CHAPTER I: THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

Lesson 1

What is This Lesson About?

This lesson is about the different Philosophical Perspectives of the Self from the
earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy to the contemporary period. An attempt to
have answers to questions of the self that may lead you to gain your own train of
thoughts towards the query “Who am I?” eventuating to self-knowledge which is
proposed by most known philosophers as a prerequisite to have a happy and
meaningful life.

What Will You Learn?

At the end of this learning module, you should be able to:

• identify the different philosophers and their perspectives of the self

• examine and discuss the philosophical perspectives of the self
• compose proposition of what the self is
• explain why it is essential to understand the self

Let’s Try This (Activity 1)

What You Know
For you, what is the self?

Let’s Study
Philosophical Perspective of the Self

SOCRATES (470-399 BC):

The self is based on knowledge not on ignorance.

A Greek philosopher from Athens who is known to be one of the greatest ancient
figures who founded Western Philosophy. He believed that to “Know Thyself.” is an
essential part in understanding oneself: who we are, who we should be, and who we will

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become. For Socrates, the self is synonymous to the soul; in which, the essence of the
self is the soul.

Dualism: Corruptible Body and Immortal Soul

Socrates proposes that every man is composed of body and soul; our reality
consists of two dichotomous realms:
a. Physical Realm – it is changeable, transient, and imperfect.
b. Ideal Realm – it is unchanging, eternal, and immortal.
The soul being an immortal entity is always in quest for wisdom and perfection
through the full power of human reason; but because our reality is also tied up to the
Physical Realm – our bodies and where it wanders in imperfection.
Now, what happens to the self?
The self struggles in a constant state of confusion which inhibits the self to
achieve its exalted state – wisdom and perfection.
Socrates then suggests that man should live an examined life and a life of
purpose and value for an unexamined life is not worth living.
What must one do to have a meaningful and happy life?
The self must become virtuous and know the value of himself, this can be
achieved through introspection – carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions to
gain self-knowledge.

PLATO (428 – 348 BC):

The self is represented by the well-being of the soul.

Plato is a Greek philosopher from Athens who studied under Socrates; founder of
the Academy and eventually became the teacher of Aristotle. He elaborated on
Socrates’ concept of the soul and also believes that the self is synonymous to the soul.
He focused on the process of self-knowledge and purification of the soul.
In his work, The Republic, Plato stated that justice can only be attained if there is
harmony in the three parts of the soul:
a. Reason – it is the divine essence that allows us to think deeply.
b. Physical Appetite – it refers to our basic biological needs like hunger, thirst, and
sexual desires.
c. Spirit – it consists of our basic emotions like love, anger, ambition,
aggressiveness, and empathy.
These three elements of the self are in a dynamic relationship but can be often in
conflict with each other.
So, how can harmony be restored when these three elements are in conflict?
This can be restored through Reason which is in control of the Physical Appetite
and Spirit, if balance is maintained, one can achieve genuine happiness; and Reason,
according to Plato, is the essence of justice.
Plato also believes in dualism, where he then suggests that man should give
more importance to the soul than the physical body.

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SAINT AUGUSTINE (354-430 AD):
The self must be in harmony with God.

An African theologian and philosopher who became a bishop of Hippo; he

integrated the concept of Plato in Christianity wherein the soul is immortal that even if
the body is bound to die on the physical realm, the soul will live eternally in the spiritual
realm in communion with God. In quest of finding the truth on the existence of God, he
also sought understanding of human concept and was greatly influenced by Scepticism
which led him to the philosophical principle, “I doubt therefore I am.”.
According to St. Augustine, the human person is innately and always geared up
towards good because man is the creation of God who is the source of all that is good.
For one to know the self, one must have the knowledge of God which is the truth that
can be found within us through reflections, prayers, and confessions.
St. Augustine believes that man’s end goal is happiness.
So, how does one attain happiness?
The self must be able to acknowledge the love of the Supreme Being or
reciprocate that love ethically for without God, humans are bound to fail in search of
happiness.

RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650):

The self is a thinking entity.
A French mathematician, scientist, and the Father of Modern Philosophy. He is
known for his work, La géométrie which includes the Cartesian that had great influence
in the field of mathematics and brought new perspective to philosophy. He also applied
the concept of Dualism in his two dimensions of the human self: the self as a thinking
entity and the self as a physical body wherein both are independent with each other
yet each can exist without the other.
Descartes wanted to understand the relationship between the nature of the
process of reasoning and the human self. He discovered that the self is intellectually
autonomous and has independent thinking, in which, he then suggests that we cannot
simply rely on our senses and that everything must be subjected to doubt. However, he
also thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self.
But, how do we know that the self exists?
“I think therefore I am.” – Cogito ergo sum.
The very act of thinking is the mere proof of one’s existence; because for
Decartes, this is the essence of the human self – a thinking entity that is able to doubt,
understand, analyse, question, and reason.

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JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704):
The self is constructed from experiences.

An English political philosopher and the Father of Liberalism; also the founder of
modern philosophical empiricism. He suggests that the self is based from our
experiences through our senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. For him, the
key to understand the self are:
a. Conscious awareness
b. Memory of previous experiences
Locke is also known for his idea of Tabula rasa which means blank slate; it is
a theory wherein it states that when a person is born, he has no mental pre-knowledge
and through experiences perceived by our senses, one attains knowledge. He believes
that the essence of the self is one’s ability to be consciously aware of his thinking,
reasoning, and reflecting faculties to have a concept of the self.

DAVID HUME (1711 – 1776):

The self is a collection of different perceptions.

A Scottish philosopher and an empiricist who believes that one can only know
what comes from the senses and experience. He argues that the self is not an entity
that is over and beyond the physical body. For him, there are only two distinct entities
from our experiences:
a. Impressions – basic sensations of people’s experiences and vivid perceptions.
b. Ideas – these are thoughts and images based on our impressions.
According to Hume, the idea of personal identity is a result of imagination; there
is no self.

IMMANUEL KANT (1724 – 1804):

The self is constructed through rationality.

A German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. In his

philosophy, Transcendental Unity of Apperception wherein he explains that the self is
always transcendental. He also introduced the Transcendental Deduction of

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categories which pertains to the construction of a world that is stable and familiar which
can be investigated and proven scientifically. For Kant, the self is merely a product of
reason and it constructs its own reality.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856 – 1939):

The self is multilayered.

An Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, a method for treating

mental illnesses which explains human behavior. He is known for his Psychoanalytic
Theory where there are three distinct interacting agents: id, ego, and superego.
Although, he is not a philosopher, his views on the self has made a significant impact on
philosophical thinking where Freud suggests that the self consists of three layers:
a. Conscious Self – it is the reality principle referring to thoughts and perceptions.
b. Unconscious Self – it is the pleasure principle which pertains to our instinctual
drives - desires and fears.
c. Preconscious Self – it refers to your memories and stored knowledge.
According to Freud, the conscious self being rational always seeks to preserve
the equilibrium of the entire psychodynamic of the self; the unconscious self, however,
is characterized by the most primitive level of human motivation and functioning which is
why, in this layer, much of the self is determined; lastly, the preconscious self is the
easiest to access in the mind, mostly relative to how we identify the things around us –
material that is not threatening to the self.

GILBERT RYLE (1900-1976):

The self is represented by the behaviour of an individual.

A British philosopher who is known for his work, The Concept of Mind - a
criticism on Descartes’ Cartesian Dualism. He also coined the term “ghost in the
machine” wherein it says thats the consciousness or mind is carried in a physical entity;
creating the philosophical concept, “I act therefore I am.”.
Ryle believes in Logical Behaviorism, it states that the self is how people
behave; a pattern of behavior. The mind is in control of producing the entire system of
thoughts, emotions, and actions.

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PAUL CHURCHLAND (1942 - present):
The self is the brain.

A Canadian philosopher who is known for his contributions in philosophy of

neuroscience and philosophy of man. He claims that the self is inseparable from the
body and brain – Eliminative Materialism; the mind does not exist because it cannot
be perceived by our senses. For Churchland, the physical brain gives a sense of self,
thus, the self is the brain.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908-1961):

The self is embodied subjectivity.

A French philosopher who was one of the lead proponent of existentialism and
phenomenology. Merleau-Ponty dismissed the idea of Cartesian Dualism, he then
argues that the mind and body are one and inseparable along with its thoughts,
emotions, and experiences. In his work, Phenomenology of Perception, he states that
everything that people are aware of is contained within the consciousness; perception is
not merely a result of sensory experience but conscious experience – all knowledge
about the self is based on “phenomena”.

Let’s Reflect
What You Learned
Answer the question below.

1. Whose philosophical perspective do you think makes more sense to you?

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 2. Who am I?

How Much Have You Learned?

Encircle the correct answer.

1. It is a careful process of examining one’s thoughts and emotions to gain self-knowledge.

a. Interogation b. Interpersonal c. Interaction d. Introspection

2. According to St. Augustine, it is man’s end goal.

a. Seek Purpose b. Live Virtuously c. Happiness d. Heaven

3. For Plato, it is the essence of justice.

a. Self-knowledge b. Truth c. Law d. Reason

4. Acknowledgement that there is both mind and body.

a. Dualism b. Singularism c. Behaviorism d. Existentialism

5. He believed in the concept of Tabula rasa.

a. David Hume b. John Locke c. Paul Churchland d. Socrates

6. It is the layer of the self where the self is much determined.

a. Conscious b. Subconscious c. Unconscious d. Pre-conscious

7. He is known for this philosophy, “I think therefore I am.”.

a. Gilbert Ryle b. Sigmund Freud c. Maurice Merleau-Ponty d. Rene Descartes

8. The self is how people act.

a. Psychoanalysis b. Logical Behaviorism c. Behaviorism d. Empiricism

9. The brain and body is inseparable with the self.

a. Eliminative Materialism b. Phenomenological c. Existentialism d. Psychoanalysis

10. A construction of a world that is stable which can be proven scientifically.

a. Philosophy b. Transcendental Deduction c. Phenomenology d.Logical Behaviorism

Key To Correction: 1. D 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. D 8. B 9. A 10. B

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Feedback
Compare your answers to the previous pages of this lesson; if found to be correct, give
yourself a pat on the back. If not, revise it and remember that what’s important is you’ve
understood this lesson well before moving forward to the next one. You did well!

Suggested Readings/Websites
▪ https://www.slideshare.net/shinpaiwa/understanding-the-self-lecture-1-philosophical-
perspectives
▪ https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/36082?tab=aboutauthor&format=EPDF
▪ https://www.scribd.com/presentation/398015148/2-Philosophical-Perspective-About-
Self-1
▪ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303428203_Philosophical_perspectives_on_th
e_self
▪ http://www.cslewis.org/journal/special-issue-philosophical-perspectives-on-the-self-and-
the-search-for-meaning/

References
Alata, Caslib, Jr., Serafica and Pawilen (2018).Understanding the Self. Rex Book Store, Manila
Philippines

Monilla, M. & Ramirez, N.(2018). Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc., Quezon City,
Philippines

Villafuerte, Quillope, Tunac and Borja (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme Publishing House
Co. Ltd., Quezon City, Philippines

Prepared by:
Prof. Sheila Jessica A. Roallos

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