Modern Linguistics (European Structuralism)

Mohamed Khider University, Biskra
Faculty of Arts and Languages Department of English

Course: linguistics Semester One
Level: second year Teacher: Dr. SAIHI H.
Unit two: Modern linguistics (European structuralism)

Lesson 04: introduction to Modern Linguistics
Modern linguistics began to develop in the 18th century with work almost entirely centering around Indo-European studies and
leading to a highly elaborate and consistent reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language. The first half of the 20th century
was marked by the structuralist school, based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure in Europe and Edward Sapir and Leonard
Bloomfield in the United States. The 1960s saw the rise of many new fields in linguistics, such as Noam Chomsky's generative
grammar, William Labov's sociolinguistics, Michael Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and also modern psycholinguistics.
1. Historical linguistics
During the 18th century, linguistics was based on linguistics and anthropology. In his The Sanscrit Language (1786), Sir
William Jones proposed that Sanskrit and Persian had resemblances to Classical Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages.
From this idea sprung the field of comparative linguistics and historical linguistics. Through the 19th century,
European linguistics centered on the comparative history of the Indo-European languages.
2. Structuralism
In Europe there was a development of structural linguistics, initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss professor
of Indo-European and general linguistics, whose lectures on general linguistics, published posthumously by his
students, set the direction of European linguistic analysis from the 1920s on; his approach has been widely
3. Descriptive linguistics
During World War II, North American linguists Leonard Bloomfield, William Mandeville Austin and
several of his students and colleagues developed teaching materials for a variety of languages whose
knowledge was needed for the war effort. This work led to an increasing prominence of the field of
linguistics, which became a recognized discipline in most American universities only after the war.
4. Generative linguistics
It is a school of thought within linguistics that makes use of the concept of a generative grammar. The term 'generative' is a concept
borrowed from mathematics, indicating a set of definitions rather than a system that creates something. It is most closely associated
with the work of Noam Chomsky.
5. Functionalism
Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its
structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. This means that functional
theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used, and not just to the formal relations
between linguistic elements.
Functional theories then describe language in term of functions existing on all levels of language.
- Phonological function Semantic function Syntactic functions Pragmatic functions
6. Cognitive linguistics
In the 1970s and 1980s, a new school of thought known as cognitive linguistics emerged as a reaction to generativist
theory. Led by theorists such as Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, linguists working within the realm of cognitive
linguistics propose that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes.
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Lesson 05: Emergence of European Structural linguistics (GENEVA SCHOOL)
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS IS an approach to LINGUISTICS which treats language as an interwoven structure, in which
every item acquires identity and validity only in relation to the other items in the system. All linguistics in the 20c is structural in this
sense, as opposed to much work in the 19c, when it was common to trace the history of individual words. Structuralism attempted to
lay down a rigorous methodology for the analysis of any language.
In Europe, Saussure influenced:
(1) the Geneva School of Albert Sechehaye and Charles Bally,
(2) the Prague School of Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose work would prove hugely influential,
particularly concerning phonology,
(3) the Copenhagen School of Louis Hjelmslev, and
(4) the Paris School of Algirdas Julien Greimas.[3] Structural linguistics also had an influence on other
disciplines in Europe, including anthropology, psychoanalysis and Marxism, bringing about the movement
known as structuralism
FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE
- Structural linguistics was depicted by Swiss

linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.
- Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics
(Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously
in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye
on the basis of notes taken from Saussure's lectures at the
University of Geneva.
- The course stressed examining language as a static system of
interconnected units. He is thus known as a father of modern
linguistics.
The semiotic Descriptive

theory: vs
prescriptive Paradigmatic
‘Signifier’ and study of
Langage, and
‘signifiant’ language syntagmatic
langue and
Synchronic parole relations of
vesrus language
diachronic one
Some concepts proposed by de Saussure ( dichotomies)
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1. Saussure’s Approach ( Dichotomies)
Synchronic versus Diachronic
Synchronic: Diachronic:
the description of a language at a particular point or the documentation and explanation of linguistic change
period in time E.g. the modern system of modern English
E.g. the change in sound system of English
from old English to modern English
signifier versus signified

Signifier signified
The linguistic sign, according to de Saussure, consists of a concept, called signified (French signifié)
two inseparable parts: a sound sequence, called signifier The signified is what these visible/audible aspects mean
(French signifiant), to us.
The association between the two parts of a linguistic sign, is arbitrary, but conventional.
Langage, Langue and Parole

Langage: Langue : Parole :
Language in general A particular language The language of an individual
- The most abstract concept of means - The system of language, that is the The actual use of language by
of communication using verbal arrangement of sounds and words which people in speech or writing
signs, both in written and spoken speakers of a language have a shared The language of an individual
form. language of or ‘agree to use’ Examples: my language, yours,
- This concept doesn’t refer to any • Referring to any particular languages, somebody else’s
particular languages in the world. such as Bahasa Indonesia, English,
The ideal form of language. French, Javanese etc.
Human’s possession • Language as social possession
• The most significant concept because
the use of langue always relates to
particular societies.
Descriptive grammar vs. Prescriptive grammar
Descriptive grammar: Prescriptive grammar:
the systematic study and description of a language. a set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and
Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid
as it is actually used by speakers and writers. to the learning of that language. Prescriptive grammar
refers to the structure of a language as certain people
think it should be used. (Khedr, 2014)
Synchronic vs. Diachronic
Syntagmatic relation Paradigmatic relation
is a type of sematic relations between words that co‐
occur in the same sentence or text (Asher, 1994). is a different type of sematic relations between words
that can be substituted with another word in the same
categories (Hj⊘rland, 2014).
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Mohamed Khider University, Biskra

Faculty of Arts and Languages Department of English

Unit two: Modern linguistics (European structuralism)

In Europe, Saussure influenced:

(1) the Geneva School of Albert Sechehaye and Charles Bally,

particularly concerning phonology,

(3) the Copenhagen School of Louis Hjelmslev, and

- Structural linguistics was depicted by Swiss

The semiotic Descriptive

Some concepts proposed by de Saussure ( dichotomies)

signifier versus signified

Langage, Langue and Parole

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