Pondicherry and concentrated on
spiritual activities.
PARTITION OF BENGAL AND THE RISE OF EXTREMISM
The partition of Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for the rise of extremism in the
Indian National Movement. Curzon’s real motives were:
1. To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal
was the base of Indian nationalism.
2. To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
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jobs. Extremist leaders Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal
and Aurobindo Ghosh were imprisoned and deported.
Achievements of Extremists
The achievements of extremists can be summed up as follows:
1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social
base of the National Movement.
3. They were the first to organize an all-India political movement, viz. the
Swadeshi Movement.
FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the
Muslim Educational Conference. Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab
Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting
up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests. The proposal was
accepted. The All-India Muslim League was finally set up on December 30,
1906. Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions and put
their demands to the British government. Initially, they enjoyed the support of the
British. Their first achievement was the separate electorates for the Muslims in the
Minto-Morley reforms.
THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916)
During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two major events occurred. The
divided Congress became united. An understanding for joint action against the
British was reached between the Congress
and the Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact. The signing of the
Lucknow Pact by the Congress and the Muslim League in 1916 marked an
important step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
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Shyamji Krishna Verma gathered young Indian nationalists like Madan Lal
Dhingra, Savarkar, V.V.S. Iyer and T.S.S.Rajan. Lala Hardyal set up the ‘Ghadar
Party’ in USA to organise revolutionary activities
from outside India
ADVENT OF GANDHI
The third and final phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] is known as
the Gandhian era. During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed
leader of the National Movement. His principles of nonviolenceand Satyagraha
were employed against the British Government. Gandhi made the nationalist
movement a mass movement. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at
Porbandar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869. He studied law in England. He returned
to India in1891. In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the
struggle against apartheid (Racial discrimination against the Blacks) for twenty
years. Finally, he came to India in 1915. Thereafter, he fully involved himself in
the Indian National Movement. Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with
Satyagraha
against the oppressive European indigo planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917.
In the next year he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat in support
of the peasants who were not able to
pay the land tax due to failure of crops. During this struggle, Sardar Vallabhai
Patel emerged as one of the trusted followers of Gandhi. In 1918, Gandhi
undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers and finally
the mill owners conceded the just demands of the workers. On the whole, the local
movements at Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad brought Mahatma Gandhi
closer to the life of the people and their problems at the grass roots level.
Consequently, he became the leader of the masses.
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The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the First
World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the
Muslims as a great insult to them. The whole movement was based on the Muslim
belief- that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims
all over the world. The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude
against Turkey and launched the Khilafat Movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad,
M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the prominent leaders
of this movement. A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th October
1919, the whole country had observed the Khilafat day. On 23 November, a joint
conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also been held under the
chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in
bringing the Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve the country’s
independence. Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-
Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920-1922)
Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation with the
government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the
Khilafat Movement. It was approved by the Indian
National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
Programmes
The programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
1. Surrender of titles and honorary positions.
2. Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
3. Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act.
4. Boycott of government functions.
5. Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.
6. Boycott of foreign goods.
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The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of ten years.
However, the review commission was appointed MOTILAL NEHRUDandi
March by the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in 1927. It came
to be known as Simon Commission after the name of its chairman, Sir John
Simon. All its seven members were Englishmen. As there was no Indian member
in it, the Commission faced a lot of criticism even before its landing in India.
Almost all the political parties
including the Congress decided to oppose the Commission. On the fateful day of 3
February 1928 when the Commission reached Bombay, a general hartal was
observed all over the country. Everywhere it was greeted with black flags and the
cries of ‘Simon go back’. At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon
Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under the leadership of Lala
Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the
police lathi charge and he passed away after
one month. The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It
was stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in
its place the report recommended the
establishment of autonomous government. There is no doubt that the Simon
Commission’s Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act
of 1935.
published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru Report. The Report
favoured:
Dominion Status as the next immediate step. Full responsible government at
the centre.
Autonomy to the provinces.Clear cut division of power between the centre
and the provinces.
A bicameral legislature at the centre.
However, the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as
detrimental to the interests of the Muslims. Jinnah convened an All India
Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen Points as Muslim
League demand.
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INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA
During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of
the Indians, the British Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940,
which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that
after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame the new
Constitution. Gandhi was not satisfied with is offer and decided to launch
Individual Satyagraha. Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-
violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis.
Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to
three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and
imprisoned for four months. The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15
months.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow expanded his Executive Council by
including five more Indians into it in July 1941. However, in the midst of
worsening wartime international situation, the British Government in its continued
effort to secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March
1942. This is known as Cripps MissionThe main recommendations of Cripps
were:
1. The promise of Dominion Status to India,
2. Protection of minorities o setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which
there would be representatives from the Princely States along with those of
the British Provinces,
3. There would be provision for any Province of British
India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to retain its present
constitutional position or frame a
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constitution of its own. The major political parties of the country rejected the
Cripps proposals. Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated Cheque”.
They did not like the rights of the Princely States either to send their
representatives to the Constituent Assembly or to stay out of the Indian Union. The
Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been
conceded in the proposal.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942-1944)
The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion
of India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim
government could be formed only after the British left India and the Hindu-Muslim
problem sorted out. The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8
August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India Resolution. On the same day,
Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’. On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government
arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress. For once, this pre-planned
action of the government left the Indian people without leadership. Mahatma
Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad,
and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort. At this time,
leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. The
role of Jayaprakash Narain in this movement was important. Large number of
students also left their schools and colleges to join the movement. The youth of the
nation also participated in this movement with patriotism. Strikes, demonstrations
and public meetings were organised in various towns and cities. Slowly the
movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as the movement gained further
momentum, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras and
Bengal. In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. Quit India Movement
was the final attempt for country’s freedom. The British Government ordered for
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538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed. At least 7,000 people were
killed. This movement paved the way for India’s freedom. It aroused among
Indians the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm and total sacrifice.
INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
During the course of the Second World War, armed revolutionary activities
continued to take place. The role of Subhas Chandra Bose towards such activities
is incomparable. On 2 July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and
gave the rousing war cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the President of Indian
Independence League and soon became the supreme commander of the Indian
National Army. He gave the country the slogan of Jai Hind. The names of the
INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru
Brigade. The women’s wing of the army was named after Rani Laxmibai. The
Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory over
Kohima. After Japan’s surrender in 1945, the INA failed in its efforts. Under such
circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18
August 1945 in a plane crash. The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort
in Delhi. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru
fought the case on behalf of the soldiers.
CABINET MISSION (1946)
After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of England.
On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to
self-determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir
Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the
Cabinet Mission. The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the
constitutional problem. Provision was made for three groups of provinces to
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possess their separate constitutions. The Cabinet Mission also proposed the
formation of a Union of India, comprising both the British India and the Princely
States. The Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs, defence and
communications leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces. A
proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would
remain in office till a new government was elected on the basis of the new
Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly. Both the Muslim League and
the Congress accepted the plan. Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for
the formation of a Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214
General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats. An Interim
Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September
1946. Mountbatten Plan (1947) On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee
announced in the House of Commons the definite intention of the British
Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than
June 1948. Thus, to effect the transference of that power Atlee decided to send
Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy to India. Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers
became India’s Viceroy on 24 March 1947. The partition of India and the creation
of Pakistan appeared inevitable to him. After extensive consultation Lord
Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India on 3 June
1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the Mountbatten
Plan.
1. The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
2. A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces
of the Punjab and Bengal.
3. The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of
the two Dominions, which will have full authority to frame their respective
Constitutions.
The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and
Pakistan. On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into
existence as two independent states. Lord Mountbatten was made the first
Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became
the first Governor General of Pakistan. The most tragic incident occurred on 30
January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi - the father of the nationon his way to a
prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram Godse.
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