Terrorism and sectarianism by Mona Arain

Terrorism and Sectarianism

Introduction:

Terrorism has become one of the most dangerous threats to world order since last two decades in

the twenty first century. In its effects, and sometimes in its causes, terrorism is comparable to

more traditional forms of war. It destabilizes governments, preys on innocent victims, and taps

vast monetary and human resources.

Terrorism:

The Unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a

government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social

objectives (FBI).

Elements of Terrorism:

i. Terrorism is a premeditated act: It requires intent and prior decision to commit an

act of terrorism. It does not happen by accident; rather, it is the result of an

individual’s or group’s policy or decision.

ii. Terrorism is purposeful; it is political in its motive to change or challenge the status

quo. Religiously oriented or national terrorists are driven by social forces or shaped

by circumstances specific to their particular religious or nationalistic experiences.

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iii. Terrorism is not like a war, in which both sides can shoot at one another. It targets

noncombatants, those who cannot defend themselves against the violence.

iv. Terrorism is usually carried out by sub national groups or clandestine agents.

v. Terrorism includes the threat of violence. It does not involve only terrorist acts that

may have occurred; it also involves the potential for future attacks (Guerrero, 2005).

Types of Terrorism:

i. The New terrorism: The modern terrorist environment that arose during the end of

the 20th century, culminating in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York

City. The Terrorism is characterized by the threat of mass casualty attacks from

dissident terrorist organizations, new and creative organizational configurations,

transnational religious solidarity, and redefined moral justification for political

violence.

ii. State Terrorism: Terrorism “committed by governments against perceived enemies.

State terrorism can be directed externally against adversaries in the international

domain or internally against domestic enemies”.

iii. Dissident Terrorism: Terrorism “committed by non- state movements and groups

against governments, ethno-national groups, religious groups, and other perceived

enemies” (Martin 2016).

iv. Ideological Terrorism: Terrorism motivated by systems of belief(ideology), which

champion the self-perceived inherent rights of a particular group or interest in

opposition to another group or interest. The system of belief incorporates theoretical

and philosophical justifications for violently assertions the rights of the championed

group or interest.

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v. International Terrorism: International terrorism is conceptually uncomplicated,

and its selection as a tactic by violent extremists is logical. Conceptually, it is

terrorism that occurs far afield from the immediate theater of conflict (Trapp, 2011).

vi. Religious Terrorism: Religious terrorism has come to the force as predominant

typology in the modern terrorist environment (Jones, 2008). In the millennium,

terrorism motivated by faith has challenged nations and the international community

by virtue of its increased frequency, potential scale of violence, and worldwide

(Stern, 2003).

History of Terrorism in Pakistan

Pakistan has been described as the most dangerous place on earth. One reason for this is

terrorism.1 Although Pakistan is a nuclear-armed nation, terrorist attacks pose a grave threat both

to the security of Pakistan’s 180 million citizens and to the stability and governing authority of

the State. The erosion of its governing authority and the collapse of judicial institutions in

Pakistan has, in recent years, become a contemptible nightmare scenario for international

security experts. The roots of modern terrorism in Pakistan can be traced to the decade of the

1980s. Events that took place in the international political arena at that time had lasting effects

on Pakistan’s political fate. Principal among these events were: the coup in neighboring

Afghanistan led by Muhammad Daud in 1973, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, and

the Iranian revolution of 1979. These events, coupled with opportunistic domestic politics in

Pakistan, helped create a geopolitical environment that gave birth to violent upheavals in the

political landscape of Pakistan. The attack on World Trade Centre on September 11, 21011 also

pushed this menace to Pakistan. One can easily infer from this brief history that terrorism in

Pakistan is complex, comprised of a mixture of religiously (non-sectarian and sectarian) and non-

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religiously (ethnic and nationalist) motivated political actors. Each of these types of terrorism has

dominated at different times and places in Pakistan, and has employed different method

[ CITATION Sae14 \l 1033 ].

National Statistics:

Fatalities relating to terrorist attacks in Pakistan have declined significantly over the years and

according the a South Asia Terrorism Portal’s (SATP) report, the number of deaths has

decreased by 30 percent in 2017 as compared to 2016.

Their report includes all fatalities that resulted from terrorist attacks in Pakistan under April 15th,

2018. If we look at the table, numbers of fatalities are at their peak in 2015 and have decreased

by 2017.

Fatalities in Terrorist Violence in Pakistan 2015-2018

Year Civilians Security Forces Terrorist/ Total

Personnel Insurgents
2015 940 339 2403 3682
2016 612 293 898 1803
2017 540 208 512 1260
2018 48 53 54 155
Total 2140 893 3867 6900

Since March 2015, Pakistan has executed 483 persons under the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA)

1997 and Pakistan Penal Code (PPC), whereas at least 382 cases were sent to 11 military

courts. More than 200,000 combing operations were carried out throughout the country,

approximately four million persons stopped and questioned, 6,998 terrorists arrested, and

nearly 2,500 terrorists killed [ CITATION Sam18 \l 1033 ].

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Legislative Response from Pakistan

1. The Anti-Terrorism Act 1997

It is the latest in the series of laws in the subject was promulgated to provide for the

prevention of terrorism, sectarian violence and for speedy trial of heinous offences. This Act

criminalizes the striking of terror in the people through any act or thing by using bombs ,

dynamics or other explosive or inflammable substances, or fire-arms, or other lethal weapons

or poisons or noxious gases or chemicals or other substances of a hazardous nature in such a

manner as to cause, or to be likely to cause the death of, or injury to , any person or persons,

or damage to, or destruction of, property, or disruption of any supplies of service essential to

the life of the community or displays firearms, or threatens with the use of force public

servants in order to prevent them from discharging their lawful duties (Punjab Govt).

2. The Punjab Civilian Victims of Terrorism (Relief and Rehabilitation) Act 2016

It is enacted by Provincial Assembly of the Punjab to provide for the institutionalized

response to redress the hardship faced by the civilian victims and their families owing to an

act of terrorism. Under this law, “civilian victim” means a person, not being a terrorist or a

personnel of law enforcement agency on duty, who suffers harm in body, mind or property

owing to any act of terrorism, and in the event of death of the person, includes the spouse of

the victim or, in absence of a spouse but in order of precedence, a child, mother, father,

minor sibling or other legal heirs of the victim.” The Government shall establish the civilian

victims under the Act.

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3. Anti-Terrorism (Amendment) Bill, 2018

The statement of objects and reasons of the bill stated that when Anti-Terrorism Act 1997 is

invoked against those individuals who are facing sanctions of UNSC, the courts in Pakistan

demand evidence of their wrongdoings. In the absence of such strong evidences, designated

individuals have been released by courts several times, the statement said adding that: “In the

case of UN Security Council Act, 1948, there is no requirement of evidence since they have

already designated proscribed by UN Security Council and Pakistan is obliged to take action

against them as part of its international obligations (Punjab Laws).

Further Steps taken by Pakistan:

 Ban on Terrorist Organization

 Operation Rah-e-Nijat

 Operation Rah-e-Rast

 National Action Plan

 Operation Zarb e Azab

 Establishment of Military Courts [ CITATION Wad18 \l 1033 ].

Sectarianism

According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘It is the strong support for a particular religious or political

group, especially when this leads to violence between different groups. The intolerant attitude of

a particular school of thought towards others which divides different segments of society into

antagonistic groups and creates hatred against each other on the basis of faith and beliefs system

(Ullah, 2009).

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Types of Sectarianism:

I. Institutionalized Sectarianism: "Some groups and states have integrated sectarian

themes into the very fabric of their political, cultural, and educational systems.

Sectarianism, in other words, has been institutionalized. "

Institutionalized Sectarianism is by far the most dangerous and most difficult form of

sectarianism to counter. Examples of this include the likes of Saudi Arabia's Wahhabism

and Iran's 'Governance of the Jurists', meaning a regime overseen by scholars. The article

goes on to say that this is something ISIS is also seeking to achieve.

II. Incidental Sectarianism: "As its name implies, does not involve a deliberate effort to

implement a sectarian agenda. Sectarianism does not play a central role in a state or

group's objectives, even if there are overtones of it." Incidental Sectarianism is a form of

sectarianism that is evident in conflicts even if that was not the reason for the conflict.

The Syrian civil war is an example of this whereby the struggle is not to eradicate the

Alawite, but rather the Alawi regime from leadership - but at the same time the

opposition uses sectarianism to bolster their ranks.

III. Exploitative Sectarianism: "Finally, there is exploitative sectarianism, a category that

characterizes the tactics and nature of many of the most violent actors in the region."

Today most of the larger Jihadi organizations today exploit sectarianism to recruit and to

achieve political goals however one could argue that the West not only exploit

sectarianism but help in institutionalizing it for their own gains in the Middle East(Types

of Sectarianism, 2016). 

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Internal and External Factors of Sectarianism in Pakistan

 Zia Islamization Policy: Zia’s Islamization Policy is/was a factor of sectarian conflict in

Pakistan. He was totally in favor of an Islamization policy and during his period many

Madrassa (religious seminaries) were established. Conflict between Shia and Sunni sects

become organized during his regime. Zia introduced the Islamic Sharia law which

devastated the bond of unity between Shia and Sunni community.

 The Iranian Islamic Revolution: The Islamic revolution in Iran had great influence on

its neighboring countries. The Shia communities get organized due to this revolution. Iran

supported the Shia groups of Pakistan and a Shia version of new militancy emerged.

  Role of Religious Groups in Sectarian Violence: Sectarianism is often attached to

religion since it is the factor that makes an attitude, an action, a belief, or a structure

specifically sectarian as opposed to being simply generally bad or destructive. Sectarian

groups are always attached to a religious discourse. Due to the narrow-minded of

religious leaders the level of intolerance among religious groups in our society is

growing. The dilemma in Pakistan it hat religious intolerance and extremism has obtained

militant overtones. Bitter hatred towards members of diverse sects is not only preached

but also overvalued. Thus, it has threatened the peace and security of the country (Afzal,

Iqbal, & Inayat, 2012).

Theoretical perspective

The Political Ideology of Fascism:

The word Fascism is a Latin word which means to use power to impress and scare people. In

1922, Benito Mussolini introduced the term. Fascism is ideology of war, violence, domination
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and conflict. This political ideology supports violence for human progress and advocates

militarism for domination and oppressing adversaries. This also views war as a mean of change

in society and considers conflict as a fundamental law of life to gain strength.

Anarchism: Anarchism is often referred to as the nineteenth century roots of terrorism. The term

Anarchism, derived from a Greek word Anarkos, which means ‘without a chief’. This term was

introduced in 1840 by Pierre-Joseph Produhn. This idea was owned by Europeans, Russians and

Americans in the 19th century. The essence of this idea is abolishment of Government system

and its replacement with voluntary cooperation as a society’s organized principle. It justifies

criminal actions of terrorism for its systematic ideas about agitation. Anarchism was the first

political ideology which gave systematic idea for the political agitations and regarded violence as

a tactic for the achievement of political motives [ CITATION Abb14 \l 1033 ].

Role of Social worker:

Following terrorist attack social workers engage in short-term and long-term interventions with

victims. The most effective interventions are on macro level, which means group work and

community interventions. Individual, micro-level interventions are less usual. Group work is

indispensable after traumatic events and can serve as a counterforce to blear outcomes that result

in isolation after disaster occurs. It is suggested to use cognitive behavioral strategies in group

work to empower young people to cope with intensive insight. As terror events touch chains of

people, therapeutic activity should be oriented not only to individuals, but also to the whole

families. They can also provide trauma counseling for the victims’ relatives, organizing the

process of blood giving for volunteers, the hotline opened 24 hours a day to anyone who had lost

someone in the tragedy (Itzhaky & Dekel, 2005).

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Role of social worker can be divided in three phases:

1. Preparation phase:

 Community assessment and social brokerage: need assessment and linking clients and

service providers with resources;

 Community coordination: among agencies and between agencies and clients;

 Direct planning of services: organizing the training program;

2. Attack phase:

 Direct implementation of team: implement system and support it logistically and

psychologically, encouraging cooperation activating;

 Direct implementation of crisis services: including volunteer residents; locate victims,

provide aid to victims, families of victims, identifying problems and needs, counseling

and referring for additional aid.

 Support and assistance: in a state of general panic, providing information, updating

service providers, activating volunteers.

3. After attack:

 Assisting in community intervention: teams are remaining active after the attack,

maintenance of support and assistance services;

Evaluation: teams are working in an organized manner, improving quality of services delivery,

evaluating, helping to accept and apply findings [ CITATION Itz051 \l 1033 ]

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References:

Afzal, S., Iqbal , H., & Inayat, M. (2012). Sectarianism and its Implications for Pakistan
Security: Policy Recommendations Using Exploratry Study. Journal of Humanities and Social
Sciences, 19-26

1.

2. Guerrero, A. L. (2005). Social Problems Community, Policy and Social Action. United

States: Pine Forge Press.

3. Jones, J. (2008). Blood that cries out from the earth: The psychology of religious

terrorism. New York.

4. Martin, G. (2016). Understanding terrorism: Challenges, perspectives and isses.

Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications.

5. Stern, J. (2003). Why religios millitants kill: Terror in the name of GOD. New York:

Harper Collins.

6. Trapp, K. N. (2011). State responsibility terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

7. Punjab Government. (2016). the Punjab Civilian Victims of Terrorism (Relief and

Rehabilitation) Act. Retrieved from http://punjablaws.gov.pk/laws//2477.html

8. Wadhwani, R. (2018, August 12). Civil Service of Pakistan. Retrieved from

http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-compulsory-subjects/essay/essays/54746-essay-

terrorism-pakistan-

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9. Itzhaky, H., & Dekel, R. (2005). Helping Victims of Terrorism: What Makes Social

Work Effective? Journal of Social Work,50(4), 335-344.

10. Makstutyte, R., & Ivanauskeine, V. (2012). Terrorism: Implications for International

Social Work. Journal of Tiltai, 56-69.

11. Abbasi, I., & Khatwani, M. K. (2014). An Over of the Political Theories of Terrorism.

Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences,19(8). 103-107.

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