Afrikaans Art Song: A Stylistic Study and Performance Guide

A document submitted to the

Graduate School

of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

in the Performance Studies Division

of the College-Conservatory of Music

by

Bronwen Michelle Forbay

B. M. University of Natal (Durban, South Africa), 1998.

M. M. Manhattan School of Music (NY), 2002.

A. C. Southern Methodist University (TX), 2004.

Committee Chair: Kenneth Shaw, M.M.

 ABSTRACT

The aim of this document is to introduce Afrikaans art song literature to the

international Western classical singing community. The introduction situates the topic

in its historical context, providing an overview of the Afrikaans language’s European

and indigenous influences, as well as the measures taken to elevate its socio-linguistic

status. Information is included on the Afrikaans literary tradition and its impact on the

development of the Afrikaans art song. Part One includes chapters on basic grammar

and pronunciation for sung diction. Part Two includes chapters briefly defining the

genre by describing the eclectic Western classical influences inherent in the music

through a survey of selected songs by the following diverse composers: S. le Roux

Marais (1896-1976),1 John K. Pescod (1896-1985),2 Arnold Van Wyk (1916-1983)3

1
S. le Roux Marais (full name Stephanus le Roux Marais) autographed his
compositions as S. le Roux Marais.
2
John K. Pescod (full name John Kilburn Pescod) autographed his compositions
as either J. K. Pescod or John K. Pescod.
3
Arnold Van Wyk (full name Arnoldus Christiaan Vlock Van Wyk) autographed his
compositions as Arnold Van Wyk.

In this document, all composers will be referred to as their names appear in published
scores.

ii
and Pieter de Villiers (1924- ). In conclusion, recommendations for performance

practice are offered. Translations of selected songs and lists of published song output

by the four composers are located in the appendix.

Given the dearth of published studies on this genre in English, it is hoped that

this document will be a significant contribution to the discipline.

May 20, 2011

iii
 Copyright © 2011

BRONWEN MICHELLE FORBAY

iv
I wish to thank Professor Kenneth Shaw, my mentor and

supervisor, for his unstinting encouragement and support,

as well as readers Professors Mary Henderson-Stucky and

David Adams, all at the University of Cincinnati, College-

Conservatory of Music. Special thanks are given to the

following international readers and advisors: Max Loppert,

former Chief Classical Music Critic for the London

Financial Times and former Assistant Editor of Opera

magazine, in Venice, Italy; Professor Ernst Kotzé, emeritus

professor in Afrikaans and Dutch, general linguistics and

translation studies at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University, in Port Elizabeth, South Africa; Stephen Pierce,

South African DMA candidate (piano performance) at the

v
University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music;

David Smith, former Director of the University of

KwaZulu-Natal Opera Studio and Choral Academy; and

Colleen Philp, former Senior Lecturer at that same

institution. Sincere thanks are extended to the Baylor

University, University of Cincinnati and University of

KwaZulu-Natal libraries. Finally, sincere appreciation is

given to my family and friends for their unfailing

encouragement and support throughout this process.

vi
 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………..ii
INTRODUCING AFRIKAANS……………………………….………………….……..1
1.1 Situating Afrikaans in its Historical Context
1.2 An Overview of Afrikaans Literature from 1875-1960
1.3 The Development of the Afrikaans Kunslied (art song) Tradition
1.4 The Elevation and Propagation of Afrikaans

PART ONE: SIMPLIFYING AFRIKAANS

CHAPTER 1: BASIC DICTION FOR SINGERS...…………………..…....................28

1.1 An Introduction to Basic Afrikaans Grammar
1.2 Diacritical Marks
1.3 Specific Vowel Sounds
1.4 Diphthongs and Diminutives
1.5 Consonants and Consonant Combinations
1.6 Recommendations for Sung Afrikaans Diction

CHAPTER 2: BASIC GRAMMAR FOR SINGERS…………………..………............57

PART TWO: RECOGNIZING THE FAMILIAR IN THE UNFAMILIAR

INTRODUCING THE COMPOSERS…..………………………...… ………………..76

CHAPTER 3: S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)………………………………...…….....77

CHAPTER 4: John K. Pescod (1896-1985)…………………………………...…….....86

CHAPTER 5: Pieter de Villiers (1924) ……………………………………………......92

CHAPTER 6: Arnold Van Wyk (1916-1983)………………….………………………98

CHAPTER 7: Recommendations for Performance Practice…………………...……..108

WORKS CITED…………….………………………………………………...……....112
APPENDIX A A Glossary of the Musical Terms in Sewe Boerneef Liedjies…...…...117
APPENDIX B Lists of Art Song Output……………………………………………...118
APPENDIX C Translations of Selected Texts…………….……………………….....124

vii
 INTRODUCING AFRIKAANS

1.1 Situating Afrikaans in its Historical Context

Afrikaans is a product of the cultural and linguistic explosion that took place in

Southern Africa as a result of colonization by the Dutch and the British. These nations

expanded their territories into what is now called South Africa from Cape Town in 1652

onwards, alternating their occupation of the Cape.

Linguistically, Afrikaans is rooted in various regional seventeenth-century

Dutch dialects transported by colonists to the Cape.4 Considered one of the youngest

Germanic languages, Afrikaans encountered a number of diverse influences in its over-

three-hundred-year tenure on the African continent. These included Malay-Portuguese

brought over by slaves (or indentured servants) from the late 17th century onwards,5

French transported by Huguenots, who began arriving at the Cape in 1688,6 German by

immigrants who arrived throughout the 18th century,7 as well as the language of the

indigenous Khoi-San.8

4
T. J. Haarhof, Afrikaans, its Origins and Development; lectures delivered before
the University of Oxford on the 19th and 20th February, 1936, (Oxford: The Clarendon
Press, 1936), 22.
5
Ibid, 24.
6
John Christoffel Kannemeyer, A History of Afrikaans Literature: die
Beiteltjie [the Little Chisel], (Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter (Pty) Ltd, 1993), 1.
7
Ibid, 1.
8
Haarhof, 25. (While Haarhof refers to this ethnic group as “Hottentots”, the
more politically correct terms in the post-1994 South Africa are either Khoi or Khoi-San.)

1
 Bruce Donaldson’s article “Afrikaans” in The Germanic Languages

demographically identifies the approximately five million Afrikaans first-language

speakers as belonging to a broad spectrum of backgrounds and ethnicities. These

include the descendants of Dutch settlers called “Afrikaners” [afriʹka:nərs] located

primarily in the Free State (formerly known as the Orange Free State), Gauteng

(formerly known as the Transvaal), Eastern, Western and Northern Cape provinces, the

mixed race population of the Cape (racially classified “colored”9), and descendants of

indigenous ethnic groups including the Khoi-San.10

During apartheid (racial segregation), most South Africans spoke Afrikaans as a

second language as it was a compulsory academic subject at primary and high school

level. A vast majority of the population developed a strong resentment towards

Afrikaans since if one did not pass it, one had to repeat the entire school year. The

historic Soweto riots of 1976, in which some school students demonstrating against this

compulsory rule were shot dead by the police, significantly fuelled anger towards

Afrikaans and the apartheid regime. Initially a language of the oppressed, Afrikaans’

nationalistic political leanings resulted in its becoming the language of the oppressor

synonymous with the policies of apartheid. In the post-1994 democratic South Africa

however, all eleven languages have been officially recognized and awarded equal status

9
The racial classification “colored”, considered contentious in the United States
but acceptable in South Africa, refers to approximately four million mixed race South
Africans from diverse ethnic backgrounds. They include the descendents of indigenous
ethnic groups such as the isiZulu and isiXhosa mixed with various European settlers from
the United Kingdon, Germany, Holland, France, etc., the Cape Malays, as well as the
Khoi-San.
10
Bruce Donaldson, “Afrikaans” in The Germanic Languages, ed. Johan van der
Auwera and Ekkehard König (London; New York: Routledge, 1994): 478.

2
with English (which is understood by most South Africans throughout the country)

often being the preferred language of communication in business, courts, politics and

schools.11 (According to the 2001 South African census, English is only the fifth most

widely spoken home language while Afrikaans is in third place after isiZulu and

isiXhosa.12) After 1994, once Afrikaans was phased out as a compulsory academic

subject in schools, the number of Afrikaans second language speakers declined

significantly. Afrikaans is still available at school level but students can now choose

between studying it or other indigenous languages. Despite the interracial conflict of the

past and the incalculable hurt it inflicted on large sections of the population, South

Africans in this fledgling democracy are making efforts to move forward by sharing in

each other’s cultures and languages in a way that was inconceivable just twenty years

ago. The 2010 Soccer World Cup provided a remarkable opportunity for South Africans

to acknowledge their differences whilst accepting each other’s humanity and

achievements, enabling all to work towards building a future together on a world stage.

Given the unifying nature of music, it is my hope that this document will contribute to

this nation-building ideal from an artistic perspective.

The expansion of large numbers of Afrikaners through the interior of the country

in 1836 in a migratory journey known as the Great Trek was prompted by numerous

frontier wars between settlers and indigenous ethnic groups, as well as a growing

11
South Africa.info: Gateway to the Nation, “The Languages of South Africa”,
http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm, (accessed May 19, 2011).
12
Statistics South Africa 2001 Census in Brief, www.statssa.gov.za,
http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/CInBrief/CIB2001.pdf, 14, (accessed May 19,
2011).

3
disenchantment with the British imperialist government, which had assumed control of

the Cape in 1806.13 In his book A History of Afrikaans Literature: die Beiteljie (the

Little Chisel), Kannemeyer explains the significant impact the Great Trek had on the

Afrikaans literary tradition:

The Trek gave rise to a range of diaries and other documents. These reveal an
even greater commitment to the country and its problems than the eighteenth
century diaries had done. They reflect not only the Trekkers’ belief in the
meaning of their action and their deep religious conviction, but also their
commitment to the South African soil. The awkward language used in these
documents is a clear indication that they were no longer Dutch colonists, but a
new people with a character of their own.14

This statement could also be supported by the fact that the translation of the

word “Afrikaan,” from which “Afrikaans” is derived, means African.

Afrikaners on the Trek called themselves “Voortrekkers”15 [ʹfo:ᵊrʹtrεkərs]

(pioneers), and established two independent territories called “Boer” [ʹbu:r]

(Afrikaner/farmer) republics.16 According to Kannemeyer, the ascendency of Afrikaans

in these territories during the 1870s was fuelled by opposition to preceding decades of

British Anglicization policies17 and the resulting cultural oppression that had

accompanied them.18 A strong sense of solidarity developed among Afrikaners resulting

13
Kannemeyer, 2.
14
Ibid, 2.
15
Ibid, 2.
16
Ibid, 9.
17
Ibid, 5.
18
Ibid, 3-4.

4
in a surge of nationalism that culminated in the First Anglo-Boer War (1880-1881).19

The annexation of the two Boer republics of the Transvaal (Gauteng) and Orange Free

State (Free State), in an attempt to gain complete access to diamond and gold resources

and unite the four existing South African colonies under the British flag, ignited a

“struggle for freedom” among Afrikaners resulting in the Second Anglo-Boer war

(1899-1902).20 During this war, the implementation of concentration camps and

scorched-earth policies of the British forces devastated the Afrikaner people.21 The

creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910 resulted in a loss of independence for

Afrikaner states, 22 disempowering efforts to maintain their own identity. A general

feeling of subjugation was reinforced by the peace agreement which “. . . included the

stipulation that English would be the only medium in the administration and the courts,

although provision was made for the use of Dutch.”23 Attempts to elevate the status of

Afrikaans thus formed part of a resistance movement against the British imperialist

government from the outset.

As a result, Magreet de Lange notes that the political struggle framing the

development of the Afrikaans language led to a situation where “. . . literary works and

19
Ibid, 5.
20
Ibid, 9.
21
Ibid, 9.
22
Ibid, 9.
23
Ibid, 10.

5
their authors acquired an elevated almost holy status. . . . Thus, historically, each work

in Afrikaans can be seen as a brick in the edifice of Afrikaner cultural identity.”24

Considered inferior to Dutch and English, written Afrikaans was somewhat

delayed in making its appearance, even though it was spoken at the Cape prior to its

becoming a British colony.25 The first acknowledged Afrikaans book, Zamenspraak

tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar (Conversation between Klaas Soothsayer

and Jan Sceptic) by Louis Henri Meurant (1812-1893), based on ideological discourse,

only became available in 1861.26 Unlike the predominantly “religious-moralizing

emphasis” of Dutch literature of the Cape,27 Trekker writing was simpler and thus more

appealing to descendants of settlers for whom even the Dutch Bible had become “. . .

rather foreign or difficult to understand.”28 Disparagingly referred to as “. . . a “kitchen

language”, only fit for communication with uneducated “Hottentots” (the Khoi,

forebearers of the coloreds29)”,30 Afrikaans soon united citizens born in Africa of Dutch

24
Magreet de Lange, The muzzled muse: literature and censorship in South
Africa, Utrecht publications in general and comparative literature 32 (Amsterdam [The
Netherlands]; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub. Co., 1997), 32.
25
Kannemeyer, 3.
26
Ibid, 3.
27
Ibid, 2-3.
28
Ibid, 5.
29
The forebearers of the “coloreds” included other ethnic groups as well as the
Khoi. See above, 2.
30
C. N. Van der Merwe, Breaking Barriers: Stereotypes and the Changing of
Values in Afrikaans Writing 1875-1990, (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994), 5.

6
ancestry, providing them with a common ground and identity separate from the Dutch

and the British.31

It is important to note that while Dutch literature was unable to successfully

establish itself in South Africa,32 it did co-exist with early Afrikaans literature through

the late nineteenth century.33 Unlike Afrikaans however, written Dutch was considered

culturally superior and therefore acceptable for use in formal and public settings.34

Nonetheless, it was not uncommon for Dutch authors to occasionally make liberal use

of “Afrikaanerisms”35 in an attempt to appeal to a wider audience. Interestingly

however, this “. . . unintentionally provided a morphological transition” ultimately

facilitating the development of written Afrikaans.36

1.2 An Overview of the Development of Afrikaans Literature from 1875-1960

Early writers of the First Afrikaans Language Movement (1875-1900) produced

mainly “thematically restricted” works, often “. . . expressing close ties with the

motherland in general and the Afrikaner in particular.”37 A simplified colloquial

language evolved with literary works including subject matter pertaining to rural

31
Ibid, 4.
32
Kannemeyer, 11.
33
Ibid, 8.
34
Ibid, 3.
35
Ibid, 8.
36
Ibid, 8.
37
Ibid, 7.

7
Afrikaner life, life on the Trek, Afrikaans fantasy stories and folklore.38 Writers were

desirous of entertaining and educating the Afrikaner public by encouraging them to read

in Afrikaans and take a stand against British imperialism.39 Important writers of this

generation included Jan Lion Cachet (1838-1912), S. J. du Toit (1847-1911), C. P.

Hoogenhout (1843-1922), and G. R. von Wielligh (1859-1932).40

It was soon decided however that in order to “. . . combat the prestigious English

language,” Afrikaans needed to sever all ties with the lower classes and repackage itself

to participate in the ascendency of the white “. . . rural aristocrat, the landowner – and

not the worker.”41

As a result, according to Kannemeyer:

. . . poets after 1900 . . . . had the ‘natural’ obligation to develop Afrikaans into a
language of culture, to render it a sensitive instrument which could convey the
deepest emotions of the people and of the individual, and in this way to help
gain official recognition of Afrikaans as a national language.42

Writers of the Second Language Movement (1900-1930) took this obligation

seriously, fostering a conscious awakening in Afrikaner creative activity. Eugène N.

Marais’s (1871-1936) poem “Winternag” (Winter Night) (1905) is considered “. . . the

first successful example of the depiction of nature in Afrikaans: the sound patterns, the

imagery and diction charged with deep feeling and the taut (sic) construction of the

38
Ibid, 7.
39
Ibid, 7.
40
Ibid, 7-8.
41
Van der Merwe, 5.
42
Kannemeyer, 11.

8
whole made for its striking impact.”43 This poem was used by Gustav S. Preller - (1875-

1943), editor of Die Volkstem (The People’s Voice) journal, and known as the first

Afrikaner to publicly promote the use of Afrikaans over Dutch, to advocate for the

recognition of written Afrikaans.44

Other significant poets of this generation include Jan F. Celliers (1865-1940),45

J. D. du Toit, pseudonym Totius (1877-1953),46 and, the most important of the three, C.

Louis Leipoldt (1880-1947).47 All three poets responded by writing predominantly

about the nineteenth century rural Afrikaner lifestyle, life on the Trek, the South African

landscape and the struggle against British imperialism.48

Thereafter, other thematic offshoots soon developed. Gustav S. Preller (see

above) wrote adventure stories and biographies of Afrikaner leaders in a “. . . lyrical

celebration of the Afrikaner’s heroic past” that led to a flourishing of romantic fiction.49

D. F. Malherbe (1881-1969) developed the genre further “. . . through the use of

idealized and usually heroic figures in Biblical antiquity or national history”.50 While A.

G Visser’s (1878-1929) love poetry is “mainly rhetorical” and considered somewhat

43
Ibid, 22.
44
Ibid, 10 and 22.
45
Ibid, 11.
46
Ibid, 12.
47
Ibid, 15.
48
Ibid, 11-18.
49
Ibid, 18.
50
Ibid, 18.

9
mediocre, he is better appreciated for “his witty poems which use exaggerated

perspectives, the inversion of situations and, in particular, surprising rhymes,”51

elements which have contributed to his popularity among art song composers.

Didacticism and satire flourished in the hands of Willem Postma (1874-1920),

who wrote under the pseudonym Dr. O’Kulis, and C. J. Langenhoven (1873-1932), who

was acknowledged as the “. . . first successful exponent in Afrikaans” of this tradition.52

Langenhoven was adept at writing in a number of other genres as well. His poem “Die

Stem van Suid-Afrika” (The Call of South Africa), depicting the vastness and diversity

of the South African landscape while reaffirming his commitment to the country, was

set to music by M. L. de Villiers (1885-1977) and became the national anthem.53 This

song still forms a vital part of the new South African national anthem in the post-1994

era.

According to Kannemeyer, the realist tradition begun by Jan Lion Cachet

attained “. . . its highest achievement until the thirties” in the hands of Jochem van

Bruggen (1881-1957),54 whose humorous works often contain elements of “social

didacticism,” while commenting on “social degeneration” and the threat of

industrialization to the nineteenth century (rural) Afrikaner way of life.55

51
Ibid, 27.
52
Ibid, 19.
53
Ibid, 19-20.
54
Ibid, 20.
55
Ibid, 20-21.

10
 The writers of the Derde Beweging (Third Afrikaans Language Movement),

referred to as the Dertigers (Thirti-ers/Writers of the Thirties), actively distanced

themselves from the “limited colonial tradition” that had preceded them.56 They

perceived “. . . poetry as a conscious task and aimed to create verse in which every word

and image would be precise and artistically satisfying.”57 While Dertigers were multi-

skilled, often serving as critics, playwrights, and travel writers, their main focus was on

poetry.58 Early poetry dealt primarily with a “confessional tradition” and the portrayal

of the exploration of “. . . every aspect of human life”.59 Later works stepped away from

this topic however, concentrating more on image and form, especially in nature poetry,

with some poets producing epics.60 The most important poets of this period include the

innovative, sophisticated and at times impressionistic (particularly in his nature poetry)

W. E. G. Louw (1913-1980),61 his elder brother (and late bloomer) N. P. van Wyk

Louw (1906-1970), who developed into “. . . one of the greatest figures in Afrikaans

literature”,62 Uys Krige (1910-1987), known for reaching “. . . out to the world around

him” and for translating Spanish and French literature into Afrikaans,63 and finally

56
Ibid, 35.
57
Ibid, 35.
58
Ibid, 35.
59
Ibid, 35.
60
Ibid, 35.
61
Ibid, 36.
62
Ibid, 38.
63
Ibid, 49.

11
Elizabeth Eybers (1915-2007), whose early work is considered “. . . in a sense the

feminine counterpart to W. E. G. Louw’s confessions of the young man.”64

I. D. du Plessis (1900-1981) continued the earlier historical romance tradition in

Afrikaans poetry by producing anthologies of “. . . retellings of Cape Muslem (sic)

stories” while documenting their folk material.65 Although his initial influences

included Visser and Leipoldt, he was later influenced by the early works of W. E. G.

and N. P. Van Wyk Louw, which helped him refine his art, bringing him closer to the

thematic and formal tone of the Dertigers, although he never quite fully become one.66

After the 1930s, realist authors began to focus on “greater objectivity” and the “.

. . ability to depict three-dimensional characters in an existential dynamic.”67 Van

Bruggen’s humourist realism was taken further in portrayals of people of mixed race at

the Cape, who, according to Kannemeyer, “. . . came to replace the poor white in novels

and plays.”68 Important writers of this tradition include J. van Melle (1887-1953)69 and

C. H. Kühn (1903-1968), who wrote under the pseudonym Mikro.70

Realist poetry received a boost in the 1940s and 1950s when poets such as I. W.

van der Merwe (1897-1967), writing under the pseudonym Boerneef (Farmer-

64
Ibid, 52.
65
Ibid, 30-31.
66
Ibid, 31.
67
Ibid, 33.
68
Ibid, 33.
69
Ibid, 33.
70
Ibid, 34.

12
cousin/Farmer-nephew), began infusing regional dialects and mannerisms of local city

and country folk from various races and walks of life in poetic dialogues while

including regional anecdotes and daily events in their poetry.71 These techniques

effectively “. . . portray rural life as folklore or myth,” although Boerneef is also careful

to “. . . express the suffering, fears, longings and loneliness of the biographical

speaker.”72 A special quality and important characteristic of Boerneef’s poetry is the

musicality he achieves “. . . by means of wordplay and an incantatory repetition of

sounds”,73 a feature which appealed to many art song composers.

1.3 The Development of the Afrikaans Kunslied (art song)

The development of the Afrikaans kunslied (art song) was heralded by the

publishing of well-crafted original Afrikaans poetry in 1905 by the Second Language

Movement poets Marais, Celliers and Totius.74 This important event was greatly

influential to Jan Gysbert Hugo Bosman (1882-1967), who took on the stage name Vere

di Ravelli when he embarked on a career as a concert pianist in Leipzig in 1902,

performing throughout Europe and becoming the first South African to have “. . . forged

into Europe’s musical life as a pianist”.75 After returning to South Africa, Bosman

71
Ibid, 58.
72
Ibid, 59.
73
Ibid, 59.
74
Jan Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied 1908-1968 deur Jan Bouws”
[Sixty Year Old Afrikaans Art song 1908-1968 by Jan Bouws], in Tydskrif vir
Geesteswetenskappe [Journal for Humanities] 9, no. 1 (Pretoria: Sud-Afrikaanse
Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns [South African Academy for Arts and Culture], March
1968): 68.
75
Jacques P. Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A-D, (Cape
Town: Oxford University Press, 1979), 216.

13
composed a collection of Drie Liederen (Three Art Songs), one of which was called

“Winternag” (Winter Night), composed in 1908 and dedicated to Mrs. J. C. Smuts,

based on Marais’s famous poem of the same name.76

Bosman was born into a musical family in Piketberg in the Western Cape.77 He

lived in Europe for about eight years,78 studying piano at the Leipzig Conservatory,79

and composition with John Field and Alexander Winterberger, both former students of

Franz Liszt.80 He returned to South Africa in 1906 “full of romantic ideals.”81 Bosman’s

contribution to the development of the Afrikaans art song is crucial, in his three songs

he demonstrated to other composers that Afrikaans was a language of culture suitable

not only for charming folk songs but also for serious art song literature.82

In his book Woord en Wys van die Afrikaanse Lied (Word and Ways of the

Afrikaans Song) Jan Bouws (1902-1978), a Dutch musicologist, educationist and

composer of Afrikaans art songs, argues that the Afrikaans art song is not descended

from the folk song at all, and that the assumption that it is is a misconception.83 Another

76
Jan Bouws, Suid-Afrikaanse Komponiste van Vandag en Gister [South African
Composers of Today and Yesterday], (Kaapstad [Cape Town]: A.A. Balkema, 1957), 28.
77
Jan Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika [Composers of South Africa].
(Stellenbosch: Albertyn (C. F.), 1971), 47.
78
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 71.
79
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 47.
80
Ibid, 48.
81
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 71.
82
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 50.
83
Jan Bouws, Woord en Wys van die Afrikaanse Lied [Word and Ways of the
Afrikaans Song], (Kaapstad [Cape Town]: Haum, 1961), 24.

14
factor substantiating this assertion is that, while Bosman was drawn to folk music in his

search for a unique South African art song identity, in the same manner as other

romantic composers of the nineteenth century, he did not look to Afrikaner folksongs

for inspiration but to Zulu folksongs84 which informed his two piano pieces entitled “’n

Zoeloe-Huweliks en Begrafnislied” (A Zulu Wedding and Burial Song).85

Rooted in various eclectic Western classical compositional styles, early art song

composers did not simply imitate and borrow musical ideas in the way that late

nineteenth century folksong musicians at the Cape had. While they occasionally made

use of folksong tunes in instrumental pieces, and in art songs where it seemed

appropriate to do so in order to express the text more fully, their goal was to create a

unique and sophisticated individual South African sound and style in a manner similar

to that of other nationalistic composers such as Dvořák, Janáček, Bartók and Kodály.86

In the early years of the genre, composers such as M. L. De Villiers (1885-1977)

initially wrote their own texts, while poets such as Langenhoven “dabbled” in setting

their own poetry to music.87 It was soon realized however, that greater success was

achieved when each artist remained in his/her own sphere of expertise88 and as a result,

84
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 49.
85
Ibid, 50.
86
Jan Bouws, Solank daar musiek is… Musiek en musiekmakers in Suid-Africa
(1652-1982) [As long as there is music…Music and musicians in South Africa (1652-
1982), (Kaapstad [Cape Town]: Tafelberg-Uitgewers Beperk, 1982), 182.

87
Bouws, Woord en Wys van die Afrikaanse Lied, 12-13.
88
Ibid, 13.

15
a symbiotic relationship developed between poets and composers that has been in place

ever since.89

Early art song composers initially made use of poetry translated into Afrikaans

from texts by Goethe, Heine, Eichendorff, Rückert, Burns, Victor Hugo and other poets

set by international lieder composers.90 This was because Afrikaans poetry was still in

its infancy, and it took time for well-crafted offerings to become available. The arrival

of the Second Language Movement changed all of that as, shortly thereafter, art songs

came to be based exclusively on original Afrikaans poetry with composers drawing

from the natural rhythm and melody within the language and meaning of the text as

inspiration for their musical interpretations.91 As a result, an extensive use of word

painting developed and became an important feature in art songs, regardless of the

compositional style used. Composers strove to achieve the greatest expressivity for the

language by marrying the text to the music and integrating the accompaniment in a

meaningful way. This characteristic, as well as the title of the genre kunslied (art song),

points to the importance of the influence of the German Romantic Lied and the

significance placed upon it by Afrikaans art song composers.

In general, Afrikaans folksongs made use of concertina or harmonium

accompaniment92 while art songs were predominantly scored for solo voice with piano

accompaniment. Later on, numerous art songs scored for solo voice and chamber

89
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 73.
90
Ibid: 72-73.
91
Bouws, Solank daar musiek is, 183-184.
92
Jan Bouws, Die Afrikaanse Volkslied [The Afrikaans Folksong], (Johannesburg:
Voortrekkerpers Bpk., (FAK), 1957), 12.

16
orchestra or string quartets were composed, as well as arrangements for solo voice and

orchestra of songs originally scored for voice and piano. These include, for example,

John Pescod’s (1896-1985) “Oktobermaand” (The month of October).

Bosman toured South Africa in 1910 with soprano Daisy Maartens Bosman

(1878-1943 - a soprano and choral conductor who had studied voice in Germany and

was the wife of painter Jacques Bosman),93 performing many concerts and introducing

his countrymen to his compositions in hopes that this would lead to an awakening in

music, similar to what had occurred in literature.94 He also wrote an article in Die

Volkstem (The People’s Voice) about the necessity for South African composers to

develop their own unique style, and advocated for a national academy of music to

develop musicians from around the country.95 Regrettably, his plans never came to

fruition and he left South Africa towards the end of 1910, returning to Europe.96 It

would seem that his appeal to South African composers to find their own unique style

was somewhat premature, as there was unfortunately no-one available in the country at

the time with his sophisticated compositional skill sets to continue the art song tradition

from where he had left off.97 The limited access to education for South African

composers, as well as the limited amount of well-crafted original Afrikaans poetry

93
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A-D, 215.
94
Bouws, Suid-Afrikaanse Komponiste van Vandag en Gister, 28.
95
Ibid, 28-29.
96
Ibid, 29.
97
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 72.

17
available, delayed the Afrikaanse Liedbeweging (Afrikaans art song movement), so that

it officially only took off about ten years after the Second Language Movement began. 98

Early composers of the art song who made significant contributions to the

cultural development of the Afrikaner included Stephen H. Eyssen (1890-1981), a

teacher, composer and baritone based in the Cape who was well-known for his song

“Segelied” (Victory Song) also known by the alternate title “Hoop” (Hope), and written

in the style of the Dutch and Flemish Lied.99

Charles Nel (1890-1983), from Bosman’s hometown of Piketberg, wrote his first

composition on “Dis Al” (That’s All) to poetry by Celliers in 1914. 100 Due to the

limited number of well-crafted published Afrikaans poems available at the time, this

poem has been set by more than eight other composers from South Africa,

Flanders/Belgium and Holland.101

Composers writing in the 1920s included M. L. De Villiers (1885-1977),

composer of the South African national anthem and avid supporter of Schubert,

Schumann and Brahms as role models for composers of the Afrikaans art song.102 Other

composers of note were the brothers Johannes (1898-1920) and Gideon Fagan (1904-

1980), and Petrus Lemmer (1896-1979), well known for his popular art song

98
Ibid: 73.
99
Ibid: 73.
100
Ibid: 73.
101
Ibid: 73.
102
Bouws, Suid-Afrikaanse Komponiste van Vandag en Gister, 36.

18
“Kokkewiet”103 (bush shrike, a type of bird), which has been likened to Grieg’s music

for Ibsen’s Peer Gynt for its descriptive musical depiction of nature’s awakening at

sunrise.104

S. Le Roux Marais (1896-1979), regarded as one of the most important early

composers of the genre, wrote over one hundred art songs.105 Highly respected during

his lifetime, he is regarded as the first South African composer to significantly raise the

status of Afrikaans as a musical language by composing genuinely heartfelt, appealing

art songs which demonstrated the language’s suitability for beautiful, artistic singing.106

His works are popular amongst singers of varying technical skills and are suitable for

singers from the undergraduate through to the professional levels. He will be discussed

in greater depth later in this document.

English-speaking composers of note writing in Afrikaans from the 1920s, whose

works are also appropriate for undergraduate students through professional singers,

include the following: Horace Barton (1872-1951); Sydney Richfield (1882-1967);

Hayden Thomas Matthews (1894-1958), who published under the pseudonym Johannes

Joubert; Eva Harvey (1900-1976); Heinz Hirschland (1901-1960); and John Pescod

(1896-1985), best known for his setting of Leipoldt’s “Oktobermaand” (The month of

October).107

103
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 74.
104
Bouws, Woord en Wys van die Afrikaanse Lied, 20.
105
Jacques P. Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, (Cape
Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, 1986), 199.
106
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 66, 68-69.
107
Bouws, “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied”: 74.

19
 It is necessary to mention a group of poets from the latter part of the Second

Language Movement of the 1920s who greatly expanded the vocabulary and repertoire

of Afrikaans poetry and poems. They supplied a wider range of material for composers

to set to music and they include A. D. Keet, H. A. Fagan, Wassenar, F. van den Heever

and Kleinjan.108

In keeping with the energetic cultural activity prompted by the Dertigers

(Writers of the Thirties), the first public performance of works by a new generation of

composers took place at the highly respected recital venue: the Oranjeklub (Orange

Club) in Cape Town in November 1935.109 Titled Sewe Onbekende Afrikaanse

Komponiste (Seven Unknown Afrikaans Composers), the well-received program

featured works by Arnold Van Wyk (1916-1983) and Blanche Gerstman (1910-1973),

entitled respectively “Koud is die Wind” (Cold is the Wind) and “Vaalvalk”

(Kestrel).110

Five other composers born between 1927 and 1932 who belonged to the same

generation as Arnold van Wyk - one of South Africa’s most famous composers, and

contributed to the further development of the art song - include John Joubert (1927),

John Rose (1928), Peter Rorke (1928), the bilingual Cromwell Everson (1928-1991)

and Dawid Engela (1931-1967).111 While Arnold Van Wyk and John Joubert, “. . . who

108
Ibid, 73.
109
Ibid, 75.
110
Ibid, 75-76.
111
Ibid, 77.

20
had emigrated to England in 1946”,112 received the greatest success and

acknowledgement internationally from this generation, all six composers’ works are

appealing and are highly recommended for performance by singers from advanced

undergraduate through professional levels.

It is widely accepted that Bosman’s desire to create a sophisticated and unique

South African art song tradition was finally fulfilled in van Wyk’s award-winning song

cycle Van Liefde en Verlatenheid (Of Love and Loneliness)113 which is based on poetry

by Eugène Marias about a young Bushman114 girl named Nampti.115 Auspiciously, the

third song of this cycle is called “Winternag” (Winter Night) and is set to Marais’s

poem of the same name.116

It seems appropriate at this point to mention the names of other important

Afrikaans art song composers who should be investigated further by advanced graduate

students, professional performers and teachers. The works of these composers cover a

wide range of genres, are of varying degrees of difficulty and are highly effective in

performance. They include Pieter de Villiers (1924), Hubert du Plessis (1922), Stefans

Grové (1922), Hendrik Hofmeyr (1957), Peter Klatzow (1945), and Rosa Nepgen

(1909-2000).

112
C. R. Walton, “Bond of Broeders: Anton Hartman and music in an apartheid
state” [Bond of Brothers], Musical Times 145, no.1887 (2004): 69.
113
Ibid, 78.
114
The current politically correct term is San.
115
Arnold van Wyk, and Eugène N. Marais, trans. Howard Ferguson, Van
Liefde en Verlatenheid, Von Liebe und Verlassenheid, Of Love and Forsakenness,
(London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1956), 6, 16 etc.
116
Ibid, 11-15.

21
 1.4 The Elevation and Propagation of Afrikaans

In addition to various literary circles that sprang up during the 1930s to promote

the dissemination of Afrikaans literature to a wider audience,117 various institutions

such as the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns (South African Academy

for Arts and Sciences), established in 1909, were founded to “protect the interests” of

the Afrikaans language.118 The Academy standardized Afrikaans spelling rules,

ensuring that its written form remained closer to Dutch rather than the various other

ethnic forms that had developed and which included Arabic-influenced written

Afrikaans used by people of Malay descent.119

The efforts of organizations such as the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners

(Association of True/Real Afrikaners, established in 1875 and referred to by its

acronym GRA) were “. . . formed to promote Afrikaans as a written language.”120 Their

efforts contributed to the Bible and Koran being translated into Afrikaans in 1933 and

1950, respectively.121 Other advances included the acknowledgement of Afrikaans as a

medium of instruction in schools in 1914,122 and the recognition of Afrikaans as an

117
Kannemeyer, 30.
118
Haarhof, 31.
119
Christo Van Rensburg and Achmat Davids, et. al., Afrikaans in
Afrika [Afrikaans in Africa], (Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1997), 45.
120
Van der Merwe, 4.
121
Van Rensburg and Davids, 68.
122
Harhoff, 31.

22
official language in 1925.123 Once this was accomplished however, Afrikaans became

increasingly associated with political leanings on account of the vigorous ethnic

mobilization structures that had been erected predominantly by the GRA, Die

Afrikaanse Patriot (The Afrikaans Patriot) newspaper, and Dr. S. J. du Toit, member of

the First Afrikaans Language Movement.124

The elevation of Afrikaans and the Afrikaner cultural identity was also

encouraged by the powerful nationalistic secret fraternal society called the Afrikaner

Broederbond (AB), and various organizations linked to the Federasie van Afrikaanse

Kultuurvereniginge (Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Organizations, known by its

acronym FAK).125 Created in 1929, the FAK encouraged the development of Afrikaans

literature and critical analysis by publishing manuals of technical terms, and arranging

cultural festivals and events.126 A number of Afrikaans art song literature composers’

works have been published in various editions of FAK sangbundels (songbooks), which

are excellent sources for obtaining Afrikaans art songs, folksongs and choral repertoire.

Other publications, including The Afrikaans Dictionary of Musical Terms compiled by

M. C. Roode and published in 1950, were also encouraged by the FAK.127 In addition,

excellent collections of Afrikaans art songs can be found in publications commissioned

123
Friedrich Albert Ponelis, The Development of Afrikaans, (Frankfurt am Main:
P. Lang, 1993), 54.
124
Ibid, 53.
125
Ibid, 60.
126
Kannemeyer, 29.
127
Jacques Malan, South African Music Encyclopaedia, Vol. 4, P-Z, (Cape Town:
Oxford University Press Southern Africa, 1986), 190.

23
by the Suider-Afrikaanse Musiekregte Organisasie (South African Music Rights

Organization, known by its acronym SAMRO). These include among them the

anthology So Sing ook die Hart: getoonsette verse van C. Louis Leipoldt/versamel deur

Anna Bender in opdrag (So, too, Sings the Heart: compositions on poetry by C. Louis

Leipoldt, compiled by Anna Bender).128

Historically Afrikaans medium-instruction universities, such as the universities

of Stellenbosch and Potchefstroom (now called North-West University), began

instructing in Afrikaans before 1920, while the universities of Pretoria and the Orange

Free State (now called Free State) became predominantly Afrikaans medium

instruction institutions in the 1930s.129 All of these universities, in addition to the

English medium instruction South African College of Music (SACM) at the University

of Cape Town, contributed greatly to the musical education of a vast number of

Afrikaans composers and musicians.

Although the National Party, elected in 1948, promoted apartheid (racial

segregation) while encouraging the elevated status of Afrikaans, a number of Afrikaans

writers opposing the nationalist subservience of the language simultaneously

contributed to its elevation.130 Many of these writers considered themselves part of a

128
Christiaan Louis Leipoldt and Anna Bender, So Sing ook die Hart: getoonsette
verse van C. Louis Leipoldt/versamel deur Anna Bender in opdrag [So, too, Sings the
Heart: compositions on poetry by C. Louis Leipoldt/collected by Anna Bender].
(Johannesburg: Dalro, 1980.)
129
Ponelis, 54.
130
Ibid, 60.

24
resistance movement131 somewhat similar to the first Afrikaans authors in their struggle

against British imperialism and Anglicization. As a result, an alternate use of anti-

apartheid Afrikaans literature affirming the heritage of Afrikaans as a language of

struggle became an important element from the 1960s onwards.132

Technological advances enabled the state-run broadcasting authority known as

the South African Broadcasting Company (SABC) to play a major role in the

commissioning and recording of new works by South African composers for

dissemination on radio, and later, television. The SABC, also known by its Afrikaans

acronym SAUK prior to democratic elections held in 1994, was chaired for several

years by Anton Hartman (1918-1982) the “leading musical administrator in South

Africa” at the time.133 In his article “Bond of Broeders: Anton Hartman and music in an

apartheid state”, C. R. Walton writes that as principal conductor and member of the

Afrikaner Broederbond (AB), Hartman was instrumental in developing racially

exclusive orchestral outreach programs nationwide for white South Africans only.134

Hartman hosted visits by Stravinsky, Boulez and Stockhausen in South Africa, and

commissioned and performed works by South Africa’s most eminent composers.135

131
Ibid, 60.
132
Ibid, 60.
133
Walton, 63.
134
Ibid, 63.
135
Ibid, 63.

25
 The “world premiere of In the Drought by John Joubert” which is considered to

be “the ‘first South African opera’,”136 set to a libretto by Adolf Wood and based on the

book by J. du Plessis,137 was first performed “. . . in an Afrikaans translation made by

Hartman himself.”138 The first Afrikaans opera, Klutaimnestra (Clytemnestra), written

by bilingual South African composer Cromwell Everson, was performed in 1967,139

while formerly state funded regional arts councils such as CAPAB (Cape Performing

Arts Board based in Cape Town), produced Afrikaans versions of operas such as

Mozart’s Die Towerfluit (Die Zauberflöte) (The Magic Flute), performed in 1978.140

A number of organizations continue to recognize and encourage the

performance of Afrikaans art songs in the post-apartheid South Africa, including voice

competitions such as the Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuur Vereniging’s (Afrikaans Language

and Culture Organization, known by its acronym ATKV) Musiqanto (vocal music)

competition and the Mimi Coertse Scholarship Competition for Singers, named after the

first South African classically-trained singer to achive widespread international success.

These competitions, among others, have made significant contributions to the positive

elevation of the language in the new South Africa. They are open to South Africans of

all races and provide financial assistance to successful singers while keeping the

136
Ibid, 69.
137
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 128.
138
Walton, 69.
139
Bouws, Komponiste van Suid-Afrika, 127-128.

140
John Allison, “Worlds Apart,” Opera, May 2010, Vol. 74, no. 11.
http://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2010/5/Features/Worlds_Apart.html
(accessed February 9, 2011).

26
language alive in a socially uplifting way, distancing it from the negative associations of

the past.

While it is impossible to discuss all the factors which have contributed to the

elevation of Afrikaans as well as the Afrikaner creative cultural identity within the

context of this document, it is hoped that situating the topic in context will facilitate

accessibility and interest in the language and the music to which it is set.

27
 CHAPTER 1

BASIC DICTION FOR SINGERS

Although Afrikaans grammar is discussed in greater detail in chapter two, a brief

introduction has been included in this chapter in order to facilitate the singer’s

understanding of basic Afrikaans diction.

1.1 An Introduction to Basic Afrikaans Grammar

Written Afrikaans utilizes the same twenty six letters as the English alphabet.

Afrikaans sounds closest to Dutch but uses considerably simpler spellings by

comparison, a characteristic that makes it more accessible than many other Germanic

languages. For example: certain pairings of letters found in Dutch retain their

pronunciation in Afrikaans but are reduced and, in some cases, have disappeared

altogether. These include the Dutch sch and ch consonant combinations which, other

than in certain proper nouns, are spelled and pronounced sk /sk/ and g /x/ respectively.

The spelling of the Dutch diphthong -ij /əj/ has also been simplified to: -y /əj/ in

Afrikaans. -ij spellings can still occasionally be found in pronouns, although many have

been respelled over time with the simpler more modern Afrikaans variation.

Although Afrikaans shares many cognates with English, it is characterized by

the frequent use of diminutives (inherited from Dutch), numerous diphthongs, a lack of

gender distinction, and simplicity in its verbal system. Verbs are not conjugated, but

remain the same within a specific tense regardless of person or number. This particular

28
characteristic makes Afrikaans considerably easier to master than other Germanic

languages.

One of Afrikaans’ other distinguishing characteristics is that, depending on the

region, it is possible for vowels to be nasalized when followed by n, as well as ns, nf

and nx spelling combinations.141 Instances where s pluralizes the word are excluded

from this rule. Unlike French, it is permissible for nasalizing consonants to be

pronounced in Afrikaans. Doing so however, denasalizes vowels and shortens their

length slightly. This characteristic will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.

Indigenous Afrikaans words generally receive stress on the first syllable.142

Prefixes and suffixes usually remain unstressed, while the root portion of a word is

emphasized.143 Exceptions include either foreign or borrowed words where stress shifts

to the final syllable or separable compound words where stress shifts to the prefix.144

Since a number of exceptions exist for which no rule can be provided,145 the use of a

reliable dictionary such as the Madeline du Plessis et. al., Pharos Afrikaans-Engels

Woordeboek (Pharos Afrikaans-English Dictionary) listed published in 2005 is highly

recommended. Also highly recommended is the Afrikaans-Japannese Woordeboek met

Engelse Vertalings (Afrikaans-Japanese Dictionary with English Translations), created

141
Ernst Kotzé, Essential English-Afrikaans Dictionary, n.d., 11.
142
Bruce Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans: The Complete Course for Beginners
(New York: Routledge, 2000), 7.
143
Ibid, 7.
144
M. P. O. Burgers, Teach Yourself Afrikaans (London: English Universities
Press, 1957), 15.
145
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 7.

29
by Ernst Kotzé, emeritus professor in Afrikaans and Dutch, general linguistics and

translation studies at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in Port Elizabeth, with

co-compiler Takashi Sakurai, professor at Meikai University, Chiba, Japan. This

dictionary was published in 2001 and is a particularly useful resource as it utilizes the

International Phonetic Alphabet, which most Afrikaans dictionaries (including the

Pharos 2005 first edition) do not. Nonetheless, stressed syllables are indicated in both

these recommended resources as well as in most other Afrikaans dictionaries.

Afrikaans is a phonetic language with a limited number of exceptions and is

sounded, for the most part, as it is spelled. Each new syllable begins with a consonant

with closed syllables ending in a consonant and open syllables ending in a vowel. 146

Where two consonants or double consonants separate two syllables, the division usually

falls between the two consonants and the first syllable is closed. Exceptions to this rule

include the consonant combinations: tr, kw, dr, kl, and kr which are divided before the

initial consonant.147

1.2 Diacritical Marks

Afrikaans makes use of four diacritical marks:

The acute accent on é indicates syllabic stress148 but does not modify the vowel.

Example: dié [ˋdi] (this/that)

146
Ibid, 7-8.
147
Burgers, 17.
148
Ibid, 20.

30
 Please note that although the spelling of the example word is almost identical to

that of the definite article “die” (the), the acute accent indicates not only that the

syllable is emphasized but also that a different meaning of the word is present.

The grave accent on è indicates that the vowel beneath it is stressed, open, and

of long duration.149 It is found mostly over short exclamation words. Incidentally, there

are only four indigenous Afrikaans words which are compulsorily written with a grave

accent, i.e. “dè” [ˋdɛ:] (take this), “hè” [ˋɦɛ:] (really?), “nè” [ʹnɛ:] (n’est-ce pas?/ isn’t

it? /not so?/yes?) and “appèl” [aˋpɛ:l] (appeal).150

Circumflex accents on ê, î, ô, and û stress the syllable over which they appear

and result in long open vowels pronounced /ɛ:/, /ə:/, /ɔ:/ and /œ:/ respectively151 i.e. “sê”

[sɛ:] (say), “wîe” [ʹvə:ʱə] (wedge), “môre” [mɔ:rə] (morning/tomorrow) and brûe

[ʹbrœ:ʱə] (bridges). The circumflex accent does not appear above a vowels in

Afrikaans.152

The Dieresis occurs on ë, ï, ö and ü vowels.153 It can occur on ä in rare

circumstances when “. . . in combination with a preceding a, to indicate the start of a new

149
Ibid, 20.
150
Ernst Kotzé, e-mail message to author, “Afrikaans Diction and Grammar
Research,” March 21, 2011.
151
Stephanus Olivier (former Professor of Afrikaans language studies at the
University of KwaZulu-Natal), copies of IPA charts used for lectures of the “Afrikaans as
a Second Language” class at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College
campus), n.p., n.d., received by the author in August, 2010.
152
Ibid.
153
Ernst Kotzé, e-mail message to author, “Afrikaans Diction and Grammar
Research,” April 21, 2011.

31
syllable, such as in Aäron, lilaägtig, Kanaän, and a number of technical (mostly

scientific) terms where a suffix starting with a follows a stem ending on a.”154

Although Afrikaans is Germanic in origin, this diacritical mark does not function

as an “umlaut” as vowel modification does not occur. Called a “deelteken” [ʹdeᵊlteᵊkən] in

Afrikaans, it serves as a divisional sign or vowel separator. The “deelteken” ensures that

the second vowel in the word is not assimilated into the overall sound but is sounded

separately from the vowel preceding it. Syllabification occurs immediately before the

“deelteken” and as a result, the vowel preceding it is always in an open syllable.

Example: oë [ʹoᵊǝ] (eyes)

1.3 Specific Vowel Sounds in Afrikaans

Afrikaans has five pure vowel sounds: a, e, i, o and u. In this document the

Afrikaans a vowel is represented phonemically by /a/ and /a:/ and the diphthong

spelling –ou by /œu/. It is possible to observe darker sounds for a and –ou in spoken

Afrikaans which can be represented by the lower palatal symbols /ɑ/, /ɑ:/ and /əu/.

However, the brighter representations have been chosen for this document in order to

encourage singers to maintain the higher palatal positions essential for efficient vocal

production. It is hoped that the phonetic representations used will be of benefit to

singers while still maintaining the authenticity of the language.

Vowels Spelled with the Letter A

/a/

154
Ibid.

32
 The short open /a/ sound, similar in color and palatal height to the bright /a/

observed in the German word “hat” or English word “cup,” occurs when single a

spellings appear in a stressed closed syllable. This includes instances where:

x Single a spellings are followed by two consonants

Example: vars [fars] (fresh)

x Single a spellings are followed by a single consonant in monosyllabic words.

Example: tak [ʹtak] (branch/bough/limb)

According to Professor Ernst Kotzé “. . . another phonological phenomenon

which distinguishes Afrikaans from Dutch, namely the so-called svarabhakti, which

means that a schwa is inserted between a syllable-final liquid (i.e. l or r) and an adjacent

nasal, resulting in ‘warm,’ ‘film’ and ‘kerm,’ etc., being pronounced as [ʹvarəm]

(warm/hot), [ʹfələm] (film), [ʹkærəm] (moan/grumble), and even the Dutch ‘koorn’

(wheat) is written as “koring” [ko‟rəŋ] in Afrikaans.”155

/a:/

The long /a:/ sound like the English word “father,” occurs when:

x Single a spellings occur in a stressed open syllable

Examples: blare [ʹbla:rə] (foliage/canopy of leaves)

pa [ʹpa:] (father)

x Twin aa spellings appear in a stressed, closed syllable

Example: aand [ʹa:nt] (evening)

x ae spellings are present.

155
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 1, 2011.

33
Example: hael [ʹha:ǝl]* (hail/hail shower/shot)

*In normal speech it is common for ae spellings to be pronounced as one long

/a:/.156 For sung diction however, it is permissible for two separate sounds: /a:ə/ to be

pronounced, especially if the –e is located over a separate note resulting in a schwa

/ə/.157 (It is also possible for /a:/ to be represented by the lower palatal /ɑ/ or /ɑ:/.)

Vowels Spelled with the Letter E

/ɛ/

The short open /ɛ/ sound, similar to the English word “bed” and German word

“wenn,” occurs under the same conditions as those which create the short bright /a/. It is

found therefore, when single e spellings occur within a stressed closed syllable.

Examples: lekker [ʹlɛkər] (sweet)

met [ʹmɛt] (with/by/at)

/æ/

A short /æ/ sound, like the English word “cat,” occurs when single e spellings

are followed by l, k, r and g spellings within a stressed closed syllable.

Example: geld [ʹxælt]* (money/cash)

*It is possible for this vowel to also be pronounced /ɛ/ when found before k, r

and g. When it occurs before l however, the resulting alternate sound is somewhat

156
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
157
Ibid.

34
diphthongized as in ‘spel’ [spɛᵊl] (game/play).158 (These alternate pronunciations are

regarded as being somewhat localized.159)

/æ:/

The long /æ:/ sound, almost twice as long in duration as the shorter version,

occurs when:

x Single ê spellings are followed by r in a stressed open syllable

Example: wêreld [ʹvæ:rəlt] (world)

x Single e or ê spellings are followed by r, rd, rt, or rs in a closed syllable.

Examples: ver [ʹfæ:r] (far)

perd [ʹpæ:rt] (horse)

(Please note that the last two sounds can also be pronounced /ɛ:/ although this

would again be regarded as being somewhat localized.160)

/ɛ:/

The long open /ɛ:/ is found in final single ê spellings in monosyllabic words

Example: lê [ʹlɛ:] (lying/lie down)

/e/

The closed /e/ sound is somewhat narrower than the British English word “pet,”

and almost resembles an /i/ sound. It usually occurs when:

x Single e spellings occur within a stressed open syllable

Example: gelede [xəʹleᵊdə] (ago/past)

158
Ibid.
159
Ibid.
160
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.

35
 x Stressed twin ee spellings occur in a closed syllable.

Example: teen [ʹteᵊn] (against/towards)

/e:/

The long and closed /e:/ occurs when e is followed by an r within a stressed

closed syllable.

Example: veer [fe:ᵊr] (feather)

The Off-glide

Diphthongization occurs between stressed /e/, /ɛ/ and /o/ vowels and the

consonants that follow them.161 As a result, it is appropriate for an unstressed schwa-

like off-glide to naturally insert itself between the stressed vowel and consonant. This

off-glide is indicated throughout this document by /ᵊ/. Please note that this sound does

not occur when e and o vowels are followed by the nasalizing consonants.

/i/

The Afrikaans /i/ sound, similar to the English word “thief” only shorter in

duration, occurs in words spelled with the ie vowel combination:

Example: iets [ʹits] (something)

/i:/

The long /i:/ occurs in monosyllabic words when ie spellings are followed by an r.

However, “. . . lengthening of this vowel sound does not take place in bi- or multisyllabic

161
Kotzé, Essential Afrikaans/English Dictionary, n.d., 11.

36
words such as kierie, hierdie, etc., although it does receive separate stress in compounds

such as miershoop (anthill), and is then lengthened accordingly.”162

Example: dier [ʹdi:r] (animal)

Vowels Spelled with the Letter I

/ǝ/ and /ǝ:/

Spellings of the i and î vowel always sound as a neutral schwa /ə/ and are the

Afrikaans version of the Dutch short /i/ which has disappeared entirely from the

Afrikaans language. An important characteristic of the Afrikaans schwa /ə/ is that it can

be either long or short in duration and, unlike German, can occur in both stressed and

unstressed positions. Exceptions include foreign borrowed words where /i/ is

pronounced.

/ǝ/ is found in:

x Unstressed prefixes such as ge-, be- etc.

Example: gespeel [xəʹspeᵊl] (played)

x Single i spellings in stressed and unstressed closed syllables (including final –ig)

Examples: sit [ʹsət] (sit/sitting position)

middag [ʹmǝdax] (midday/noon)

rustig [ʹrœstəx] (restful/tranquil)

x Unstressed final -e or –er spellings.

Examples: se [ʹsə] (of/belonging to)

beter [ʹbeᵊtər] (better)

162
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, April 21, 2011.

37
 /ǝ:/

The long /ǝ:/ occurs when the circumflex î is present. (Please note that when

words spelled with î are followed immediately by e, an aspirated /ɦ/ sound occurs

between the two syllables.)

Example: wîe [ʹvə:ʱə] (wedge)

In spoken and sung Afrikaans, /ǝ/ is practically identical to the German schwa.

Similarly, the lengthier Afrikaans /ǝ:/ also produces the same sound as the German

schwa but with an important difference: this sound is almost twice as long in duration.

Although the Afrikaans /ǝ:/ may seem somewhat unnatural to English speakers, it is not

a challenging sound to create. It may be helpful to first pronounce the schwa as one

would in German, and to then to allow for the duration of the Afrikaans /ǝ:/ to be

similar in length to the French word “leur” /œ/. Please note however, that the Afrikaans

/ǝ:/ does not make use of rounded lips.

Vowels Spelled with the Letter O

/o/

The short closed /o/ similar to the American English word “pour” (but without

the /r/)163 uses a more rounded slightly pouty mouth shape than in English. It occurs

when:

x Twin oo vowels appear in a stressed closed syllable

Example: boom [ʹboᵊm] (tree)

x Monosyllabic words end in a final o vowel i.e. in an open syllable.

163
David Adams, e-mail message to author, May 10, 2011.

38
Example: bo [ʹboᵊ] (above)

/o:/

Like /e:/, the long closed /o:/ occurs when twin oo vowels are followed by r

within a closed syllable.

Example: voor [fo:ᵊr] (in front of/before)

/ɔ/

The short open /ɔ/, which also has a rounded lip shape, is a considerably shorter

staccato-like version of the closed /o/. It occurs under the same spelling conditions as

those which created the short open /a/ and /ɛ/ and can be seen when single o vowels

occur in a stressed closed syllable.

Examples: rokkie [ʹrɔki] (little dress)

rok [ʹrɔk] (dress)

/ɔ:/

The long open /ɔ:/ is found in words spelled with the circumflex accent on ô.

Example: môre [ʹmɔ:rə] (morning/tomorrow)

The Afrikaans /u/ sound, similar to the English word “book,” except with a

slightly lower tongue position, occurs in words spelled with the vowel combination: oe.

Example: groetnis [ʹxrutnəs] (greeting)

Vowels Spelled with the Letter U

/œ/

Similar to the short open /œ/ sound produced in the French word “fleur” – but

with less rounded lips, the Afrikaans /œ/ occurs under the same spelling conditions as

39
those which created the short open /a/, /ɛ/ and /ɔ/. It is seen when single u spellings

occur within a stressed closed syllable.

Examples: hulle [ʹhœlǝ] (theirs)

hul [ʹhœl] (their)

/œ:/

Like î, ô and ê, the circumflex on û results in a long open /œ:/ sound.

Example: brûe [ʹbrœ:ʱə] (bridges)

/ʏ/

A short /ʏ/ sound, similar to the German ü in “Flüsse” occurs when single u vowels

appear within an open syllable.

Examples: minute [mənʏtə]

/y/

A closed /y/ sound occurs when twin uu vowels appear in a closed syllable, except

when followed by r.

Example: minuut [mənyt]

/y:/

Stressed twin uu vowels followed by -r in a closed syllable result in a lengthier /y:/

sound.

Example: muur [ʹmy:r] (wall)

Summary

Words spelled: aa, ae, ê, î, ô, and û form long vowel sounds.

Words spelled: a, e, i, ie, o, oe, u and uu generally form short vowel sounds.

40
 R consonants and r spelling combinations generally lengthen the duration of

vowels regardless of original quality or length.

E and o vowels can be followed by a (schwa-like) off-glide which inserts itself

naturally between the stressed vowel sound and consonant. This off-glide /ᵊ/ is usually

not present after a, i or u vowels or when e or o vowels are followed by the nasalizing

consonants.

i and î spellings are pronounced as a schwa /ǝ/ which can be of long or short

duration and can occur in both stressed and unstressed positions, even within the same

word.

/i/, /i:/, and /u/ sounds are formed by the combinations: -ie, -ier, and -oe

respectively.

Nasalization

Nasalization is a unique characteristic of spoken Afrikaans. Generally, /a/, /ɛ/,

/i/, and /ɔ/ can be slightly nasalized when followed by n and when n is combined with s,

x, or f.164 The resulting nasalized vowel sounds are “. . . similar to their French and

Portuguese counterparts although a following consonant in these languages does not

trigger nasalization as it does in Afrikaans.”165 Nasalization does not occur when s

represents a plural in Afrikaans and, unlike French, m does not generally nasalize

Afrikaans vowels although a few limited exceptions exist. Nasalization is not a

compulsory effect, however, as it differs by region and social class and as a result, one

164
Kotzé, Essential Afrikaans/English Dictionary, n.d., 11.
165
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 1, 2011.

41
is not obliged to make use of it.166 It also seems to be disappearing from modern

Afrikaans and can be a complex concept to master, especially for second-language

speakers.167 Since spoken Afrikaans vowels can be dark at times, the occasional slight

nasalization of vowels may assist singers in reducing tongue tension by lifting the

palate, enabling the vocal mechanism to function more efficiently in maintaining a

smoother vocal legato line. (Caution is advised, however. This slight nasalization is to

be used sparingly, for the enhancement of the individual singer’s technical needs. It is

recommended that this be discussed with the teacher.) It is acceptable for all nasalizing

consonants to be pronounced in sung Afrikaans diction and therefore, for the degree of

nasalization to be either very slight or for no nasalization to occur at all. Please note that

when nasalizing consonants are pronounced, the length of the preceding vowel is

shorter and denasalized. Since art songs are considered a highly esteemed genre, not

nasalizing vowels when singing would be appropriate and is generally recommended for

sung Afrikaans diction.

Preferred phonetic representations of words containing nasalizing consonants

recommended for sung Afrikaans diction include:

Examples: Afrikaans [afriʹka:ns]

prins [ʹprǝns] (prince)

ons [ʹɔns] (us/we)

166
J. G. H. Combrink and L. G. de Stadler, Afrikaanse Fonologie [Afrikaans
Phonology], (Johannesburg: Macmillan South Africa, 1987), 74.
167
Daan Wissing, (Professor at the Center for Text Technology, North-West
University, Potchefstroom), e-mail message to author, March 1, 2011.

42
 mens [ʹmɛns] (a person)

In addition, singers will find the assimilation of certain consonants particularly

useful in maintaining a legato line. For example: when n is followed by either m or b,

the n sounds as /m/.168

Example: onbewus [ɔmbǝʹvœs] (unconscious)

onmiddelik [ɔʹmǝdǝlǝk] (immediately)

Other consonants which are assimilated and effectively facilitate sung diction

include:169

x h in the suffix –heid which becomes silent when preceded by g, except

when in a stressed position

x n followed by k which becomes /ŋ/

x p followed by b which becomes /b/ and

x t followed by d which becomes /d/.

1.4 Diphthongs

Afrikaans contains numerous diphthongs. The second symbol in all diphthongs

can be represented phonemically by either an /i/ or /j/ which are interchangeable and

produce the same sound. Just as in German, when singing in Afrikaans it is important

for the first part of the diphthong to be at least twice as long (or even longer) in duration

than the second part.

168
Burgers, 14.
169
Ibid, 14.

43
 The Three ‘Egte’ (Genuine/Authentic) Diphthongs170 contain the following

spelling combinations: ei /y, ui and ou.

y/ei Spellings

In this document, syllables spelled y or ei will be represented by əj/.

Examples: myn [ʹməjn] (mine)

meisie [ʹmǝjsi] (girl)

x Please note the important difference between the Afrikaans and German ei

spelling combination which is pronounced /ǝj/ and /ae/ respectively.

Ou Spellings

In this document ou spellings will be represented as /œu/. This is preferred by

the author as it encourages singers to keep a relaxed yet slightly rounded mouth and

higher palatal position than would be the case if /əu/ were used.

Example: koud [ʹkœut] (cold)

Ui Spellings

Syllables spelled ui are represented phonetically as /œy/ with the /œ/ portion

sounding similar to the French word “fleur” (but with a less rounded shape) and the /y/

similar to the French word “lune”.

Example: uit [ʹœyt] (out)

These last two sounds can be difficult for English speakers to produce as there is

no equivalent in English. It is necessary to round the lips slightly as if to pout and say

both vowels smoothly, without interruption, through the slightly rounded lip shape.

170
Olivier, copies of IPA charts used for lectures of “Afrikaans as a Second
Language”, n.p., n.d., received by the author in August, 2010.

44
Please note however that while the lips are slightly rounded to create these vowel

sounds in Afrikaans, they are somewhat less rounded than they would otherwise be

when creating similar sounds in French.

The ‘Nie-egte’ (Inauthentic) diphthongs are easy to identify as they include

combinations of a vowel with either an i or u spelling. Examples of how these can be

represented phonetically are listed below:

Diphthongs spelled with two vowels that produce a short initial sound include:

ai /aj/ Example: baie [ʹbajǝ] (many)

Diphthongs spelled with two vowels that produce a longer initial sound include:

ôi /ɔ:j/ Example: nôi [ʹnɔ:j] (young lady/sweetheart)

(This is the alternate form of the word “nooi”).

eu /øᵊ/ Example: kleur [ʹklø:ᵊr] (color)

Diphthongs spelled with three vowels that produce a short initial sound include:

ooi /ɔj/ Example: gooi [ʹxɔj] (to throw)

oei /ui/ Example: koei [ʹkui] (cow)

Diphthongs spelled with three vowels that produce a longer initial sound.

aai /a:j/ or /a:i/ Example: waai [ʹva:j] (bend/blow/wave)

eeu /e:u/ or /e:w/ Example: leeu [ʹle:u] (lion)

ieu /i:u/ Example: Nieu-Seeland [ʹni:u ʹseᵊlant]

ooi /o: j/ Example: nooi [ʹno: j] (young lady/sweetheart)

Diminutives (Verkleinwoorde [fərˋkləjnvo:ᵊrdə])

45
 Diminutives make Afrikaans nouns small “. . . but can also express affection or

approval.”171 While colloquial English words such as “kitty” or “lovey” are considered

childish, the Afrikaans equivalent, created by adding the diminutive to the end of a noun,

is not perceived as such since it creates words that would otherwise not exist in

Afrikaans172 such as mandjie (mand in Dutch – basket), sokkie (sok in Dutch – sock).173

Diminutives are easy to identify and are found in the following suffixes:

-djie /ki/, -tjie /ki/, -kie /ki/, -pie /pi/ and –ie /i/.

Example: liefie [ʹlifi] (darling/lovey/sweetie)

When diminutive words contain the following spellings: a, aa, an, aan, aen, e,

en, i, in, o, oo, on, oon, oe, u or un in the stem of the word, diphthongization occurs.174

This means that an /i/ or /j/ glide inserts itself naturally after the stressed vowel,

resulting in a diphthong prior to /ki/ being sounded. It is possible for the following

phonetic representations of this sound to occur as seen below.

Example: katjie [ˈkajki] or [ka ͥ ki] (kitten/kitty).

It is the author’s impression that the /ͥ/ used in the Kotzé-Sakurai dictionary

more successfully demonstrates the forward motion of the blade of the tongue in

creating this diphthong sound and that keeping this phonetic representation in mind will

contribute to a greater release of the tongue, benefiting vocal production.

171
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 106.
172
Ibid, 105.
173
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, April 21, 2011.
174
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 4.

46
 Diminutive diphthongs with the suffix spellings –tjie and -djie175include:

/aj/ or /a ͥ/ Example: katjie [ʹkajki] (kitten) or [ʹka ͥ ki]

/ɛj/ or /ɛ ͥ/ Example: prentjie [ʹprɛjɲki] (picture) or [ʹprɛ ͥ ɲki]

/ɔj/ or / ɔ ͥ/ Example: hondjie [ʹhɔjɲki] (puppy) or [ʹhɔ ͥ ɲki]

/œyj/ or /œy ͥ/ Example: fluitjie [ʹflœyjki] (whistle) or [ʹflœy ͥ ki]

/œj/ or /œ ͥ/ Example: muntjie [ʹmœjɲki] (coin) or [ʹmœ ͥ ɲki]

It is important to note that diphthongs with n before the diminutive suffixes –

tjie and -djie can result in very slight nasalization of the vowel preceding them.176 The

palatal vowel /j/ or /i/ inserts itself before the /ɲ/ sound.177 As mentioned earlier, /ͥ/ is the

preferred symbol in representing this sound for sung diction. The /ɲ/ sound, similar to

the French word “Boulogne”, is created by placing the blade of the tongue against the

palate178 and the tip of the tongue against the bottom teeth.179

1.5 Consonants and Consonant Combinations

A large number of Afrikaans consonants are pronounced in exactly the same

way as their English counterparts but they are generally produced in a gentler, less

effortful manner. The aspirated sound that usually accompanies the production of

175
Olivier, copies of IPA charts used for lectures of “Afrikaans as a Second
Language”, n.p., n.d., received by the author in August, 2010, and alternative phonetic
representations of diminutive suffixes excerpted from Kotzé, Essential Afrikaans/English
Dictionary, n.d., 9.
176
Burgers, 14.
177
Ibid, 15.
178
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
179
Burgers, 14.

47
English consonants is mostly absent in Afrikaans. As a result, it is appropriate for

singers to lightly aspirate consonants where necessary in sung Afrikaans diction in order

to clearly articulate the text. In doing so however, it is imperative to continue to

maintain the character, authenticity and natural flow of the language.

B consonants are generally voiced and are pronounced /b/ except when in final

position or when followed by an s as in the French word “l’absent.” These two

exceptions result in an unvoiced /p/ being sounded.

Examples: absorbeer [apsɔrʹbe:ᵊr] (to absorb/engage)

Job [ʹjɔp] (Job, a proper name)

C consonants are rarely used but occasionally appear in proper names or

borrowed words of foreign origin. They are sounded /s/ when in the suffix –ici but

generally retain the pronunciation of the borrowed word which can be either /s/ or /k/.

Example: musici [muʹsisi] (musicians)

cadenza [kaʹdɛnza] (cadenza)

Caesar [ʹsesa:r] (Caesar)

Initial Ch spellings are also found mostly in borrowed words where they can

produce a /k/, /ʃ/ or Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/ sound.

Example: chef [ʹʃɛf] (chef)

The Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/ makes use of a slightly lower tongue position than

the German ach-Laut /x/ with larger amounts of air blown over the blade of the tongue.

It is considered closer to the Scottish word “loch” than the German ach-Laut /x/,

although the same IPA symbol /x/ is used to represent it.

48
 In “Teach Yourself Afrikaans,” M. P. O. Burgers provides helpful instructions

on how to pronounce the Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/: “. . . pronounce /k/, keep the tongue in

the same position but draw it slightly away from the palate, and force the breath through

the opening. Avoid a throaty, rasping effect and produce a clear fricative.” 180 Although

this sound is somewhat longer in duration and therefore slightly more guttural than the

German ach-Laut /x/, it is important to ensure that it (and the tongue) does not fall back

into the throat while singing. As a result, slight adjustments are permissible. Orienting

the tongue position of the Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/ towards the German version (while

maintaining the Afrikaans ach-Laut’s longer duration) is helpful in maintaining a

consistent legato line.

Initial D consonants and d consonants followed by an unstressed, neutral e /ə/

are voiced and pronounced /d/.

Examples: dag [ʹdax] (day/daylight)

honde [ʹhɔndǝ] (dogs)

However, when in final position, d and ds are pronounced /t/ and /ts/

respectively.

Examples: hard [ʹhart] (hard/harsh)

aards [ʹa:rts] (earthly/mortal)

-Djie spelling combinations, found in diminutive suffixes, are pronounced /k/.

Example: liedjie [ʹliki] (little song)

F consonants are identical in English and Afrikaans.

180
Burgers, 10.

49
Example: familie [famʹili] (family/relations)

Attention needs to be paid to G consonants which are pronounced in a wide

variety of ways:

When preceded by a liquid l or r and followed by an unstressed neutral e /ə/, g

/g/ is sounded like the English equivalent in the word “give.”

Example: berge [ʹbɛ:ᵊrgə] (mountain)

Initial Gh spellings, a combination usually found in borrowed words, produce

the same sound. The following h indicates that a /g/ is sounded.

Example: gholf [ʹgɔlf] (golf).

Initial g consonants followed by ie /i/ or ee /e/ spelling combinations result in an

ich-Laut sound /ç/.

Examples: gieter [ʹçitǝr] (guitar)

geel [ʹçeᵊl] (yellow)

In contrast, the following conditions all produce an ach-Laut /x/ sound and

include:

x Initial g followed by a single vowel

Example: gister [ʹxəstər] (yesterday)

x Twin g’s spelled adjacent to one another within the same word (like German,

twin consonants are pronounced as one sound)

Example: liggaam [ʹləxa:m] (body)

x Final g.

Example: berg [ʹbεrx] (mountain)

–Ng spelling combinations result in an /ŋ/ sound.

50
Example: verlang [fərʹlaŋ] (to yearn/long for)

As in German, this spelling combination is never pronounced like the English

word “finger”.

However, when a stressed prefix ending in n is combined with a word stem

beginning with g, the consonants are sounded separately and g is pronounced as an ach-

Laut /x/.

Example: ingetrek [ʹǝnxǝˏtrɛk] (drawn in)

Here one would commonly expect nasalization of the schwa in spoken

Afrikaans181 but this is not necessary for singing.

H consonants are not as breathy as in English but are more voiced and result in a

semi-vowel represented as /ɦ/.

Example: heimwee [ʹɦǝjmveᵊ] (homesickness/nostalgia).

Semi-consonant J is pronounced /j/ in most Afrikaans words as in the German

word “ja.” The exception, a /ʤ/ sound, only occurs in borrowed words of foreign origin.

Examples: ja [ʹja] (yes)

jellie [ʹʤɛli] (jelly)

K Consonants are not as strongly produced as in English and are not aspirated in

Afrikaans. /k/ is sounded in all positions even when followed by n, unlike in English

where this combination results in a silent /k/.

Example: knie [ʹkni] (knee)

181
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.

51
 Spoken Afrikaans l consonants are slightly longer in duration than in English

with the tip of the tongue placed in a more forward position in its production, especially

when found at the end of a word or syllable.182 For sung Afrikaans diction it is

recommended that l, m, and n are pronounced dentally, as in Italian, to facilitate the

vocal legato line.

-Nk spelling combinations result in an /ŋ/ sound as in English and are not sounded as

two separate sounds.

Example: ink [ʹǝŋk] (ink)

This rule is generally true, except when k is the initial consonant of the following

syllable. 183

Example: inkom [ǝnkɔm] (come in)184

P consonants are produced as in English but are not aspirated.

Example: pa [ʹpa:] (father)

Q consonants are rarely used and generally appear in proper names or borrowed

words of foreign origin. When they do appear, they are pronounced /kw/.

Example: quart [ʹkwart] (measurement/quart)

Exceptions include unrecognized Afrikaans loanwords, such as quenseliet and quiche,

where the q is pronounced as /k/.185

Example: quiche [kiʃ]186

182
Kotzé, Essential Afrikaans/English Dictionary, n. d., 1.
183
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, April 21, 2011.
184
Ibid.
185
Ibid.

52
 R consonants are rolled strongly in all positions in spoken Afrikaans with the tip

of the tongue trilled against the hard palate immediately behind the top teeth. It is

recommended that this consonant be pronounced somewhat less vigorously for sung

Afrikaans diction and that it be modeled after the rolled Italian /r/ sound.

Example: roos [ʹroᵊs] (rose)

S consonants sound as an unvoiced /s/ in all positions and are never pronounced

/z/.

Example: ses [sɛs] (six)

Initial Sch spellings are pronounced /sk/.

Example: Schoeman [ʹskuman]

Sch spellings in proper nouns of Dutch origin are pronounced /s/ as seen in the

suffix below.

Example: Stellenbosch [ʹstɛlənbɔs]187

Sj spellings, found in borrowed foreign words, are sounded /ʃ/ in all positions.

Example: Sjina [ʹʃina] (China)

Sp and St spellings are sounded /st/ and /sp/ in all positions. Unlike German,

they are never pronounced: /ʃt/ or /ʃp/.

Examples: stad [ʹstat] (city/town)

speel [ʹspeᵊl] (to play)

T consonants are sounded the same as in English but without aspiration.

Example: tak [ʹtak] (branch of a tree/organization)

186
Ibid.
187
Ibid.

53
 Initial Tj spellings, commonly seen in loanwords, are pronounced /tʃ/.

Example: tjek [ʹtʃɛk] (check)

-Tjie spellings, found in diminutive suffixes, produce a /ki/ sound.

Example: dogtertjie [ʹdɔxtǝrki] (little daughter)

V consonants are unvoiced and are pronounced like the English /f/ in all

positions. Exceptions include loan words of foreign origin where the original

pronunciation of the word occurs and /v/ is sounded.

Example: vandag [fanʹdax] (today/this day)

W consonants are pronounced like the voiced English /v/.

Example: water [ʹva:tǝr] (water)

Exceptions include the following spelling combinations: dw, kw, sw and tw.188

Here, syllabification occurs before the first consonant in the combination and the /w/

sound is like the /w/ in the English word “water” /w/.

Example: kwaad [ʹkwa:t] (angry/annoyed)

X and Z consonants are rarely used and generally appear in proper names or

words of foreign origin where they are sounded as in English.

Examples: xenofobies [senoʹfoᵊbis] (xenophobic)

zoem [ʹzum] (buzzing/humming/drone)

1.6 Summary of Recommendations for Sung Afrikaans Diction

Spoken Afrikaans vowels are generally created with a lower palatal and tongue

position than in German and can be considered rather dark by comparison. For sung

188
Burgers, 17.

54
Afrikaans diction it is recommended that the singer makes use of a slightly higher

palatal position especially for the schwa and /a/ vowel sounds, directing them towards

their German equivalents where necessary. It is however still important to maintain the

authenticity and natural flow of the Afrikaans language. Listening to various recordings

by famous South African soprano Mimi Coertse, available on CD and on “YouTube”,

as well as to the CD Celebrating one hundred years of the Afrikaans art song, compiled

by Professor Izak Grové at Stellenbosch University and released in 2010, is highly

recommended.

Although Afrikaans consonants are not generally aspirated and are more gently

pronounced than in English, it is permissible for the singer to slightly aspirate

consonants where necessary in order to clearly articulate the text while remaining

faithful to the authenticity of the language.

Attention needs to be paid to the rolled /r/ and Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/. While

/r/’s tends to be strongly trilled in spoken diction, it is recommended that they be less

strongly rolled for singing in order to maintain the ease and fluidity of the vocal line.189

It would be helpful for the Italian rolled r to be used as the model for /r/ in sung

Afrikaans diction. It is also recommended that singers make use of a tongue position

that is more forward when forming the Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/. Orienting this sound

towards the German version while still maintaining the Afrikaans ach-Laut /x/’s

lengthier duration is appropriate.190

189
Mimi Coertse, telephone interview by the author, July 27, 2010.
190
Ibid.

55
 Glottal strokes are common in spoken Afrikaans and occur in similar locations

as in English and German. They have not been indicated in this document. As in

English and German, it is imperative that the singer produce glottal strokes as gently as

possible without disturbing the efficiency of vocal production and ease of the legato

melodic line. A slight lift in place of the glottal stroke is appropriate where necessary.

56
 CHAPTER 2

BASIC AFRIKAANS GRAMMAR FOR SINGERS

This chapter does not attempt to present itself as a treatise on Afrikaans, but

aims to provide a basic overview of Afrikaans grammar in order to help singers with no

knowledge of the language gain access to Afrikaans art song repertoire. Bruce

Donaldson’s book Colloquial Afrikaans: The Complete Course for Beginners (with its

accompanying CD) is highly recommended for developing further knowledge of

conversational Afrikaans as it is easy to follow and provides clearly laid out grammar

rules and vocabulary for everyday situations. The CD is particularly helpful as it

includes native speakers reading dialogues printed in the book. While the International

Phonetic Alphabet is not used, approximate sounds in English are provided. This

resource is an excellent tool for those interested in pursuing either an elementary or an

in-depth study of Afrikaans.

The Definite Article (Die Bepaalde Lidwoord [di bəˋpa:ldə ˋlətvo:ᵊrt])

There is only one definite article in Afrikaans: “die” [di] (the), which retains its

German pronunciation. Like the English word “the”, the Afrikaans “die” [di] occurs

before all nouns regardless of gender or number. Unlike German, there is no gender

distinction among Afrikaans articles, and hence equivalents for der and das do not

appear.

Examples: die vrou [di ʹfrœu] (the woman/wife)

57
 die motor [di ʹmoᵊtǝr] (the car)

die meisies [di ʹmǝjsis] (the girls)

The Indefinite Article (Die Onbepaalde Lidwoord [ɔmbəˋpa:ldə ˋlətvo:ᵊrt])

The indefinite article, equivalent to the English “a” or “an”, is spelled ʼn [ə] in

Afrikaans. (Please take note of the direction of the apostrophe.) The indefinite article is

always written in the lower case. The first letter of the noun that follows it is capitalized

when ’n occurs at the beginning of a sentence. ’n [ǝ] is used before all singular nouns. It

is always sounded, even when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. As a result it

is not unusual for the following to occur:

Example: ʼn aand [ə ʹa:nt] (an evening)

Generally, glottal stops/strokes occur before the indefinite article: ’n [ə] when at

the beginning of a clause, phrase or sentence,191 as well as before the following word if

that word begins with a vowel. However, it is possible for ’n [ə] to be assimilated with a

preceding consonant or diphthong, as well as before vowels that begin a word.192 As

mentioned in chapter one, the Afrikaans schwa is identical in pronunciation to its

German counterpart.193 It is essential that glottal strokes be pronounced as gently as

possible in singing in order to facilitate a legato vocal line. As in German and English, a

gentle lift is a permissible and preferred substitute instead of glottal strokes when

singing in Afrikaans.

Pronouns (Voornaamwoorde [ˋfo:ᵊrna:mˎvo:ᵊrdə])

191
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
192
Ibid.
193
See above, “Basic Diction for Singers,” 38.

58
Like English, Afrikaans pronouns exist in a number of cases. Possessive forms of nouns are

created by adding either “se” [sǝ] or the contraction “s’n” where the apostrophe indicates that

a schwa is to be inserted between the consonants in pronunciation resulting in [sǝn]. Like the

English “of”, “van” [fan] (of) can also be used before the noun to indicate possession.

Examples: 1. Dit is Marie se lied. [dǝt ǝs ʹma:ri sǝ lit]

(It is Marie’s song.)

2. Dit is die lied van Marie. [dǝt ǝs di lit fan ʹma:ri]

(It is the song of Marie/It is Marie’s song.)

3. Die lied is Marie s’n. [di lit əs ʹma:ri sən]

(The song is (belongs to) Marie’s./It is Marie’s song.)

The nominative/personal (persoonlik [pərˋsoᵊnlək]), objective (objektief

[ɔbjɛkˋtif]), attributive (attributief [atrəbyˋtif]) and predicative (predikatief [prɛdəkaˋtif])

cases of pronouns are outlined below. Please note that reflexive (wederkerend

[veᵊdərˋke:ᵊrənt]) and objective cases of personal pronouns are identical in Afrikaans.

Nominative/Personal Objective/Reflexive Attributive/Predicative

ek [ɛk] (I) my [mǝj] (my) myne [ʹmǝjnǝ] (mine)

jy [jǝj] (You) (informal s.) jou [jœu] (your) joune [ʹjœunǝ] (yours)

u [y] (You) (formal s. & pl.) u [y] (you) u s’n/u s’n [ʹysǝn] (yours)

hy [hǝj] (His) hom [hɔm] (his) syne[ʹsǝjnǝ] (his)

sy [sǝj] (Hers) haar [ˈha:r] (her) hare [ʹha:rǝ] (hers)

ons [ɔns] (We/Us) ons [ˈɔns] (our) ons s’n [ʹɔnsǝn] (ours)

julle [ʹjǝlǝ] (You) (informal pl.) julle [ʹjœlǝ] (your) julle s’n [ʹjœlǝnsǝn] (yours)

hulle [ʹhœlǝ] (They) hulle [ʹhœlǝ] (their) hulle s’n [ʹhœlǝsǝn] (theirs)

59
 The attributive form of the possessive case is identical to the objective/reflexive

cases with one exception: the masculine attributive form changes to “sy” [səj] (his).

Additionally, it is not necessary to capitalize “u” (you) [ौ] in the middle of a sentence as

is the case with “sie” in German.194

The impersonal (onpersoonlik [ɔnpərˋsoᵊnlək]) pronoun is “dit” [dǝt] (it/this).

Commonly seen demonstrative (aanwysend [a:ˋvəjsənt]) pronouns include:

Hierdie [ʹhi:rdi] (This/That)

Daardie [ʹda:rdi] (That/Those)

Dié [ʹdi] (This/That/These/Those). (Here, the acute accent indicates that the word is

stressed. The two vowels are combined and form one sound. This form can also be used

independently i.e. it does not have to be followed by a noun, as in English.)

The Apostrophe (Die Apostroof [di apɔˋstroᵊf])

Unlike English, the apostrophe never indicates possession in Afrikaans although

it does shorten words by means of elision.195

Example: geen [xeᵊn] (no/not any) = g’n [xǝn] (no/not any)

Apostrophes in Afrikaans can also assist in the creation of plurals when nouns

end in a long /a:/.

Example: Pa word pa’s in die meervoud.

[pa: vɔrt pa:s ǝn di ˋme:ᵊrfœut]

(Father becomes fathers in the plural.)

194
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
195
Burgers, 19-20.

60
 Plurals (Meervoud [ˋme:ᵊrfœut])

In general, plurals are formed by adding either –e, –s, -ens, -ere or –ers at the end of a

word. In some instances this results in spelling changes in order to ensure that the initial

sound of the word stem is retained.196

Example: Singular: blaar [bla:r] (leaf)

Plural: blare [ˋbla:rə] (leaves)

The Three Tenses (Die Drie Tye [di dri ˋtəjə])

Like English, Afrikaans has three tenses.

The Simple Present Tense (Die Teenwoordige Tyd [di teᵊnʹvo:ᵊrdǝxǝ tǝjt]) in main

clauses generally follows the same subject (onderwerp [ˋɔndərvɛrp]), verb (werkwoord

[ˋvɛrkvo:ᵊrt]), object (voorwerp [ˋfo:ᵊrvɛrp]) sentence word order as in English. The verb

is generally found in second position in Afrikaans word order.

Example: S V O

Ek sing kunsliedere.

[ɛk sǝŋ ʹkœnslidərə]

(I sing art songs.)

Exceptions occur in interrogative sentences in the present where it is common for

the subject and verb to swap places.

Example: V S O

Sing die meisies kunsliedere?

[sǝŋ di ʹmǝjsis ʹkœnslidərə]

196
Burgers, 26.

61
 (Direct translation: Sing the girls art songs?)

(Literal translation: Do the girls sing art songs?)

Like English, sentences in the active voice (bedrywende vorm [bəʹdrəjvəndə

ʹfɔrəm]) become passive (lydend [ʹləjdənt]) when the sentence begins with the object.

The same format and rules are followed as in English with the verb remaining in second

position in word order. In subordinate clauses however, the indicative verb moves to the

end of the clause following the same pattern as in Dutch and German.197

Example: Ek weet dat sy môre kom.

[ɛk veᵊt dat səj mɔ:rə kɔm]

(Direct translation: I know that she tomorrow comes/is coming.)

(Literal translation: I know that she is coming tomorrow.)

The Simple Past Tense (Die Verlede Tyd [di fǝrʹleᵊdǝ tǝjt]) is formed when the

auxiliary verb “het” [hɛt] (has/to have) usurps the main verb taking its (second) place in

the sentence’s word order. The past participle of the main verb gains the prefix ge- [xǝ]

and moves to the end of the sentence.

Example: S V1 O V2

Ek het kunsliedere gesing.

[ɛk hɛt ʹkœnslidərə xǝʹsǝŋ]

(I sang art songs/I have sung art songs/I had sung art songs.)

197
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.

62
 As only one past tense form exists in Afrikaans,198 this sentence can be

represented by any of the three possibilities mentioned above.

Please note that verbs beginning with the unstressed prefixes: be-, er-, ge-, her-,

mis-, ont-, and ver-, generally do not have the prefix ge- added to them in the past tense.

The prefix ge- is not used when the main stress in a verb occurs later in the word, e.g.

het omsingel, het deursoek, etc.199

S V1 O V2

Example: Ek het Pavarotti ontmoet.

[ɛk hɛt pavaʹrɔti ɔntʹmut]

(I met Pavarotti.)

When the word “toe” [tu] (then/at that time) is found at the beginning of a

sentence or clause and the other verbs in the sentence are in the present tense, “toe”

indicates that events have taken place in the past.200

Example: Toe sy tuis kom . . .

[tu sǝj ʹtœys kɔm]

(Direct translation: When she home came)

(Literal translation: When she came home)

Please note that conjunctions (voegwoorde [ˋfuxvo:ᵊrdə]) such as “as” [as]

(like/than/but/except) and “wanneer” [vaˋne:ᵊr] (when/by/which) change to the temporal

adverb “toe” in the past tense. Although “dan” [dan] (then) and “nou” [nœu] (now)

198
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 26.
199
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
200
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 65.

63
occasionally serve as conjunctions, it is important to note that they are really temporal

adverbs as they can cause an inversion of the subject and verb.201

Example: Dan moet jy my help.

[dan mut jəj məj hɛlp]

(Direct translation: Then must you help me.)

(Literal translation: Then you must help me.)

Also, “toe” can be used as either a conjunction

Example: Toe ek hom vra, het hy niks gesê nie

[tu ɛk hɔm fra hɛt həj nəks xəˋsɛ: ni]

(When I asked him, he said nothing/he had nothing to say.)

Or temporal adverb.202

Example: Toe het ons huis toe gegaan.

[tu hɛt ɔns hœjs tu xəˋxa:n]

(Direct translation: Then home we went.)

(Literal translation: Then we went home.)

Irregular verbs which deserve further attention due to their tendency to divert

from the norm when forming the past tense include:

x The verbs “wees” [veᵊs] (to be) and “hê” [hɛ:] (to have), as well as

x The modal/auxiliary verbs “kan” [kan] (to be able to), “moet” [mut] (to have to)

and “wil” [vəl] (to want to).

201
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
202
Ibid.

64
 Like English, the present tense of the verb “wees” [veᵊs] (to be) is “is” [əs]

(am/is/are).

Example: Hy is. [hǝj ǝs] (He is.)

Like English again, the simple past/imperfect of “is” [əs] (is) is “was” [vas]

(was/were).

Example: Ek was. [ɛk vas] (I was.)

As discussed earlier, these verbs also remain unchanged in specific tenses regardless

of person or number.

The infinitive of the verb “to have” is “hê” [ʹhɛ:], the present tense is “het” [hɛt] and

the past tense, which is created with an irregular past participle, is “gehad” [xəʹhat].203

Example: S V1 Adj O V2

Die meisie het ’n goeie stem gehad.

[di ʹmǝjsi hɛt ǝ ʹxujǝ stɛm xǝʹhat]

(The girl had a good voice.)

Three modal auxiliary forms undergo transformation in the past and are spelled

differently. These include “kan” [kan] (to be able to/can) which becomes “kon” [kɔn],

“moet” [mut] (must) which becomes “moes” [mus], and “wil” [vəl] (want) which

becomes “wou” [vœu] in the simple past tense. “Mag” [max] (may be

allowed/permitted to) is unchanged for all tenses but the main verb is then marked for

the past tense as seen below.204

Example: Ons mag dit gedoen het.

203
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 28.
204
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.

65
 [ɔns max dət xəˋdun hɛt]

(We were able/allowed to do it/have done it.)

“Kon,” “moes” and “wil” can be used together in the same sentence. They can also

occur with other verbs such as the past tense of “sal” (will) which is “sou” [sœu]

(would). Please note that here, the prefix ge- [xǝ] is not usually added to the main verb

although the verb still moves to the end of the sentence or clause. (It is possible for the

prefix ge- to be added to the main verb in rare cases although the meaning of the verb

changes under these circumstances.)205

Example: Ons wou hê elke kunslied moes pragtig wees.

[ɔns vœu hɛ: ˋɛlkǝ ˋkœnslit mus ˋpraxtǝx veᵊs]

(We wanted every art song to be beautiful).

The Simple Future Tense (Die Toekomende Tyd [di tuʹkoᵊmǝndǝ tǝjt]) makes use

of the auxiliary verb “sal” (will/am going to) which is placed second in word order.

Again, the main verb moves to end of the sentence. Please note that “wil” [vǝl]

(want/wish to) is not used to create the future tense in Afrikaans.

Example: S V1 O V2

Ek sal liedjies sing.

[ɛk sal ʹlikis sǝŋ]

(I will/shall/am going to sing songs.)

205
Beryl Lutrin, Afrikaans Handbook and Study Guide: An English Student’s
guide to Afrikaans, 3rd ed. (Birnam Park [Johannesburg]: Berlut Books, 2009), 21.

66
 A more immediate future is expressed by using the auxiliary “gaan” [xa:n]

which is similar to the English “am/are/is going to”.206

Example: Ek gaan nou ‘n kunslied sing.

[ɛk xa:n nœu ə ˋkœnslit sǝŋ]

(I will/am going to sing an art song./I am now going to sing an art song.)

The Infinitive (Die Infinitief [di ənfənəˋtif])

The infinitive, which always moves to the end of a sentence, is formed by

adding either “om te” [ɔm tǝ] (in order to) or “te” [tǝ] (to) to the verb.

Example: S V I

Ek hou om te sing.

[ɛk hœu ɔm tǝ sǝŋ]

(I like to sing.)

“Om te” often occurs as an uninterrupted unit but can be separated by an object:

Example: S V (I) O I

Ek hou daarvan om liedjies te sing.

[ɛk hœu da:rfan ɔm ʹlicis tǝ sǝŋ]

(I like to sing songs.)

It is also possible for an even shorter form to occur where both “daarvan” and

“om te” are left out but the meaning of the sentence remains the same.207

Example: S V O V

Ek hou van sing.

206
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
207
Ibid.

67
 [ɛk hœu fan sǝŋ]

(I like to sing.)

Exceptions where only “te” and the verb are needed to create the infinitive

include sentences with the words: “behoort” [bǝˋho:ᵊrt] (belong), “hoef nie” [huf ni]

(don’t need), “hoef net” [huf nɛt] (need only), “deur” [dø:ᵊr] (through), “blyk” [blǝjk] (it

is a fact that) and “skyn” [skǝjn] (it appears that).208

The Negative (Die Negatief/Ontkennende Vorm [di ˋneᵊxatif/ɔntˋkɛnəndə fɔrəm])

In simple sentences, the negative is formed by placing the word “nie” [ni] (not)

directly after simple verbs.

Example: Affirmative: Ek sing. [ɛk sǝŋ] (I sing.)

Negative: Ek sing nie. [ɛk sǝŋ ni] (I do not sing/I sing not.)

The repeated or double negative in Afrikaans occurs in sentences containing a

verb, subject and an object. Here, the negative “nie” (not) is used twice: once after the

verb and once after the object.

Example: Affirmative: Ek sing liedjies. [ɛk sǝŋ ʹlikis] (I sing songs.)

Negative: Ek sing nie liedjies nie. [ɛk sǝŋ ni ʹlikis ni]

(Direct Translation: I sing not songs not.)

(Literal Translation: I do not sing songs.)

The double negative also occurs when the verbal form consists of more than one

component including sentences making use of auxiliary verbs209

Example: Ons kan nie sing nie.

208
Lutrin, 40.
209
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.

68
 [ɔns kan ni sǝŋ ni]

(We cannot sing.)

As well as separable compound verbs. 210

Example: Ons staan nie op nie (from the participle/phrasal verb “opstaan”.)211

[ɔns sta:n ni ɔp ni]

(We cannot/are unable to get up.)

Please note that only the negative “nie” [ni] (not) can follow the infinitive in

sentence word order.

Example: S V N (I) O I N

Ek hou nie om liedjies te sing nie.

[ɛk hœu ni ɔm ʹlikis tǝ sǝŋ ni]

(I do not like to sing songs.)

When two clauses are separated by the coordinating conjunctions: “en” [ɛn]

(and), “maar” [ma:r] (but) and “want” [vant] (because), the second “nie” occurs at the

end of the main clause which may not necessarily be at the end of the sentence.212

Additionally, the modal auxiliary verb “moet” can exist in the negative form as either

“moet nie” or “moenie” [ʹmuni] (don’t).

Adverbs (Die Bywoord [di ˋbəjvo:ᵊrt])

Afrikaans makes use of the same adverbial expressions as English, although

they are organized differently within a sentence. Adverbs in Afrikaans appear in the

210
Ibid.
211
Ibid.
212
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 71.

69
following order within a sentence: time (tyd [tǝjt]), manner (wyse [wǝjsǝ]) and place

(plek [plɛk]). Attention should be paid as adverbs in English sentences are usually

arranged in reverse word order.213 Like English, adverbs of degree also occur in

Afrikaans. Useful adverbs of time include: “vandag” [fanʹdax] (today), “vanmôre”

[famʹmɔ:rǝ] (this morning), “vanmiddag” [famʹmǝdax] (this afternoon), “vanaand”

[faʹna:nt] (this evening/tonight), “more” [ʹmɔ:rǝ] (tomorrow), “oormôre” [ʹo:ᵊrmɔ:rǝ]

(the day after tomorrow), “gister” [ʹxǝstǝr] (yesterday) and “eergister” [ʹe:ᵊrxǝstǝr] (the

day before yesterday).

Adjectives (Die Byvoeglike Naamwoord [di bəjˋfuxləkə ˋna:mvo:ᵊrt])

In very basic terms, multisyllabic adjectives take on an –e ending “. . . when

used as nouns after articles, demonstratives and possessives.”214 They generally also

take on an -e ending when used before nouns as in the example: “’n vinnige tempo” [ə

ˋfənəxə ˋtɛmpo] (a fast tempo)”.215 Exceptions to this rule occur in adjectives ending in

-er which include the comparative forms of the adjective.216 A detailed explanation of

the complex manner in which monosyllabic adjectives are formed goes beyond the

scope of this document. Suffice it to say that the use (or not) of the -e is largely

determined by the ending of the stem form of the adjective itself.217 Like Afrikaans

213
Ibid, 33.
214
Ibid, 87.
215
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
216
Ibid.
217
Ibid.

70
plurals, this can result in spelling changes in some instances in order to retain the

original sound of the word stem.

Example: groot [xroᵊt] (large/great/huge/tall)

grote [xroᵊtǝ] (large/great/huge/tall)

–s endings are also prevalent and often occur in adjectives preceded by the

indefinite pronouns “iets” [its] (something) and “niks” [nǝks] (nothing).218

Example: Dit is niks nuuts nie. [dǝt ǝs nǝks nyts ni] (It is nothing new.)219

Please note that the spellings of words representing colors are not altered when

in their adjectival form.220

Degrees of Comparison (Trappe Van Vergelyking [ˋtrapə fan fɛrxəˋləjkəŋ])

Identical endings are used in creating the Afrikaans comparative form as in

English with –er endings added to the ends of words. Like adjectives and plurals, there

may be some spelling changes in order for the original sound of the word stem to be

retained. The superlative is generally formed by adding –ste endings.

Example: groot [xroᵊt] (big), groter [ˋxroᵊtǝr] (bigger), grootste [ˋxroᵊtstǝ] (biggest)

Like English, exception words which undergo changes to the word stem include:

Example: goed [xut] (good), beter [ˋbeᵊtər] (better), beste [ˋbɛstə] (best)

Separable Compound Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (Skeibare Werkwoorde [ˋskəjbarə

ˋvɛrkvo:ᵊrdə]/ Deeltjiewerkwoorde [ˋdeᵊlkiˋvɛrkvo:ᵊrdə]) occur when an infinitive and

218
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 116.
219
Ibid.
220
Lutrin, 14.

71
preposition (voorsetsel [ˋfo:ᵊrsɛtsəl]) are combined and written as one word.221 These

verbs contain a stressed prepositional prefix and can be separated depending on the

tense used. For example, the separable compound word “opstaan” [ʹɔpsta:n] (to get up)

can be realized in the simple past as:

Example: Ek het opgestaan.

[ɛk hɛt ʹɔpxǝˋsta:n]

(I got up/I had gotten up.)

Inseparable Compounds (Onskeibare Werkwoorde [ɔnˋskəjba:rə ˋvɛrkvo:ᵊrdə])

on the other hand, generally do not add ge- in the past tense.222 They are easy to identify

as they begin with the same unstressed prefixes previously discussed in the simple past

and include: be-, er-, ge-, her-, mis-, ont-, and ver-.223 The main stress generally occurs

on the final part of the verb. Please note that if “her” is stressed in the initial position as

in the exception word “hereksamineer” [ˋɦərɛksaməne:ᵊr] (re-examine), ge- is added in

the past tense.224

Example: gehereksamineer [xəˋɦərɛksaməne:ᵊr] (re-examined)225

Relative Pronouns (Betreklike Voornaamwoorde) can act as conjunctions,

resulting in the main verb moving to the end of the sentence. Like English, the repeated

subject, verb or object in the second sentence is removed. A comma usually separates

221
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 56.
222
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 57.
223
Ibid, 57.
224
Kotzé, e-mail message to author, March 21, 2011.
225
Ibid.

72
the two adjacent verbs. For people, either “wie se” (whose), “wat” (who) or “wie”

(who) is used while inanimate objects only receive “wat” (that/which/what).226

Example: Die meisie sing liedjies. Sy woon in Kaapstad.

Die meisie wat liedjies sing, woon in Kaapstad.

[di ˋməjsi vat ˋlikis səŋ voᵊn ən ˋka:pstat]

(The girl who sings songs lives in Cape Town.)

In keeping with Afrikaans’ simplification tendencies, relative pronouns and

prepositions referring to non-human referents often combine to form one word. 227

Examples: wat + van = waarvan [ˋva:rfan] (of/from)

by + dit = daarby [ˋda:rbəj] (near it/with it)

Exceptions resulting in spelling changes include:

Examples: vir + dit = daarvoor [ˋda:rfo:ᵊr] (in front of)

wat + vir = waarvoor [ˋva:rfo:ᵊr] (for what/what for)

met + dit = daarmee [ˋda:rmeᵊ] (with it/that)

wat + met = waarmee [ˋva:rmeᵊ] (with what)

In the case of humans, the equivalent forms are “van wie” (of who(m), “by wie”

(by who(m), “vir wie” (for who(m), “met wie” (with who(m), etc.228

Relative Clauses

Unlike English which can use a number of words to introduce a relative clause,

only one form of the relative pronoun is used in Afrikaans: “wat” [vat] (what).229

226
Ibid.
227
Ibid.
228
Ibid.

73
Example: Die klein dogtertjie wat sing, het ’n mooi stem gehad.

[di klǝjn ʹdɔxtǝrki vat sǝŋ hɛt ǝ mo:j stɛm xəˋhat]

(The young girl who sings/sang has/had a lovely voice).

Participles (Deelwoorde [ˋdeᵊlvo:ᵊrdə])

“The participle may be a Noun, Adjective or Adverb, depending on how it is

used in the sentence.”230 The present participle is often identifiable by –de or –end(e) at

the end of the verb while the past participle adds –de, –te or -e to the end of the verb.

Examples: Present Participle: Die huilende kind. [di ˋhœyləndə kənt] (The crying child.)

Past Participle: Die gekokende kos. [di ˋkoᵊkəndə kɔs] (The cooked food.)

Reduplication of Verbs

Another unique characteristic of Afrikaans is the doubling/reduplication of

certain words including verbs, nouns, numerals and adverbs in order to express a new

connotation.231

Example: gou-gou [xœu xœu] (quick-quick)

Hyphens (Die Koppelteken [di ˋkɔpəlteᵊkən])

Hyphens are used for this purpose, as well as for the names of countries with

two or more words in the title and in words indicating direction.

Example: Suid-Afrika [sœyt ʹafrika] (South Africa).

Hyphens can also be found when too many vowels lie adjacent to one other

within a word or when it is necessary to provide clarity in long compound words.232

229
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 161.
230
Lutrin, 38.
231
Donaldson, Colloquial Afrikaans, 152.

74
Example: Drie-eenheid [dri ˋeᵊnhǝjt] (Trinity)233

232
Burgers, 21.
233
Ibid.

75
 INTRODUCING THE COMPOSERS

Although the four composers selected for this stylistic survey were

contemporaries, each of them drew upon a wide variety of diverse Western classical

genres in the songs discussed here. This is particularly interesting when one considers

the many similarities between the educational backgrounds of each of these composers.

All four began their musical studies in South Africa: all furthered their education in

London, England at the Royal School of Music (RSM), Royal College of Music (RCM),

and/or the Royal Academy of Music (RAM); and all returned to South Africa upon

completion of their studies. All were pianists (three were also organists); all recorded

works for the South African Broadcasting Company (SABC); and all had various

compositions published in FAK songbooks.

De Villiers is unique as he is the only member of this group noted for his use of

Afrikaans words to indicate tempo at the beginnings of compositions.234

In the following chapters, selected works by these four composers will be

examined stylistically through a discussion of their use of form, harmony, tonality, text,

accompaniment and compositional style.

234
English translations of the Afrikaans musical terms found in the Sewe Boerneef
Liedjies (Seven Boerneef Songs) song cycle are located in Appendix A.

76
 CHAPTER 3

STEPHANUS LE ROUX MARAIS (1896-1976)

S. le Roux Marais was born in 1896 on the farm “Aasvogelkop” near

Bloemfontein and died in 1976 in Graaff-Reinet,235 a rural town in the Karoo known as

the fourth oldest city in South Africa.236 He was an organist and church musician, music

teacher, composer, and “pioneer” of the Afrikaans art song.237 His extensive

compositional output includes over one hundred art songs, two operettas, various choral

works, and organ music.238 Rosa Nepgen (1909-2000) is the only Afrikaans art song

composer recorded as having composed more songs than Marais.239 Marais’s early

musical studies were at the Bloemfontein Normal and Polytechnical College under the

direction of P. K. de Villiers, who encouraged him to consider a career in

235
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 197.
236
Graaff-Reinet, Gem of the Karoo, “Graaff-Reinet – Richly Imbued with
History, Nature & Beauty.” http://www.graaffreinet.co.za/ [Accessed April 15, 2011].
237
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 197.
238
Ibid, 199-201.
239
Johann Hendrick Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied
met klem op die werke van Nepgen, van Wyk en Du Plessis” [An Analytical Survey of
the Afrikaans art song with emphasis on the works of Nepgen, van Wyk and Du Plessis]
(D.Mus. diss., Universiteit van Pretoria, 1967), 47.

77
composition.240 After various stints as an organist and music teacher, Marais became a

student at the South African College of Music (SACM) in Cape Town from 1921 to

1923.241 While at the SACM, he studied music history and theory under the direction of

Professor W. H. Bell (1873-1946)242 who was a highly esteemed teacher and director of

the SACM, extremely influential in the education of many South African composers.243

Marais undertook further studies at the Royal School of Music and Academy of the

Royal College of Music in London where in 1924 he received diplomas.244 Upon his

return to South Africa, Marais resumed his career as a music teacher and church

musician in various rural areas around the country.245 His early compositional period

was his most productive, and was spent in Brandfort/Ermelo from 1924 to 1940.246

Although Marais’s musical contemporaries included Schoenberg (1874-1951),

Bartók (1881-1945), and Hindemith (1895-1963), he chose to model his personal

musical idiom, developed in the 1930s, after the compositional techniques of Schubert

(1787-1828), Schumann (1810-1856), and Mendelssohn (1809-1847), all three from one

240
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 198.
241
Ibid, 198.
242
M. E. van Blerk, Afrikaanse Verklarende Musiekwoordeboek [Complete
Afrikaans Music Dictionary] (Kaapstad [Cape Town]: Vlaeberg Uitgewers, 1994), 510.
243
Ibid, 486.
244
Ibid, 510.
245
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 198.
246
Helmut Holzapfel, “Die liedere van S. le Roux Marais: ’n geannoteerde
katalogus” [The songs of S. le Roux Marais: an annotated catalogue.], (D. Phil. diss.,
Universiteit van Stellenbosch, 1992), 338.

78
hundred years earlier.247 It is highly probable that these masters appealed to him as they

were well known for their expertise in successfully fusing music with text, a goal to

which Marais also aspired. His art songs have been described as:

. . . easily singable and melodically facile, and stylistically distinguished by a

sort of ballad-like, narrative quality which generates emotional responses in the
listener. In their own simple, uncomplicated way they express the child-like,
naïve factors in the national Afrikaans character, marked by distinct traces of
sweet melancholy, so that his style might be described as a kind of adolescent
Afrikaner romanticism.248

A number of Marais’s art songs, including the waltz song “Kom dans

Klaradyn”249 (Come dance, Klaradyn) and the emotionally compelling “Heimwee”

(Homesickness/Nostalgia), can be considered as having “. . . achieved the status of

national songs, even of genuine folksongs” among the Afrikaner public. 250 His works

are widely acknowledged as an early highpoint in the development of Afrikaans music

literature as they “. . . served to awaken the Afrikaner’s consciousness of the musical

values of their language.”251 Marais was popular in his lifetime, having won twenty-

three distinctions at various Eisteddfodau by 1934.252 The magnitude of his contribution

to the Afrikaans art song was likened to C. J. Langenhoven’s impressive contribution to

Afrikaans literature in a speech by Prof. W. F. C Arndt at an awards ceremony in

247
Ibid, 339.
248
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 199.
249
Klaradyn is the name of the narrator’s sweetheart.
250
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 199.
251
Ibid, 199.
252
Ibid, 198.

79
Marais’s honor held by the South African Academy for Arts and Sciences in 1946.253

Shortly thereafter, Marais became a highly respected figure within Afrikaans music

circles, while important South African singers, including Mimi Coertse, performed his

songs nationally as well as abroad.254

Marais’s harmonic language remained diatonic throughout his long career. He

favored the effect of placing related or parallel major and minor keys adjacent to one

other in order to heighten the text, a stylistic feature also employed by Schubert.255

Marais also made liberal use of chromatic II chords, Neapolitan, Italian and German

augmented sixth chords, diminished seventh chords (in all of their forms), in addition to

a variety of secondary dominant/chromatic chords in order to highlight the meanings of

words.256

The accompaniment rarely assumes a dominant role in Marais’s songs although

it does contribute significantly to enhancing the text.257 Marias was fond of arpeggios,

ostinato/walking bass lines, the occasional pedal point, as well as an octave bass note in

the left hand - found at the end of many of his songs.258

Apart from his lyrical writing, he also made use of a recitative-like vocal line

accompanied by blocked chords on the downbeat (and third beat in 4/4 meter) - often

253
Ibid, 198-199.
254
Ibid, 199.
255
Holzapfel, 347.
256
Ibid, 346-347.
257
Ibid, 344.
258
Ibid, 345.

80
found in places where the poem takes on a more serious or melancholic tone, giving the

singer greater freedom in delivering the text.259

Text painting is important and evident in all of Marais’s vocal compositions.

Potgieter notes that Marais’s choices regarding form generally develop directly from the

poetry and its construction, resulting in a musical composition that serves the greater

good of the text.260A notable example of this occurs in “Geboorte van die Lente” (The

Birth of Spring) (1930), which won a Marais first prize in composition at the Cape

Eisteddfod in 1939.261 Each section of the musical setting of this song is determined by

the construction of the text which directly affects changes in key, form, meter, and

accompanying figures, as well as the phrasing of the vocal melodic line.

“Geboorte van die Lente” (The Birth of Spring) is a through-composed song

with a fantasy-love theme based on the witty and humorous poetic fable by A. G. Visser

(1878-1929).

Brief synopsis: Once upon a time, the Sun and Rain had a beautiful wedding.

Shortly thereafter however, they argued creating a terrible hailstorm. The Sun

disappeared and the Rain made a harsh cold wind blow from the north. Nonetheless,

they reconciled and soon rejoiced over the birth of their daughter, Spring.

Marais musically sets this poem in the following formal sections:

Prelude, A Section, B Section, Interlude, C Section, D Section, Postlude. The

song begins cheerfully in the key of G Major with a simple four measure prelude of

259
Ibid, 345.
260
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 61.
261
Holzapfel, 173.

81
arpeggio figures in the accompaniment joyfully anticipating the Sun and Rain’s wedding

day. Predominantly in 6/8 meter, the opening tempo is marked andante grazioso and is

graceful and unhurried. The accompaniment plays an important role throughout the

song, commenting on and personifying events as they occur within the poetry (such as

the hailstorm which is found in the piano interlude). Nonetheless, the accompaniment

never dominates the vocal melodic line. The voice enters in measure five and continues

this ecstatic mood while the piano continues with its arpeggios in the remainder of the A

section. In the B section (m.14-23) which musically describes how the Sun and Rain

began to argue, the mood changes dramatically by means of a modulation to the mediant

key of B Major. Here, the tempo is marked agitato and the troubled mood is reinforced

by faster and increasingly chromatic arpeggio figures in the accompaniment. These

build momentum, heralding the approaching storm. A series of tremolos in the

accompaniment combined with repeated pitches in the vocal melodic line (m. 18-22)

assist in driving this mood forward, culminating in a perfect authentic cadence in the

parallel minor key (B minor). The piano interlude in B minor (m. 24-26) is distinguished

by challenging triplet figures in the right hand and staccato sixteenth notes and rests in

the left hand. These figures depict the hailstorm in a manner reminiscent of the piano

works of Liszt and Chopin, with a sustained trill (m. 26) and harmonic resolution

providing some welcome relief from the tension. The song remains in the parallel minor

key of B minor in the C section (m. 27-31) although the accompaniment style changes.

Here, Marais makes use of four-part chorale style hymn-like accompaniment in 4/4

meter which suits the text as the Sun and Rain are trying to resolve their differences

amicably. The meter suddenly changes to 2/4 (m. 31) where Marais places a musical

82
accent on the word “liefde” (love) that is reinforced by the use of resonant, full chords in

the accompaniment. This is followed by a perfect authentic cadence to the parallel major

key of B major, successfully depicting the Sun and Rain’s realization that they love one

another and indicating that they have resolved their differences musically and textually.

The song then continues happily in B major for the final D section (m. 32-40) which is

marked tempo primo. Here, motivic fragments from the A section are recalled but this is

not a true reprise as the song never returns to the tonic key. The insertion of a 3/8

measure (m. 38) immediately before the name of the Sun and Rain’s daughter is

announced, musically reinforces the rhythmic surprises Visser’s poetry is renowned

for262. The piano concludes the fable with a brief yet dazzling postlude while Marais’s

traditional long note pedal in the bass finalizes the piece.

In general, Marais’s melodies are charming, well-balanced, tuneful and pleasant

to sing. While a few characters’ names are mentioned in the course of the story, there is

only one singing character: the narrator. Interestingly, Marais made an important

emphasis change to Visser’s text, placing a musical accent on the word “liefde” (love)

(m.31).263 It has been suggested by Holzapfel that this probably helped to remove some

of Visser’s naughty roguishness, which Marais tries to clean up in this song.264 It is

however appropriate for the singer to allow a little chest voice into the word “rente”

(interest, as in interest on monies borrowed or owed) (m. 29) in order to judge the Sun

262
Kannemeyer, 27.
263
Holzapfel, 173.
264
Ibid, 173.

83
and Rain’s mischievous behavior by incorporating a warmer vocal color, contributing an

additional interpretive layer in performance.

Throughout his career, Marais composed in a variety of Western classical forms

including strophic, binary, ternary, and through-composed forms. Incidentally, one of

Marais’ songs in ternary form “Lentelied” (Spring song) contains a “. . . (Johann)

Strauss-like”265cadenza at the end of its B section, demonstrating the likely influence of

German operetta. This delightful song is an excellent repertoire choice for coloratura

sopranos as the cadenza and florid writing showcase the virtuosic capabilities of the

singer and can be performed with great success.

Marais favored poetry “. . . written in and about the Second Language

Movement”266 that comprised a wide variety of themes including depictions of nature,

the fatherland, romantic love, and elegies.267 Notable songs include those set to poems

by the following Afrikaans Second Language Movement poets: Jochem van Bruggen

(1881-1957) (11), A. G. Visser (1878-1929) (8), A. d. Keet (7), I. D. du Plessis (1900-

81) (7), J. F. E Celliers (5) and C. F. Visser (5).268

Marais’s songs are suitable for young singers as the voice parts are mostly set in

the middle voice and make use of a limited vocal range from middle C (C4), rarely

ascending to G5 or A5.269 All his songs are written in the treble clef. A large number of

265
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 62.
266
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.3, J-O, 199.
267
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 49-51.
268
Ibid, 49.
269
Holzapfel, 343.

84
his songs are better suited to men’s voices, with the exception of those containing texts

of lullabies and children’s songs which are better suited to women’s voices.270 It is

therefore important to know the meaning and perspective of the title/narrative when

determining repertoire selection.271 Although Marais does not generally specify which

voice type is preferred for specific songs (with a few exceptions), lyrical tenor voices

tend to be better suited to his compositions than baritone voices due to the tessitura

used.272

Helmut Holzapfel’s dissertation is a highly recommended resource for teachers

and students interested in the songs of S. le Roux Marais. While it is almost exclusively

written in Afrikaans, it includes a thorough listing of Marais’s published and

unpublished works, as well as incipits of all his songs, information on vocal range,

poetry used, and the names of the publishers, etc.

270
Ibid, 343.
271
English translations of the titles of Marais’ songs are located in Appendix B
while translations of selected songs by S. le Roux Marais are located in Appendix C.
272
Holzapfel, 343.

85
 CHAPTER 4

JOHN KILBURN PESCOD (1898-1985)

John K. Pescod was an organist, music teacher, and Afrikaans art song

composer.273 He was born in Kimberley - capital city of the Northern Cape Province,

also known as the Diamond City274 - in 1896, and died in Johannesburg in 1985.275 He

attended school in Kimberley and obtained the Trinity College of Music ATCL organ

diploma at the age of eighteen while a student of Walter Humphries.276 After a brief

career as an organist and music teacher during the First World War years he departed

for the Royal Academy of Music and was based in London from 1919 onwards.277 In

1921 Pescod’s composition “Die wildeby” (The wild bee) was premiered at one of Cape

Town’s highly respected recital venues, the “Oranjeklub” (Orange Club), introducing

him to South African audiences as a composer.278 During his studies in London he met

Betsy de la Porte and Jan van Zyl, South African singers who later performed and

273
Jacques P. Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 11.
274
Kimberley – South Africa, “What Kimberley, South Africa, has to offer.”
http://www.bdb.co.za/kimberley/ (accessed April 19, 2011).
275
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 11.
276
Ibid, 11.
277
Ibid, 11.
278
Ibid, 11.

86
recorded some of his songs for HMV and the BBC.279 Upon returning to South Africa in

1925, Pescod taught music privately in Paarl, Kimberley, Pretoria and Durban, also

serving as an organist at various Methodist churches in the latter three cities.280 Visits to

London in 1929 and 1934, and military service from 1943 to 1945 interrupted his work

momentarily.281 In 1948 Pescod relocated to Johannesburg, where he taught and played

the organ, later lecturing at the University of the Witwatersrand’s Music Department

from 1963 to 1965.282

Pescod composed nine art songs in total.283 Like Marais, he made use of a

variety of Western Classical formal designs throughout his compositional career. His

songs are set to Afrikaans poetry, however, spanning a much wider timeframe in

Afrikaans literature than Marais’s. He set one poem each by: C. L. Leipoldt, D. F.

Malherbe, J. F. E. Celliers, P. de Waal, J. R. L. van Bruggen, and A. G. Visser.284

“Wiegeliedjie” (Cradle Song) was written and set to music by Pescod, while “Kom sit

by my” (Come sit beside me) and “Die wildeby” (The wild bee) - one of his famous

children’s songs - are set to anonymous poems. 285 The thematic material of the poems

Pescod set to music includes poetry about nature, moralistic poems, lighthearted love

279
Ibid, 11.
280
Ibid, 11.
281
Ibid, 11.
282
Ibid, 11.
283
Ibid, 11-12.
284
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 107.
285
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 11-12.

87
poems and an amusing children’s poem.286 Generally, the poetry he set tends to be

cheerful and upbeat with an occasional element of roguishness, except for songs where

the poem contains a moral in the story.287

Potgieter notes that while Pescod’s tempi are generally well-chosen,288 his text

painting can be somewhat awkward as important words can be under-stressed at times

while certain unimportant words - including prepositions - can be over-emphasized by

the musical setting. 289 This may have been because Pescod was not a first-language

Afrikaans speaker, being of English descent. (Malan notes that Pescod spent a period of

his school education in Boshoff “to improve his Afrikaans.”290)

According to Malan, Jan Bouws: musicologist, educationist and composer of

Afrikaans art songs, noted the following characteristics found in (Pescod’s) songs

(transl.):

On the whole the pianoforte part is more important than the melody. Too often
the latter is determined by the chord progression and is bound by the rhythmical
schemes of the poetry. The result is that the voice persistently tends to intone and
only occasionally succeeds in really singing. Songs which are not affected by
these restrictions are generally more fluent and livelier, as e.g. Was ek ’n
sanger291.

286
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 108.
287
Ibid, 108.
288
Ibid, 110.
289
Ibid, 108.
290
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 11.
291
Review/Observation of Pescod’s songs by Jan Bouws, (Die Burger [The
Citizen], Kaapstad [Cape Town]: 2 Nov. 1961), quoted in Jacques P. Malan, South
African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 12.

88
 “Oktobermaand” (The month of October) (1925) is a lively, merry, strophic

waltz song in the key of F major. It was first published in 1930 in Die Huisgenoot

magazine,292 a popular Afrikaans magazine still in circulation today. (Its English

equivalent in South Africa is called “You” magazine). Pescod later dedicated

“Oktobermaand” to Mimi Coertse.293

Leipoldt’s poem glorifies spring, which in the southern hemisphere includes the

month of October. It describes the landscape from a South African perspective, naming

the unique plants and trees familiar to South Africans but which are unfamiliar

elsewhere. In his composition, Pescod removes Leipoldt’s original refrain and only

includes the first three strophes of the poem.294

“Oktobermaand” is diatonic and generally makes use of functional, consonant

harmonies. The three strophes, all in the key of F major, make use of occasional

chromatic chords, including secondary dominants as well as German augmented sixth

chords, to color specific words.295

The accompaniment opens the song with a four measure prelude consisting of

blocked chords and grace notes, evoking an atmosphere of spring awakening. It makes

limited technical demands upon the pianist with constantly moving arpeggios propelling

the more sustained (yet still exuberant) vocal melodic line forward, without detracting

292
Ibid, 12.
293
John Pescod and C. Louis Leipoldt. Oktobermaand [The month of October]: A
tribute to Mimi, n.p. (hand-written score), 1925, (first published in Die Huisgenoot 6,
1930).
294
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied” 111.
295
Ibid, 112.

89
from it.296 The uncomplicated vocal melodic line moves mostly by step. Occasional

decorative/ornamental figures and regular leaps of a minor third and perfect fifth at the

ends of phrases enhance the charming yet simple vocal melodic line.

Pescod’s songs, although they tend to lack the contrapuntal and emotional

variety of S. le Roux Marais’s, are still tuneful, attractive and appealing. They often

conclude with accompanimental codas, although some such as “Oktobermaand” have a

coda shared by the piano and the vocal melodic line. His songs typically include an

introduction of up to four measures but not every song, including “Oktobermaand”, has

a postlude.297

An interesting distinguishing feature of “Oktobermaand” is its three written-out

cadenzas, two of which are somewhat extensive.298 After singing the first verse, the

singer may choose between either the first cadenza (consisting of trills recalling the

opening thematic material of the prelude), or the second cadenza (which is an

approximate pastiche of the written out cadenza found at the beginning of Juliette’s

waltz aria “Je veux vivre” from the opera Roméo et Juliette by Charles Gounod (1818-

1893)). Despite the fact that these two cadenzas are marked “eerste keer” (first time) in

the score, it is appropriate and correct for the singer to choose only one of these

cadenzas to perform after the first verse. The third written-out cadenza – marked

“tweede keer” (second time); is to be performed after the second verse. The influence of

296
Ibid, 110.
297
John K. Pescod and C. Louis Leipoldt, Oktobermaand [The month of
October]: A tribute to Mimi, n.p. (hand-written score), 1925, (first published in Die
Huisgenoot 6, 1930).
298
Ibid, and Potgieter, 111.

90
Johann Strauss’ (1825-1899) waltzes is evident in the spirited tempo, as well as in the

mood of the flute-like cadenzas which separate the strophes of the song.299 As a result of

this influence, it is appropriate for (supported) descending portamenti to be used in this

sentimental song. It is recommended however that this not be overdone and that the

singer keep portamenti to a minimum, only making use of portamenti to enhance the

meaning of specific words. (Ascending portamenti are permissible stylistically but are

not recommended as the possibility exists for this to turn into tasteless scooping,

rendering the song inelegant).

The vocal melodic line requires a high voice comfortable with the tessitura in

which the song hovers, as the passaggio is regularly engaged. Due to its length, it may

be challenging to use this song as an encore but it is possible to do so if the singer either

sings the shorter first cadenza, which consists of trills, or eliminates the cadenza after

the first verse altogether. Either choice is acceptable. The cadenza after the second verse

should still be included however. An important moment to insert a (supported)

descending portamento is towards the end of the piece. After the sustained high B flat

(B flat 5) on the final “mooiste” (most beautiful), a descending portamento to the lower

pitch (E4) creates an appropriate sentimental effect. In the final phrase: “die mooiste

mooiste maand,” it is advised that the singer breathe after the first “mooiste” and not

between the last two words: “mooiste maand.” This song has also been arranged for

voice and orchestra and is a lovely showpiece for high voices, especially coloratura

sopranos.

299
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 111.

91
 CHAPTER 5

PIETER DE VILLIERS (1924-)

De Villiers was born in 1924 in Klerksdorp, a gold mining town in the North-

West Province (formerly called the Western Transvaal Province).300 He attended the

Universities of Pretoria and Stellenbosch, and obtained various diplomas from the

University of South Africa (known by its acronym UNISA), qualifying as a music

teacher in 1948.301 He then furthered his studies in London under Pollard and obtained

diplomas from the RAM and ARCM.302 Upon his return to South Africa, he made

frequent appearances as a solo pianist and harpsichordist with both the Cape Town City

Orchestra and the South African Broadcasting Company (SABC) Orchestra,303

becaming a nationally respected accompanist and performing with many well-known

South African opera singers including Betsy de la Porte and Mimi Coertse.304 De

Villiers has also made significant contributions to South African music as a choral

300
North-West Province: Taking Pride in our Heritage, “Southern Region N12
Treasure Route – Klerksdorp.”
http://www.tourismnorthwest.co.za/southern/klerksdorp.html (Accessed April 22, 2011).
301
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia Vol. 1, A-D, 350.
302
Ibid, 350.
303
Van Blerk, 490.
304
Ibid, 490.

92
director, recording all the available Afrikaans psalms and hymns at the time with the

Sanglus choir (the official choir of the SABC) for the SABC in Johannesburg, between

1962 and 1969.305 He has worked at the universities of Stellenbosch, Pretoria, and

Potchefstroom (now called North-West University), as well as for the SABC.306 He is

the recipient of numerous awards, including the Artes Award for serious music from the

SABC (1985), the FAK Award for exceptional contributions to the

development/promotion of Music (1991), and the ATKV certificate for exceptional

contributions to the South African Classical Music Industry (2002).307 He currently

resides in Stellenbosch.308

De Villiers set poems by poets whose work spans a wide timeframe in the

history of Afrikaans literature. He set one poem each by I. L. de Villiers, T. Wassenaar

and A. D. Keet, three by A. G. Visser and seven by Boerneef.309

His compositions generally have a strong folk influence,310 evident throughout

his song cycle: Sewe Boerneef Liedjies (Seven Boerneef Songs), also known as Sewe

305
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.1, A-D, 350-351.
306
Ibid, 350-351.
307
Biographical information on the back fold of the cover to Pieter de Villiers and
Boerneef (pseudonym of I. D. van der Merwe), Boerneef sing: Komposisies van
Uitgesoekte verse: 10 siklusse [Farmer-cousin/Farmer-nephew Sings: Compositions of
Selected verses: 10 cycles], (Pretoria: Litera, 2004).
308
Ibid.
309
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.1, A-D, 352.
310
Van Blerk, 490.

93
Lawwe Liedjies (Seven Silly Songs), which was composed between 1960 and 1961 and

is dedicated to South African mezzo-soprano, Betsy de la Porte.311

De Villiers was inspired by Boerneef’s ability to poetically and sensitively

portray rural life in the Karoo,312 a semi-desert region in South Africa. In the Sewe

Boerneef Liedjies (Seven Boerneef Songs) he effectively captures the natural rhythm of

the regional dialects Boerneef was fond of by allowing the construction of the text to

dictate the meter, rhythm, form, shape of the vocal melodic line, accompaniment and

mood of these songs, effectively enhancing Boerneef’s trademark “. . . musicality,

achieved by means of wordplay and the incantatory repetition of sounds.”313

Love songs tend to contain a more linear, lyrical melodic line predominantly

making use of stepwise movement. Tuneful folk-like melodies and balanced two

measure phrases are common. (The compositional style of de Villiers’ lyrical writing is

reminiscent of other nationalistic composers of the twentieth century such as Edvard

Grieg.) However, leaps of an octave and chromatically altered chords (including

secondary dominants) occur on important words, painting them effectively as in the

seventh song “Doer bo teen die rant” (Up there, high against the ridge). The octave leap

between the words “doer” (up there) and “bo” (high/above) (m. 3-4) musically depicts

just how high above the ridge it is. Additionally, the “die” (the) in the phrase “teen die

rant” (against the ridge) (m. 4) is “leaned on” by the chromatically altered A flat 4 (ᵇIII

311
Pieter de Villiers and Boerneef (I. D. van der Merwe), Boerneef sing [Farmer-
cousin/Farmer-nephew Sings], vii.
312
Kannemeyer, 59.
313
Ibid, 59.

94
in the song’s key of F major) resulting in a jazz-like “blue” note, creating a highly

expressive word painting moment.314

By contrast, poems more declamatory in nature predominantly make use of a

recitative-like effect which helps the singer enunciate the words clearly. The melodic

line is not necessarily beautiful in these songs but it is functional, and serves the text.

This quality is prominent in song numbers one, two, four, and six where the rhythm of

the words is of particular importance and interest.

The abruptly alternating 4/8-3/8-4/8-3/4-4/8 meters in “Klein Piedeplooi” (Little

Piet du Plooy) (m. 3-12) allow De Villiers to enhance the recitative-like quality of the

poetry as the constantly changing meters produce a natural speech-like rhythm. 315 This

effectively captures the regional dialect inherent in the text while creating an angular

syncopation that contributes to the restless atmosphere suggestive of the singer’s

agitation at being in bed trying to catch a flea.

Throughout the cycle, the accompaniment sets the mood of the songs with

preludes of varying lengths, effectively preparing the listener for what is to come. For

example in song number two, “Klein Piedeplooi” (Little Piet du Plooy), the

accompaniment consists of jerky blocked chords which drive the piece forward.

While blocked chords are generally common in the more declamatory songs,

flowing arpeggios are prevalent in the lyrical, sentimental songs. All the songs have

preludes of varying lengths that evoke the atmosphere of the poetry, but they do not all

314
Pieter de Villiers and Boerneef (I. D. van der Merwe), Boerneef sing [Farmer-
cousin/Farmer-nephew Sings], 12.
315
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese oorsig van die Afrikaanse kunslied”, 177.

95
have postludes. The postludes that are evident, as in the third song “Die berggans het ’n

veer laat val” (The mountain-goose let a feather fall), usually contain material from the

prelude. In the case of this third song the prelude, interlude and postlude are identical.

De Villiers makes use of a variety of Western Classical forms in his

compositions. The strophic “Die berggaans het ’n veer laat val” (The mountain-goose let

a feather fall) can be divided into the following formal sections: Prelude (m. 1-2), A

Section (m.3-14), Interlude (m.15), A Section (repeated) (m.3-14), and Postlude (m.15-

16) i.e. Prelude, A Section, Interlude, A Section, and Postlude.

In addition to the lyrical character of the Prelude, Postlude and Interlude (which

contain identical musical material), the piano part in the A section consists of gentle

staccato arpeggios in the right hand and written out trills in the left hand. By

comparison, the vocal melodic line is slower moving and takes on a more pastoral

character than the accompaniment. This is reinforced by the quarter note followed by an

eighth note rhythm in 6/8 time which is present in the vocal melodic line throughout the

song. The prelude opens the song in the key of B flat major. The voice enters in measure

three with the leap of a major sixth and then descends in mostly stepwise motion,

musically depicting the falling goose feather. Text painting also occurs on the word

“hoogste” (highest) with an ascending interval of a minor third. Thereafter, various

secondary dominants musically depict the singer’s anxiety at being separated from the

Beloved while the song returns to the tonic in measure11. Here, the singer declares that

the rare mountain-goose feather is a gift for the Beloved to demonstrate how deeply the

singer loves him/her.

96
 The songs in this cycle are all essentially in major keys but have a modal quality,

displaying liberal use of open 5ths, parallel 3rds, raised 4ths as well as chromatically

altered chords which color specific words. Potgieter describes the harmony in the

sentimental songs as being more full in general, approaching a sweet effect.316

All of the songs are written in the treble clef, make use of a limited vocal range

between C4 and E4, are short in duration and are appropriate for singers from

undergraduate through professional levels. Caution is advised, however. While these

songs seem uncomplicated at first, the various twentieth century compositional

techniques used, especially with regard to rhythm and harmony, can prove somewhat

challenging to novice singers. The lyrical songs (numbers three, five and seven) may

however provide a more accessible introduction to this song cycle and are recommended

as a good entry point. Singers are advised to sing these songs simply and honestly,

without adding anything stylistically extraneous. (The works of Grieg, for example,

would serve as a good stylistic model for performance practice.) Despite the

sentimental, bordering on the erotic,317 quality of the love songs, the use of portamenti is

not recommended.

316
Ibid, 179.
317
Ibid, 179.

97
 CHAPTER 6

ARNOLDUS CHRISTIAAN VLOCK VAN WYK (1916-1983)

Arnold Van Wyk was born into a musical family in 1916 in Calvinia, a rural town

in the north-western Cape Province,318 and died in Stellenbosch in 1983.319 His

compositional output, encompassing a remarkably wide range of genres, includes

Afrikaans art songs, various choral, solo instrumental, chamber and orchestral works, as

well as film music.320 He began his formal music education at the Stellenbosch

Conservatory as a student of Alan Graham and Maria Fismer, but discontinued his studies

upon receiving a scholarship for overseas study in composition from the British

Performing Rights Society (PRS) - he was the first South African recipient of this

award.321 At the Royal Academy of Music, which he attended from 1938,322 Van Wyk

studied piano with Harold Craxton (1885-1971) and undertook his first formal lessons in

composition with Theodore Holland (1878-1947).323

318
Howard Ferguson, “Arnold Van Wyk,” in Composers in South Africa Today, ed.
Peter Klatzow, (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1987), 1.
319
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 431.
320
Ibid, 433-435.
321
Ferguson, 2.
322
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 431.
323
Ferguson, 2.

98
 During his student years in London, Van Wyk received numerous awards,

including in 1941 the prestigious medal of the Worshipful Company of Musicians,

which is awarded every three years to the Academy’s most advanced student.324 He

joined the British Broadcasting Company’s (BBC) newly created Afrikaans division

from 1939 to 1944, during the Second World War, returning to South Africa in 1946.325

After two years of freelance work, mostly for the SABC, he took up lectureships first at

the SACM (1949-1960) and later at the Stellenbosch Conservatory (1961-1978).326

(Incidentally, the SACM - which was founded in 1910 and had existed under its own

authority - was incorporated into the University of Cape Town’s music department in

1923.327)

Van Wyk is widely acknowledged as the first South African composer to

achieve international recognition.328 His instrumental and choral works are well-

respected and have been performed extensively internationally; his song cycle for

mezzo-soprano (or baritone) and piano Van Liefde en Verlatenheid (Of Love and

Loneliness) (1953), sung by Betsy de la Porte, was highly acclaimed at the 1954

Congress of the International Society of Contemporary Music (ISCM) in Israel, earning

324
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 431.
325
Ibid, 432.
326
Ibid, 432.
327
Jacques P. Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol 2, E-I, (Cape
Town: Oxford University Press, 1982), 202.
328
Van Blerk, 521.

99
him the Jeunesses Musicales Prize.329 Van Wyk received a medal from the South

African Academy for Arts and Sciences in 1949, was made a fellow of the RAM in

1952, and received honorary doctorates from the universities of Cape Town and

Stellenbosch in 1972 and 1982, respectively.330

Van Wyk composed few Afrikaans art songs during his long career.331

According to Malan, Van Wyk set one poem each by L. Uhland and I. D. du Plessis,

three by W. E. G. Louw, and five by Eugène Marais.332 (He also set a cycle of five

songs for baritone to poems by Petronius.333) Please note however, that Malan’s tally is

incorrect. The Vier Weemoedige Liedjies music score334 attributes the first two poems of

the song cycle to W. E. G. Louw and the last two to I. D. du Plessis. The Malan source

incorrectly attributes “Koud is die Wind” (Cold is the Wind) to W. E. G. Louw.

Van Wyk was somewhat self-critical of his work, constantly revising his

compositions, and as a result, additional songs that he had composed were withdrawn

329
Ibid, 521.
330
Ferguson, 6.
331
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 451.
332
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 434.
333
Ibid, 434.
334
Arnold Van Wyk, W. E. G. Louw and I. D. Du Plessis. Vier Weemoedige
Liedjies [Four Melancholy/Depressing Songs], (Amsterdam: Heuwekemeijer, 1947).

100
and were not published.335 He felt comfortable setting melancholic, sad poetry, a

common theme in most of his songs.336 According to Ferguson, Van Wyk’s

. . . distinctive idiom combines a basically tonal framework with harmony that is

continually inflected. It sometimes has a modal flavor and often juxtaposes the
major and minor forms of chords or uses both simultaneously. He has a fine
melodic sense, a sure grasp of structure, and a vivid feeling for both instrumental
and vocal colouring.337

Malan acknowledges that “- Arnold van Wyk has been acclaimed the “doyen of

South African composers”, a distinction justified by his historical position in the

country’s music, but also by his command of all the facets of composition.”338 Unlike

his Western European contemporaries, Van Wyk never seriously abandons tonality,

despite his liberal use of twelve tones and twentieth century harmonies.339 He placed

great value on communicating the mood and texts of his compositions and as a result,

“counterpoint plays a more subsidiary role” while harmonic aspects dominate.340

Van Wyk’s skillful use of rhythmic and melodic motivic development is evident

from his early works, including the Vier Weemoedige Liedjies (Four

Melancholy/Depressing Songs), composed between 1934 and 1938, which were revised

335
Ibid, 435.
336
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 452.
337
Ferguson, 6.
338
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 433.
339
Ibid, 433.
340
Ibid, 433.

101
and published in 1947.341 He composed “Koud is die Wind” (Cold is the Wind) in 1934,

at the age of eighteen, and “Vaalvalk” (Kestrel - a grey-brown bird of the falcon family)

two years later.342 Both songs are firmly rooted in twentieth century harmonic

techniques and demonstrate an Impressionistic influence.343 Although all four songs are

often performed as a group, and have been included in Malan’s account of Van Wyk’s

output list as a song cycle,344 Ferguson states that they “. . . were not considered by Van

Wyk to be a song cycle, but are four miniatures that share a single mood.”345 Van Blerk

agrees with Ferguson and cites the same reason when listing Van Wyk’s art song

output.346

In the through-composed first song, “Vaalvalk,” the subtle and simple three

measure prelude skillfully evokes a bleak, melancholic atmosphere. The song is in 4/4

meter throughout. Repeated chromatic figures in the left hand (m. 1-2 and m. 5-6, as

well as m. 3-4 and m. 7-10), combined with the prominent syncopated and incessant G

sharps in the right hand that do not resolve, contribute to the lonely atmosphere and

341
Johann Hendrik Potgieter, “Die Afrikaanse liedere van Arnold van Wyk” [The
Afrikaans songs of Arnold van Wyk] in Arnold van Wyk, 1916-1983: Opstelle oor sy
lewe en werk. [Arnold van Wyk, 1916-1983: essays on his life and work], ed. I. J. Grové,
(Bloemfontein: Universiteit van die Oranje-Vrystaat, 1984), 78.
342
Ibid, 82.
343
Ibid, 82.
344
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.4, P-Z, 434.
345
Ferguson, 6.
346
Van Blerk, 522.

102
reinforce the bird’s aimlessness.347 The melodic range moves mostly by step, is highly

chromatic, and is limited to the interval of a fifth, except for two pitches lying within a

semi-tone lower. A sense of freedom in the phrasing of the lyrical vocal melody line is

reinforced by the song’s lento rubato tempo indication. This contributes to Van Wyk’s

musical depiction of the “Vaalvalk” soaring and turning aimlessly. Word painting on

important words such as “treurige” (mournful) and “waai” (blow/wave) are musically

represented by the leap of a perfect fifth adding a brief extra dimension to the mournful

atmosphere.348 The lonely vocal melodic line concludes the song without piano

accompaniment and fades away to nothing, as instructed by the diminuendo sign and

dynamic marking niente, reinforcing the feeling of isolation and overall mood of the

poem.

In the second song, “Eerste Winterdag” (First Winter’s Day), the steady 4/8

meter, marked andante sostenuto, sets a gentle yet sustained mood. The vocal melodic

line and accompaniment are characterized by much repetition. Repeated pitches in the

former, one per syllable, create simple motivic fragments emphasizing the meanings of

specific words and reinforcing the overall sense of loneliness and boredom on a dismal

rainy day, musically depicting the incessant drizzle typical of the Cape in winter. Fine

examples of word painting occur on the words “motreen” (drizzle/fine rain) (m. 12-13),

“dwarrelend” (whirlwind) (m.16-17), “teen die ruite” (against the window pane) (m.33-

34) and “drup, drup eentonig” (drip, drip in a monotone) (m.35-37). Apart from the

chordal syncopated blocked chords in the prelude (m. 1-2), an expressive melodic figure
347
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 462.
348
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 462.

103
occurs in the piano part during an interlude (m. 20-26) providing momentary musical

variety and relief from the chordal blocked chords which nonetheless resume, like the

never-ending rain. Throughout the song, the predominantly chordal accompaniment

contains repeated syncopated unresolved sevenths and ninths. Abrupt harmonic shifts

directly related to the text contrast sharply with the melodic monotony and add an

occasional splash of tonal color to help maintain the listener’s interest. The song closes

with sustained notes in the treble and bass set several octaves apart.

The third song, “In die Stilte van my Tuin” (In the Quietness of my Garden),

begins and ends in the tonic key of G flat major but incorporates sudden tonal shifts

utilizing raised fourths and flattened sevenths which effectively color the text. Although

melody is less important in the first two songs, a conversational yet melodically

attractive vocal line enhances this third song, drawing the listener into the intimate

atmosphere of the poet’s private quiet garden from the beginning of the A section (m. 1-

2) to the poet’s personal thoughts at the reprise of the opening motive (m.20-21).

Marked quasi parlante, the vocal line possesses a recitative-like quality lending

particular importance to the exotic words of the poem and the construction of the poetry.

Excellent examples of text painting occur throughout the song. For example, the triplet

figure and the interval of a fourth on the word “flikker” (flicker) in measure two helps to

musically represent the meaning of this word: Van Wyk evokes a strong mental picture

for the listener through the careful choice of rhythm and melodic interval. The opening

theme (m. 1-2) returns towards the end (m.20-21), signaling the closure of the piece

with blocked chords resuming in the accompaniment, enhancing the introspective

atmosphere.

104
 Accompanying figures in this song are considerably more varied than in the first

two. There is no prelude here and the voice is preceded simply by one I 6/4 G flat major

blocked chord at the very beginning. The accompaniment, moving at a much slower

pace than the vocal melodic line, contains a chordal texture throughout, with blocked

chords on the downbeat and third beat in this predominantly 4/4 metered song

reinforcing the recitative-like quality of the vocal melodic line (m. 1-4). Arpeggios

divided between the hands marked quasi improvisato (as if improvised) provide some

momentary release (m. 5-6) before the recitative-like texture resumes (m.7-9). In

measures eleven and twelve, the accompaniment, though recalling the earlier

arpeggiated figure, is now pitched a tritone lower. Rapidly descending arpeggio figures

musically illustrate the flapping wings of the moon-white butterflies as they drift across

the sky (m. 13-19) followed by the earlier ascending arpeggio motive recalled for the

third time (m.19-20) but now rhythmically and harmonically altered. Finally, the reprise

of the opening recitative-like motive in measure twenty-one and twenty-two, with the

same accompanying blocked chords, signals the end of the piece. This again provides a

satisfying sense of release, punctuated by two sustained G flat major blocked chords in

root position (m.25-26): a fitting closure complimenting the opening, tonally open I 6/4

chord.

There is no prelude or introduction to the fourth song, “Koud is die Wind” (Cold

is the Wind). Here, Van Wyk jumps directly into the essence of the poem,

simultaneously introducing melodic and rhythmic motives in the voice and piano. The

left hand makes use of an accented drone ostinato on B3 throughout the song. This

pitch, while occasionally descending by an octave, is ever present, possibly musically

105
representing a death knell for the deceased Daphne who is being remembered. Strong

evidence of Van Wyk’s later preoccupation with motivic development and repetition is

prevalent throughout this song. This is demonstrated by his use of meaningful

melismatic motives in the vocal melodic line, beginning with the interval of a

descending fifth, which helps to highlight important words in various ways dependent

on the meaning of the word. For example, a shivering quality is musically evoked on the

word “Koud” (Cold) (m.1), while a tearful or grief-stricken quality is suggested on the

word “haar” (her) (m. 23-24), where the melismatic passage is repeated by the narrator.

The sensitive attention paid to the text, use of syncopations and repetition of motives in

the accompaniment (including in measures twenty to twenty-seven where painful

sixteenth and sharp eighth intervals and trills personify the bitterly cold whistling wind

in a bleak coastal town) create a sophisticated framework for the narrator’s repetitive

legato yet predominantly declamatory vocal melodic line.349 With few exceptions, the

song moves between tonic and (mostly modal) dominant constructions in the key of e

minor, effectively contributing an appealing quality that highlights specific words.

While there is very little shared material between the voice and accompaniment

in the four songs, Van Wyk creates an individual impression evoking a highly sensitive

and artistic musical treatment of the poetry, enhanced through his use of the bass, pedal

tone, melodic and rhythmic motivic fragments.350

Throughout this group of songs, Van Wyk’s expert handling of rhythmic and

melodic motives in the voice and accompaniment express and sustains a melancholic
349
Potgieter, “Die Afrikaanse liedere van Arnold Van Wyk”, 82.
350
Potgieter, “’n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied”, 487.

106
and introspective atmosphere without any of the songs coming to a grinding halt. 351

Metrical monotony is prevented by the use of syncopated rhythms and contrasting

melodic themes in the voice and accompaniment which form a vital rhythmic

counterpoint,352 aiding the overall momentum of the songs.

These songs are at once sophisticated and beautiful, having been artistically

constructed with great sensitivity. While they have not received the same accolades as

Van Wyk’s later song cycle Van liefde en Verlatenheid (Of Love and Loneliness), they

anticipate his mature compositional style and provide great insight into his works. These

Vier Weemoedige Liedjies (Four Melancholy/Depressing Songs) are nonetheless

impressive in their own right and are highly successful in performance. Since the vocal

range covers B3 to F sharp 5, they are more appropriate for middle voices, although

many sopranos with strong middle voices have undertaken them successfully. An

advanced level of musical artistry and attention to detail is required to perform this group

of songs successfully, and it is therefore recommended that they be undertaken by

advanced singers preferably from senior undergraduate levels upwards. It is not

necessary, nor recommended, for singers to attempt to add emotion or vocal effects to

this repertoire. These songs are sophisticated and impressionistic and should be

performed honestly, with close attention paid to the words and the composer’s intentions.

Appropriate models for performance practice of this particular song cycle include the

compositions of Claude Debussy (1862-1918) and Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924).

351
Potgieter, “Die Afrikaanse liedere van Arnold Van Wyk”, 80.
352
Ibid, 80.

107
 CHAPTER 7

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PERFORMANCE PRACTICE

Taking the time to familiarize one’s self with the basic principles of Afrikaans

grammar and pronunciation opens up a world of exciting art song repertoire possibilities

that have barely been explored outside of South Africa’s borders – least of all in the

United States. While the Afrikaans language is unfamiliar, its grammar and

pronunciation rules are not challenging to master and are considerably easier to learn

than those found in many other Germanic languages. These factors, when combined

with Afrikaans composers’ artistically sensitive musical settings of well-crafted

Afrikaans poetry, make this repertoire an attractive addition to standard art song

literature choices.

Afrikaans art songs resemble, and are directly influenced by, a number of

Western classical genres which should be used as models for performance practice. For

example, since Van Wyk’s Vier Weemoedige Liedjies (Four Melancholy/Depressing

Songs) are rooted in Impressionism, it is therefore appropriate to model their

performance practice along lines stylistically appropriate to the works of Debussy. In

contrast, it is acceptable for Afrikaans waltz songs such as “Oktobermaand” (The month

of October) - a delightfully exuberant song reminiscent of Johann Strauss’s operetta

arias - to make use of supported portamenti to highlight specific cadences and embellish

important words when interpreting the song.

108
 While it is recommended that singers interested in the study of this repertoire

listen to as many recordings as possible, caution is advised – particularly with regard to

interpretations of sentimental Afrikaans art songs and, in some cases, waltz songs.

Evidence of the overuse of unsupported portamenti, which can rapidly degenerate into

scooping, is common here and risks over-sentimentalizing and trivializing the quality of

these compositions. It is recommended that instead, supported portamenti be used

sparingly but in a meaningful way, in order to complement and enhance these artful

songs.

It is correct and necessary at times for singers to gently aspirate Afrikaans

consonants, which are usually un-aspirated in spoken Afrikaans, in order to clearly

articulate the text when singing. Colleen Philp, former senior lecturer in Western

Classical voice at the University of KwaZulu-Natal and second-language Afrikaans

speaker agrees that while spoken Afrikaans vowels make use of a lower palatal position,

singers should make efforts to consciously utilize a higher soft palatal position for sung

Afrikaans diction in order to provide greater access to the passaggio353 and facilitate

efficient vocal production. It is also highly recommended by the author of this document

that singers produce Afrikaans diphthongs as they would when singing in German or

English i. e. spending at least twice the amount of time on the first vowel and allowing

the second vowel to be lightly and quickly pronounced, resulting in an elegant effect.

Many recordings, even those made by one singer in various recordings of the same

song, are inconsistent regarding this issue. It is quite common to hear singers produce
353
Colleen Philp, telephone interview by author, July 13, 2010.

109
vowel sounds in diphthongs equally in duration on one recording, and to then hear the

same singers sing the first vowel quickly and the second vowel twice as long in duration

as the first, on other recordings. Neither option is advisable as the result is a distortion in

the word stress which can sound affected and even comical.

A useful observation from Mimi Coertse, the internationally acclaimed South

African coloratura soprano (and native Afrikaans speaker), is that singers interested in

performing Afrikaans art song literature should familiarize themselves not only with the

musical styles employed by the diverse composers, but also with the rhythm of the

Afrikaans language, poetry, and meaning of the text.354 This is true with regard to the

study of most German Romantic Lieder and, as such, an investment of this nature

enables singers to perform songs with a deeper understanding and ability to express the

composer’s musical intention within the well-crafted poetry that has been set.355

Considering the unfamiliarity of the genre, singers are strongly encouraged to undertake

this kind of research and preparation when studying this literature.

While most written material providing information on Afrikaans art song

repertoire is predominantly in Afrikaans itself, important resources available in English

include the South African Music Encyclopedia, edited by Jacques P. Malan, which

consists of four volumes and contains biographical information on South African

composers, their compositional styles and output lists. (Original Afrikaans titles of art

songs are listed in composers’ output lists but without English translations). Also helpful

are the following: the book Composers in South Africa Today, edited by Peter Klatzow-
354
Mimi Coertse, telephone interview by author, July 27, 2010.
355
Ibid.

110
formerly professor of composition at the South African College of Music at the

University of Cape Town, and the doctoral dissertation by Conroy Cupido, currently a

senior lecturer in Classical voice at North-West University, entitled “Significant

influences in the composition of Hendrik Hofmeyr’s song cycle, Aleenstryd.” (Professor

Hendrik Hofmeyr is currently the head of history, theory and literature at the South

African College of Music at the University of Cape Town).

For singers seriously interested in exploring Afrikaans art song repertoire, sheet

music is available in numerous volumes of songbooks published by the Federasie van

Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniging (Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Organizations, known

by its acronym FAK), and in various anthologies commissioned by the South African

Music Rights Organization (SAMRO). Sources may be obtained directly from those

organizations, from the South African Broadcating Company (SABC) Music Library, as

well as through South African university music libraries from around the country

including the universities of Stellenbosch, Cape Town (at the South African College of

Music), Pretoria, North-West University, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal and the University

of South Africa (UNISA).356

It is hoped that this information will prove helpful in encouraging the study of

this repertoire on an international scale.

356
Appendix B of this document includes information on the publishers of the
songs listed in each of the four composers’ output lists with English translations of all the
song titles listed.

111
 WORKS CITED

Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuur Vereeniging (ATKV). 2011 Musiqanto Classical Voice

Competition English Brochure. Randburg (Gauteng): ATKV, 2011.

Allison, John. “Worlds Apart.” Opera News. May 2010, Vol. 74, no. 11.
http://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2010/5/Features/Worlds_Ap
art.html (accessed February 9, 2011).

Blerk, M. E. van. Afrikaanse Verklarende Musiekwoordeboek. Kaapstad: Vlaeberg

Uitgewers, 1994.

Bouws, Jan. Die Volkslied, Deel van ons Erfenis. Kaapstad: Human & Rousseau, 1969.

------. Die Afrikaanse Volkslied. Johannesburg: Voortrekkerpers Bpk. (FAK), 1957.

------. Komponiste van Suid-Afrika. Stellenbosch: Albertyn (C. F.), 1971.

-------. “Sestig Jaar Afrikaanse Kunslied (1908-1968) deur Jan Bouws.” In Tydskrif vir
Geesteswetenskappe 9, no. 1. Pretoria: Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en
Kuns, March 1968: 68-80.

------. Solank daar Musiek is…Musiek en musiekmakers in Suid-Afrika (1652-1982).

Kaapstad: Tafelberg-Uitgewers Beperk, 1982.

------. Suid-Afrikaanse Komponiste van Vandag en Gister. Kaapstad: A.A. Balkema,

1957.

------. Woord en Wys van die Afrikaanse Lied. Kaapstad: H.A.U.M., 1961.

Burgers, M. P. O. Teach Yourself Afrikaans. London: English Universities Press, 1957.

Combrink, J. G. H., and L. G. De Stadler. Afrikaanse Fonologie. Johannesburg:

Macmillan Suid-Afrika, 1987.

Donaldson, Bruce. “Afrikaans.” In The Germanic Languages. Edited by Johan van der
Auwera and Ekkehard König. New York: Routledge, 1994, 478-504.

112
Donaldson, Bruce. Colloquial Afrikaans: The Complete Course for Beginners. London:
Routledge, 2000.

Du Plessis, Madaleine, Fred Pheiffer, Wanda Smith-Müller, and Jana Luther. Pharos
Afrikaans-Engels, Engels- Afrikaans Woordeboek. Kaapstad: Pharos Dictionaries,
2005.

Ferguson, Howard. “Arnold Van Wyk.” In Composers in South Africa Today. Edited by
Peter Klatzow. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1987, 1-31.

Gerber, Marelize. 'n Kritiese Waardebepaling van Mimi Coertse (1932–) se bydrae tot
die Uitvoering van die Afrikaanse Kunslied. Thesis (M. Mus.)-- University of
South Africa, 2005.

Graaff-Reinet, Gem of the Karoo. “Graaff Reinet - Richly Imbued with History, Nature
& Beauty.” http://www.graaffreinet.co.za/ (accessed April 15, 2011).

Grové, I. J., Elna Van der Merwe, Minette Du Toit-Pearce, André Howard, and Vanessa
Tait-Jones. 'n Eeu van Afrikaanse liedkuns. South Africa: s.n, 2009.

Grové, I. J. Arnold van Wyk, 1916-1983: Opstelle oor sy lewe en werk. Bloemfontein:
Universiteit van die Oranje Vrystaat, 1984.

Haarhoff, T. J. Afrikaans, Its Origins and Development; lectures delivered before the
University of Oxford on the 19th and 20th February, 1936. Oxford: The Clarendon
press, 1936.

Holzapfel, Helmut. Die Liedere van S. le Roux Marais: 'n Geannoteerde Katalogus.
Thesis (D. Phil.)-- Universiteit van Stellenbosch, 1992.

Kannemeyer, Johan Christoffel. A History of Afrikaans Literature: die Beiteltjie.

Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter (Pty) Ltd, 1993.

Kimberley – South Africa. “What Kimberley, South Africa, has to offer.”

http://www.bdb.co.za/kimberley/ (accessed April 19, 2011).

Kotzé, Ernst F. Essential English-Afrikaans Dictionary. n.d. (Based on the Afrikaans-

Japannese woordeboek met Engelse Vertalings), 1-152.

Kotzé, Ernst F., and Takashi Sakurai. Afrikaans-Japannese woordeboek met Engelse
vertalings. Tokyo: Inst. for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and
Africa, 2001.

113
Kritzinger, Matthys Stephanus Benjamin. Groot Woordeboek: Afrikaans-Engels. 13th
ed. Edited by L. C. Eksteen, M. S. B. Kritzinger, P. C. Schoonees and U. J.
Cronje. Pretoria: J. L. van Schaik, 1986.

Kromhout, Jan, Matthys Stefanus Benjamin Kritzinger, and H. A.

Steyn. Skoolwoordeboek: Afrikaans-Engels - School dictionary: English-Afrikaans.
Kaapstad: Pharos, 2004.

Lange, Margreet de. The Muzzled Muse: Literature and Censorship in South Africa.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1997.

Leipoldt, Christiaan Louis and compiler Anna Bender, So Sing ook die Hart:
getoonsette verse van C. Louis Leipoldt/versamel deur Anna Bender in opdrag
Johannesburg: Dalro, 1980.

Lockwood, W. B. An Informal History of the German Language: with Chapters on Dutch

and Afrikaans, Frisian and Yiddish. London: Andre Deutsch, 1976.

Lucia, Christine. The World of South African Music: A Reader. Newcastle-upon-Tyne:

Cambridge Scholars, 2005.

Lutrin, Beryl. Afrikaans Handbook & Study Guide: an English Student's Guide to
Afrikaans. 3rd ed. Birnam Park, South Africa: Berlut Books, 1999.

Malan, Jacques P. South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol.1, A-D. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press, 1979.

------. South African Music Encyclopedia, Volume 2, E-I. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press, 1982.

------. South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, J-O. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press, 1984.

------. South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, P-Z. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press, 1986.

Marais, S. le Roux. Heimwee. Kaapstad: R. Müller, 1930.

------. Geboorte van die Lente. Kaapstad: R. Müller, 1932.

------. Kom dans Klaradyn. Kaapstad: R. Müller, 1935.

------. Lentelied. Kaapstad: R. Müller, 1936.

------. Rooidag. Johannesburg: FAK, 1970.

114
May, James. "Some Aspects of Unity in Arnold van Wyk's Works Between 1940 and
1952." Musicus 24, no. 1 (1996): 92-8.

North-West Province: Taking Pride in our Heritage. “Southern Region N12 Treasure
Route – Klerksdorp.” http://www.tourismnorthwest.co.za/southern/klerksdorp.html
(accessed April 22, 2011).

Pescod, John K. Oktobermaand: A tribute to Mimi. n.p. (hand-written score), 1925.

Ponelis, Friedrich Albert. The Development of Afrikaans. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang,

1993.

Potgieter, Johann Hendrik. 'n Analitiese Oorsig van die Afrikaanse Kunslied met klem
op die werke van Nepgen, Van Wyk en du Plessis. Proefskrif (D. Mus.)--
Universiteit van Pretoria, 1967.

Potgieter, Johann Hendrik. “Die Afrikaanse liedere van Arnold Van Wyk.” In Arnold
Van Wyk, 1916-1983: Opstelle oor sy lewe en werk. Edited by I. J. Grové.
Bloemfontein: Universiteit van die Oranje-Vrystaat, 1984, 78-83.

South Africa.info: Gateway to the Nation, “The Languages of South Africa”,

http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm, (accessed May 19, 2011).

Statistics South Africa. “2001 Census in Brief.”

http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/CInBrief/CIB2001.pdf. (accessed May 19,
2011).

The South African River Health Program, State of the Rivers Report Letaba and Luvuvhu
River Systems. “The Letaba River Catchment.”
http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/state_of_rivers/state_of_letluv_01/letaba.html.
(accessed May 7, 2011).

The South African Embassy to Indonesia. “A Cultural Link Spanning Three Centuries:
The Story of the Cape Malay.” http://www.southafricanembassy-
jakarta.or.id/culturallink.html. (accessed May 5, 2011).

Van der Merwe, C. N. Breaking Barriers: Stereotypes and the Changing of Values in
Afrikaans Writing 1875-1990. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994.

Van Rensburg, Christo, and Achmat Davids. Afrikaans in Afrika. Pretoria: J.L. van
Schaik, 1997.

Van Schalkwyk, Helena. Afrikaans. Chicago, Illinois: NTC Pub. Group, 1992.

Van Wyk, Arnold. Vier Weemoedige Liedjies. Amsterdam: Heuwekemeijer, 1947.

115
Van Wyk, Arnold. Van Liefde en Verlatenheid. Von Liebe und Verlassenheit. Of Love
and Forsakenness. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 1956.

Villiers, Pieter de. Boerneef sing: Komposisies van Uitgesoekte verse: 10 siklusse.
Pretoria: Litera, 2004.

Walton, C. R. “Bond of Broeders: Anton Hartman and music in an apartheid state.”

Musical Times 145, no.1887 (2004): 63-74.

Wet, Wouter de. Liner notes and CD, Onse Mimi [Our Mimi]. Mimi Coertse (soprano),
Hennie Joubert (piano), Pieter de Villiers (piano), Albie Van Schalkwyk (piano),
National Symphony Orchestra of the SABC, Richard Cock (director).
Johannesburg: BMG Records, Africa. 1999. CDCLA (WM) 001.

116
 APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL TERMS found in the Sewe Boerneef Liedjies/

Sewe Lawwe Liedjies [ˋseᵊvə ˋbu:rneᵊf ˋlikis] (Seven Boerneef Songs) song cycle:

Effens stadiger [ˋɛfəns ˋstadəxər] (a little slower)

Geestig [ˋgeᵊstəx] (witty/saucy/pointed)

Inniglik [ˋənəxlək] (with heartfelt sincerity/inner fervor)

Meer teerheid [me:ᵊr ˋte:ᵊrhəjt] (with more tenderness/delicately)

Met humor [mɛt hyˋmɔ:r] (with humor/humorously)

Vinnig [ˋfənəx] (fast/quickly)

Vloeiend [ˋflujənt] (flowing/liquid)

Vrolik [ˋfroᵊlək] (merry/cheerful/joyous)

117
 APPENDIX B

PUBLISHED SONG OUTPUT BY:

1.1 S. le Roux Marais

1.2 John. K. Pescod

1.3 Pieter de Villiers

1.4 Arnold Van Wyk

1.1 S. le Roux Marais357

(Songs are published by either R. Müller and, after 1958, by Boosey & Hawkes, unless
otherwise specified,358 and may also be found in FAK songbooks and SAMRO
anthologies. The vocal range of songs is generally from C4 to G5/A5. Songs tend to suit
lyric tenor voices rather than baritone voices due to the tessitura used.359 A number of
songs are better suited to women’s voices, especially those containing texts of lullabies
and children’s songs.360)

Four Afrikaans Songs, 1928:

1. Wees sterk, my siel (Be strong, my soul) (J. F. E. Cilliers)
2. Slaapdeuntjie (Sleep song) (J. R. L. van Bruggen)
3. Viermaal gesien (Seen four times) (Totius)
4. Amors confetti (Love’s confetti) (Jan Celliers)

357
The published song output list for S. le Roux Marais (with Afrikaans titles,
names of poets and publishing information) has been excerpted from:

Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, J-O, 199-200.

English translations of song titles have been provided by the author of this
document.
358
Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, J-O, 199.
359
Holzapfel, 343.
360
Ibid, 343.

118
 Heimwee (Homesickness/ Nostalgia) (J. R. L. van Bruggen), 1930.

Die roos en anderAfrikanse liedere (The rose and other Afrikaans songs), 1930:
1. Die roos (The rose) (A. G. Visser)
2. Dis al (That’s all) ((J. F. E. Cilliers)
3. As saans (When at night)(A. D. Keet)
4. Die kindjie (The (little) child) (C. J. Hofmeyr)
5. Met ʼn mandjie rose (With a basket of roses) (A. G. Visser)
6. Kinderlied (Child song) (A. D. Keet)
7. Gebedjie (A little prayer) (Jan Celliers)

Geboorte van die lente (The Birth of Spring) (A. G. Visser), 1931. (This song also
belongs to a song cycle called Vyf kunsliedere (Five art songs), published in 1932.)

Die Letaba (The Letaba)361 (Victor Pohl), trans. C. F. Visser, 1932.

Twee gewyde sangstukke, (Two sacred songs) 1932:

1. Langs stille waters (Beside still waters) (Theo Jandrell)
2. Och! Dat Uw Geest den leraar sterk (O! That Your Spirit would strengthen the teacher)
(Hymn Book)

Vyf kunsliedere (Five art songs), dedicated to Mrs. B. du Preez, 1932:

1. Voor jou en mij (For you and me) (A. van Schelteman)
2. Geboorte van die Lente (The Birth of Spring) (A. G. Visser)
3. Malie, die slaaf, se lied (Malie, the slave’s song) (Leipoldt)
4. Avond (Evening) (A. van Schelteman)
5. Sluimer, beminde (Slumber, beloved) (Dirk Mostert)

Bosveld-toe en twee ander liedere, (To the Bushveld and two other songs) 1934:
1. Bosveld-toe (To the Bushveld) (C. F. Visser)
2. Gee-my! (Give me!) (J. R. L. van Bruggen)
3. Nuwe somer (New summer) (Eitemal)

Kom dans Klaradyn (Come dance, Klaradyn) (C. F.Visser), 1936.

Lentelied (Spring song) (J. R. L. van Bruggen), 1936.

Heimwee na die see (Longing for the sea) (J. R. L. van Bruggen), 1936

361
The Letaba is a large river in the north-east region of South Africa.
Information was obtained from: The South African River Health Program, State of the
Rivers Report Letaba and Luvuvhu River Systems, “The Letaba River Catchment,”
http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/state_of_rivers/state_of_letluv_01/letaba.html,
(accessed May 7, 2011).

119
 Herfsaand (Autumn evening) (C. M. van den Heever), 1936

Helderus (Hero’s rest) (Dirk Mostert), 1937.

Matrooslied (Sailor’s song) (I. D. du Plessis), 1937.

Twee huweliksliedere, (Two wedding songs) 1937:

1. Huwelikslied (Wedding song) (P. H. Langenhoven), comp. 1937.
2. Troulied (Song of Fidelity) (S. J. M. Osborne), comp. 1934.

Die boodskap van die ossewa (The message from the ox wagon) (dr. B. A. de Wet),
Nasionale Pers Boekhandel (National Press Bookshop), 1938.

Ses kunsliedere (Six art songs), Song Cycle, 1938:

1. Moeder (Mother) (A. D. Keet)
2. Bosveldhuisie (Bushveld house) (Ben Dreyer)
3. Salut d’amour (Love’s greeting) (A. G. Visser)
4. Lied van die wonderboom (Song of the miracle tree) (Vosser)
5. Amoreuse liedeken (Love songs)(Dirk Mostert)
6. Treurlied (Song of grief) (Leipoldt)

Sluimerlied (Slumber song) (H. S.), 1939 (1942?).

Die boerenooi staan brandwag (The Dutch/Afrikaans maiden keeps watch) (C. F.
Visser), 1943.

Nuwe liedere (New Songs): Pr. Studio Holland, Kaapstad (Cape Town); publ. by FAK,
Johannesburg, Jun.1970:
1. Oktobermaand (The month of October) (C. L. Leipoldt), comp.1932.
2. Die donker stroom (The dark stream) (A. G. Visser), comp. 1943.
3. Duisend-en-een (A thousand and one) (A. G. Visser), comp. 1942.
4. Die balling se boodskap (The exile’s message) (Dirk Mostert), comp. 1949.
5. Rus en stilte (Rest and quietness) (I. D. du Plessis), comp. 1942.
6. ʼn Gebed (A prayer) (I. D. du Plessis), comp. 1943.
7. Daar’s ʼn tyd (There’s a time) (Dirk Mostert), comp. 1954.
8. As ek moet sterwe liefste (If I should die, dearest) (Nehemia), comp. 1936.
9. Dit is laat in die nag (It is late in the night) (A. D. Keet), comp. 1942.
10. Rooidag (Daybreak/Dawn) (N. P. Van Wyk Louw), comp. 1955.
11. As my hart wil nou sing (If my heart wants to sing) (I. D. du Plessis), comp. 1955.
12. Moederharte (Mothers’ hearts) (S. J. M. Osborne), single sheet, duplicated, n.d.
Van Tafelberg se strand (From Table mountain’s shore) (C. F. Visser), single sheet
printed, n. d.

120
 1.2 J. K. Pescod:362

Die wildeby (The wild bee) (C. J. Langenhoven). Ms., 1921; in the SABC Music
Library.

Die roosknoppie (The rosebud) (D. F. Mahlerbe). Ms., 1925; A. Weekes & Co. Ltd,
London, 1928.

Kom sit by my (Come sit by/beside me) (Anon). Ms., between 1924-1926.

Oktobermaand (The month of October) (C. L. Leipoldt). Ms., 1925; Die Huisgenoot
(You magazine), 6 June 1930.

Die ossewa (The ox wagon/prairie wagon) (Jan F. Celliers). Ms., 1925.

Was ek ʼn sanger (Were I a singer) (Pieter de Waal). Ms., 1946.

Builof (Wedding feast) J. R. L. van Bruggen). Ms., 1965

Salut d’amor (Love’s greeting) (A. G. Visser). Ms., 1965

Wiegeliedjie (Lullaby) (own words). Ms., n. d.

1.3 Pieter de Villiers:363

Die geskenke (The gifts) (E. Eybers). Ms., 1961.

Sewe Boerneefliedjies/Sewe Lawwe Liedjies (Seven Boerneef Songs/Seven Silly

Songs) song cycle based on poems by Boerneef (Farmer-Cousin/Farmer-Nephew),

362
The published song output list for John K. Pescod (with Afrikaans titles,
names of poets and publishing information) has been excerpted from:

Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, P-Z, 11-12.

English translations of song titles have been provided by the author of this
document.
363
The published song output list for Pieter de Villiers (with Afrikaans titles,
names of poets and publishing information) has been excerpted from:

Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A-D, 352.

English translations of song titles have been provided by the author.

121
 pseudonym of I. D. du Plessis, dedicated to Betsy de la Porte (mezzo-soprano).
Publisher: FAK, Johannesburg, 1961:
1. Blaas op die pampoenstingel (Blow on the pumpkin stalk)
2. Klein Piedeplooi (Little Piet du Plooy)
3. Die berggans het ʼn veer laat val (The mountain-goose let a feather fall)
4. Waarom is die duivel vir die slypsteen bang? (Why is the devil afraid of the
grindstone?)
5. Aandblom is ʼn wit blom (Evening flower is a white flower)
6. My koekies verheen jou verkereveer (My speckled, cross-feathered hen)
7. Doer bo teen die rant (Up there, high against the ridge)

Ek hou van blou (I like blue) (A. D. Keet), Ms., 1967.

Kleuterland (Toddler land) FAK: Johannesburg, 1967.

Seesonnet (Sea sonnet) (T. Wassenaar). Ms., 1968.

Heilige nag, (Holy night) South African Christmas Carols no. 7 Voortrekkerpers
(Pioneer press), Johannesburg, commissioned by CAPAB (Cape Performing Arts
Board). Ms., 1970/71.

Four Psalms, for baritone and piano, commissioned by CAPAB (Cape Performing
Arts Council). Ms., 1970/71.

Waar ou Heidelberg hang aan die Suikerbosrand (Where old Heidelberg sits on the
Sugarbush ridge) (A. G. Visser). Ms., 1974.

Middagslapie (Midday nap) (A. G. Visser). Ms. 1974.

As dit fluit-fluit gaan (If it goes tweet-tweet) (A. G. Visser). Ms. 1974.

Kersaand - ʼn gebed (Christmas Eve – a prayer) (I. L. de Villiers). South African

Christmas Carols Part II, N. G. Kerk boekhandel (bookshop), 1975.

Lied sonder woorde (Song without words), for soprano and pianoforte. Ms., 1975.

1.4 Arnold Van Wyk:364

364
The published song output list for Arnold van Wyk (with Afrikaans titles,
names of poets and publishing information) has been excerpted from:

Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, P-Z, 434.

English translations of song titles have been provided by the author of this
document.

122
 Vier weemoedige liedjies (Four Melancholy/Depressing Songs), “. . . were not
considered by Van Wyk to be a song cycle, but are four miniatures that share a single
mood.”365 Comp. 1934-1938, rev. 1946-1947. Publisher: Heuwekemeijer,
Amsterdam, 1947:
1. Vaalvalk (Kestrel) (W. E. G. Louw)
2. Eerste winterdag (First winter’s day) (W. E. G. Louw)
3. In die stilte van my tuin (In the quietness of my garden) (W.E. G. Louw)366
4. Koud is die wind (Cold is the wind) (I. D. du Plessis)
Die Kapelle (The Chapel) (L. Uhland). Ms., 1935.

Van Liefde en Verlatenheid (Of Love and Loneliness), song cycle for voice (mezzo-
soprano/soprano) and piano, (E. Marais); comp. 1953. Boosey & Hawkes, London,
1956:367
1. Die towenares (The sorceress)
2. Die woestynlewerkie (The desert lark)
3. Winternag (Winter night)
4. Hart-van-die-dagbreek (Heart-of-the-daybreak)
5. Dieprivier (Deep River)
Vyf liedere op tekste van Petronius, five songs on texts by Petronius for baritone and
small instr. ensemble. Ms., 1964.368
1. Qualis nox fuit illa
2. Lecto compositus
3. Foeda est in coitu
4. Somnia quae mentes
5. Sit nox illa diu nobis dilecta

365
Ferguson, 6.
366
Correction – This is incorrect. I. D. du Plessis is correctly listed as the poet of
“In die stilte van my tuin” in the music score.
367
Arnold van Wyk, Van Liefde en Verlatenheid, (London: Boosey & Hawkes,
1956).
368
The published song output list for Arnold van Wyk (with Afrikaans titles,
names of poets and publishing information) has been excerpted from:

Malan, South African Music Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, P-Z, 434.

English translations of song titles have been provided by the author of this
document.

123
 APPENDIX C

TEXTS, TRANSLATIONS, AND IPA OF SELECTED SONGS369

Heimwee (1930)
[ɦəjmveᵊ]
(Homesickness/Nostalgia)

Music by S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)

Poetry by J. R. L. van Bruggen (1881-1957)

My hart verlang na die stilte,

[məj hart fərˋlaŋ na di ˋstəltə]
(My heart longs for the quietness,)

Van die wye wuiwende veld

[fan di ˋvəjə ˋvœyvəndə fælt]
(Of the wide-open undulating veld370)

Ver van die stads geluide,

[fɛ:r fan di stats xəˋlœydə]
(Far from the city’s noise,)

En die klinkende klank van geld.

369
Please note that punctuation and capitalization of the text has been represented
as much as possible as that found in the various music scores. Changes at the author of
this document’s discretion were however made to Pescod’s “Oktobermaand” as the entire
handwritten text is capitalized in the score. Repeats have been omitted in most cases.
English translations and IPA throughout have been provided by the author of this
document.

It is recommended that singers pay attention to and make use of the assimilation
rules previously mentioned as needed. See above, 43.
370
Vast African grasslands/countryside.

124
[ɛn di ˋkləŋkəndə klaŋk fan xælt]
(And the jingle-jangle of money.)

Ek is moeg vir die rustelose lewe

[ɛk əs mux fər di ˋrœstəloᵊsə ˋleᵊvə]
(I am tired of this restless life)

Van mense wat kom en gaan

[fan ˋmɛnsə vat kɔm ɛn xa:n]
(Of people that come and go)

k’Wil terug na die vrye ruimte,

[kvəl təˋrœx na di ˋfrəjə ˋrœymtə]
(I want to return to the free expanse,)

Waar ’n siel in woon, wat verstaan.

[va:r ə sil ən voᵊn vat fərˋsta:n]
(Where a soul lives that understands (that freedom).)

O, ek sien weer die son op die velde

[oᵊ ɛk sin ve:ᵊr di sɔn ɔp di ˋfældə]
(O, I see again the sun on the veld)

en die ewige blou daar bo.

[ɛn di ˋeᵊvəxə blœu da:r boᵊ]
(And the eternal blue (heavens) above.)

En my hart skiet vol van heimwee,

[ɛn məj hart skit fɔl fan ˋɦəjmveᵊ]
(And my heart is struck (through), full of homesickness,)

en my drome swem in my oë.

[ɛn məj ˋdroᵊmə swɛm ən məj oᵊə]
(and my dreams swim (tearfully) in my eyes.)

Ek sien weer die ylbloue berge.

[ɛk sin ve:ᵊr di ˋəjlblœuə ˋbɛrgə]
(I see again the pale blue mountains.)

Daar ver oor die westerkim

[da:r fɛ:r o:ᵊr di ˋvɛstərkəm]
(There far over the western horizon)

En wonder nie meer waarom weemoed,

[ɛn ˋvɔndər ni me:ᵊr ˋva:rɔm ˋveᵊmut]
(And don’t wonder any more why sadness,)

125
so sag uit my liedere klim.
[soᵊ sax œyt məj ˋlidərə kləm]
(rises so softly from out of my songs.)

Klim na die grys lug bowe.

[kləm na di xrəjs lœx ˋboᵊvə]
(Rising to the grey skies above.)

Waar die son in die miste kwyn,

[va:r di sɔn ən di ˋməstə kwəjn]
(Where the sun fades into the mists,)

Want O, ek verlang na die velde

[vant oᵊ ɛk fərˋlaŋ na di ˋfɛldə]
(Because Oh, I dearly long for the veld)

Na die ewige sonne skyn.

[na di ˋeᵊvəxə ˋsɔnə skəjn]
(For the eternal sunshine.)

Kom dans Klaradyn (1935)

[kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn]
(Come dance Klaradyn)

Music by S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)

Poetry by C. F. Visser (n. d.)

Kom dans Klaradyn, kom en dans weer met my,

[kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn kɔm ɛn dans ve:ᵊr mɛt məj]
(Come dance Klaradyn, come and dance again with me,)

Op maat van die aandwind wat wieg oor die wei,

[ɔp ma:t fan di ˋa:ntvənt vat vix o:ᵊr di vəj]
(In time to the evening breeze that wafts over the meadow,)

Die blomme hul nooi ons die feesmaal is klaar

[di ˋblɔmə ɦœl no:j ɔns di ˋfeᵊsma:l əs kla:r]
(The flowers invite us, the feast is ready)

Die sterretjies brand al, die maan is al daar.

[di ˋstærəkis brant al di ma:n əs al da:r]
(The (little) stars are all burning, the moon is already there.)

Kom dans Klaradyn, Kom dans Klaradyn,

[kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn]

126
(Come dance Klaradyn, come dance Klaradyn,)

Kom en dans weer met my weer met my

[kɔm ɛn dans ve:ᵊr mɛt məj ve:ᵊr mɛt məj]
(Come and dance again with me, again with me)

Op maat van die aandwind wat wieg oor die wei,

[ɔp ma:t fan di ˋa:ntvənt vat vix o:ᵊr di vəj]
(In time to the evening breeze that wafts over the meadow,)

Kom dans Klaradyn, Kom dans Klaradyn, . . . etc.

[kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn kɔm dans klaraˋdəjn]
(Come dance Klaradyn, Come dance Klaradyn)

Vertel Klaradyn, Kom vertel my dat jy,

[fərˋtɛl klaraˋdəjn kɔm fərˋtɛl məj dat jəj]
(Tell me Klaradyn, Come and tell me that you,)

Die Konigin bruid van my hart ook gaan bly.

[di ˋkoᵊnəxən brœyt fan məj hart oᵊk xa:n bləj]
(Will also remain the bridal queen of my heart.)

As blomme verwelk en die weelde vergaan,

[as ˋblɔmə fərˋvæᵊlk ɛn di ˋveᵊldə fərˋxa:n]
(Even if flowers wilt and wealth wastes away,)

As sterre verbleek en verduister die maan.

[as ˋstærə fərˋbleᵊk ɛn fərˋdœystər di ma:n]
(Even if stars grow pale and the moon grows dim.)

Vertel Klaradyn, Vertel Klaradyn,

[fərˋtɛl klaraˋdəjn fərˋtɛl klaraˋdəjn]
(Tell me Klaradyn, tell me Klaradyn)

Kom vertel my dat jy, vertel my day jy

[kɔm fərˋtɛl məj, fərˋtɛl məj dat jəj]
(Come and tell me that you, tell me that you)

Die Konigin bruid van my hart ook gaan bly,

[di ˋkoᵊnəxən brœyt fan məj hart oᵊk xa:n bləj]
(Will also remain the bridal queen of my heart,)

Vertel Klaradyn, Vertel Klaradyn, . . . etc.

[fərˋtɛl klaraˋdəjn fərˋtɛl klaraˋdəjn]
(Tell me Klaradyn, tell me Klaradyn)

127
Geboorte van die Lente (1931)
[xəˋbo:ᵊrtə fan di ˋlɛntə]
(The Birth of Spring)

Music by S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)

Poetry by A. G. Visser (1978-1929)

Gelukkig en bly was die dag

[xəˋlœkəx ɛn bləj vas di dax]
(Happy and joyful was the day)

Toe die Reent met die Sonskyn gaan trou het,

[tu di reᵊnt mɛt di ˋsɔnskəjn xa:n trœu ɦɛt]
(When the Rain and the Sunshine were married,)

veelverwig die boog wat die Lug

[ˋfeᵊlfɛrvəx di boᵊx vat di lœx]
(a multi-colored archway (rainbow))

vir ’n trou present kunstig gebou het.

[fər ə trœu prəˋsɛnt ˋkœnstəx xəˋbœu ɦɛt]
(was artistically built for them by the sky as a wedding present.)

Getwis het hul eens op ’n dag

[xəˋtwəs ɦɛt ɦœl eᵊns ɔp ə dax]
(One day they quarreled with each other)

met ’n storm verwytende woorde.

[mɛt ə stɔrəm fərˋvəjtəndə ˋvo:ᵊrdə]
(with a storm of reproachful words.)

Die sonskyn verdwyn, die sonskyn verdwyn,

[di ˋsɔnskəjn fərˋdwəjn di ˋsɔnskəjn fərˋdwəjn]
(The sunshine disappeared, the sunshine disappeared)

En die Reent word ’n haëlbui koud uit die Noorde.

[ɛn di reᵊnt vɔrt ə ˋɦa:əlbœy kœut œyt di ˋno:ᵊrdə]
(And the rain became a cold hailstorm from the north.)

Versoen raak hul weer, versoen raak hul weer,

[fərˋsun ra:k hœl ve:ᵊr fərˋsun ra:k hœl ve:ᵊr]
(Then they reconciled again, they reconciled again,)

En betaal met rente, agterstalige Liefde.

[ɛn bəˋta:l mɛt ˋrɛntə ˋaxtərsta:ləxə ˋlifdə]
(And paid with interest, back-pay for an overdue love.)

128
En Sonskyn en Reent, die juig tesaam,
[ɛn ˋsɔnskəjn ɛn reᵊnt di jœyx tə sa:m]
(And Sunshine and Rain rejoiced together)

Oor ’n liewe klein dogtertjie Lente.

[o:ᵊr ə ˋlivə kləjn ˋdɔxtərki ˋlɛntə]
(Over a dear little daughter Spring.)

Rooidag (1970)
[ro:jdax]
(Daybreak/Dawn)

Music by S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)

Poetry by N. P. van Wyk Louw (1906-1970)

Rooidag, rooidag wat bring jy

[ˋro:jdax ˋro:jdax vat brəŋ jəj]
(Daybreak, daybreak what do you bring)

Ek weet nie waarom voel ek so bly

[ɛk veᵊt ni ˋva:rɔm ful ɛk soᵊ bləj]
(I don’t know why I feel so happy)

My hart dit klop en dit voel vir my,

[məj ɦart dət klɔp ɛn dət ful fər məj]
(My heart is throbbing and I feel)

Sowaar sowaar vandag kom hy!

[soᵊva:r soᵊva:r fanˋdax kɔm ɦəj]
(It’s true, it’s true, he’ll come today!)

Lentelied
[lɛntəlit]
(Spring Song)

Music by S. le Roux Marais (1896-1976)

Poetry by J. R. L. van Bruggen (1881-1957)

Fladder, fladder vlindertjie,

[ˋfladər ˋfladər ˋfləndərki]
(Flutter, flutter little butterfly)

om en om ’n roos,
[ɔm ɛn ɔm ə roᵊs]
(round and round a rose,)

129
Kuier hier en kuier daar,
[ˋkœyər hi:r ɛn ˋkœyər da:r]
(Visit here and visit there,)

Fladder na jy weet nie waar,

[ˋfladər na jəj veᵊt ni va:r]
(flutter to you know not where,)

Laat die blomme bloos,

[la:t di ˋblɔmə bloᵊs]
(Let the flowers bloom/blush)

Jy’s die lente lieweling,

[jəjs di ˋlɛntə ˋlivələŋ]
(You are spring’s darling,)

Jy laat liedjies oral sing

[jəj la:t ˋlikis ˋo:ᵊral səŋ]
(You let songs sing everywhere (that Spring is here))

Lente is hier, lente is hier,

[ˋlɛntə əs hi:r ˋlɛntə əs hi:r]
(Spring is here, spring is here,)

Alles juig same van puur plesier,

[ˋaləs jœyx ˋsa:mə fan py:r pləˋsi:r]
(Everything rejoices together from pure delight,)

juig same van puur plesier,

[jœyx ˋsa:mə fan py:r pləˋsi:r]
(rejoices together from pure delight.)

O my liewe vlindertjie,
[oᵊ məj ˋlivə ˋfləndərki]
(O my dear little butterfly,)

fladder in my hart,
[ˋfladər ən məj hart]
(flutter in my hart,)

Fluister al jou liedjies daar,

[ˋflœystər al jœu ˋlikis da:r]
(Whisper all your songs there,)

en verjaag my smart.

130
[ɛn fərˋja:x məj sma:rt]
(and drive away my grief/sorrow.)

Wie wil nou ook nikke hê

[vi vəl nœu oᵊk ˋnəkə hɛ:]
(Who could now want anything more)

as die lente sing

[as di ˋlɛntə səŋ]
(when the spring sings)

Fladder, fladder vlindertjie, lente troeteling

[ˋfladər ˋfladər ˋfləndərki lɛntə trutələŋ]
(Flutter, flutter little butterfly, spring’s favorite/cuddle pet)

Fladder, fladder vlindertjie,

[ˋfladər ˋfladər ˋfləndərki]
(Flutter, flutter little butterfly)

om en on ’n roos, etc . . .
[ɔm ɛn ɔm ə roᵊs]
(round and round a rose, etc . . .)

Oktobermaand (1928)
[ɔkˋtoᵊbərma:nt]
(The month of October)

Music by John K. Pescod (1896-1985)

Poetry by C. Louis Leipoldt (1880-1947)

Dit is die maand Oktober,371

[dət əs di ma:nt ɔkˋtoᵊbər]
(It is the month of October,)

Die mooiste mooiste maand

[di ˋmo:jstə ˋmo:jstə ma:nt]
The most beautiful, beautiful month

Dan is die dag so helder,

[dan əs di dax soᵊ ˋɦældər]
(Then is the day so clear,)

So groen is elke aand.

[soᵊ xrun əs ˋælkə a:nt]
371
The month of October is springtime in the southern hemisphere.

131
 (So green is every evening.)

So blou en sonder wolke,

[soᵊ blœu ɛn ˋsɔndər ˋvɔlkə]
(So blue and without clouds,)

Die hemel heerlik bo -

[di ˋɦeᵊməl ˋɦe:ᵊrlək boᵊ]
(The glorious heaven above -)

So blomtuinvol van kleure

[soᵊ ˋblɔmtœynfɔl fan ˋklø:ᵊrə]
(Like a flower garden full of color)

Die asval ou karoo.

[di ˋasfal œu karˋoᵊ]
(The ashen old Karoo.)372

Dit is die maand Oktober

[dət əs di ma:nt ɔkˋtoᵊbər]
(It is the month of October)

Die varkblom is in bloei,

[di ˋfarkblɔm əs ən blu:j]
(The arum lily373 is in bloom,)

Oor al die seekoegate

[o:ᵊr al di ˋseᵊkuxatə]
(Over all the hippo pools)

Is kafferskuil374 gegroei,
[əs ˋkafərskœyl xəˋxru:j]
(Bulrushes are growing,)

372
The Karoo is an arid, semi-desert region in South Africa.
373
This is also known as the pig lily.
374
The stem/root portion of this compound word “kafferskuil” is historically
derogatory and offensive to Black South Africans. For performance, the author of this
document recommends either including a translation of the entire song in program notes,
highlighting that the word “kafferskuil” means “bulrushes,” or that the singer use the
Afrikaans synonym “papkuil” instead. In this case, the a vowel in “pap” is a full measure
(three beats) in duration, while the suffix “kuil” is still placed on the downbeat of the
following measure.

132
Die koppies kort gelede
[di ˋkɔpis kɔrt xəˋleᵊdə]
(The hillocks, a short while ago)

Nog as ’n klip so kaal,

[nɔx as ə kləp soᵊ ka:l]
(Still as bare as a stone,)

Het nou vir welkoms groetnis

[ɦɛt nœu fər ˋvælkɔms ˋxrutnəs]
(Have now welcomed with a hearty greeting)

Hul mooiste voorgehaal.

[ɦœl ˋmo:jstə ˋfo:ᵊr xəˋɦa:l]
(their most beautiful (floral) attire.)

Dit is die maand Oktober,

[dət əs di ma:nt ɔkˋtoᵊbər]
(It is the month of October,)

Die akke (sic)375 boom is groen,

[di ˋakə boᵊm əs xrun]
(The acorn tree is green)

Die bloekoms langs die paaie

[di ˋblukɔms laŋs di ˋpa:jə]
(The blue-gums (trees) along the paths)

Is almal nuut geboen.

[əs ˋalmal nyt xəˋbun]
(Are all newly-polished.)

En orals in die tuin rond ruik jy sering en roos,

[ɛn ˋo:ᵊrals ən di tœyn rɔnt rœyk jəj ˋse:ᵊrəŋ ɛn roᵊs]
(And all around the garden you smell Persian lilac and rose,)

Jasmyn en katjiepiering
[jasˋməjn ɛn ˋka ͥ kipi:rəŋ]
(Jasmine and gardenias)

Lemoen en appelkoos
[ləˋmun ɛn ˋapəlˋkoᵊs]
(Orange and apricot.)

375
The dictionary’s spelling of this word is “akker.”

133
 Oktobermaand, Oktobermaand,
[ɔkˋtoᵊbərma:nt ɔkˋtoᵊbərma:nt]
(October, October,)

Die mooiste mooiste maand.

[di ˋmo:jstə ma:nt ˋmo:jstə ma:nt]
(the most beautiful most beautiful month.)

Sewe Boerneef Liedjies/Sewe Lawwe Liedjies

[ˋseᵊvə ˋbu:rneᵊf ˋlikis/ ˋseᵊvə lavə ˋlikis]
(Seven Farmer-Cousin or Farmer-Nephew Songs/ Seven Silly Songs)

Music by Pieter de Villiers (1924- )

Poetry by “Boerneef” (Farmer-Cousin/Farmer-Nephew)
- pseudonym of I. W. van der Merwe (1897-1967)

1. Blaas op die pampoenstingel

[bla:s ɔp di pamˋpunˋstəŋəl]
(Blow on the pumpkin stalk)

maak jou eie musiek,

[ma:k jœu ˋəjə muˋsik]
(make your own music)

pomp jou kieste op

[pɔmp jœu ˋkistə ɔp
(puff up your cheeks)

blaas bas musiek

[bla:s bas muˋsik]
(blow bass music)

’n dreunborslied in die bamboesriet

[ə ˋdrøᵊnbɔrslit ən di bamˋbusrit]
(a chest-booming song in the bamboo reeds)

waar rooibekkies skewekop luister

[va:r ˋro:ibɛkis ˋskeᵊvəkɔp ˋlœystər]
(where shaft-tailed whydahs - a type of bird with a red bill - listen with coked heads)

2. Klein Piedeplooi376

376
“Klein Piedeplooi” is likely the Afrikanerized version of the French Huguenot
last name: du Plooy (much like the Americanization of foreign surnames to English
sounding surnames) – Conroy Cupido, e-mail with the author, May 10, 2011.

134
 [kləjn pidəˋplo:j]
(Little Piedeplooi)

Klein Piedeplooi, Klein Piedeplooi

[kləjn pidəˋplo:j kləjn pidəˋplo:j]
(Little Piedeplooi, Little Piedeplooi)

vangie flooi vangie flooi377

[ˋfaŋi flo:j ˋfaŋi flo:j]
(catch the flea, catch the flea)

in jou lekker warm kooi

[ən jœu ˋlɛkər ˋvarəm ko:j]
in your nice warm bed/bunk-bed

Soek die tata soekom

[suk di ˋtata ˋsukɔm]
(Look for the scoundrel, look for him)

vra die josie hoekom hy by jou kom kriewel.

[fra di ˋjoᵊsi ˋɦukɔm ɦəj bəj jœu kɔm ˋkrivəl]
(Ask the devil why he comes to tickle you)

Klein Piedeplooi Klein Piedeplooi

[kləjn pidəˋplo:j]
(Little Piedelooi, Little Piedeplooi)

wys hom jys sy doekom

[vəjs ɦɔm jəj səj ˋdukɔm]
(show him you’re going to squash him.)

3. Die berggans378 het ’n veer laat val

Another possible explaination of this contraction is that it is “. . . written the way

it is pronounced when one says it fast i.e. the -t from Piet is lost and we say de, not du;
while the -ooy from Plooy is pronounced ooi.” – Sophié (Grobler) van der Westhuisen, e-
mail with the author, May 8, 2011

377
A number of words are shortened throughout the cycle in various phrases such
as in song number two: “vangie vlooi” which should really be represented as “vang die
vlooi”. When combined with the use of slang words such as “tata” and “josie”, a more
colloquial style of speech is hinted at by the poet. Conroy Cupido, e-mail with the author,
May 10, 2011.

135
 [di ˋbɛrxans ɦɛt ə fe:ᵊr la:t fal]
(The mountain-goose dropped a feather)

van die hoogste krans by Woeperdal

[fan di ˋhoᵊxstə krans bəj ˋvupərdal]
(from the highest rocky cliff at Woeperdal)

my hart staan tuit al meer en meer

[məj hart sta:n tœyt al me:ᵊr ɛn me:ᵊr]
(my heart is aching (for you) more and more)

ek stuur vir jou die berggansveer

[ɛk sty:r fər jœu di ˋbɛrxansfe:ᵊr]
(I am sending you this mountain-goose feather)

mits diese wil ek vir wil jou sê

[məts ˋdisə vəl ɛk fər jœu sɛ:]
(with this I want to tell you)

hoe diep my liefde vir jou lê.

[ɦu dip məj ˋlifdə fər jœu lɛ:]
(how deep my love for you lies.)

4. Waarom is die duiwel vir die slypsteen bang

[ˋva:rɔm əs di ˋdœyvəl fər di ˋsləjpsteᵊn baŋ]
(Why is the devil afraid of the grindstone)

en nie vir die pikswart verspoegslang,

[ɛn ni fər di ˋpəkswart fərˋspuxslaŋ]
(and not of the pitch black spitting snake,)

vra vir jou pa vra vir jou ma my basie

[fra: vər jœu pa: fra vər jœu ma: məj ˋba:si]
(ask your father, ask your mother my (little) sir)

hoekom skrik hy vir ’n knapsak groot?

[ˋɦukɔm skrək həj fər ə ˋknapsak xroᵊt]
(why is he afraid of the big knapsack?)

is ’n mudsak sout konsuis sy dood

[əs ə ˋm±tsak sœut kɔnˋsœys səj doᵊt]

378
The mountain-goose is a very rare bird. As a result, finding its feather and
giving it to one’s beloved is a great symbol of one’s love for that person. Conroy Cupido,
e-mail with the author, May 10, 2011.

136
(is a bag of salt his cause of death)

vra vir jou ma vra vir jou pa my basie

[fra: vər jœu pa: fra vər jœu ma: məj ˋba:si]
(ask your father, ask your mother my (little) sir)

pa sê dis praatjies vir die vaak,

[pa: sɛ: dəs pra:ͥ kis fər di fa:k]
(father says it is only bed-time talk/a fairy tale,)

ma wil niks meer hoor van die horingsmandraak.

[ma: vəl nəks me:ᵊr ho:ᵊr fan di ˋho:ᵊrəŋsmanˋdra:k]
(mother does not want to hear anything more about the horned mandrake.)

5. Aandblom is ’n witblom
[ˋa:ntblɔm əs ə ˋvətblɔm]
(Evening flower379 is a white flower)

aandblom is my bloedrooi vers

[ˋa:ntblɔm əs məj ˋblutro:j fɛrs]
(evening flower is my blood-red/scarlet poem)

hartblom is my meisie
[ˋhartblɔm əs məj ˋməjsi]
(darling flower is my sweetheart)

ek en sy by die opsitkers
[ɛk ɛn səj bəj di ˋɔpsətkɛrs]
(me and her by the courting candle)

blommetjie vergeet my niet

[ˋblɔməki fərˋxeᵊt məj nit]
(little flower don’t forget me)

Blommetjie gedink aan my

[ˋblɔməki xəˋdəŋk a:n məj]
(Little flower think of me)

6. My koekiesveerhen jou verkereveer

[məj ˋkukis fe:ᵊrˋɦɛn jœu vərˋke:ᵊrəfe:ᵊr]
(My speckled, cross-feathered hen)

wanneer kom my ghantang weer

379
This refers to a species of Heperantha, Gladiolus, Freesia and Iridacae.

137
[vaˋne:ᵊr kɔm məj ˋxantaŋ ve:ᵊr]
(when will my sweetheart come back again)

hier wag ek vir hom by die watervoor

[hi:r vax ɛk fər hɔm bəj di ˋva:terfo:ᵊr]
(here I wait for him by the water course)

laat dit weer wees soos die voorige keer.

[la:t dət ve:ᵊr weᵊs soᵊs di ˋfo:ᵊrəxə ke:ᵊr]
(Let it be again like the previous time.)

7. Doer bo teen die rant

[dur boᵊ teᵊn di rant]
(Up there, high against the ridge)

staan ’n bos geplant

[sta:n ə bɔs xəˋplant]
(a shrub has been planted)

dis ’n Sederbergse bos

[dəs ə ˋsedərbɛrxsə bɔs]
(it’s a Cederberg/Cedar-mountain shrub)

dis ’n wonderbossiebos
[dəs ə ˋvɔndər ˋbɔsibɔs]
(it’s a miraculous little shrub)

Laat trek van die ding met kruie geming

[la:t træk fan di dəŋ mɛt ˋkrœyə xəˋməŋ]
(Let that thing (the little shrub) steep in water (like a tea) and flavor it with mixed
spices)

Vir die sit en verlang wat die ouderdom bring

[fər di sət ɛn fərˋlaŋ vat di ˋœudərdɔm brəŋ]
(For the waiting and longing that old age brings)

Vier Weemoedige Liedjies (1947)

[fi:r ˋveᵊmudəxə ˋlikis]
(Four Melancholy/Depressing Songs)

Music by Arnold Van Wyk (1916-1983)

Poetry by W. E. G. Louw (1913-1980), nos. 1 & 2
and I. D. du Plessis (1900-1981), nos. 3 & 4

138
1. Vaalvalk380
[fa:lfalk]
(Kestrel)

Wit is die wêreld van outyd se wee,

[vət əs di ˋvæ:rəlt fan ˋœutəjdsə veᵊ]
(White is the world of yesteryear,)

en ’n treurige wys is die vroemore see;

[ɛn ə ˋtrø:ᵊrəxə vəjs əs di fruˋmɔ:rə seᵊ]
(and a mournful melody is the early morning sea;)

dou oor die duine,

[dœu o:ᵊr di ˋdœynə]
(dew over the dunes,)

geen windjie wat waai,

[xeᵊn ˋvə ͥ ɲci vat va:j]
no breeze that blows,

Net ’n vaalvalk wat sing soos hy draai…

[nɛt ə ˋfa:lfalk vat səŋ soᵊs həj dra:j]
(Just a kestrel that sings as he turns…)

2. Eerste Winterdag
[ˋe:ᵊrstə ˋvəntərdax]
(First Winter’s Day)

na al die sonskyn is dit donker;

[na: al di ˋsɔnskəjn əs dət ˋdɔŋkər]
(After all the sunshine it is dark;)

vaal dryf die wolke in die lug;

[fa:l drəjf di ˋvɔlkə ən di lœx]
(the faded clouds float by in the sky;)

vaal die ylmot reën wat heeldag stuiwen;

[fa:l di ˋəjlmɔt reᵊn vat ˋheᵊldax ˋstœyvən]
(dull (is) the drizzling rain that falls all day long;)

laag, dwarrelend die blare vlug.

[la:x ˋdwarələnt di ˋbla:rə flœx]
(low, whirling, the leaves fly by.)

380
A grey-brown bird of the falcon family

139
 stil sleep die ure en stuif die motreën buiten;381
[stəl sleᵊp di ˋy:rə ɛn stœyf di ˋmɔtreᵊn ˋbœytən]
(the hours drag by quietly and it still drizzles outside;)

die druppels tril droewig teen die ruite;

[di ˋdrœpəls trəl ˋdruᵊvəx teᵊn di ˋrœytə]
(the drops quiver pitifully against the window pane;)

drup drup eentonig, eentonig op gewei en dak

[drœp drœp ˋeᵊntoᵊnəx ˋeᵊntoᵊnəx ɔp xəˋvəj ɛn dak]
(drip, drip monotonously on the fields and rooftops)

en hang swaarblink aan die kale amandeltak.

[ɛn haŋ ˋswa:rbləŋk a:n di ˋka:lə aˋmandəltak]
(and hang with a heavy sheen on the leafless almond (tree’s) branch.)

3. In die stilte van my tuin

[ən di ˋstəltə fan məj tœyn]
(In the quietness of my garden)

flikker son en skaduwee

[ˋfləkər sɔn ɛn ˋska:dौveᵊ]
(flicker sun and shadow)

Beurtelings op die muur.

[ˋbø:ᵊrtələŋs ɔp di my:r]
(Alternating in turn against the wall.)

Blare van verbloeide rose

[ˋbla:rə fan vərˋblu:jdə ˋroᵊsə]
(Leaves of roses that have lost their blooms)

het die wind hier dikgestrooi

[ɦɛt di vənt hi:r dəkxəˋstro:j]
(have been thickly strewn by the wind)

voor die ope deur.

[fo:ᵊr di ˋoᵊpə dø:ᵊr]
(in front of the open door.)

En die maanwit skoenlappers drywe

[ɛn di ˋma:nvət ˋskunlapərs ˋdrəjvə]

381
“buiten” is an older derivative of Dutch but in modern Afrikaans it would be
“buite.” Conroy Cupido, e-mail with the author, May 10, 2011.

140
(And the moon-white butterflies float past)

op die geurende lug lomerig verby.

[ɔp di ˋxø:ᵊrəndə lœx ˋloᵊmərœx fərˋbəj]
(languidly in the balmy, fragrant sky.)

Ook die hart wat jou bemin

[oᵊk di hart vat jœu bəˋmən]
(Also, the heart that you love)

Voel die vreugde van die uur

[ful di ˋfrøᵊxdə fan di y:r]
(Feels the bliss of the hour)

as jou mond so lag.

[as jœu mɔnt soᵊ lax]
(as your mouth laughs)

4. Koud is die wind

[kœut əs di vənt]
(Cold is the wind)

Koud is die wind waar Daphne droom.

[kœut əs di vənt va:r ˋdafnə dro:ᵊm]
(Cold is the wind where Daphne dreams.)

Sy wat so teer en warm was…

[səj vat soᵊ te:ᵊr ɛn ˋvarəm vas]
(She who was so tender and warm…)

en skoner as die lourier boom

[ɛn ˋskoᵊnər as di ˋlœuri:r boᵊm]
(and more beautiful than the laurel tree)

wat oor haar rusplek waai.

[vat o:ᵊr ha:r ˋrœsplɛk va:j]
(That bends over her resting place.)

Nou fluit die bitter wind vir haar

[nœu flœyt di ˋbətər vənt fər ha:r]
(Now the bitter wind whistles for her)

en sneeu pak om haar deur,

[ɛn sne:u pak ɔm ha:r dø:ᵊr]
(and snow is packed around her door,)

141
daar onder, as die wind bedaar
[da:r ˋɔndər as di vənt bəˋda:r]
(there below, as the wind subsides)

hoor jy die branders dreun.

[ho:ᵊr jəj di ˋbrandərs drøᵊn]
(You can hear the thundering waves.)

142