Boas Franz. - Handbook of American Indian Languages. Volume 1 PDF

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

BULLETIN 40
HANDBOOK OF
AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES
BY
FRANZ BOAS
PART 1
WITH ILLUSTRATIVE SKETCHES
By ROLAND B. DIXON, P. E. GODDARD, WILLIAM JONES

AND TRUMAN MICHELSON, JOHN R. SWANTON,
AND WILLIAM THALBITZER
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1911 i
ATHAPASCAN
(HTFPA)
BY
PLINY EARLE GODDARD
85
T E
§ L. Distribut
§§ 2-4. Phone
§ 2. Souri
§ 3. Grou
§ 4. Assi
§§ 5-8. Gram
§ 5. Enui
§ 6. Com]
§ 7. Chan
§ 8. Posit
§§ 9-19. Idea,,
§ 9. Enu
§ 10. Den
§ 11. Pre(
§ 12. Syni
§ 13. Clas
§ 14. Nun
§ 15. Disti
§ 16. Time
§ 17. Mod
§ 18. Plao
§ 19. Pers,
§§ 20-88. Disca
§§ 20-27.
§ 20.
§ 21. 1
§ 22. 4
§ 23.
§ 24. 1
§ 25. 1
§ 26. 1
§ 27. '
§§ 28-75.
§ 28. E
§§ 29-i
§§
W
L8
LIT ------------ v
-uoisod Tpanoj 'saxpald pepo I ;sn sg §
Lll ----------------------- uot isod piuql 'saxgaid DialalQ S£ §
911 ---- -------------- uov1sod puoas 'saxjaid liq~Aapy Z£ §.
Zl ~---------------------uorqisod s4qj 'saxpid liqjpAy 'is §
puB uo tisod JIaq4 ol ulploaaig saxpad jo uoijug!sso O£ §
----------------
-1- - saxgaJJ LS-O£ §§
1-1 *---------- ***-------------------------- -Spieuial Isuquaf> 6Z §
111 ----- ------------------------------- s uauala 0ATTOWJOSI OS-6Z §§
II1 1 - - -- - - - - -- - -- -- - - -- -- -- -- -- ---- - ainjanllS 8SZ§
.
111~~~~~~~~------ s tjl8Z§§
011 --------- ---------------------------------------- asual J z §
OII ----- --------------------- saxUjns aAil,~oI 9gZ §
60T --- - - - --~~~ - - -~~
- - ~ -
- -----------
-- - --- I uolssassoj SZg§
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--------
601 --------------- --- -----
- ---
- ---- sunou jo IjwmI Wz §
601 --------------------------------------------sunou Su sqiaA £Z §
801 ------------------------- spunodwoo gz §
LOT Sj
------------------------------ -~~~~ -------~ suauua9 aA1 Uajoj IZ §
901 ---------- '-------------- '------- '---------------- -a an tls 'OZ §
901 ---------------------------- ------------------------- sunog LZ- §§
901 ------------ -- - --------------- JutuslS
jo uoissnostq 88-g §§
901 ---------------------------------------- ----------- -- uosjaa 61 §
901 ----------------------------
----------------- uor1paa p ptlXMII .81 §
0 -- -- .--------------------- apo -§
-.-------- -01 U1
--------- '9T §
t01 -- - - - ------------------------------------------ uol nq -n
Iv §
SOI ---------------------- I------------------- ------ °!BU !Smla -£1 §
SOI ----------------------------------- SUOMa19a1311mnss -Zl §
ZOI ------------------------------sidamoouo v3!1DPQJ -IT §
ZOI ---------------------------- ~--------------sjdamuoa 2muiaumouag -01 §
TOT -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- s-ai.102aquD jo uogwBawuunaif 6
101 ---------------- --------- saplo~aqt- IsrzisumursA Aq pass-axdxa svapj -61-6 §
001 ------ ~-~~ ------- ------ oow auj joiajawsuq apauotd aqj ui Ra~uto -Z §
66
S6 ----------------------------------------------------- uo xaupo.Ij
------------------------------ pp~odmoC)
Sdauo
§
119 §
66 ---- --- ------ -- ------ -------s0,aD0avod Jsul~sumamm2 jo uoprioauinua -g §
66 * *--------------------------------------6sassnaoid It-iuBtUI w8mf)-g §
86 ---- ------ ----- ---- ------ ------- ------ ----- spunos jo um ul![ulTSSV 'f§
L6 ----
101
-- .---.----- -------
~-- -- uoL a3 ------ ------- spunos
NOiDwna jo 2uidnair.
qps~~x ~I~~ £S§
---------------- -6 suo Z§
16 ----------------- l!uavj uesOdvqj aqj jo uoilnqpls!([ I §
assga
I 1
88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULi.. 40

BOA S ] HAN
§§ 20-88. Discussion of grammar-Continued Page
§§ 28-75. Verbs-Continued §§ 20-88. Discussioi
§§ 29-50. Formative elements-Continued §§ 79-86. Syntm
§§ 30-37. Prefixes-Continued § 80. Posse
§ 35. Second modal prefixes, fifth position 118
§ 81. Dem(
§ 36. Pronominal prefixes, sixth position § 82. Adje(
120
§ 37. Third modal prefixes, seventh position . 120 § 83. Numb
§§ 38-44. Suffixes. 121 § 84. Adve
§ 38. Classification of suffixes. 121 § 85. Post-
§ 39. Temporal suffixes. § 86. Conji
122
§ 40. Temporal and modal suffixes. § 87. Character
123
§ 41. Modal suffixes. § 88. Character
123
§ 42. Suffixes indicating source of information . Text .
124
§ 43. Conjunctional suffixes 124
§ 44. Adverbial suffixes 125
§§ 45-50. Verbal roots. 125
§ 45. Variation of verbal roots. 125
§ 46. Roots with four forms 126
§ 47. Roots with three forms . 126
§ 48. Roots with two forms 127
§ 49. Roots with one form. 129
§ 50. Meaning of roots. 132
§ 51. Analysis of verbal forms 132
§ 52. Tenses and modes . 134
§§ 53-75. Conjugations .- -- - 135
§ 53. Class I, Conjugation la . 135
§ 54. Class I, Conjugation lb 135
§ 55. Class I, Conjugation lc 136
§ 56. Class I, Conjugation Id. 136
§ 57. Class I, Conjugation le. 136
§ 58. Class I, Conjugation 2. 137
§ 59. Class I, Conjugation 2, with a changed root . 137
§ 60. Class I, Conjugation 3a. 137
§ 61. Class I, Conjugation 3b- 137
§ 62. Class I, Conjugation 4 . 138
§ 63. Class II, Conjugation la. 138
§ 64. Class II, Conjugation lc 139
§ 65. Class II, Conjugation 2. 139
§ 66. Class II, Conjugation 3a. 140
§ 67. Class II, Conjugation 3b. 140
§ 68. Class II, Conjugation 4 140
§ 69. Class III, Conjugation 1. 141
§ 72. Class IV', Conjugation 1. 142
§ 73. Class I', Conjugation 3. 14.3
§ 74. Objective conjugation. 144
§ 75. Passive voice 146
§§ 76-78. Adjectives 146
§ 76. Prefixes of adjectives. 146
§ 77. Comparison of adjectives 147
§ 78. Conjugation of adjectives 147
§§ 79-86. Syntactic particles. 147
§ 79. Personal pronouns - ----------- -------- 147
[Bui.iu . 40 BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 89
Page §§ 20-88. Discussion of grammar-Continued Page
§§ 79-86. Syntactic particles-Continued

§ 80. Possessive pronouns -148
§ 81. Demonstrative pronouns - 148
118 § 82. Adjective pronouns - 149
120 § 83. Numerals - 149
120 § 84. Adverbs -149
121 § 85. Post-positions -150
121 § 86. Conjunctions -150
122 § 87. Character of sentence -151
123 § 88. Character of vocabulary - 151
123
* - - - - . - Text - 153
124
124
125
125
125
126
126
127
129
132
132
134
135
135
135
136
136
136
137
137
137
137
138
138
139
139
140
140
140
141
141
142
142
14:3
144
146
146
146
147
147
]47
147
§ 1. DISTM
The Athapa,
tributed famil
consists of thr
southern.
The northeri
of the continen
is the Churchi
Athabasca and
peoples of the.
continuous coa
north and east
ritory begins a
all of the coi
boundary of A
In the extreme
To the south
Tlingit, Tsimsl
members of th
I The principal worl
SIR ALEXANDER MAC
tinent of No
London, 18(
SIR JOHN RICHARDSO
Land to thy
Franklin.
J. C. E. BUSCIIMANN.
lungen aus d
I.E It. 1'. E. 'ETITOT.
IREV. FATHER A. G.
Canadian Ir
. The Den6 La
-. The History
ATHAPASCAN
(HUPA)
By PLINY EARLE GODDARD
§ 1. DISTRIBUIMON OF THE ATEAPASCAN FAMILY

The Athapascan stock is one of the largest and most widely dis-
tributed families of speech in North America. Geographically it
consists of three divisions, the northern, the Pacific coast, and the
southern.
The northern division 1 occupies much of the northwestern portion
of the continent. East of the Rocky mountains the southern boundary
is the Churchill river at the southeast, and the watershed between
Athabasca and Peace rivers at the southwest. South of them are
peoples of the Algonquian stock. The Eskimo hold a narrow strip of
continuous coast-line along the Arctic ocean and Hudson bay to the
north and east. West of the Rocky mountains the Athapascan ter-
ritory begins at the fifty-first parallel of north latitude, and includes
all of the country except the coast and islands. Only near the
boundary of Alaska and British Columbia did they reach the coast.
In the extreme north the coast is in the possession of the Eskimo.
To the south the shore-lands are in the possession of the Haida,
Tlingit, Tsimshian, and Wakashan. Their southern neighbors are
members of the Salishan stock.
I The principal works which treat particularly of the Athapascans of the north are the following:
SIR ALEXANDER AIACKENZIE. Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, through the Con-
tinent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans: in the Years 1789 and 1793.
London, 1801.
SIR JOHN RICHARDSON. Arctic Searching Expedition: a Journal of a Boat Voyage through Ruperts
Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships under Command of Sir John
Franklin. London, 1851.
J. C. E. BusciixANN. Der Athapaskische Sprachstanmni. Awiiolichc .l7ad. dcr Wliss. zu Berlin, Abhawid-
lungen aus dein Jahre ISS.5, 144-319.
IE R. It. E. PETITOT. Dictionaire de la langue Diii6-Dindji&h Paris, IS7C.
REv. FATHER A. ( fMORICE. The WVestern D16n6, their Manners and Custoiii. 1'rorcedings of the
Canadian Instiltue, 3d ser., aVi, 109-174. Toronto, IS90.
- The Ddn6 Languages Taiioaictionsof the Cazildian Instil , i,1, 170-212 'lororito, 1891.
- The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia. Toronto, 1904.
91
U_ _- -
M
92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

BOAS]
The Pacific coast division' formerly consisted of one band in the
interior of British Columbia, two small bands in the state of Washing- Galice creel
ton, and many villages in a strip of nearly continuous territory about area, on Eel
four hundred miles in length, beginning at the Umpqua river, Oregon, more in vo
and extending south between the coast and coast range mountains to tremes of th
the head waters of Eel river in California. At the Klamath river not probabl
their territory was cut through at one point by the Yurok who occu- coast a very
pied the lower portion of that river and the coast southward nearly coast divisio
to the mouth of Mad river. From that point the non-Athapascan was formerli
Wiyot extended along the coast a little south of the mouth of Eel Humboldt ce
river. These villages were separated in many cases from each other paper treats,
by low but rugged mountains. They were surrounded by the small The villag
stocks characteristic of the region. north the Yt
The southern division 2 occupies a very large area in the Southwest, but with hig
including much of Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, and ex- Wintun, and
tending to some distance into Mexico proper. The people form three Texts of ir
groups, the Lipan in the East, the Navaho south of the San Juan were publisl
river in eastern Arizona and western New Mexico, and the various a basis, an a
tribes of Apache east and south of the Navaho. This division greatly been made."
exceeds in numbers all the other Athapascan people. Their principal sounds of the
neighbors were the Pinan, Shoshonean, and Pueblo peoples. and tracings
Wide differences in physical type and culture, and considerable ing grammat
changes in language, make it certain that these divisions have not published by
been separated from each other recently. pages and lin
In the Pacific coast division, to which the Hupa belong, are at least
four languages mutually unintelligible. The Umpqua at the north
seems to differ widely from the dialects south of it, both in its pho-
netic character and its vocabulary. From the Umpqua southward to Among the
the Yurok country on the Klamath river the dialects seem to shade tinuants pred
into one another, those formerly spoken on the Coquille river and produced byar
I P'ublications treating this division of the Athapascan are: parted by fu
J. OwEN DORSEY. Indians of the Siletz Reservation, Oregon. American Anthropologist, iI, 55-61. consonants in
Washinigtol, 1889.-The Gentile System of the Siletz Tribes. Jo)n-nal of Am7ericat Folk-Lore,
iii, 227-237. Boston, 1890. The stops a
STEPHENc POWERS. The Northerni California Indians. Orerlandl onthly, viii, ix. San Francisco, the labial. B
1S72-74.
PLINY EARLE GODDARD. Kato Texts. Uairerstlyof CGtltfriiia Pablicatiwols, Anerican Arehseology and many of the
Ethnology, v, no. 3.
2The published material concerning this division is mostly restricted to the Navaho, and has been
In Hupa tire
collected by one author, Dn. WASIHINGTON 'MATTHEWS. The more important of his works are:
The MIountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony. Fifth Anvual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1887.
I For a general ac
Culture of the Hup
Navaho Legends. Memoirs of the A7terican Folk-Lore Society, v. Boston, 1897.
no. 1.-Hlupa Tcxti,
The Night Chant. Memoirs oft/ie American Museun of .atural History, vi. New York, 1902.
°The Morphology
§ 1 IThe Phonology o
[BULL. 40
BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 93
e band in the
Galice creek being the most distinct. In the southern portion of the
le of Washing-
area, on Eel river and the coast, are several dialects differing much
;erritory about
more in vocabulary than in phonetics. That Indians from the ex-
river, Oregon,
tremes of this territory can converse in their respective languages is
] mountains to
not probable. On lower Mlattole and Bear rivers and the adjacent
Klamath river
coast a very distinct dialect was spoken. In the middle of this Pacific
Lrok who occu-
coast division are two dialects very closely connected. One of theln
Lthward nearly
was formerly spoken on upper Redwood creek and middle Mad river in
ton-Athapascan
Humboldt county, California; and the other, the Hupa of which this
mouth of Eel
paper treats, on the lower (northern) portion of the Trinity river.
om each other
The villages speaking the Hupa dialect have for neighbors, to the
Ad by the small
north the Yurok, to the northeast the Karok, to the east the Shasta,
but with high mountains intervening, to the south the Chimariko and
the Southwest,
Wintun, and to the west the Athapascans of Redwood creek.
Texas, and ex-
Texts of myths, tales, and medicine formulas collected by the author
Dple form three
were published by the University of California,' upon which, as
! the San Juan
a basis, an analytical study of the morphology of the language has
Lnd the various
been made.' A preliminary paper describing in detail the individual
livision greatly
Their principal sounds of the language and illustrating them by means of palatograms
and tracings has been published.' The examples given in the follow-
.oples.
ing grammatical sketch are taken from the collection of Hupa texts
Id considerable
published by the University of California. The figures refer to
isions have not
pages and lines.
)ng, are at least PHONETICS (§ § 2-4)
ja at the north
§ 2. Sounds
both in its pho-
aa southward to Among the sounds composing the Hupa language, consonantal con-
seem to shade tinuants predominate. This takes from the speech the definiteness
produced by a predominance of stops, and the musical character im-
1uille river and
parted by full clear vowels standing alone or scantily attended by
nthropologist, 11, 55-61.
consonants in the syllable.
t of Anterican Folk-Lore, The stops are entirely lacking in one of the most important set ies,
11, Ix. San Francisco, the labial. Hupa has neither I) nor 6). The latter is often found in
nterican Archwology and many of the other Athapascan dialects of the Pacific coast di-isiol.
In Hupa the corresponding words have ?ye in place of 6o. The back
: Navaho, and has been
of his works are: I For a general account of the IIupa villages and their surroundings, see 1. 1.. Goldard, Life and
2uof Ethnology, 1887. Culture of the Hupa. UnieCrsilt *,f (CliforniaPablications, Alcricait Arhchzob,,y a(rltIhnoldog, I,
no 1.-lIuipa Tcxt-, idenm, i, no. 2.
ew York, 1902. 2The Morphology of the Hupa Langtlagc, idenm, us.
gThe Phonology of the Il upa Lang nige.-lart 1, idom, Ni, no. I
,§ 2
I
- I
- ___

BOAS)
series are represented by stops, but mostly by surds only. In the

the open poi
dental series alone is the sonant frequent. There are two surds of
the vowel, E
this series, one quite strongly aspirated, about as much so as is
When final,
English t in a stressed syllable; the other, followed by suction,
without dim
probably produced by glottal action, has the vowel following the
been noted c
explosion of the consonant in about half the time it does in the
one word or
aspirated t. In this regard it lies between the aspirated t and d. The
parts a noti
unaccustomed ear usually hears it as d, but it may easily be distin-
rather far b
guished from that sound when the attention is directed toward its
mnouth-passa
sonancy which begins in d at the moment of release. On first acquaint-
tion. The I
ance with the language the sonant has been written as t by all who
resulting so
have attempted its notation. After more practice it may be distin-
from its irre
guished with precision, and its pronunciation only as a sonant meets
individuals,
with the approval of the native speaker. Of the palatal series, only
not far reme
the anterior palatals are emploved before e and i sounds. When
tion, its effet
these occur before a, o, and u, a well-defined glide is heard, which has
In Hupa, how
been written as y. The posterior palatal series is articulated just
ing sonant i
back of the line of the joining of the soft and hard palates. That there
the proper p
were originally three or more representatives of this series is probable.
nearly like t
The full sonant seems to have become w. The aspirated surd has
spirant pron
become a continuant spirant x. 1 There remain two sounds, one (k)
labial roundi
that has the sonaney closely following the release, and one (k) accom-
When this s(
panied or followed by suction giving it a sharp, harsh sound usually
of the lips,:
designated as fortis. The velar series is articulated very far back,
the sound m:
giving the effect of a closure against a yielding surface, and resulting
guished fron
in a soft sound, rather difficult to distinguish as surd or sonant,
rounding of
but probably always the former. The glottal stop (e) is most easily
panied by a i
recognized when final, for then its release is often heard. Between
Another spii
vowels it must be detected by the silence enforced and by the change
causes great
wrought in the close of the first vowel.
sides of the
The stops may be represented as follows:
breath whicl
Glottal Velar Palatal Anterior palatal Dental Labial
Sonant . . . . . . - - 9, gy d and that the
Surd . . . . . . (E q k k, ky t - When the pa
Fortis.. . - Ao k t through to ci
The continuant consonants of Hupa comprise spirants, affricati-es, these sounds
nasals, and liquids. A glottal spirant occurs after as well as before customed to
vowels. Initially it is a surd breath escaping as the glottis passes firom the alveolar
'Compare Hupa lcittescnd HE CARRIEFD, 11d n(n1ftixr You FiNjStiEi), with Kato teccsyif1 and bcimilkcm. IThis sound has
Kato ca and ci.
§2
[BULL. 40
BOA s] . HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 95
only. In the
the open position maintained in breathing to the position required for
] two surds of
the vowel, and is written h. It is rather stronger than English h.
iuch so as is
When final, the spirant is caused by the sudden opening of the glottis
d by suction,
without diminution of the force of the breath, and is written ('). It has
following the
been noted only where it is most prominent, or where it differentiates
t does in the
one word or word-element from another. One of the spirants (x) im-
t and d. The
parts a noticeable harshness to the Hupa language. It is formed
Lsily be distin-
rather far back in the mouth, apparently in the velar position. The
ed toward its
mouth-passage is made quite narrow, and the uvula is thrown into vibra-
first acquaint-
tion. The period of these vibrations is about forty per second. The
, t by all who
resulting sound is harsh, both from the lowness of the period and
nay be distin-
from its irregularity. The degree of harshness varies considerably in
sonant meets
individuals, and, indeed, in the same individual. While the sound is
i1 series, only
not far removed from the velar r in its place and manner of forma-
unds. When
tion, its effect on the ear is rather that of German chafter back vowels.
rd, which has
In Hupa, however, this sound is usually initial. There is no correspond-
ticulated just
ing sonant in Hupa. It does occur in Navaho; as, for example, in
* That there
the proper pronunciation of hogan HOUSE, where the first consonant is
~s is probable.
nearly like the Hupa sound, and the second is its sonant. There is a
ited sued has
spirant pronounced in the palatal position, but accompanied by marked
unds, one (k)
labial rounding. It closely resembles w; but it is a surd, not a sonant.
ne (k) accom-
When this sound is initial (ha), it appears to begin without rounding
ound usually
of the lips, sounding much like English wih in WHO. When final (u),
,ry far back,
the sound makes much less impression on the ear. It is to be distin-
and resulting
guished from x by its lack of roughness, and from both x and A by the
d or sonant,
rounding of the lips. It differs from a bilabial f in that it is accom-
, most easily
panied by a narrowing of the mouth-passage in the palatal position.'
*d. Between
Another spirant (L) common on the Pacific coast, and found in Hupa,
y the change
causes great difficulty when first heard. It is formed at one or both
sides of the tongue, as is 1, but differs from that sound in that the
Dental Labial
breath which passes through the opening is surd instead of sonant,
d _ and that the passage is narrower, causing a distinct spirant character.
t _ When the passage is entirely closed and the breath must break its way
t _ through to continue as a spirant, an affricative L is formed. Both of
affricatives, these sounds, but especially the latter, impress the ear of one unac-
ell as before customed to them as combinations of t or k and 1. The spirant s in J
passes froin the alveolar position is frequent in Hupa, and does not differ espe-
sgii and bee iU:c5. IThis sound has for its equivalent in other dialects c (sh). Cf. H upa hiva SuN and h1Žce i, 'ISE, With
Kato ca and ci.
L
I
96 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS]
cially, either in its method of formation or in its sound, from English s. The vowels
The sonant z does not occur except when preceded by d. There are lower jaw and
no interdental, labio-dental, or bilabial spirants except the rounded English speec
palatal spirant, Aw, w, discussed above. closed. As a
The aifricatives are to, dj, ts, dz, and L. The first two are formed by These vowels n
a t-like closure and explosion, followed by a spirant through a passage ing in an aspira
formed by a horizontally wide and vertically narrow constriction along the vowel to al
the middle of the hard palate near the first and second molars. The a breathy qual
second pair, ts and dz, are formed nearly as in English, in the dental and compact.
position, through a rather round passageway. It is probable that
there are three members of each series, the sonant, the aspirated
surd, and the fortis surd. The aspirated anterior palatal surd usually
It is rarely t.
has a u tinge and has been written tew. The fortis is indicated by to.
most of such co
The nasals are three in number-the palatal, dental, and labial.
sonants are free
The palatal nasal is very frequent in its occurrence, especially in the
are the affrical
final position in the word. It is accompanied by more or less nasality
mw, and ky. C
in the preceding vowel.
from a simple.,
The only liquid is the lateral one 1, which does not differ in any
nation Aw -corn
considerable degree from English I either in the manner of its making
pascan dialects;
or its sound.
ky has for the <
The continuants may be represented as follows:
an anterior pal
Glottal Velar Palatal Anterior palatal Dental Labial were therefore
Spirant i (') x hl (W) L (lateral) S i n ('in) 11
ri
Many syllable
Affricative - - - to, tCW, dj, L ts, dz I
Nasal flt
ing the accent,
Liquid . - - - I (lateral) semi-vowels afti
I
true of the vow
The complete system of consonants may be tabulated thus:
more strongly a
Stols Contill ants
or sometimes at
Sonant Surd Spirant Affricative Nasal Liquid
is due to a suffi:
Glottal . e
it ()
Velar _ q x nants or in affri
Palatal . - k (k) h7w (wr') 9a in Hupa (d) is t
Anterior l l
g, gy k, ky L (lateral) te, tow, dj occurs in the ii
Palatal | L (lateral) (lateral)
a syllable, and
Dental . d t () S ts, dz 'l
that the same s
Labial hwr (ur) 'in
the occlusion b
There are in Hupa nine vowel-sounds and two semi-vowels. They
'The opening of the E
may be represented as follows: pitch at the end of the
by the movement of t
y§ i, e, e, a, a, o, 2, f, w action no doubt produi
§2 44S77-I'tllI
A.
[BULL. 40 BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 97
)m English s. The vowels in Hupa are formed with much less movement of the
'. There are lower jaw and lips than is employed in the corresponding sounds in
the rounded English speech. The Hupa seem to talk with their mouths nearly
closed. As a result, the sounds are not open and clear, but muffled.
re formed by These vowels mav terminate in a sudden opening of the glottis, result-
tgh a passage ing in an aspiration of the vowel; or in a closure of the glottis,' bringing
,riction along the vowel to an abrupt close. When aspirated, the whole vowel has
molars. The a breathy quality; and when closed by a glottal stop, it sounds hard
in the dental and compact.
irobable that
the aspirated § 3. Grouping of Sounds
surd usually It is rarely the case that words or syllables begin with a vowel, and
hieated by te. most of such cases occur in verb forms. Semi-vowels and single con-
L, and labial. sonants are frequent initially. The only clusters which stand initially
ecially in the are the affricatives dz, ts, dj, tc, and tcw, and the combinations hw,
*less nasality Xw, and ky. Of the affricatives, tcw seems to be a phonetic derivation
from a simple sound, probably a palatal with a u tinge. The combi-
differ in any nation hA corresponds to the simple sound c (8h) in the other Atha-
of its making pascan dialects; xcw is due to the change of o to the semi-vowel w; and
ky has for the second element a glide due to a back vowel following
an anterior palatal consonant. Probably none of these initial sounds
al Labial were therefore originally two distinct consonants in juxtaposition.
I
lt (on) Many syllables end in vowels. When final in the word, and bear-
dz -
ing the accent, some vowels, under certain conditions, seem to develop
?n
semi-vowels after themselves, becoming diphthongs. This is especially
true of the vowel a in the roots of verbs. In the past tense, which is
hus: more strongly accented on the ultima (the root syllable), a becomes at,
or sometimes au. The au is due to a disappearing final g. That ai
al Liquid
is due to a suffix is not unlikely. Syllables may end in simple conso-
nants or in affricatives. The only prominent sonant stop which occuris
in liupa (d) is not frequent in the final position. When a dental stop
I occurs in the interior of a word, it is usually surd if at the end of
(lateral) a syllable, and sonant if at the beginning. In fact, it often happens
that the same sound begins as a surd and is completed as a sonant,
the occlusion belonging to the preceding syllable, and the explosion
wvels. They ITheopening of the glottis isof course brought about bya separation of the vocal processes. The
pitch at the enid of the vowvel is lowered. The closure of the glottis is more probably brought about
by the movement of the epiglottis so as to cover the glottis as in swallowing. A similar glottal
action no doubt produces the fortis series.
§ X
44S77-13n11. 40. Pnt 1-10--7
L -
Pr- ---- ---
to the succeeding syllable. Two consonants may stand together in the There are
middle of a word, provided they belong to different syllables. have only t
depends up,
§ 4. Assimilation of Sounds
the third p(
Assimilation of consonants, mostly retrogressive, takes place in some
cases when two consonants are brought together morphologically or
syntactically. The most important are these:
(1) Retrogressive.
t before n becomes n.
tcihkWiLkinneen he nearly caught me (for tciuhwiLkdttneen)
t before m becomes m.
yaiLkiminin they intended to catch (for yaiLkitmin-)
K before I becomes 1.
yawiflean he picked up a stone (but yawillai he picked up §5
several stones)
Grammati
t before I becomes 1. means of th(
noiwiLkilliLte it will be foggy (for nOiWiLkitliLte)
(1) Comp(
A before t or d becomes n.
neiLin I am looking at it (but (2) (Chang
neiLinte I am going to look
at it) (3) Positic
K before m becomes mn.
yawihean he picked it up (but yawimmas he rolled over)
The verbs
(2) Progressive. syllables, ea(
h after I becomes 1. out some pai
tci72kqa1it as he walked along (for tcitkqalhit) equal rank ai
w after A becomes n. giving to the
tciiwinhaqs he scraped bark off (but wewas I scraped bark which by its
off) called the ro(
When morphological causes bring two consonants at the end of a sidered prefi
syllable, one of them is dropped. This is evidently the case in the and suffixes f
formation of the conjugation where the modal prefix (L) would be in the expre
expected after the sign of the first person singular (w). In this case structure.
the modal prefix is not found. In the second person singular of the These soul
verb the modal prefix remains, but the sign of the second person looked upon
(A) has been dropped. Also, in the third person singular s would be parts as mon(
expected before the same modal prefix, but it does not occur in Hupa. individual p
In Tolowa all of these combinations do occur, and in the very places always phone
where one would expect them in Hupa but fails to find them. may be thoug
§4
I
Logether in the There are in Hupa several morphological elements which seem to
]lables. have only the initial consonant fixed. The remainder of the syllable
depends upon the sounds which follow it. For example, the sign of
the third person singular (tc) has the following forms:
s place in some tcalwOl he is alwavs lying down
)hologically or tctuweswaL he remained lying down
tcissilwaL he is lying down
tci1oic he tied it
toimmite he is breaking it off
teinnesten he lay down
iiuliLkittneen) teittesyai he went
tcukqal he walked
'itmiil)
GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES (§§ 5-8)
i he picked up § 5. Enumeration of Grammatical Processes

Grammatical processes and syntactical relations are expressed by
means of the following methods:
liLte)
(1) Composition.
(2) Changes in the phonetic character of the root.
going to look
(3) Position in the sentence.
§ 6. Composition
rolled over) The verbs of Hupa, and some of the nouns, consist of two or more
syllables, each of which has some rather definite meaning or points
out some particular relation. These elements do not express ideas of
equal rank and of like kind. Each may be replaced in turn by another
giving to the thought expressed a different character. The element
I scraped bark which by its displacement most completely alters the meaning may be
called the root. The word-parts which precede this root may be con-
it the end of a sidered prefixes, and those which follow it suffixes. These prefixes
the case in the and suffixes fall into classes rather well marked as regards their office
X (L) would be in the expression of thought, and have a definite order in the word-
). In this case structure.
singular of the These sound-complexes expressing complete thoughts might be
second person looked upon as sentences, which they often are, and their constituent
ular s would be parts as monosyllabic words, but for the following reasons: First, the
individual parts, expressing definite ideas or relations, are not j
occur in Hupa.
the very places always phonetic wholes capable of independent production. These
I them. may be thought once to have had a more complete form, and to lhav e
§§ 5, 6
L_ -
MM
rT
BOAS]
united with other elements of the word with which they came in
contact through the disappearance of one of the vowels or by their sponding
contraction. It is, however, possible that from the beginning of the definite ac
language they have had this meager form. Second, some of these tion, but t
elements, while existing as independent syllables, express relations of roots w
or subordinate ideas which do not seem to arise in the mind of the tive future
Hupa when these syllables by themselves are uttered, but which and indefir
readily arise when the syllables are uttered in their accustomed con- CHANGE'
nection. Both of these statements are true of some of the monosyl- vowel-chan
labic elements of spoken English. The difference is not one of kind, nants, and
but of degree. rz, and of e
Besides these older and largely conjectural phonetic changes which and i, the v
join together the parts of the word, there are other more simple and and L, has e
apparent modifications of the root by the suffix, or of the suffix by the cases where
root, bringing the whole into greater phonetic harrmony. These a, and ai to
changes are quite infrequent, and never great enough to obscure the erably long
root or suffix. changes, th(
in the posit
§ 7. Changes in the Phonetic Character of the Root J
There are definite and regular changes in the phonetic character of Upon the
the roots which cannot be explained as being due to the influence of relation to
morphological additions. These are of two kinds: object when
(1) Changes in the terminal consonant. and the sec(
(2) Changes in the character and length of the vowel. Possession ar
CHANGES IN THE TERMINAL CONSONANT.-One of the most common which are joi
changes of the terminal consonant of the root is that of n to h. This after the wor
is a change of series, the nature of the sound remaining the same.
The roots in which this change occurs have n in the forms expressing IDEAS EX
past definite, customary, and negative future action, and h elsewhere.
A modification of the character of the sound, not in the place of its
formation, is found in the case of I and L. The first sound is found in
The followi
the forms expressing past definite, customary, and negative future
in Hupa:
action. The change in this case is from surd to sonant. Of a similar
nature is the series of three sounds, 1, L, and L. The first (1) is (1) Denom
found in forms expressing customary and negative future action; the (2) Predics
second (L) is employed with the forms of the present and imperative; (3) Syntacl
and the third (L) with formst expressing definite action, whether past, (4) Classifi(
present, or future. A few verbs have roots ending in s or the corre- (5) Numbei
IThe pairs 0t, e, and
[BULL. 40
hey came in
sponding affricative, ts. The latter occurs in the forms expressing
s or by their
definite action. ic is evident that c and fe formerly had a similar rela-
inning of the
tion, but the former has since become w. Finally there are a number
ome of these
of roots which lose a final t. The past definite, customary, and nega-
ress relations
tive future have the form with t; and the present of both definite
mind of the
and indefinite action and the imperative do not have it.
d, but which
CHANGES IN THE CHARACTER AND LENGTH OF THE VOWEL.-Certain
ustomed con-
vowel-changes occur in connection with the change of terminal conso-
the monosyl-
nants, and are perhaps tied up with them. These are a change of a to
t one of kind,
u, and of e to i. The stronger vowels, a and e, occur with n,; and t2
and i, the weaker ones, with ai. The threefold consonant-change, 1, L,
2hanges which
and L, has e before L, and i before 1 and L. Other changes take place in
)re simple and
cases where there are now no final consonants. These are i to e, au to
Le suffix by the
a, and ai to a.' In all the pairs given ahove, the first-natmled is consid-
mony. These
erably longer in its duration than is the second. Probably these
to obscure the
changes, the direction of which is not known, came about by a change
in the position or force of the accent, whether of stress or pitch.
he Root § 8. Position
ic character of Upon the order of the words in the sentence often depends their
he influence of relation to each other. This is especially true of the subject and
object when expressed as nouns. The first in order is the subject,
and the second the object. Both of them may precede the verb.
1. Possession and other relations are expressed by syntactical particles,
e most common which are joined to the limited word, and fix its place in the sentence
of n to R. This after the word which linmits it.
ning the same.
IDEAS EXPRESSED BY GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
arms expressing
(§§ 9-19)
nd X elsewhere.
the place of its § 9. Enumeration of Categories
)und is found in The following ideas have grammatical devices for their expression
negative future in Hupa:
t. Of a similar (1) Denominating concepts. (6) Distribution.
The first (1) is (2) Predicating concepts. (7) Time.
iture action; the (3) Syntactic relations. (8) Mode.
and imperative; (4) Classification. (9) Place and direction.
n, whether past, (5) Number. (10) Person.
n s or the corre-
IThe pairs is, e, and au, a, are represented in Kato and other Eel river dialects by eg, e', and ag, a'.
§§ 8, 9
_A
E
§ 10. Denominating Concepts OPENING.

objects; nol
Most nouns are clearly separated from verbs, both in form and
class to whi
meaning. Many nouns are monosyllabic, entirely lacking in descrip-
acter. The
tive power, and having meaning because they have become associated
nouns seem
in the mind with the object for which they stand. Of essentially the
The form
same character are the names of the parts of the body and terms of
that it has I
relationship, which are always found with a prefixed possessive pro-
formative el
noun, the purely nominal part being a single syllable. There are a
from those e
few compound nouns, either co-ordinate and in juxtaposition, or
one modifying the other. Certain nouns are formed by suffixes which
are strictly limited to a nominal use. Of such character are the aug-
mentative and diminutive suffixes -kt/5 and -itc. Other suffixes have
the meaning of DWELLING IN, FREQUENTING, or BEING FOUND IN the
place named by the stem to which they are attached; for example,
I invariably hi
force or havy
The synta
both are exp
xonteLtau PLACE BROAD HE FREQUENTS (coyote). While nouns of
When only c
this class do describe and predicate certain things, that is not their cases, wheth(
chief purpose. The description is for the purpose of pointing out incorporated
definitely an object by discriminating between it and other related
the employm
objects. of a subject
A number of nouns have a verbal form, and describe the object
other than ad
referred to by giving some characteristic position, form, or action.
is impossible
For this purpose the verb may appear alone in the active or passive
the subject oi
voice, or a noun may be placed before it to serve as its object or limit
The relatio
of motion. It is probable that some such verbal forms, having lost
the prefixing
their verbal force, have furnished a number of polysyllabic nouns I
placing of thi
which have now no descriptive meaning in the mind of the Hupa,
and do not yield to attempts at analysis. These complexes which body and ten
serve the office of nouns, indicating an object or animal by means of ive pronouns
a characterization of it, are really substantive clauses. post-positions
There are a few suffixes which are emnployed with both nouns and form of the p
verbs. They are temporal, indicating that the thing or act belongs to pronouns, sta
the past or future rather than the present.
§ 11. Predicating Concepts In the third

The verbs differ from the nouns in that they are almost invariably Hupa are dis
polysyllabic, and have the meaning of a complete sentence. The more from animals
essential part or root of the verb is usually not associated in the mind There are
with a certain object or animal, but with some particular act or motion: Classification
as -45, which means TO INSERT OR EXSERT AN OBJECT INTO A TUBULAR expressing th,
§§ 10, 11
l.
[BULL. 40
OPENING. There are a number of roots which are connected with
objects; not, however, naming them specifically, but indicating the
a form and
class to which they belong as regards size, shape, or physical char-
in descrip-
acter. The few roots which do agree in form with monosyllabic
e associated
nouns seem to name the object by means of which the act is done.
entially the
The form of the complete verb differs from the ordinary noun in
id terms of
that it has prefixes as well as suffixes, and in the character of these
;essive pro-
formative elements, which, with the exceptions noted above, differ
rhere are a
from those employed in nouns. They differ in function in that they
Position, or
invariably have predicative force, while nouns either lack predicative
fixes which
force or have it incidentally.
Lre the aug-
affixes have § 12. Syntactic Relations
UND IN the The syntactic relation of subject and object to the predicate, when
r example, both are expressed by nouns, is shown by their order in the sentence.
B nouns of When only one is expressed by a noun, it may be determined, in most
.s not their cases, whether it is intended as subject or object by the form of the
rinting out incorporated pronoun, which is employed in the verb regardless of
her related the employment or non-employment of nouns. However, in the case
of a subject and object which are both of the third person and both
the object other than adult Hupa, only one of them being expressed as a noun, it
or action. is impossible to tell, except from the context, whether such a noun is
or passive
the subject or object.
ect or limit
The relation of possession is distinctly and regularly expressed by
Saving lost
the prefixing of the possessive pronoun to the limited word and the
abic nouns
placing of this compound after the word which limits it. Parts of the
the Hupa,
exes which body and terms of relationship do not occur without prefixed possess-
y means of ive pronouns. Other syntactic relations are expressed by means of
post-positions, having the appropriate force, placed after the weaker
nouns and form of the pronoun. These post-positions, with their accompanying
belongs to pronouns, stand after the nouns which they limit.
§ 13. Classification
In the third person of the pronoun, personal and possessive, adult
invariably Hupa are distinguished from young and old members of the tribe,
The more from animals and inanimate objects, by a special form.
n the mind There are no grammatical forms by which objects are classified.
I
or motion: Classification is sometimes indicated, however, in the verb, the stem.
A TUBULAR expressing the character of the object to which the predicate refers,
§§ 12, 13
U
Mvi -'-
__7_
I
104 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [B3ULL. 40
BOAS]
the objects being characterized as long, round, flat plural in number,

etc. In the intransitive verb this classification relates to the subject; presence o
in the transitive verb, to the object. constitutes
By the u
§ 14. Number ing the fac
Only a few nouns have forms for the plural. These are those denot-
ing age and station in life, and relationship.
The independent as well as the incorporated and prefixed pronouns
I Time is <
are capable of expressing the plural in the first and second persons by pendent ads
means of additional forms. The plural of the first person includes, suffixed to
or may include, the third person as well as the second. HOUSE USEI
In the third person, -ya- is placed before the root for a plural sub- by the same
ject and also for a plural object. One must judge from the context act complete
which is intended to be plural. ya- is also prefixed to the possessive in present t
form. In the singular, HIS FATHER iS expressed by hai xztae. Some- a change of
times for THEIR FATHER hai yaxota- is found, hai being the article.
In certain intransitive verbs a dual is indicated by using the root,
indicating a plural subject, without -ya-, while for the plural -ya- is
The future
inserted.
seems to be
In many cases Hupa employs the singular, as is shown by the verb,
erally emplo'
where the plural would be required in English. When a number of
and adverbs:
individuals do anything as a unit, as in a dance, the singular is used.
§ 15. Distribution
Closely cor
The distributives in Hupa are carefully distinguished from the plu-
tainty with w
rals. For the expression of distribution the prefix te- is employed:
cate the sour(
for example,
That which i
tceniiiyai he went out
tcenindeL two went out suffixed; the
tceyanindeL they went out When the tri
teetedeL one by one they went out conjectured f
The same element expresses distribution as to the object. For from the rem,
example,
Leyanillai
yawiinanfl he picked up a stone
Leyanillaxi
yawillai he picked up stones
yateean he picked up a stone here and there Future acts
Distinct from this is the intermittence of the act itself. That a eClnstance are
thing is done now and again, or habitually, is indicated by a syllable expressed witi
probably e, inserted before the pronominal subjective elements. The being brought
§§ 14, 15 all auxiliary vc
[BULL. 40
in number,
presence of this syllable, together with a certain form of the root,
he subject;
constitutes a customary tense or mode.
By the use of na- an iterative force is given to the verb, express-
ing the fact that the act is done a second time or that it is undone.
hose denot- § 16. Time

Time is expressed by means of suffixes, a change of root, inde-
d pronouns
pendent adverbs, and temporal clauses. For past time -neen may be
persons by
suffixed to a noun or verb. A house in ruins is called xon.taneen
in includes,
HOUSE USED TO BE. Habitual acts which have ceased are expressed
by the same suffix, as auwlinneen I USED TO DO IT. A single definite
plural sub-
act completed in time already past is differentiated from such acts
the context
in present time by a change in the form and length of the root, and
e possessive
a change of the accent: for example,
ta. Some-
.e article. tcinni'"ya he has just arrived
,g the root, tcinninyai' he arrived some time ago
lural -ya- is
The future is- expressed by the suffixes -te and -teL. The former
seems to be employed of the more remote future. These are gen-
)y the verb,
erally employed only with verbs, but are sometimes found with nouns
S number of
and adverbs: for example, haiyate HERE WILL BE THE PLACE.
alar is used.
§ 17. Mode
Closely connected with the time of the act is the degree of cer-
oml the plu- tainty with which it is asserted. For past act;, suffixes which indi-
s employed: cate the source of the authority for the statement are often employed.
That which is perceived by the sense of hearing has -tsii or -tse'
suffixed; the former for the past, and the latter for the present.
WN'hen the transaction is in sight, -e is suffixed. Things which are
conjectured from circumstantial evidence, as the building of a fire
)bject. For from the remains of one, have -xolan added to the verb:
Leyanillai they built a fire

Leyanillax0oan they must have built a fire [here are the ashes]
re Future acts which are contingent on human will or outward cir-

elf. That a cumnstance are rendered by the suffix -deE. When the future is
expressed with an absolute negative force, the impossibility of its
)V a svIlable,
nients. Tile being brought to pass being implied, a special form of the verb with
an auxiliary verb prefixed is used.
§§ 16, 17
U
700W,
I
106 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 40

BOAS] I
Acts attempted, but not succeeded in, have xow, an adverb, inserted
mostly comn
before the verb; while the successful attempt after several vain or
monosyllable
insufficient ones has -ei suffixed to the verb.
(2) Closely
§18. Place and Direction body, terms
Direction and place, both relative and absolute, are expressed in single syllab
Hupa with much exactness. A number of prefixes, occupying the possessive pt
first place in the verb, indicate the direction of the movement (3) There a
expressed or implied by the verb. The place, initial and ultimate, is more syllabli
also indicated by prefixes as being on the surface of the earth, on have a descril
some surface higher than the earth, in the fire, on or in the water, or been derived
in the air. By means of demonstratives, and adverbs formed from (4) A large
demonstrative elements, added exactness as to location is expressed. suffixes and I
For that which is in sight and can be pointed to, the demonstratives present in the
ded and haided, and the adverb of place, dikkyui, are employed; for (5) Verbs it
the first-mentioned or more remote of two, haiya or kai is used; with or withoi
while that which is still more remote is referred to by y5 and haiy5,
and the most remote of all by yed.
§ 19. Person As far as is
The distinction between the person speaking, the person spoken to, are the posses!
and the person or thing spoken of, is made by means of the personal pendent prono
pronouns. The signs of the subject incorporated in the verb are not possession, bui
all to be connected with certainty with the independent pronouns. body and ten
The pronouns for the first two persons seem to be different in some such prefixes i
particulars from those of the third person, which also classify the has been somel
objects or persons to which they refer. Taking with this fact the fre- for their use w
quent absence of any sign for the subject or the object in the third The suffixes,
person of the verb, it seems probable that originally there were per- most part, the)
sonal pronouns only for the first and second persons, and that demon- it resembles by
stratives were used for the third person. or by indicating
frequents. Th
DISCUSSION OF GRAMMAR (§§ 20-88)
1. -XOi INHAB]
Nouns (§§ 20-27)
Lo5nifta xo
§ 20. Sthucture
The nouns of the Hupa language, when classified according to their 2. -ta'u FREQU
formation, fall into five classes: xaslintau r'

(1) There are many monosyllabic nouns, for the most part the
names of common material objects and elements. These words are
3. -7CY6 LARGE.
§§ 18-20 kosky )bulli

[BULL. 40
BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERTCAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 107
rb, inserted mostly common to all the cognate languages, and clearly point to the
ral vain or monosyllable as the probable form of the Athapascan noun.
(2) Closely connected with these are the names of the parts of the
body, terms of relationship and intimate possession, which have a
Kpressed in single syllable for their substantive part, but always occur with a
upying the possessive prefix.
movement (3) There are a considerable number of nouns, consisting of two or
ultimate, is more syllables, which are not easily analyzed and do not seem to
Le earth, on have a descriptive meaning at present. They seem originally to have
ie water, or been derived from verbs, or formed by composition.
)rmed from (4) A large and increasing number of nouns, formed by means of
3 expressed. suffixes and by compounding, have a descriptive force which is ever
aonstratives present in the Hupa mind.
ployed; for (5) Verbs in the third person singular of the active or passive voice,
Iai is used; with or without an object or limit of motion, are employed as nouns.
o and haiy5,,
§ 21. Formative JEIements
As far as is known, the only prefixes employed in noun-formation

a spoken to, are the possessive prefixes, which are proclitic forms related to inde-
the personal pendent pronouns. They may be employed with any noun to denote
verb are not possession, but must be emploved with the names of the parts of the
it pronouns. body and terms of relationship. That words of this class require
'ent in some such prefixes is not necessarily due to a lack of mental abstraction, as
classify the has been sometimes assumed, but to a habit of speech. The necessity
fact the fre- for their use without a possessive seldom occurs.
in the third The suffixes employed in noun-buildin(r are not numerous. For the
re were per- most part, they are used to distinguish one thing from another which
that demon- it resembles by mentioning its size, color, or other physical character,
or by indicating the place where the plant grows or which the animal
frequents. The principtl suffixes are the following:
1. -XOi INHABITING; added to the nanic of a place.

L5?nittazxoi glades among pleople (the New River people)
2. -tat FREQUENTS. Used of plants or animals.

-ding to their
xaslintau riffles he frequents (the crane)
ost part the 3. -7ky5 LARGE, an auginentative.
se words are
koskyo hulb large (Chlorogalu i ioomeridan tim, the soap-root)
§ 21
U
L.
i
108 108 ~~BUREAU

OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40
BOAS ] HA
4. -itc, -tC SMALL, the diminutive suffix.
medilito canoe small (from mnedil canoe) 102.9
cdjel~to small storage-basket 158.13 Many verbs
5. -yauw-? SMALL, YOUNG. Used of trees. voice are used
niLfZkyauji2 young black oaks (from niLthtk black oak) na~hya it
nilliii it fl
6. -nlewan RESEMBLING. This has furnished many new names. nigndil th,
q~newian wormis like (rice, from its resemblance to white grubs)
For the passi
xonnewan fire like 329.10
wdlloi.e it
7. -diin PLACE.
tsidiRi brush-place (a grave) Lena willa
8. -ta' PLACES. talkait ov,
millakinta' its- hands bases places (its wrists) Sometimes a
it as its object c
9. -ku't ON.
mi.3k'& a landslide on (the name of a village) nax-kek~s-
d&nioko the sky (this us on) 286.12 its; k,58
sa-'xaum ix
§ 22. Compounds Adverbial pre
There are five classes of compound nouns: make substantiv
(1) A few nouns stand in juxtaposition without a subordinating mi~LteoaLw1a
possessive prefix. In a few cases the second noun seems to qualify the kiLn~adil -%
first: for example, Liiw~xan SNAKE RIVER (an eel). If these compounds Suffixes of lo(
are introduced by a possessive prefix, the first noun qualifies the second: nanati!Ldi
for example, kixxakkin ITS NET P~OLE. sweat-hc
(2) When the second of two nouns forming a compound has a pos-
sessive prefix, the first qualifies the second and is subordinate to it:
Only a few H
for example, dindai" Mitctcw FLINT ITS GRANDMOTHER (a bir~d).
They are those N
(3) A few compounds which are true substantives have the first
state of life, an(
element a noun, and the second an adjective qualifying it. An ex-
that have been f
ample of such is yatiLkai LOUSE WIIITE (a grayback).
Singular
(4) Compounds of nouns and qualifyhig adjectives are sometimes
keLtsan,
introduced by possessive prefixes. While they serve as substantives, tsrzmmnesL5
they really qualify a subject understood: as in rnis.arn?,LtCW1in ITS x~xai
MOUTH STINKS, the bird having a stinking mouth (a buzzard). hwittsoi
(5) Compounds similar to the last heave for their last element words nikkil
X5Lti,8tce
indicating, abundance or lack of the quality named by the first part of
the compound. Examples arc: M(ZX4(ViXX5oe11 ITS CHILDREN HAVING
(doe), initcd~jee-din ITS MIND LACIKING (an infant). Possession is
§ 22 p~ronouns. Thc~
[BULL. 40
§ 23. Verbs as Xoutns

Many verbs in the third person present of the active or passive
voice are used as nouns. Examples of the active voice so used are:
ik) nanhya it comes down (rain)

nillin it flows (a creek)
w names. nundil they come down (snow)
white grubs) For the passive voice the following may be cited:
willoie it has been tied (a bundle)
naxowilloie it is tied around him (a belt)
Lenawilla they have been laid together (a fire)
talkait over the water it has been pushed (a fishing-board)
Sometimes a substantive is formed by a verb with a noun preceding
it as its object or limit of motion: for example:
nax-keks-nadii-wil two its necks waving about (nax two: ke
its; kos neck; waL to strike [a monster])
sa-xauw in the mouth a liquid is put (acorn-soup)
Adverbial prefixes of place, instrument, accompaniment, and manner
make substantives of verbs. Of this sort are the following:
subordinating MiLtcoLW4l with he chops (an axe)
kiLfndil with them they travel (wolves)
to qualify the
,se compounds Suffixes of location added to verbs, furnish names of places:
ies the second: nanathi~din stepping-down place (the name of the place in the
sweat-house at the foot of the ladder)
nd has a pos- § 24. Pluralof NotiUfs
)rdinate to it:
Only a few Hupa nouns change their form to indicate the plural.
(a bir:d).
They are those which classify human beings according to their sex and
have the first
state of life, and a few terms of relationship. The following are all
ig it. An ex-
that have been found:
Singular Plural
ire sometimes keLtsan keLtsin virgin, maiden
3 substantives, tSummneSLon tSumMfeLOf a fully grown woman
7t9CiLt0WiA ITS xz4xai xxuxaix a child
card). hwittsoi hwittsoixai my grandchuild
nikkil nikkilxai your younger brother
Blement words
XoLtistce XoLtistcexai his sister
[e first part of
,DREN HAVING § 25. 1lossc.ssiO)t
Possession is indicated by prefixes which are shortened forms of

pronouns. These valy according to the person and numlber of the
§§ 23-25
_ A
0_V - - - , -_ __ - - - ,__ - __- ", M-
-.-,-, -.
BOAS]
limiting noun or pronoun. Many nouns, upon taking the prefixes,

add a syllable to the end, which seems to have no other office than the
preservation of the symmetry of the word in some way. This added
syllable has e for its vowel, but is preceded by various consonants, The verb
apparently suggested by the final sound of the original word. difficulties.
example, xa
rnillitde its smoke (from Lit smoke)
n-liiike our pets (from Lin a pet, a dog) prefix ma-, C
x&cuwinne her song (from kAvin, a song) found the l
It will be noticed that in some of the examples given, L, the surd act is done a
lateral consonant, becomes the sonant 1. the path froi
by the conso
§ 26. Locative Suffixes gressive ove
There are several suffixes employed in Hupa which might be looked forms a syll
upon as case-endings, since they are not permanent parts of the nouns formed by ai
to which they are attached, but indicate varying relations of position preceding no
or direction. Some of these suffixes are also post-positions; but when in the verb a
r
so used they follow a pronominal prefix. Examples of suffixes show- lar is intendE
ing place-relations are the following: tial part, us
1. -me IN. equivalent, p
LAE!w6?vnee glade only in (a prominent hill) may be calle(
tseyemec in (under) a rock the locomotic
2. -din AT. of the comir
mikkindin its base at (the name of the place by the back of plural, the r
the house) rapid, I-a w(
3. -tein TOWARD. subject, the i
L5AovukniuttciiA glade only on toward animal. The
4. -kzai ALONG.
xottselkai his forearm along
5. -kbt ON.
L5Aw47kut glade only on
The more (
§ 27. Tense preceding the
By the use of suffixes the time of the noun's existence may be indi- of the prefix(
cated. This process practically gives tenses to nouns. For the past, purpose, whei
-neen is employed: for example, Xo5tnee HIS WIFE USED TO BE (she continuous, b
is now dead). The same form might mean only that the possession of a single syllal
her had ceased. The future, as in verbs, is indicated by te: for person and r
example, mitLowete THEIR MEDICINE IT WILL BE (Indians who are to almost amoun
possess it have not yet come into existence). the number ol
§§ 26, 27
i
BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LA-NGUAGES i11
[BULL. 40
,he prefixes, Verbs (§§ 28-75)

flee than the § 28. Structure
This added
The verb in Hupa, as in other Athapascan languages, presents many
consonants,
difficulties. It contains in itself all the elements of the sentence. For
Drd.
example, xoanamsdiyadee IF SHE COMES BACK UP has, first an adverbial
prefix xa-, denoting that the motion is up the side of a hill; next is
found the particle -na-, having an iterative force, showing that the
, L, the surd act is done a second time (in this case it is only intended to show that
the path from the river is passed over a second time); the syllable -is-,
by the consonant it contains, shows that the act is thought of as pro-
gressive over the surface of the ground. The fact that s following i
ht be looked forms a syllable by itself, indicates that the act is thought of as per-
of the nouns formed by an adult Hupa, otherwise s would have been joined to the
i of position preceding na-. The lack of a sign of person or number at this point
s; but when in the verb allows no other conclusion than that the third person singu-
iffixes show- lar is intended. The syllable -di-, of which d seems to be the essen-
tial part, usually follows the iterative prefix -a-, the two being
equivalent, perhaps, to English BACK AGAIN. The next syllable, -ya,
may be called the root, since it defines the kind of act. It is used of
the locomotion of a single human being on his feet at a walk, and also
of the coming of non-material things. Had this verb been in the
the back of plural, the root would have been -deL. Had the pace been more
rapid, -Lai would have been employed. Had some animal been the
subject, the root would probably have characterized the gait of the
animal. The final suffix -deE indicates a future contingency.
ForWm)ative Elemnents (§§ 29-50)

§ 29. GENERAL REMARKS
The more extended forms of the verb have one or more prefixes
preceding the root, and one or more suffixes following it. By means
may be indi- of the prefixes, the direction of the motion in space, its manner and
Ior the past, purpose, whether repeated or not in time, and whether conceived as
D) TO BE (she
continuous, beginning, or completed, are expressed. By changes in
Possession of a single syllable, that which usually directly precedes the root, the
bv -te: for person and number of the subject are indicated. These changes
s Nvho are to almost amount to inflection. By variations in the form of the root,
the number of the subject in intransitive verbs, and of the object in
§f 2S, 29
U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
112 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOA S]
transitive verbs, is shown; and also whether the act or state is one and 3. ye- is
definite in time, or repeated and continuous. By the suffixes which how
follow the root, the action is further limited as to its time, continu- can(
ance, or likelihood. yentaw
PREFIXES (§§ 30-37) yenaw
yednti2
§ 30. Classification of Prefixes according to their Position and Significance yetcei
The prefixes employed in the verb have a fixed order, in accordance 4. wa- (I
with the class of ideas they express. They may be classified as- burl
(1) Adverbial prefixes, first position.. wakin
(2) Adverbial prefix, second position. wakin
(3) Deictic prefixes, third position. 5. wa- (2
(4) First modal prefixes, fourth position. to a
(5) Second modal prefixes, fifth position.
avowal]
(6) Pronominal prefixes, sixth position. waimnn
(7) Third modal prefixes, seventh position.
6. Le- ha,
§ 31. Adverbial Prefixes, First Position jecth
plac
These are adverbial prefixes showing the position of persons or
a cii
things at rest, and the place, limit, or origin of motion. The most
LenaZ&
important of these follow:
Lenani
1. ya- (1) is used of the position of one sitting, of picking things Lenani
up from the ground, and of motion wholly or partly through 7. me- (1)
the air, as the carrying of objects and the flight of birds. The
agai
primary meaning seems to be IN THE AIR, above the surface of
inena(
the ground. inenem
yawini'a he was sitting 162.11 (definite, class I, conjugation 1 b; meitta~
§ 54; -a to be in a position) eW7WL'
yawigEan he picked up a stone 342.1 (definite, class I, conjuga- S. ante- (2)
tion 1 b, § 54; -an to transport several round things)
yawiLkas he threw up 96.3 (definite, class II, conjugation 1 b; some
§ 64; kas to throw)
yawihien, he carried it (wen to carry) 9. ?t.qe- (1
2. ya- (2) seems to have the meaning of the object being reduced to grou
many pieces. prir
yanakisdimmillei she smashed it 152.16 (?la- again, § 32; k-, § 34; naiLiIt
s-, § 35; -d, 3d modal, after na- § 32, p. 116; mui- to throw Ml(IWifl
several things; -ei suffix, § 40) qw'i'Rvi
ynaiskil he split 142.3 (na- again, § 32; s-, § 35; kil- to split)
IThe glottal sl
§§ 30, 31
44877-
3 is one and 3. ye- is used of motion into houses, beds of streams, and spaces
Sixes which however slightly enclosed, and also into smaller objects, as
ie, continu- canoes and baskets.
yenawtityai he went into (a house) 98.15
yenawiLmnen he made it swim into (a river from the ocean) 266.2
yednt?2LneE you must step into (a canoe) 209.2 (tal to step)
Significance
yetceaLkas he threw into (a basket) 288.7
accordance 4. wa- (1) seems to mean THROUGH with verbs of cutting and
A as- burning.
wakinnillitx,5lan they
were burned through 119.3 (lit to burn)
wakinninkats he cut through
5. wa- (2) is employed with verbs of handing or giving something
to a man or an animal.
xowaiLda he handed it to him 181.13 (x5 him)
waiminil he always distributes them 195.8.
6. Le- has the general meaning of the converging or nearness of ob-

jects. It has the special meaning of building a fire from the
placing-together of sticks. It is also employed of completing
persons or
a circle, or a circuit in travelling.
The most
Le2MlloziE he tied together 210.5
Lenanillai he built a fire
ing things LenaniLten he took it all the way around (the world)
ly through
II 7. )me- (1) seems to have the meaning of position at, or motion to,
irds. The i
I
against, or along the surface of, something.
surface of II
I
I
r menasd-iyai he climbed (a tree) 103.12
I
qnenemnen he landed him (against the shore) 162.9
ration 1 b; I mneittan he stuck to it 202.3
.I mewiLwaL he beat on
[, conjuga-
I 8. lube- (2) is similar to ye-, except that it usually refers to position in
ration 1 b; something, while ye- is employed of motion into.
m11ttsisyen she stands in (the body of her husband) 195.11
I 9. fte_ (1)' is used of indefinite motion over the surface of the
reduced to ground or water, and of position on the earth's surface. The
primary meaning may be HORIZONTAL.
1; k-, § 34; faiLits it is running about 294.4 (its to run)
to throw nacwimmeE he swam
flaetiT/Lu I paint (my body) 247.12
v split)
l The glottal stop probably belongs with the prefix. It appears in some forils andt iS absent ii others.
§ 31
44877-Bull. 40, pt 1-10 S
U -
114 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
10. na- (2) or nana expresses motion downward or toward the

earth. The second na may be the iterative particle, since
whatever or whoever comes down must previously have gone up.
[B3rLL. 40
r BOAS]
18. da- rie

grou
danint
naiffxitt it dropped down 115.14
nanawityai he came down 138.15 da?2h~x?
19. de-d-
11. na- (3) is used of horizontal motion or position, as a line stretched,
or in crossing a stream. secor
whic,
nananindeL they went over (the river) 267.6
n~aniiwilx~it it was hung for a door 171.1 den ade~
12. nois employed of the cessation of motion, as in placing some- dAdiiwi
thing in a position of rest, of reaching the end or limit of 20. dje- ex
something, or of completing a task. djmea,
n~yanindeL they sat down 280.5 21. dft- sig
n~fiaumnee6 you must put it down 210.7 (auw to handle round ob- diiwiim,;
jects 22. ta- (1)
noinin-yanne that far they ate 347.17
water
13. xa- has the general meaning of up. It is found employed of
tanaista
movement up a hillside when the speaker's standpoint .is at the
tawegea
top of the hill, the digging of objects out of the ground, and of
taidinni
motion out of the top of receptacles or of houses.
23. ta- (2) i.
xam8lai she brought up 98.16
PERMA
xawillai she dug it out 242.5
xawitq&t he jumped out (of the smoke-hole) 329.13 tavyahwi
14. x-ee- in the sense Of AWAY FRom, as in blowing and pushing. 24. te- refer
XreeLy51 he blows away 296.15 tewiltsit
x~een~ailkis she pushed it away 185.3. tetciiwini
15. xotda-, with the general meaning Of DOWN, expresses motion
down a hill or stream. ts.intdese
x~otdaiLkas he threw down (from a tree) 138. 8 26. tce- has
x'otdafi~xen they floated down 216.5
a hous
16. x~tde- is used of one person's meeting another where the move- spaces,
ment of only one person is of interest. When one wishes to
tce2?a?)1iL
say they came toward each other, Le- is employed.
tcenhnlean
x~tdedsyai he met him 105.14 teelLat h
x~tdeya~sdeL they met them 110.8. tCewillino
17. sar- is employed of motion into the mouth, as in eating, drinking,
27. ke- seenm~
or biting.
tical su
sa8wiflxan he put it into her mouth 278.10
keisyai h(
sa Z~villai he put in his mouth 119.6.
kenaniy~iec,
31
[BULL. 40 BOAS ] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 115
toward the 18. da- refers to a bank, bench, shelf, or something higher than the
rticle, since ground, on vhich the person or object is at rest or comes to rest.
wve gone up. danintsabe seated (on a chair) 107.12
dailixfis fly upon a tree 114.2
19. de-d- is employed of motion toward or of position in fire. The
'e stretched, second syllable, which is completed according to the sound
which follows it, may be separated from the first syllable.
denadeThnnil I put in the fire 247.9
dedflwimrneL he threw into the fire 165.10
lacing some-
20. dje- expresses the separation of a mass, as in splitting wood.
or limit of
djewintseL he pounded it open 108.11
21. dft- signifies OFF, AWAY FROM.
Ile round ob- d'zwizn-xts it came off (the umbilical stump) 157.7
22. ta- (1) is employed of motion toward or away from a body of
water with special regard to its surface.
employed of tanaistan he took it out of the water 325.4
oint.is at the tawesea a mountain will project into the water 255.2
round, and of taidinn'dTh let us drink water 179.3
23. ta- (2) is used with verbs meaning TO DESERT, TO LEAVE A PLACE
PERMANENTLY.
tasyahuun,one ought to go away 215.8 (ya to go)

24. te- refers to motion into water and under its surface (see no. 22).
pushing.
tewiltsit a canoe sank 153.17
tetcuwintan he put it into the water 101.14
tresses motion 25. tsai- means AWAY FROM in expressions of fleeing.

tsintetesdildeL we ran away 198.10
26. tee- has the meaning of OUT OF, and is employed of motion out of
a house or small receptacle, but also of less definitely enclosed
kere the move- spaces, as brushy places or the bed of a stream (see no. 3).
one wishes to tcenamliL throw them out (of the house) 301.13
1. tceninea?? he took out (from his quiver) 119.15
tcedLat he jumped out (of ambush) 106.2
tcewillindiih where it flows out 175.1 0
ting, drinking, 27. ke- seems to refer to motion or position against or along a ver-
tical surface.
ke.syai he climbed up 137.17
ken anfinea it was leaning up 99.5
§ 31
-'I -_

BOAS]
There are three prefixes which indicate the pursuit or search for a
person or thing, or, in a secondary sense, the attempt to do a thing.
For the th
28. wftn- (wa + n ?) is used of looking for a thing the position of
that used wl
which is unknown, as in hunting gaumc. It also means to at-
when speaki
tempt something by persistent effort.
of members
wannaisya he started to make 319.3 begins with
wannadiLte they will hunt 311.14 lows. The a
29. na- is employed when there is a track to be followed. It is likely pleted accor
connected with the iterative particle na- AGAIN, since the mean- fixes, these s
ing may be that of going over-the trail again. the first forn
nayaroteLXe- they tracked him 170.3 thongization.
30. xa- implies the going-after with the intention of getting the thing may be conni
third person
sought and bringing it back.
power of she
xanetete I am going to look for it 336.10
absence-ind
31. a- is used to introduce verbs of SAYING, THINKING, DOING, and the root. TI
APPEARING. It seems to have no definite meaning; but, since it has the hiatu
is omitted when a direct object precedes a verb of thinking or or contraction
saying, it may be an indefinite object for the verb. yetciLda
adenne he said 97.15 yeyiLda'
adlenee you must do it 100.18
§ 32. Adverbial Prefixes, Second Position Several elei

1. na-, the prefix of iteration, expresses the undoing of anything or definite and si
the retracing of one's steps, as well as the repeating of an act. 1. k-, ky-,;
It is often employed where in English the repetition is taken for I supplie
granted, as in the customary acts of daily life, eating, drinking, I a mean
sleeping, etc. Sometimes the prefix requires d or t preceding are not
the root, and in other cases it is used without either.
i
nite ob
I
mn maniLtewit he pushed it back 163.1 few ca

nanaitwivr? he used to carry it back 237.8 than LE
nanodiya let it come back 233.5 ness is
anateillau he did it again 106.8 numn Iei
2. xa-, the prefix of identity, refers to any act previously described nakinyyah
that is repeated by the same or a different person. yakin-mwui
yekyfwest
xaatcillacu he did the same thing 211.1
xadi.yate it will do that 254.10 'The hiatus in thih
of the breath. It is
maulle do that 165.19 diphthongization wl
xmaatcityau he did that 280.12 of y with the preced
'In other dialects
I the object has not b(
E
[BULL. 40
search for a § 33. Deictic Prefixes, Third Position
do a thing.
For the third person, in Hupa, two forms occur. The first form is
e position of that used when speaking of adult Hupa. The second form is used
means to at- when speaking of Hupa children and sometimes of very aged people,
of members of others tribes and races, and of animals. The first form
begins with to-, and is completed according to the sound which fol-
lows. The second form has y- for its beginning, and is also comn-
It is likely pleted according to the following sounds. After many of the pre-
ice the mean- fixes, these signs do not appear; but a hiatus' marks the absence of
the first form; and contraction or lengthening, often involving diph-
thongization, the second. There are no pronouns with which these
may be connected, and demonstrative sources are to be expected. The
.ing the thing
third person has a dual whenever the root by its displacement has the
power of showing plurality. In that case the same signs-or their
absence-indicate the dual as the singular, the forms differing only in
I, DOING, and the root. The plural is invariably indicated by the syllable -ya-, which
but, since it has the hiatus after it, for the first class of persons, and lengthening
f thinking or or contraction for the second.
yetCiLda he is carrying a large object
yeyLdfa he (not an adult Hupa) is carrying a large object
§ 34. First Modal Prefixes, Fourth Position
Several elements appear as prefixes in many verbs for which no
E anything or definite and satisfactory meaning has been found.
[ng of an act. 1. k-, ky-, is phonetically weak, the remainder of the syllable being
n is taken for supplied from the sound which follows. Only occasionally has
ng, drinking, a meaning been found for it, and the meanings which do appear
or t preceding are not reconcilable. It is probable that it supplies an indefi-
er. nite object for verbs of eating, and perhaps sonic others.2 In a
few cases it has the meaning of LEAVING AS A GIFT rather
than LEAVING FOR A TIME. In many cases a sense of indefinite-
ness is present in the verb as regards the time occupied and the
number of acts required for the complete operation.
LslAdescribed nakinyaii eat again (without mentioningt what is to i)e eaten) 153.9
yaki'inw'Th carry it 105.1S
yekyiwestce the wind blew in 270.4
'The hiatus in this case does not seem to be due to ILfullI glottal stop, but to a lessening of the force
of the breath. It is very likely brought about by the disappearance of tc-. The lengthening and
diphthongization which take place in the case of the second formn are probably due to the coalescing
of y with the preceding vowel.
2In other dialects a sound (Ic) which almost certainly corresponds to this is regularly used when
the object has not been mentioned or is unknown.
§§ 33, 34
I
1
2. te-, the prefix of distribution, means either that the act took place seems ce
here and there in space, or continuously over space; or that one it is foun
person after another did the act. In many
natelis she dragged it back 190.1 of as beg
teLtCWen it grew 96.3 frequent
A
tcittetcwai she buried in several places 192.12
tcetedeL they went out one by one 138.5
usually t]
II
this sylla
3. d- occurs, for instance, with the adverbial prefix de- (§ 31.19), sig-
force can
nifying INTO FIRE.
THERE.
dexodihwaL he threw him into the fire
like the c
4. 0- a verbal prefix, the meaning of which has not been ascertained. require ut
dotcowilan she will leave(d5 not; to- deictic; s- first modal; -w- In a pr,
second modal; lan stem)
syllable u
5. -e- CUSTOMARY. This prefix is not used throughout all the tenses or With win
modes, as are the preceding, but has the office in itself of mak- fixes whi(
ing a tense, as the suffixes generally have. Before vowels it to be vie
generally appears as e, and that is probably its true form. In na- (3), ni
many cases it is connected with a consonant suggested by the Withou
following sound or another word-element, when it appears as i. two menti
Its use -marks the act or condition as customary or habitual, or teristic of
at least as occurring more than once. verbs clea
tceexauw he is accustomed to catch with a net (tc- deictic; -e cus- require co
tomary; xaun stem)
prefix te- i
tcoexait he is accustomed to buy (tc- deictic; 5- first modal; -e cus-
and some
tomary; -xait to buy, customary tense)
tion in me
6. In the same group stand all pronominal objects.
zvawin
tC(ii)h0w0W(i)LX6l(i)Lte she will ask me for it (te- deictic; hw- me; hill
5- first modal; -w- second modal; -,E- third modal; xzil to ask,
definite tense; -L continuously; -te future; the letters in paren- Excludii
theses represent glides) the definite
tanaixosdowei it cut him all to pieces (ta- adverbial prefix of definite tei
unknown significance; na- iterative; -i deictic; -x5 him; -s- sec- For the
ond modal; do to cut; -ei emphatic)
conjugatio
7. n-. The use of this prefix is mostly confined to adjectives (see § 76). in the defin
§ 35. Second Modal Prefixes, Fifth Position ing to this
There are three simple sounds which by their presence indicate iO; the sec
whether the act is viewed as beginning, ending, or progressing. These tenses.
XIn one of th
sounds are not found in all forms of the same verb, but only in those started carrying
tenses which refer to the act or state as one and definite. WNhile it spending to Hul
in Hupa.
§ 35
[BULL. 40 BOAS I HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 119
t took place seems certain that these sounds do have the force mentioned above,
or that one it is found, by making comparisons, that they follow certain prefixes.
In many cases the nature of the prefix requires the act to be thought
of as beginning, ending, or progressing. The sound which is of most
frequent occurrence is w. It stands at the beginning of a syllable,
usually the one immediately preceding the root. The remainder of
this syllable contains the subjective personal elements. Its initiatory
31.19), sig- force can be seen in the verbs winyaL COME ON and wi'n-xa WATER LIES
THERE. This last verb can not be applied to a natural body of water,
like the ocean, which has had no beginning. The following prefixes
ascertained. require w in the definite tenses: ya-, ye-, xa-, sas-, da-, de-d-, d"-.
modal; -w- In a precisely parallel manner, n occurs as the initial of the inflected
syllable under circumstances which point to the completion of the act.
the tenses or With WiftyaL (above) compare nin-yai IT ARRIVED. Most of the pre-
Iself of mak- fixes which require n to follow in the definite tenses require the act
tre vowels it to be viewed as ending. They are the following: wa-, Le-, one-,
ie form. In na- (3), na.-, -tce-.
ested by the Without the same exact parallelism of forms which obtains with the
appears as i. two mentioned above, a large number of verbs have 8 as the charac-
habitual, or teristic of the inflected syllable of the definite tenses. Most of these
verbs clearly contain the idea of progression, or are used of acts which
eictic; -e cus- require considerable time for their accomplishment. The distributive
prefix te- is always followed by s, never by either of the other signs,
iodal; -e cus- and some of the prefixes listed above are used with s with a distinc-
tion in meaning: for example,
xeawinan he took a stone out of a hole (but xaayai he came up a
'tic; Ago- me; hill)t
; xid to ask,
Excluding all the verbs which require one of these three sounds in
;ers in paren-
the definite tenses, there remain a considerable number which have no
ial prefix of definite tenses, and therefore no such sounds characterizing them.
him; -s- sec- For the sake of convenience, the Hupa verbs have been divided into
conjugations, according as they have one or the other of these sounds
ves (see § 76). in the definite tenses or lack definite tenses entirely. There are, accord-
ing to this arrangement, four conjugations: the first characterized by
go; the second, by n; the third, by s; and the fourth lacking definite
ence indicate
tenses.
ssing. These
'in one of the Eel river dialects the bringing home of a deer is narrated as follows: yigi5 gin he
only in those started carrying; yiicsgin he carried along; yiningin he arrived carrying. Here we have g (corre-
sponding to Hupa w), s, and n used with the same stem, expressing the exact shades one would expect
te. While it in Hupa.
§ 35
- -
N
120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
§ 36. Pronominal Prefixes, Sixth Position

fBULL. 40
Next in order are the sounds which indicate the person and number
r BOAS]
with the in
force. Cot
of the subject. These are sometimes changed and somietimes disap- on pitch) at
pear, because of phonetic influences. the first of
a prefix of 1
First Person
a class of va
For tenses other than the definite, the sign of the first person sin- In nearly
gular is go or -iiw, which is in all cases appended to the preceding syl- not, a trans
lable. This sound is related to the initial sound of the independent active. No
pronoun of the first person singular, hwe, and is no doubt derived' but this is
from it. In the definite tenses this form does not occur, but -e is noticeable,
found instead. The first person plural has d- for its sign. The remain- preceding L
der of the syllable of which this is the initial is completed from the the charact(
sound which follows it. or d (the th
Second Person it is found
In the singular the form is -A or -fin. The former is found when character, v
there is a sound preceding with which it can join, and the latter when manner, ver
no sound precedes, or when, for some reason, it can not unite with it. sonant.
The sign seems to be dropped before L and I following in the same On the ba
syllable, of which there are many cases. It is reasonable to suppose classes:
that this sign is connected with the independent pronoun of the sec- Class I hE
ond person singular, nin-. In nearly all cases, in the second person and has no c
plural o' is found as the vowel of the inflected syllable. This 5 is Class II
strongly aspirated. The cases in which o' is not found seem to be due characteristi
to contraction, which always results in an aspirated vowel. An i of Class III (
similar quality and with an aspiration occurs in the pronoun for the sive, but po.
second person plural, no~1in. Class IV i
v erbs which
§ 37. Third Modal Prefixes, Seventh Position
a(rentt
Certain prefixes are found in many verbs immediately preceding the
root, and suggest transitiveness or intransitiveness in the verb, or in
some way point out the relation between the subject, predicate, and
object. As the second modal prefixes are required in most cases by
The suffix
the adverbial prefix which precedes them, so these are necessitated by
their use is
certain roots which follow them. When, however, a root is found with
essential to
different prefixes preceding it, their force becomes apparent. Com-
forms. The
pare lcittetaL HIE STEPPET) ALONG with tkitteLtNL IIE KICKED SOME-
present indel
THlING ALONG. The absence of a modal prefix in the first is connected
or conjuncti(
§§ 36,37
[nULL. 40 BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 121
with the intransitive meaning; and L is connected with a transitive

Lnd number force. Compare also kewintan IT STUCK FAST (said of a bird alighting
imes disap- on pitch) and k~ewiLtan HE PUT PITCH ON SOMETHING. The n which in
the first of these examples precedes the root, seems to be a vestige of
a prefix of this order occurring in certain forms of the third person in
a class of verbs where usually none is present.
person sin- In nearly every case in which L is present, required by the root or
aceding syl- not, a transitive force can be conceived for the verb, which is always
independent active. No prefix, or n shown above, is found with intransitive verbs;
ubt derived' but this is also true of a large number of transitive verbs. It is
1r, but -e is noticeable, however, that the transitive verbs which do not require a
rhe remain- preceding L belong to those which, by the nature of the root, indicate
*d from the the character of the object. Certain roots are always preceded by t
or d (the third class), and certain others by I (the fourth class). But
it is found that those without a sign, or with the sign n of doubtful
found when character, when changed to the passive, also take t or d. In the same
latter when manner, verbs with L the surd, on becoming passive, change L to I the
nite with it. sonant.
in the same On the basis of these prefixes the verbs have been arranged in four
to suppose classes:
I of the sec- Class I has all intransitive and a certain class of transitive verbs,
cond person and has no characteristic prefix, unless it be n.
. This o is Class II is composed entirely of transitive verbs, and has X as its
-m to be due characteristic.
el. An o of Class III contains the passives of Class I, and certain verbs not pas-
noun for the sive, but possibly with passive leanings.
Class IV is composed of the passives of Class II and certain other
verbs which show the influence of some powver outside of the apparent
a(re ult
)receding the
SUFFIXES (§§ 38-44)
c verb, or in
redicatc, and § 38. Classification of Suffixes
lost cases by The suffixes employed with verbs differ from the prefixes in that
~cessitated by their use is only occasional, while the prefixes are for the most part
is found with essential to the meaning of the verb), and are employed with all its
irent. Com- forms. The suffixes are appended mostly to the present definite and
ICKED SOME-
present indefinite tense-fornms. Most of them have a temporal, modal,
is connected or conjunctional force.
§ 38
U
11 I 11 iII i 11M ~F~T f i ~ if Y~
§ 39. Temporal Suffixes
1. -x. This suffix is used with the forms of the present indefinite, and Certain
indicates that the act or condition was persistent through a lim- 6. -ei. ]
ited and definitely stated length of time. wit:
wilweL tsisdaux until night he stayed and
naiLits4x he ran around (until morning) Hu]
2. -winte. The suffixing of -winte to the forms of the present indefi- mea
nite gives a meaning to the verb but little different from the inst
customary tense, which has a prefix e-. It indicates that the the.
act or condition is continuous, or at least takes place whenever beei
cause arises. The customary may mean that the act has been sevE
done several times without regard to the regularity of the yawiL,
intervals. 7. -ii, -ij
tciLwaLwinte they always dance ovei
3. -neen. This suffix is applied to nouns and verbs alike. It states the
that the thing, act, or condition has ceased, or is about to cease, incr
its existence. When used with verbs, it is usually appended syllf
to the forms of the present indefinite, and means that the act or yaxow
condition was habitual or continual in the past, but has now tcohwv
tcUwuI
ceased.
kyfzwi
auwtinneen I used to do that
wessilyoneen you used to like (him)
4. -te. This is the suffix most commonly employed. It predicts a 8. -Ziiit.
future act or condition, either as the result of the impulse of the that
agent, or the compelling force of so-me person or event. It yaLkz,
takes the place, therefore, of English WILL and SHALL. It is 9. -n ee.
appended, for the most part, to the forms of the definite present. tive
rmelitiwte I am going to watch it the
dediiwillate he will put it into the fire oLtsaliq
This suffix is sometimes preceded by a syllable containing the yeintCL
vowel e standing between the root and -te. The prediction is 10. -hymvn
said to be made with less assurance when it has this form. is su
tcisd~yannete she may live to be old p dcneya
5. -teL. This suffix seems to denote events in a nearer future than tasyah,
those expressed by -te. 11. -Sillej
dUwilleteL a party is coming to kill was
minesgitteL it will be afraid 295.7 yalL'afl
§ 39
I
§ 40. Temporal and Modal Suffixes
Certain suffixes are temporal, but also have a modal force.

idefinite, and
irough a lim- 6. -ei. In myths and tales the definite past occurs very frequently
with an ending -ei, which regularly takes over the semi-vowels
and often the consonants of the preceding syllable. The younger
Hupa, at least, do not seem to be conscious of any change in
meaning that may be made by its addition. A comparison of the
resent indefi-
instances of its occurrence would indicate a mild emphasis, that
ent from the
the act, which has several times been ineffectually ttempted, has
Ates that the I
been successf ully accomplished, or that something which has been
bce whenever
several times done is now done for the last time.
act has been
arity of the yawiLtennei she picked him up (after several attempts)
7. -I, -iL. The application of the verb may be made continuous
over space by adding -L or -iL for the present, and -1 or -i1 for
the past. The shorter forms are used after vowels without
Ke. It states
increasing the number of syllables; the longer forms add a
)out to cease,
syllable, often taking over the consonant which precedes.
ily appended
hat the act or yaxowiLxaiL going along they track him
tWch2eiLte they will call (continually)
but has now
tcuiwiLtel he was bringing
kyi7winyi6Ail you ate along
§ 41. Modal Suixes
It predicts a 8. -miiA. This suffix, which is not of frequent occurrence, indicates

npulse of the that the verb which it follows expresses the purpose of some act
Dr event. It yaiLkimmniA that they might catch it
SHALL. It is 9. -Lee. The more positive and more frequent form of the impera-
inite present. tive seems to have bne suffixed to the regular form, implying
the duty or mild necessity one is under to do the act.
oLtsainfee dry them
ontaining the yeintLn1eC you must step in
prediction is 10. -hw'&'ii. To express a moral responsibility or necessity, -It7076h
is form. is suffixed to the forms of the definite or indefinite present.
doneyae1mai I can not stay
~r future than tasyaiotl2Fz one ought to go away
11. -sillen. This suffix seems by its use to imply that the occurrence
was imminent, but did not result.
yavOtnxi~tssillen he nearly flew
§§ 40, 41
U
L
124 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [RULL. 40
BOAS1
12. - iewan. The suffix -newan indicates that the act is done, but I 20. -hit
with difficulty.
pa
dotciuxnneLintenewan one can hardly look at
yewoj
13. -dee. For the expression of a future condition, -dee is employed. I teein
acdendee if he sings I 21. -mi.*
axoladee if it happens 308.1
yitsi@
14. -detc. This suffix, which occurs but rarely, seems to indicate
22. -tsit
a less probable and more general future condition.
ex]
tCisseLWindietc if he kills so'
15. -niuiwnne. For the expression of the result of supposed condi-
tions contrary to fact, -miniinne is employed.
dodaxoatinmin-inne (people) would never have died
t kin-y?
There a
§ 42. Suffixes Indicating Source of Information 23. -he.
Certain suffixes are used to show by which of the senses the fact tiol
stated was observed, oir whether it was inferred from evidence. FrE
16. -e. The vowel -e, standing by itself or preceded by the consonant d~adi
or semi-vowel of the preceding syllable, indicates that the object
or act is within the view of the speaker. 24. -ka,
ne-wintanne he stuck to it (he saw) atenki
17. -tsft, -tse. When the act is perceived by the sense of hearing nesed&
or feeling, -tse is appended to the present definite, and -tsaz to the
past definite.
neuiibgittse I feel afraid
adentsi7 he heard it say The grei
length, for
18. -xo tai. A fact inferred from evidence is expressed by the
In a few cl
suffix -xNlan. Since the act is viewed as already completed,
persons.
the verbs often have the force of the pluperfect.
of the root
Lena1aillaxilan he had built a fire (he saw) in
i
tion, in the
19. -x6lti%7. This suffix is said to differ from the preceding only in the singula
the fact that the evidence is more certain. Sometim
xalaxo10n. grass has grown up (the fact is *certain, for the grass the indefin
is there, although the growing of it was not seen) ent also in
§ 43. Conjunctional Suffixes ative; and
I
or different
A few suffixes are conjunctional. Their union with the verb seems
ent and im]
to be rather loose.
Of the defii
§§ 42, 43
[BULL. 40 BOAS]
HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 125
is done, but 20. -hit. The suffixing of -hit to the verb has the effect of making it
part of a subordinate temporal clause.
yexoniQhht when they ran in
is employed. tcensithit when he woke up
21. -miL. This suffix has nearly or quite the same force as -hit.
yitsiin eeeamiL west (the sun) used to be then
s to indicate 22. -tsit. This suffix, which occurs seldom, means that the act
expressed by the verb to which it is added is to be done before
some other contemplated act.
iposed condi- kifnyi2nt3it eat first
§ 44. Adverbial Buffixes
There are two suffixes which appear to be adverbial.

1.
23. -he. This suffix emphasizes a negative command or a condi-
ases the fact tional statement. It is comparable to English IN THE LEAST, or
dence. French PAS, in negative clauses.
he consonant dtaadiiwinnmhe don't say that
hat the object toftwityinilhe even if he eat it
24. -ka_, -'Ak. These suffixes signify LIKE, IN THE MANNER OF.
afenka the way they do
nesedai?2k the way I sat
;e of hearing
ind -tsi to the VERBAL ROOTS (§§ 45-50)
§ 45. Variation of Verbal Roots
The greater number of verbal roots undergo a change of form or

length, for the most part connected with the changes of mode or tense.
3ssed by the
In a few cases there is also a change within the mode or tense for the
y completed,
persons. For number, the change, when present, is not an alteration
of the root, due to phonetic or morphological causes, but a substitu-
tion, in the dual and plural, of a root altogether different from that in
eding only in the singular.
Sometimes the changes in the root mark off the definite tenses from
for the grass the indefinite; in other cases the customary and impotential are differ-
ent also in the form of the root from the present indefinite and imper-
ative; and in a few cases, the impotential alone has a form longer than
or different from that found elsewhere in the verb. The indefinite pres-
ie verb seem.s
ent and imperative are the weakest of all in the form of their roots.
Of the definite tenses, the past is usually longer than the present, and
§§ 44, 45
U
pmp
126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS ] I
is characterized by stronger vowels: for example, a is found in the I -yan,

past instead of it, and e instead of i; and the diphthong ai and au -xcan,
appear for a. Some roots which end in t in the past do not have liqu
that ending in the present. -tan, -
-tan, -
A number of roots, many of them containing the vowel i, do not
-wen, -
change in form or length. -ten, th
It is extremely difficult to trace these variations of the root to their anily
causes. It is altogether probable that -w, which is the final sound in -towen,
many roots of the indefinite tenses, is to be connected with -c or -yai, -?
-8 (which occurs in the same roots and the same tenses in Tolowa and
in -y
-lai, -1h
other Athapascan dialects). It is therefore, in all likelihood, the
-lai, -Ih
remains of a former suffix. It is most likely that -n and -A, which
are so characteristic of the definite tenses, are not original parts of
The followi
the root. In fact, what seems to be the same root often occurs with-
tential with -I
out the nasals. The difference between the past and present Uefinite
is almost certainly due to the accent, which is on the root in the past -waL, -
and on the syllable preceding the root in the present. This in turn -weL, -
-meL, -
may be due to the fact that the latter is often used with suffixes.
-dceL, -c
The most important verbal roots are given below with their varia- -leL, -c
tions and what is deemed the most characteristic meaning of each. -taL, -t
§ 46. Roots with Four Forms -t4eL, -4
The following roots have the past definite in -en; the present defi-
nite, in -in; the impotential, customary, and present indefinite and These roots,
unexcepted forms of the imperative, in -iiw; and the third person tial, and custoi
imperative, in -e. the other.
-wen, -win, -widw, -we (3d imp.) to carry on the back
-wen, -win, -wam, -we (3d imp.) to move or to wave fire
-ten, -tint, -tiiw, -te (1st and 3d imp.) to lie down -yan, -yi
-yan, -yi
Two roots have -ii for the impotential and customary, with -e for -wan, -u
present indefinite and imperative. -lan, -li2
-len, -li, -ITZ, -le to become, to be, to be transformed -lan, -lii
-lau, -la, -Ift, -le to do something, to arrange according to a plan -nran., -n
-ban, -xa
§ 47. Roots with Three Forms
-tan, -tti
The following have the first form for the past definite, the second
form for the present definite, and the third form for the indefinite -tsan, -ts
tenses. Some exceptions are noted. -tewan, -
-han, -_k
-ean, -i2n -- auqw to transport round objects
X That the form wit
-an, -72lT, -au_ to run, to jump (with plural subject only) able. The cause of thi
§§ 46, 47
[BULL. 40
BOAS ] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 127
nd in the -yan, -yqen, -yauw to eat

ai and au -xan-xiu,,-xauw to move in a basket or other vessel any
liquid or smally divided substance, to catch with a net
not have
-tan, -unA, tizuj to handle or move a long object
-tan, -tWu, -htFw to split
I i, do not -wen, -w'n, -we to kill
-ten, tin, tuN7 to move or to carry in any way a person or
ot to their animal
I sound in -tewen, -tcwini, -towe to make, to arrange, to grow, to become
-yai, -ya, -yauw to go, to come, to travel about (1st and 3d imp.
1 -c (sh) or
in -ya)
'olowa and -lai, -la, -itw to move or transfer a number of objects
ihood, the -lai,-la, -Ii7 to travel by canoe, to manage a canoe
-A, which -hyazi -kwa -hwauw to walk, to go, to come (imp. has -kwa)
l parts of The following have the definite tenses with -L, the customary impo-
,curs with- tential with -1, and the present indefinite and imperative with -L 1_
nt definite
-wal, -_W'i, -wU1L to strike, to throw, to scatter
in the past
-weL, -wil, -WiL relating to the passing of night
his in turn -meL, -mil,-MtL to strike, to throw, to drop
fixes. -deL, -dil, -diL to go, to come, to travel (plural only)
,heir varia- -deL, -dil, -diL to strike
df each. -taL, -ta, -t42L to step, to kick, to do anything with the foot
-t8eL, -t8il, -tsiL to pound, as with a hammer or maul
esent defi- §48. Roots with Two Forms

efinite and These roots, with a few exceptions, have the past definite, impoten-
ird person tial, and customary with the first form, and the remaining tenses with
the other.
FirstType, -an, -Awi
fire -yan, -ytan to live, to pass through life
-yan, -yuh to spy upon, to watch, to observe with suspicion
with -e for -wan, -winh to sleep
-Ian, iNA to quit, to leave, to desist
-Ian, -iun to be born
d
-nan, -nunz to drink
ng to a plan
-xan, -rxni to be sweet or pleasant to the taste
-tan, -t'n to eat (3d person singular only)
the second -tan, -tL2A relating to any wax or waxlike substance
-tsan, -tsu2z to find, to see
le indefinite
-tewan, -towi2z relating to the eating of a meal in company
-han, -k?2A to put on edge, to lean up
XThat the form with t is due to a final aspiration and that with L to glottal action seems reason-
able. The cause of this, if not due to vanished suffixes, must be looked for in accent.
§ 48
pw_
tF
128 128 ~BUREAU

OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY[BL.4 [BULL. 40
BOAS]
Second Type, -en, -i,
-en, -in to look

-en, -in to do, to act, to deport one's self
-yen, -yin- to stand on one's feet
-len, -unA to flow, to run (said of any liquid)
-men,~-?niA to fill up, to make full
-hwen, -kwin- to melt
-senI -8in to think, to know (1st and 2d persons only)
-den, -dinf to travel in company
-den, -dkn to be light, to blaze -k
r _4
-Len, -tin to do, to perform an act
-tawen, -tewin to smell, to stink, to defecate iI I
-tcwen, -tawinA to want food or sexual gratification, to desire 1 I

-ii
i
Third Type, -ai, -a
-Eai (linpoten. and past), -- a to be in position I -la

II
-yai (impoten.), -ya to move about, to undertake -Ml
-way. (impoten.), -wa to go, to go about (3d person only) -n4Z
F
-dai (impoten. and past def.), -da to sit, to staSy, to remain, to
-hju
fish
-tcwai (impoten. and past def.), -tcwa to bandle or move many %.!Ii
.1rII
small pieces, to dig, to bury, to paw the ground T I -dii

iRai (impoten. and cust.), -ka to get up from a reclining or I -tso
-kil,
sitting position
1.1I
-FourthType, -au, -al I
, ,i
Ii
-au, -a to sing i
-yau, -ya to do, to follow a line of action, to be in a plight -mai

-dau, -da to melt away, to disappear -L~ats
-Lau, -ta to hover, to settle, to fly around
Fifth Type, -ft, -e I i

I
-ate,
I
-lit-, -le to make an attack, to form a war-party I
-(/OC.
-lut, -le to dive, to swime under water
i
-LiU, -Le to handle or to do anything with a semi-liquid, dough-
i
like substance I
T A fewNN oI
nt -ne to do, to happen, to behave in a certain way I
-Xii, -xe to finish, to track, to overtake i :and -ti and
-djei7i, -dje to fly in a flock
-tz -te to sing in a ceremony
-t07, -tse to squirm, to writhe, to roll, to tumble -its t(
-tcwii, -tewve to cry, to weep -its t(
'Originally -ag -a, and -ey -e'; therefore similar to the following -at -a. -?2t to
§ 48 -ya to
4485-7--]
__'"s
Sixth Type, -at, -a
-wat, -wa to shake itself (said of a dog)
-lat, -la to float
-Lat, -La to run, to jump
-xait, -xai to buy
-teat, -tea to be sick, to become ill
-kaith -kai to cause to project, to push, to pole a canoe, to shoot,
to fall forward from weakness (i. e., to starve)
-kyot, -ky5 to flee, to run away
-tsat, -tsa to sit down
l
Seventh Type, -1, -L
, to desire -it, -iL to swim, to dive (plural only)

P -y5l, -you to blow with the breath
t -wal, -waL to shake a stick, to dance
-Ild, -laL to dream, to sleep
-nel, -neL to play
-nol, -noL to blaze
l only) -hial, -AhyaL to fish for with a hook, to catch with a hook
to remain, to I -kwii, -AwiL to call by name, to name
'I -xal, -xaL to dawn
ir move many -dil, -diL to ring, to give a metallic response to a blow
-tsel, -teeL to be or to become warm
3. reclining or -kil, -kiL to split with the hands
-ql, -qoL to crawl, to creep
Eighth Type, -ts, -s
-mats, -mas to roll, to coil

i a plight -xatsl -uxs to pass through the air, to fly, to fall, to throw
-rat, -4e& to cut a gash, to slit up, to cut open. to dress eels
Ninth typi)e, -tc, -w?
-atc, -auto to mnove in an undulating line

-qotc, -qfqv to throw, like a spear
-1te, Y5?/7 to run like a wolf
liquid, dough- § 49. Roots with One Form
A few of these varY in length, but those having the vowels i

way and lt and SOIic others do not.
-eL to have position (plural only)
-iuw to drop
-its to shoot an arrow
-its to wander about
-eU to move flat flexible objects
g -at -a. -ya to stand on one's feet (plural only)
§ 49j
L
44S7-11ul11. 40, pt 1-10 9
BOAS]
-ye to dance
-yeiiw to rest
-yeiiw to rub, to knead
-yits to entangle
-y5 to like
-y5w to flow, to scatter -!
-yot to chase, to bark after

-wauw to talk, to make a noise (plural only)
-was to shave off 4
-wis to twist, to rotate -t
-wite to rock sidewise -t
-le to feel with the hands -t
-lel to carry more than one animal or child in the hands
-lel to bother _6
-lit to burn
-lite to urinate
-lik to relate, to tell something
-loie to tie, to wrap around
-l1s to drag, to pull along
-luwv to watch, to stand guard over -ts
-Lit to cause to burn -ts
-met to swim 4ts
-men to cause to swim -&,,
-medj to cook by boiling ,81
-mit to turn over, to place one's self belly up or down -tad
-m&t to break out (as a spring of water), to break open -tc2
-na to cook by placing before the fire -tci
-na to move -tcz
-ne to gather nuts (from the ground) -tcz
-n'iw to hear -tcz
-hwe- to dig -git
-xa to have position (said of water or a liquid) -git
-it to hang kan
-xat to tear down -ket
-xi2ts to bite, to chew -kis
-sit to wake -kit
-dae to be poor in flesh -kit
-dae to carry, to move (said of a person or animal) -kit
-daie to bloom -k-,t
-dik to peck -kya
-dits to twist into a rope -kya
-do to cut, to slash -kya
-do to dodge, to draw back -kyo;
-djiA to mind, to be bothered by something -qal
-tee to look for, to search after -qift
-tee to carry around to
§ 49 -yft
-te to remain in a recumbent position

-tetc to lie down (plural only)
-tits to use a cane
-to referring to the movement or position of water
-tat to drink
-tie to beg
-tfzt to split
-tWsk to count
-tee to have some particular form, appearance, or nature
-tik to tie with a string
-to relating to mutual motions of two objects by means of
which one is inserted into or withdrawn from the other
hands -tsai to be or to make dry
-tsas to swing a stick about, to whip
-tse- to open or shut a sliding door
-tsee to stay, to live (plural only)
-tsis to be hanging
-tsis to find, to know
-tsit to know a person or some fact or legend
-tsit to fall, to sink
-t8it to soak acorn-meal
-tsit to pull out a knot
-tsit to wait
[own -tee- to blow (said of the wind)
-tcit to die
open -tcat to strip off, to take bark from a tree
-tcwit to push, to pull off leaves, to shoot, to rub one's self
-tcwog to sweep
-tewte7w to smell of
-git to be afraid of, to be frightened
-git to travel in company
kas to throw
-ket to creak
-kis to put one's hand on, to stab, to spear
-kit to catch with the hands, to take away
-kit to hang, to spread, to settle (said of fog)
-kit to feed, to give food to any one
I) -kfitc to make the stroke or throw in playing shinny
-kyae to wear a dress
-kya to perecive by any of the senses
-kyas to break, to cause to break
-kyos to handle or to move anything that is flat and flexible
-qal to walk (3d person only)
-qyt -to push a pointed instrument into a yielding mass, to stick,
to poke
-yot to dodge, to tumble, to flounder about helplessly
§ 49
§ 60. Meaning of Roots
In regard to meaning, roots fall into at least three classes.

(1) A few monosyllabic nouns, occupying the position in the verb
which belongs to the root, name the means employed; while the gen-
eral nature of the act is suggested by that part of the verb which pre-
cedes the root. For example, -tits (a verbal root identical with the
noun tits A CANE) occurs in the verb tcitteLtits HE WALKED WITH A CANE.
(2) A rather large number of roots, while not definitely naming the
object, indicate the class to which it belongs as regards its size, shape,
or physical character. The most important of these are the following:
Ean, -eons, -- auw round objects
-u2t flat and flexible
-Wen, -win,-wuvi fire
-lait -la, -7iam several of any kind
-lel several children or animals
-LU, -Le dough
-xan, -Xafl, -xaux liquid
-cia a person or animal
-tan, -tln, -tiiu a long object
-ten, -tin -Uiw person, animal, or animal product
-tan, taii wax or waxlike
-tcwai the soil
-ky5s, flit and flexible object
These verbal roots are rigidly restricted in their applicability to

objects of definite form, including in this category number. This
classification has reference to the appearance of objects as ROUND,
FLAT AND FLEXIBLE, LONG AND SLIM, ANIMATE, PLURAL. in the
intransitive verb this has reference to the form of the subject; in the
transitive verb, to the form of the object.
(3) Most if not all the remaining roots indicate more or less exactly
the nature of the act itself. It has been imipossible, with no knowl-
e(lge of the past history of the Hupa language and but little access
to the related languages, to define exactly the meaning of many of the
roots.
§ 51. Aialysis of 1eribal Forms

A few of the more complex forms are analyzed in the following
table in accordance with the general discussion of the formative ele-
ments contained in the preceding sections.
§§ 50, 51
(BULL. 40
fs.
in the verb .i
C'. .0
Co
ile the gen- 0
eo 0
which pre- *0
4. C6
CD.
XC
tZ .0 C-:
Co
cal with the C.6
CA eo C4 C)
U.
C:
0 'C
r:
C)
be
C) .07 '0 C6 J0 .0
IT A CANE. ec 'i S IC
0o
Co 'C
t6 024 0
V C)
CL
P.
C) 0
naming the :t: 0
C) C.2 e r-
,C' 'V .C Cli
0
C) 0
CZ 0 tc .0 .0 4.
0 W 0R
size, shape,
te,
.0 C) 0 '5
C.5 G
0
El _
a) 4. 2 EU
C) ._ ._ 0 C)
j v C) .0
U
e following: C)
C) c) a)
4.C
,) .0 U
4.
_i .2
_
C- 4-2
t.0 C) 0
C. 0
C.,
C) s) C) C) 0
C)i
0 s .0
v~~~~~~~~.
03
0
pco
Co
M
- r)
oplicability to
imber. This ,U 'C_|
Ls as ROUND,
LAL. In the n 1t.t 5
11',U,,~~~~~~~
ibject; in the
)r less exactlv
ith no knowl-
t little access
f many of the
the following
formative ele- _.VC)C
r.' 4'
'C eU
4 ) V ,e | UCIs
a ! 4'.
'U i UT1: N
_I
§e
I
t~ 'U'
I
§ 51
7
134 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [EULL. 40 BOAS)
§ 52. Tentses and 3lIodes

While the time, reality, and definiteness of the act or condition may
be expressed by means of suffixes and variations in the root, the same
distinctions of meaning are drawn from the form of the complete verb.
Without taking into account the suffixes, the following tense or mode
forms exist: present indefinite, imperative, impotential, customary,
present definite, and past definite. The first four of these are clearly
marked off from the last two, in meaning, by the fact that they do not
refer to a single definite act. They differ in form, in most cases, in
the root and in the sign of the first person singular.
The name of present indefinite has been chosen to distinguish the
present of wider use and of less discrimination as to the time of the
action, from the present definite, which affirms a single act as just com-
pleted. The former is used of acts in progress but not completed,
when such acts consume appreciable time, or of acts desired or intended.
The real imperative forms, the second person singular and plural,
are identical with those of the indefinite present, while the forms of
the third person, expressing the wish that some person be compelled
to perform the act, are different from those of the indefinite present.
The impotential deals with future negative acts in a sweeping way,
implying that it is impossible that they should take place. Part of
this force is given the form by doxzliin, which precedes the verb, mean-
ing IT IS NOT. The form of the verb itself in this mode-tense is not
different from the present indefinite, except that it often has a longer
or stronger form of the root.
The customary differs from the present indefinite in the presence of
an element (consisting of a single vowel, probably -e-) which stands
before the signs of person and number, and sometimes in form of the
root. Its meaning, as the name implies, is that the act is habitual, or at
least several times performed. It is used almost entirely of past acts.
The definite present and past differ from each other only in the form
and length of the root. The past has the longer and stronger form
of the root, if it be variable at all. The accent seems to rest on the
root in the past, and on the syllable before the root in the present.
They refer to individual, completed acts,-the present as just com-
pleted; and the past, of more remote time. On the forms of the
present definite by means of suffixes, the future, future conditional,
and other tenses and modes are built.
§ 52
i
[BL'LL. 40 BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 135
Conjugations (§ § 53-45)
dition may § 53. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 1A

b, the same tcexauw HE IS CATCHING
plete verb. Present Indefinit,
Singular Plural
se or mode
1. iUiwxauw itdexauv
,ustomary,
2. inxauun o'xauw,
are clearlk 3. tceexazw yaxauw
hev do not 3a. yixzauw yaixaue
A cases, in Inaperative
Singular Plural
3. tcoxauw yatcixauw
anguish the 3a. yoxauw ya?,yoxauwe
ime of the Viestontary
Singular Plural
Is just com-
L.~-e'zwxauw eitdexauw
completed,
2. eflxauml eox.zauw
r intended. 3. tceexauw yaexauw
nd plural, 3a. yeexauw yaiexaum
ie forms of Definite
Singular Plural
compelled
1. We$?2n? witdexfu
te present. 2. winun weo zuni
Bping way, 3. ya'winx?2u
tcuzwinzuna'
. Part of 3a. yaiei'n-x&
7erb, mean- § 54. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 1B
ense is not
yanmas HE IS ROLLING OVER
as a longer
Present Indefinite
Singular Plural
presence of 1. yauwmas yadimmas
aich stands 2. yfammas ya ?nas
3. yamas yayamas
orm of the
3a. yanas yayamas
)itual, or at
COstontary
f past acts. Singular Plural
in the form 1. yaiuwLnmas yaltdimmnas
mnger form 2. yain-mas yao6lmas
3. yaimmas yayaimninas
rest on the
3a. ydimmas yaydin7zmas
ae present. Definite
Singular Plural
just com-
1. yahmas yawitdim mas
rms of the 2. yawimmas yawo mas
,onditional, 3. yawimmas yayawhnmas
3a. yawimmas yayawimmas.
§§ 53, 54
_ I
7",-
BOAS]
§ 55. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 1C
In this division of the conjugation there is a contraction in the 2d

person singular of the definite tenses.
naLit HE IS CHARRING
Defi'nite
Singular Plural
1. vaiLit naVitdiLLt
2. qannLit naw5'Lit The sev
3. wawinLit nayawinit
definite te
3a. naiwihVZit ??ayaiWn Lit
§ 56. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 1D
kittu&s HE CUTS OPEN
Present Indefluite
Singular Plural
1. kyuwdts2S kitd'ittu
2. kint'?is ky-itts
3. kittus yakit tu
3a. yikittu yaikittus § 59. C
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. kyo tus yakyot&Ps
3a. yikyo tu yaikyo s
1. tc
Customary 2. tc
Singular Plural
3. tc
1. keiftytwIs, etc. ke;tdit&ts, etc. 3a. tc
Defintite
Singular Plural
1. ketats kyii7itdittats
2. kyiiwintats kyufwo5tats
3. kintats yakintats
3a. yikintats yaikintats
§ 57. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 1E
tcFoxai lIE IS 13UYING

i'reseif I,,deffivite
Singular Plural
1. o4mixm_ odexrai
2. 03Theai Fo'xal
3. tc5xai tcQyaxai
3a. y5xai yoyaxaz
Customtary
Singular Plural
1. 5oiwxait 5itdexait, etc.
I
§§ 55-57
t
[BULL. 40 BOAS] .HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 137
DefiIite
Singular Plural
)n in the 2d 1. oixai 5witdexai
2. o5nxai aw'xzai
3. tcfixai tcoyanxai
3a. yoilxai yoyaihxai
§ 58. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 2
The several conjuggations differ from one another in regard to the

definite tenses only.
?tozi77ut llE PUT A BLANKET DOWN
1Definite
Singular Plural
1. nonaint vJnodait
2. nzy71aQt
3. noyanin ut
3a. noznzi'nti qioyainintut
§ 59. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 2, WITH A CHANGED ROOT
tceninhya. HE IS COMING OUT

Defintfc
Singular Dual Plural
1. tceneya tcenedeL tcenedeL
2. tcentinya tcen5'deL tcenio'deL
3. tceni'n-ya teenindeL tceyanindeL
3a. teinhya teindeL tceyu2ndeL
§ 60. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 3A
tcisliO? 11E IS TYING

I)efitite
Singular Plural
1. seloi- sitdilloiE
2. 8illoie
?/at'loe
3. tcisloie
yansoi-c
yaiisloiE
3a. yidloie
§ 61. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 3B
tcittelaL 1HE IS STEPPING ALONG

Defli ite
Singular Plural
1. tesetaL tesdittaL
2. tesintaL tes5 taL
3. tcittetaL yatetaL
3a. yittetaL yaitetaL
§§ 5841
hh
BOAS]
§ 62. CLASS I, CONJUGATION 4

naea HE HAS IT
Present
Singular Plural
1. nauwtea nadaea
2. n4n'ea na'-a
3. naea nayata
3a. naiea nayai-a P
Imperativne
Singular Plural
3. natc-5&a nayatcoEva
3a. naye'Ea nayay'o t a
Custornarjy
Singular Plural
1. naN-w-a naitdaea
2. naih-a nao -a
3. naaea nayaata
3a. naiaea nayaiaca
I
§ 68. CLASS 3I, CON3UGATION 1A
yetCiLdae-' HE IS CARRYING IN A LARGE OBJECT
Present Indefinite
Singular Plural
1. yeziuwda yeitdilda
2. yeaLda yeoLda
3. yetciLda yeyaiLda
3a. yeyiLda yeyaiiLda
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. yetcoLda yeyatcoLda
3a. yey;9Lda yeyaiyoLda
Customary
Singular Plural
1. yeeiuwdda yeetdilda
2. yeezLda yeeoLda -
3. yetcedLda yeyaiLda
3a. yeyeiLda yeyaiiLda
Deftnite
Singular Plural
1. yeweLda yewitdilda
2. yewiLda yewoLda
3. yetctwhLda yeyawiLda
3a. yeyuwiLda yeyaiwiLda
IIt is probable but not quite certain that the glottal stop occurs finally in the root in all iforms of
the verb.
3
§§ 62, 63
`
§ 64. CLASS II, CONJUGATION 1C
yaYLW1!L HE THREW INTO THE AIR
P'resent Indefinite
Singular Plural
1. yaue'WftL yadilwlaL
2. y2LWIL yaLqVOaL
3. ya iLWfiL yayaZLwlaL
3a. yaiLWfiL yayai2L7 aL
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. yatC5LWaL yayatcoLwiaL
3a. yaio5wL~ yayai5LWl2L
018stotnary
Singular Plural
1. yaifi7wfal yaUdilw9l
2. yaLwial yaoLw42l
3. yatnwLl yayaiLwil
3a. yaiiLwal yayaiiLW'1
Definite
Singular Plural
1. yaiLwaL yawitdilwaL
2. yaLwaL yawoLwaL
3. yawiLwaL yayawiLwaL
3a. yaiwiLwaL yayaiwihwaL
§ 65. CLASS II, CONJUGATION 2
mneiLnX'e HE IS FINISHING
Plresent Indefinitf
Singular Plural
1. miiuwxe medilxee
2. ?nxL-e' ?nmeLxe-
3. WeLxe-z ?flayaiLXe-
3a. ?)IiiLXe-t meyaiLxet
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. n1etCbLXc-e ?neyatcoLxe-
3a. meyoLXeE qneyayoLxea
Cuistomary
Singular Plural
1. medy2wxii ?ndtdilxfi
2. MeiLXfU meoLXu
root in all forms of 3. mei7nLX meyaizXU
3a. ?nlLXfU meyaanrXu
§§ 64, 6.5
I

BOAS]
Definite
Singular Plural
1. gneneLxee m indil&ee
2. menhLxe8 meno5Lxea
3. ?neniLxe- meyaniLxe-
3a. miniLze- meyaini4Lxea
§ 66. CLASS II, CONJUGATION 3A
'[he indefinite tenses do not differ from Conjugation 1.

91ai..sX17t HE IS TEARING D)OWN
Deffit iIe
Singular Plural
1. naseLXzt nasdilxzat
2. nafsiLZft v asoLXat
3. naisxiTt nayaisxfzt
3a. naisxft nayaisxzat
§ 67. CLASS II, CONJUGATION 3B
tCiSSeLwin HE IS KILLING
lDtefnite
Singular Plural
1. seSeLwifn sesdilwin-
2. SeSiLwin SeSOLWif
3. tCiSSeLwini yaseLwin
3a. yiSSeLWini yaiseLwifi
§ 68. CLASS II, CONJUGATION 4
vaiLtSt2n HE IS FINDING
Prement
Singular Plural
1. nawtsw'in nadiltsii
2. MaLtsin vaLtS&A
3. naiLtS&A -nayaWLtsAl
3a. nahLtsflui nayahLts~f'n
Twperatii'e
Singular Plural
3. natc5LtSW~ qiayatcoLtsaGn
3.1. WaO7LtSfftl flayaoLts8'(ln
Singular Plural
1. nafictsan naitdiltsan
2. naiLtsan naoLtsan
3. naLtsan iayaiLtsan
3a. naiiLtsan nayaiiLtsan
§§ 66-6S
I
i
[BULL. 40
§ 69. CLASS III, CONJUGATION 1
yadeqot HE IS DODGING
.PresentIndeflnite
Singular Plural
1. yaumdeqgt yadiukqot
2. yandieqot ya'degqt
3. yadeqot yayadeqot
3a. yadukqot yayadu2kqot
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. yatcodeqot yayatcodeqyt
3a. yaodeqot yayaodeqot
Customary
Singular Plural
1. yauumdeyot yaitdeqgt
2. yaindeqot yao'deqot
3. yaitqot yayaitqot
3a. yaitqot yaya7tqot
Definite
Singular Plural
1. yauuvdeqot yawitdeqyt
2. yandeqot yawj'deqot
3. yawitqot yayawitqot
3a. yatqot yayatyot
§ 70. CLASS III, CONJUGATION 2
naniteau' HE IS BRINGING IT BACK
1'resieit Indefinite
Singular Plural
1. nanedeeauv,
2. -a tvy
-noan'de
3. nanideauwn n ayaniteamon
3a. ainditEau nayainiteauwn
lndtperatite
Singular Plural
3. nanodeEauww nayan'dclauv"
3a. nainodeEauww nayainode-auwwi
Custornary
Singular Plural
1. naleituvde-awu naneedeeauw,
2. naneindeEauw nan55'deeaml,
3. naneit-awi,
3a. naineiteauwl nayaznedtEaum
f§ 69,70
142 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHN;OLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS ]
Definite
Singular Plural
1. nauwdeeiun qauzedeei2i,
2. nande-Lfl nano '4fii
3. natndee-'Fn 2nayainde-fai7
3a. nainindeec&T nayaininde-2Fi
§ 71. CLASS Ila, CONJUGATION 3
The forms for the definite tenses are like those given for Class III,
Conjugation 1.
naisdeq<3t HE IS TUMIBLING ABOUT
Definite
Singular Plural
1. nasdlakqot nasedeq5t
2. nasindeqot naso5'deqot
3. naisdeqot nayaisdepot
3a. nasdikqot nayasd'akqot
§ 72. CLASS IV, CONJUGATION 1
nzailyeU2(2 HE RESTS
1Present Inpdefinite
Singular Plural
1. nauuwyeuw nadilye-iw
2. nglyeiiw- naLyeLG70
3. nailzyeuxn nayailyeiui
3a. nalyeiiw v ayalyeFig
Imperatiive
Singular Plural
3. natcolyeiu2 'nayatct'lyeij'w
3a. nay5lyeutm nayayolyei20
Customalry
Singular Plural
1. na~ifuyetw nagtdilyeiblw
2. na' lyeibn flaoL yew/I'
3. nailyeu2w nayalye
3a. nailyeii71 nayalye y
Definite
Singular Plural
1. v auwyu'- awyItcilyci-mw
2. valyei2-w
3. nawilyeizb 'nayalcdyei w
3a. nalyeuiin nayalyeftziu
§§ 71, 72
I
[lBnLL. 40 BOAS)] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 143
§ 73. CLASS IV, CONTUGATION 3
nadilin-HE IS WATCHING FOR IT
Present IndefinitE
Singular Plural
1. Inaduvini nadiidilin-
2. nadilint *nad5Li'n
3. nadiliA nayadilin-
3a. naidilin- nayaidilia
Ufor Class III,
Imperative
Singular Plural
3. nadolin nayadolin
3a. naidolin nayaidalin-
Custosiary
Singular Plural
1. nadezuwen nadetdilen
2. nadeqlem nad,5Len
3. nadelen nayadedlen
3a. naidalen nayaidalen
Definite
Singular Plural
1. naduwesin nadiiwgsdiliii
2. naduiwesilin naduwesoLrn
3. nadfzwesin- nayadfiweai
3a. naiduwesiA nayaidizwemin
§ 73
U ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- A
7-
BOAS]
§ 74. OBJECTIVE CONJUGATION
yakwiLtuw HE IS PICKING ME UP
Plresent Indeflnite
First person singular Second person singular Third person singular

(object) (object) (object)
Subject:
[1. yftnniuitttu yaz-oLtis
yaz6LtfiLv Subject:
Singular.. 2. yahuyiLtfil
3. yahueiitdLh yfinnetciLtftw yaxzotft'L
3a. yaihWizLtfW yfinniLtfiL yaix5ftiLv
Sin,
ytlnnitdilffix yazotdittfi_
2. yahworztfiu yazoLtflW
Plural... 3. yayah1iitiiui
yayfinndciLtil1 yayaz6Ltflw
3a. yayaih3LiLtufLe yaiyfinniWfow yayaizoLtfiL
I'i U]
Imntperative
Singular.. 3. yahwo45fiLt yfinnetc5Ltfl& yazoztfiw

l3a. yaiuhLeLtfti- yfinneoLtfJL yaixoiirtfivL
Plural .... 3. yayaklv5fitfu yayftnnetCd tfdL yayaxZoifi3_ Sing

13a. yayaihX5L~tiito yaiy?!nno rtuL yayaizo t4_u
Customnary Plurn
1. yfi nne'i ilet -U yazoifirtfime

yaxoiif1uL)
Singular.. 2. yah112drtf1?_
3. yahuei6tfiu yfannetcdLtu1w yazoiiLtfiw
yinneiiteuv yaixofizfiw
Singi,
yfinnedidiltiuN yazoitdiUfit
yaxzttt2L~
Plural... 2. yajhelzol0iw
3. yayahLreiLWtIw VayfimeiLtdiw yayyazoiiitfi
3a. yayaihureLLtftuj yayfmnneiLtfi_ Vayaizoiiuuw
'Phlra
DefJIinite
1.- yaxweLtifi
yazojwiLtifi
Singular.. 2. yahLeWuriztifi
3. yahuritiS yfinnctciLtifi yaz5UitiI
3a. yaihwiLtirl yfinniLtiff yaiz0Lti1i
SinguiI
1. ytinniwitddltifi yazowitdiltifi
yax51.w5tfia
Plural - | 2- ah.Ltji
3. yayahwisLill yayfn71dci1.ttiL peyax5LURtii
3a. yayaihl1irtiL yaeiyiilir.tfi yayaiXoLtiFL Plural
§ 74
44S77-
I
[BULL. 40

I
i OBJECTIVE CONJUGATION-Continued.
yalilgiLtY7Y1 HE IS PICKING ME UP
Orson singular lPresenit Iudefisi fte

)bject)
First person plural Second person plural Third person plural
(object) (object) (object)
Subject:
1.
2. ytmnnfhiyfirv yaazyxZlfmw
I/ayax51tdyfiq
OLift11 Singular.. 3 yfin7wftifi7
yfmnnutcitlfiuw yayax,511fi~v
3(. yfi Z91iiu11
tdilffitv yfnnthitlli 7y yayaxiAjUfiv
ftfiuv
1. yfinnyhitdiUllhu yasraxotdiltFl
axiZLtuw
yayazdiY'iF
a ixz)lLtft I& Plural .... 2 yfinm/liftvliu
3. yayfinmuhJedtio yaydnnotci1fiqv yayaxz5i11fiqv
3a. yaiyfiut dlimt yaiyftnnohzttfiLn yayaix&1ttfiv
1m)wH'rative
.Iing
! 3
lnuar. ,v
mz6c1
y01UflnftcitfiC yayazdtlfiny
13a. ylintcilififs yayaiz0Ufqv
Plural .... { 3*yayfinnmtcIiL,,

3a. yaiytinn3h5&iiv
yayi nn6ltcz i
yaiyu nnoho51nfiv
n Bayazdtfilt,
yayaizotlfw
Cuastonmary
1.
I yfxnntxheF7t1v-w? yayaoiffiiUlf
yayazoiiUdfqr
Singular.. 2. y2nnbhetUfmy
3. yd~nnmtceidl yfnn6tceilffilg yayamiz5f6W
3a. ydfnmolwivldp yfinndheilltUfi7 yayaixoii~fi?!
1. yayaxoiitditfi n
Plural
I 3.
2. yemunnJhc35'MW
yayfititc1ffidw
3a. yaiyti717hein1i7
yayfinn(3t1r6cdfid
ya iyfnsajhe'itfiii
yayax6i'lfiin
yayazoiiUeqv
yayaizoGfUfm?/
DIefi 1ite
yf?7tnidhca yay-o.xweUa
tyayaz6vei1la
Singular- . yi'nml ta
lfinnotcila 1yapao.lia
i/li ,inoh itta yayaiz6fta
r
13a. yfinnohia
yCinno3h'dia yayaxZiveltddla
2
Plural .... 2.i 11finni;amZla yayyaztx 5la
3. yaymm?~litcilta yaytiii inlhcilla yayax451ta
13(t. yabi/m,-)h~dila yaiyl~mnhilla yayaiuxoat
Tue past definite has -Iai for its root.

§ 74
44STT7-Bull. 40, pt 1-10 10
L
7
146 146 ~BUREAU

OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY[BL.4
[BuLr- 40
BOAS]
§ 75. PASSIVE VOICE
yaxowidtizf HE IS CARRIED OFF

The s
The present indefinite seems to have no forms for the passive voice.
fixing d,
I~npotential
Singular Plural the folio
1. d~3x;93iifl y,,i~n57WdtyLii h~ai
2. yi~nneldifiil-w yu6n?16kitluwt
3. yayax~5tiDt'
3a. yayatbim
ywdittiz totuir
Singular Plural
1. yahwedldittuwy yi2nn6oke~tzw
2. yiOneddittuiw
3. yaxoiidithiw yayax'Jiitlii-w
3a. yadIldithiiw yayaitliiw
Definite
Singular Plural
3. yax~wiltin- yayaxe~witla
3a. yaltin- yayatla
Adjectives (§§ 76-78)
The qualifying adjectives in Hupa are very closely linked with the
verbs. They are fully conjugated., indicating by internal changes
the person and number of the subject qualified, and by changes of
tense whether the quality is predicated of the present, past, or future.
§ 76. Pr-efixes of Adljectives

The prefixes of the adjectives consist of a single sound, and are
found only in the present. They seem to classify the adjectives
according to the degree of connection of the quality with the noun.
The principal prefixes are the two following: 3
1. ni- used mostly of inherent qualities, such as dimensions.
niumnes I am tall nFluLLteL I am broad
niiw~hmr5A I ami good I am dirty
fliiI'tCwihf
nihvda8 I am heavy niorkya5 I aim large
The persor
2. L- used for the more accidental qualities, such as color, and condi-
for emphasis
tion of flesh.
object into ti
am white
L6W1,kai l LiUSO it iS 1ilue, yellow, or greeni
thle Mninimnum
Lltqvkau I am fat Lfth~ifl it is black
§§ 75, 76
[BULL. 40 BOAS ] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 147
§ 77. Comparison of Adjectives
i The superlative, the only form employed, is expressed by pre-

ssive voice. fixing dad-, the second syllable being completed in harmony with
the following sound:
hai dadinnes the longest hai dadittsit the shortest
hai dadiLL2lkkau the fattest hai dadikkya5 the largest, etc.
§ 78. Coltjitgation of Adjectives

nitdas IT IS HEAVY
Present Deftnite
Singular Plural
1. niu!das nitditdas
2. nindas Hon7das
3. tcindas yaindas
3a. nitdas yanitdas
Imperative
Singular Plural
1. itditdas
2. indas 5'das
3. tcodas yatcodas
3a. yodas yayoda"
Cuitoanary
iked with the Singular Plural
rnal changes 1. ez2wdas2 eutditdas
ty changes of 2. enda.s e5'das
LSt, or future. 3. tcetdas yaitdas
3a. edtdas yaeitdas
Past
Singular Plural
Lund, and are 1. W9bWdats (or weda,) witditdas
the adjectives 2. windas w5'das
vith the noun. 3. tcjwindas yawindas
3a. windas yandas
iolnS. Syntactic Particles (§§ 79-86)

broad
tm dirty § 79. Per-sonal Proiotns
ai large The personal pronouns in their independent form are used chiefly
or, and eondi for emphasis and in replying to questions. The incorporation of the
object into the verb, and its inflection to show the subject, reduce to
blow, or green the minimum the need of pronouns as independent words.
I Let me be heavy. 2I become heavy (each season).
L
§§ 77-79
- m
mw
148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS)
The pronoun for the first person singular is Awe, which serves for The Hu
both subject and object. All other Athapascan languages have a pl-ural, in
word phonetically related to this. In Tolowa the word is ci; in Car- tive) and
rier, si; and in Navaho, ci. The plural of the first person is nehe. person of
It may be used of the speakers when more than one, or of the speaker
and the person spoken to. Instead of hie and nehe, longer forms
(hween and neaten) often occur. These seem to be formed by the
There a
addition of the particle en, which points to a person, contrasting him
SEVERAL, I
with another.
being und,
The second person singular is nin-, and the plural nohidn.
The mos
It is probable that originally there was no personal pronoun for the
third person, its place being taken by the demonstratives and by incor- attin f
poratedand prefixed forms. In speaking of adult Hupa, when emphasis a'tinn
is required xvo occurs. This appears to be xo-, the incorporated and a'tind
prefixed form, and ehi mentioned above. For the plural, yaxwen is
aoti'dc
sometimes heard. x~5daie
§ 80. Possessive Pronouns
Weak forms of the personal pronouns are prefixed to the qualified
noun to express possession. For the first and second person, Awe and The num
nin are represented by hA- and n-, which are completed according to most of wh
the sounds which follow them. The first and second persons plural the Hupa
are represented by one and the same syllable, no-, which may be pre- ENOUGH FC
fixed without changing its form to any noun. The third person sin- addition fo
gular has xo- prefixed when an adult Hupa is referredto, but mn- (receiv- multiplicati
ing the same treatment as hqti-and n- above), when the reference is to dred, is no
a Hupa child or very aged person, or to a person of another tribe or l
may be enu
race. For animals and inanimate things, m- is also sometimes used, A special
but for the former k- seems to be more frequent. When the pos- to be an ol
sessor of the object is not known, A- is also employed. LuW?2n, nax
A reflexive possessive is used where a chance for ambiguity exists. and tewolan
The form is ad- of which d is the initial sound of a syllable completed respectively
according to the sound which follows it.
§ 81. Denuomstrative Prontouitn>

Notwithst
The demonstrative pronouns for the nearer person or object, which by means of
must be in sight, are ded, haided, and haide, which do not differ in These are f
meaning. The more remote object or person, whether in sight or not, pronouns in
is referred to by y5 or kaiy5. Still more remote is youi, which is formed. 01
employed of places rather than of persons. stratives are
§§ 80, 81
i
II
h serves for The Hupa employ hai referring to persons or things, singular or
iages have a pl-ural, in a manner that falls between our use of that (the demonstra-
is ci; in Car- tive) and the (the definite article). It is employed before the third
rson is nehe. person of the possessive where our idiom does not require an article.
f the speaker
Longer forms § 82. Adjective Pronouns
rmed by the There are a number of words, equivalent in meaning to ALL, EVERY,
itrasting him SEVERAL, etc., which stand alone, the person or thing limited by them
being understood from the context.
qn.
The most important of these are the following:
moun for the
ind by incor- a'tii all d'!fhwee nobody
a'tinne all people diuhwoA somebody
hen emphasis
a'tinxo5itnte everything dthuikw something
rporated and
a'ttinaea-nteevery kind di-hAee nothing
l. yaxwen is a t tindig every place dn2unhuwan several people
x$daidehie anything dULtanhwoe several things
§ 83. Numerals
the qualified
son, Awe and The numerals to four are common to the Athapascan languages,
according to most of which have cognate words for five also. From five to nine
,rsons plural the Hupa numerals are not easily analyzed. Ten (minLzll) means
may be pre- ENOUGH FORI IT. The numerals above ten are made by expressing
I person sin- addition for the numbers lying between the decimal terms and by
A mn- (receiv- multiplication for those terms. The meaning of Laettdikkin, one hun-
-ference is to dred, is not evident. No higher numbers exist, but the hundreds
ther tribe or may be enumerated to a thousand or more.
ietimes used, A special termination is used when enumerating people. This seems
hen the pos- to be an old suffix, -ni or -ne, meaning PEOPLE. Compare Lae and
LuWunl, nax and nanin, tak and tak'an, diak and dinkie, and twoilae
iguity exists. and tcwolane, the numerals from one to five, for things and people
)le completed respectively.
§84. Adve7bss
Notwithstanding that place and time relations are freely expressed
)bject, which by means of verbal prefixes, a large number of adverbs are employed.
not differ in These are for the most part closely connected with demonstrative
v sight or not, pronouns in their meaning and the elements from which they are
toui, which is formed. Of the formative elements which do not also occur in demon-
stratives are those employed in expressing directions. These have a
§§ 82-84
M
150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULM. 40BOS
common initial, yi-, which may after all be connected with the pro-
noun yi;. The final elements are:Th
-Inak south or up stream -tsin-west or down a hill minut(
-de-- north or down stream -nia~t the opposite side of a
-dak east or up a hill stream or the ocean and b2
Besides the demonstrative source already mentioned, many adverbs these
are formed from nouns, adjectives, and verbs by means of suffixes ialthes
indicating place, time, and manner. Some of these suffixes are the amlway
following: epo
-dif and -tei'f (place) -7ca and -xii, -fix (manner) Uul
4dA and -diii (time) wos
expres
§ 85. Post -positiolts One
The post-positions not only follow the nouns which they limit, but ta
they are joined to pronominal prefixes which stand for the limited follow,,
in the
noun whether it be expressed or not. The most important post- result.
positions follow:thoh
-a for, for the benefit of -nat around epa
-e,' in -xa after epa
-Odin without, lacking -x~its beside Thel
-an. out of -ta' among expres
-Tz under, near -tis over tions, I
-ye at the foot of -ti2k between younge
-winna around, encircling -ca, -kai along in givir
-w,6f9 toward or from -tein-towardwhc
-lan with the help of -tcqinia in f ront ofwhc1
-lai-e on top -ka, -kai af ter, following social d
-L With -kya away fromi
-na after -ki1 on The
-naL in the presence of able len
§ 86. Conjiunctionts syllabic

The conjunctions in 1lupa seem to be inade from demonstratives, Therse,
or adverbs derived from demonstrative.,-. They usually end with thethmo
syllable -iLFor examples compare the following: hand, s(
lhai2iii- 1aiyaAhitdjith201 an hndistincti
hitayaL itaiyacietc andnthen
~ ~
haiya~~~~~~~~l'th ~ and ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l no~a
haiyaniin adStitute 'V
ltaiyamiaLu word 1w
accent i
~§85, 86
[BULL. 40
with the pro-
§ 87. Character of Sentence
The Hupa sentence expresses place and direction with very great
n a hill
Ite side of a minuteness and care. This is done both by the prefixes of the verb
cean and by independent adverbs and adverbial phrases. In actual use
manv adverbs these sentences are also accompanied by many gestures which might
ns of suffixes in themselves indicate all that is needful. That the act is repeated, is
iffixes are the always stated, and frequently with redundancy, an adverb being
employed in addition to the iterative prefix which the verb contains.
Usually great care is taken, in making quotations, to state definitely
nanner)
who said or thought the matter quoted. Sequence of time is amply
expressed, but other relations are often left to be inferred.
One hesitates to say whether the sentences are all very short or
that there are none, but paragraphs instead. One short statement
hey limit, but
follows another, usually co-ordinate with it but still closely connected
r the limited
in the temporal sequence which carries with it purpose, cause, and
portant post-
result. The synthetic, holophrastic verb is often complete in itself,
the other words in the sentence being employed to add distinctness or
emphasis.
The greater burden in a Hupa discourse is on the speaker, who
expresses with great exactness most of the concepts and their rela-
tions, leaving little to be inferred by the listener. Some of the
younger generation, who are nearly or quite bilingual, employ Hupa
in giving directions about work to be done, or in relating events in
which they wish place-relations to be plain, but English for ordinary
lowing social discourse.
§ 88. Character of Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Hupa, although it contains words of consider-
able length, is not far from monosyllabism. It contains many mono-
syllabic nouns and particles, but a much larger number of polysyllabic
verbs, and nouns and other parts of speech derived from verbs.
tnonstratives,
These long words, however, are made up of elements possessed for
end with the
the most part of great clearness of form and meaning. On the other
hand, some of the monosyllables other than nouns and pronouns lack
an }and then I
distinctness of meaning, and in some cases of form. In writing the
language there is difficulty, therefore, to know just what should con-
stitute a word, and whether certain elements are to be taken with the I
word before them or the one after them. In a language in which the
accent is strong, words are set off from each other by it. In Hupa
§§ 87, 88
L.
I
T""_
I
the accent is not strong, and in most cases does not belong to the
word, but to the sentence.
Nouns and pronouns are clear cut. They are capable of calling up
definite and complete mental visions without the aid of associated
words and word-elements. The large number of monosyllabic nouns
in Hupa, and the still larger number in related languages, which do
not occur in Hupa, points to the fact that the original form of Atha-
Meadildii-i
pascan nouns was monosyllabic. Monosyllabic nouns have given Medildifi
place to polysyllabic ones in Hupa constantly for years, perhaps for tciL-an 7 hf
he had.
centuries. This may have been due to the pleasure which the Hupa 12
miL yaaq
find in poetical descriptive names, but it was certainly due, in part, to with he use/
poke a
the dropping of nouns out of the language at the death of persons aiwe 17 XoW
who had had them for names. These dropped words were replaced away from I
by longer descriptive words coined for the purpose. 9

Laaiux x6
And in vs
Only one word has been found in the language which appears to be
Imecdil CANOE; '
reduplicated. The aboriginal flute is called milirnil or milmil in 2dedit POOR, noi
Hupa, and in related dialects bWl6Pl. It is possible that some 3 tci- sign of 3d
modal in verbs, m
etymology will appear to explain this apparent exception. 3, 3d per. sing.
4 hai- probably tl
Very few words or word-parts seem to be onomatopoetic in. their 5 kit- possessive p
6
nik- one of the
origin. There is a verb, kyiwinrdil IT RANG, the root of which, -dil, (note 125).
no doubt represents the sound of striking metals, Another verb 7 tci-, -L, see note
Bta-, prefix emp]
closely resembling this is kyFiwihket, which is used of the creaking of prefix, weak in for
motions for a singl
trees. The sounds of nature which occur may be represented, but FALL OR TO THROB
ing-stones in this c
they have no other meaning. They do not stand for the thing or 9 La-, the numera
animal which makes them: for example, dil diwenne (dil IT SOUNDED) 0Ohai, the article
II
12
r.- possessive p
is said of an arrow striking the sky; dill d'iwenne (dl IT SOUNDED), 13
mii pronominal
ya- prefix used
of a ball of wood striking a wall of obsidian; and ka ka diu'enne (ka tense, a is due to tl
mass; class 1, aeo.
ka IT SAID), of the cawing of a crow. 14hai- the article;
5
For the most part, both the monosyllabic words and the elements of ' miI. probably tl
]Gya-, -a see note
the longer words are to all appearances the ultimate facts of the lan- sing.
17aice AWAY, AT
guage. They express fundamental concepts and relations, which are been
1 5
found.
Z0- pronominal
no more resolvable into parts than are the syllables which express ing to the context.
19Iua- prefix mean
them. These elements, simple words, roots, prefixes, and suffixes, are modal of completed
not very numerous (probably less than a thousand), but the combina- 'O hai- probably tl
(see note 12)
tions of which they are capable are very great. 'Many combinations ' sea- see note 13;
2°.tc- deictic 3d pei

theoretically possible are iiot logically possible, and of these only those irregular verb, past
':3x' indicates tbh
for which there was a frequent need in the life of the people realIy note 1i).
24 w11e-, -alit se, ,(01
existed as words. 25t- deictic 3d pe
'§ 88 tie bl roeoitng andl -

verbal root ineaninlt
[BULL. 40
elong to the
if calling up
)f associated
Kilabic nouns TEXT
es, which do
TIE ME-DILDIN POOR MAN
rrl of Atha-
Mesdildil I dedin2 tcitteLtcwene I haithi ' kittekin b nikkyao 6
have given Medildifi poor he grew. And spoon large
perhaps for tciL-an 7 haififi takeiuiil 8 haiul 4 Laaiuix 9 hai 10 xol -ittikin "
he had. And she used to And at once the hi S spoon
hi the Hupa make soup.
iL12 yaaqot ;3 haiy6" takeimmil 8 niL I1 yaaXaw haitii 4
i, in part, to with he used to that She used to then he used to And
poke up, one. make soup dip it up.
Xof persons
aiwe 1 x6wCn Is wakinnintats 19 haiyaL 2 0 yau-wxauw 2 1
tcondesne 22
Ore replaced away from him he cut a hole And, " Let me dip he thought.
through. it up,"
Laaifix 9 xo'2 wani iqots2 4 tcinneLen 25 hai x6kittikin. Laaiux 9
And in vain it ran through. He looked at the his spoon. At once
ppears to be
lmeedil CANOE; -dtii locative suffix, PLACE OF or PLACE AT ( S 21, 84).
milmil in 2dedin POOR, not having possessions.
that some stei- sign of 3d per. sing. (5 33); -te- prefix, distributive as regards time or place (5 34); -L, 3d
modal in verbs, mostly transitives (§ 37); -tewen verbal root, TO MAKE, TO DO, TO GROW; class II, con.
3, 3d per. sing.
4hai- probably the article; -Oil termination common to temporal adverbs and conjunctions.
tic in their S kit- possessive prefix used of animals (5 80); -gZ HORN, the spoon was of horn.
6
nik- one of the prefixes of adjectives (5 76); -kyad root of adjective LARGE; compare toufitkyafi
which, -dil, (note 125).
iother verb 7tci-, -L, see note 3; -Ean ver'bal root meaning TO HAVE PosITION, hence the notion of possession.
sta-, prefix employed of soup-making, drinking, probably connected with to WATER (5 31); -kce-
creaking of prefix, weak in form and of little force in meaning, it is connected with verbs requiring repeated
motions for a single act (§ 34); -i- sign of customary tense (5 34); -mit verbal root meaning TO LET
*sented, but FALL OR TO THROW SEVERAL SMALL OBJECTS OF THE SAME OR DIFFERENT KINDS, probably the cook-
ing-stones in this case; class II, con. 1, cust., 3d per. sing.
le thing or 9 La-, the numeral ONE. There is an element of surprise at the quickness of the act.
T SOUNDED) 10hai, the article is always employed with the possessive third person.
" zo- possessive prefix of 3d per. sing. or pl., employed only of adult Hupa; see also note 5.
'SOUNDED), Ii mii pronominal prefix of 3d per. sing. when adult Hupa are not meant; -L post-position WITH.
13ya- prefix used of motion up into, or horizontally through, the air (§ 31); -a- sign of customary
4uwenne (ka tense, a is due to the preceding a of ya; -qOt a verbal root used of pushing something into a yielding
mass; class I, con. 1, cust., 3d per. sing.
14/ai- the article; -y5 a demonstrative used of the more remote.
elements of l'mil. probably the same its in note 12, above; it is often used of time.
C6ya-, -a see note 13; -zatLiw verbal root referring to water or a. liquid; class I, con. 1, cust., 3d per.
of the Ian- sing.
c,aioe AWAY, AT A DISTANCE, NOT IN THE P'RESENCE OF; sso connection with other words has
, which are been found.
's z5- pronominal prefix of 3d per.; -ivOO post-position used of motion toward or away from, accord-
ich express ing to the context.
"uca- prefix meaning THRIOUGH (§ 31); -kin- Ist modal prefix of uncertain meaning (5 34); -nin-2d
;uffixes, are modal of completed action (§ 35); -tats verbal root TO CUT; class I, col. 2, past def., 3d per. sing.
15
le combina- hai- probably the article; -ya- with hai- it forms an adverb there; -1. perhaps the post-position
(see note 12).
inbination s 2 yia- see note 13; -Iow sign of 1st per. sing.; class II, con. 1, pres. indef., 1st per. sing.
22te- deictic 3d per. sing.; -s- 2d miodal indicating progressive action; -ne verbal root, TO THINK;
only those irregular verb, past def., 3d per. sing.
'l.& indicates that whatever wvas attempted failed; it is to be construed with yauwxeauw (see
ople really note 16).
2 wsa-, -aii; see note 19: -qHets verbal root.
5 tc- deictic 3d per. sine.; setCL-Constraction of -?1IiiiL of which -nOi- is a 1st modal prefix of uncer-
ta in meaning aind -wail- htis a,, 2d modal of incepti e action, and L, 3d modal of transitive force; -en
verbal root meallilIg TO 1.00K; clasb II, con. 1, past def., 3d per. sing.
153
BOAS]
y~neyidaka2 " Mill xeekiLtseL2 Laa~irx innaYsdakkai 2 1 Laaiux

back of the from he threw it At once he got up. At once hai x6
fire up away. the his b
mitdaie 2 tcenifiyai hai~fif hai x6ta 11 haiy6 X~Lddwenne 3

outside 'he went out. Then the his father that one said of him, hai dii
the son]
Yeil na tcenii'iyai 3 5 mUtiikfltnikkyaO3 ` haififil wfli xoikvU'i`
Way across he has gone M0ft kitnikkyad." And about it his iiiind myitt'fik"
out between
them
nafiya1 7 hai ax6LtCitdenne` 5 3
WAiSP` mi'xxa4 0 tcittesyai 41 haififf
studied that he had said of him. Sweathouse after it he went. And L~matcl,
wood Lhmatck-
X6Itelit.4 1 X~Lnani1it 4 MIL YlSX~fiihit " xfiLedUfif adenne xac 4
hai LU
with him With him it finished then the next day in the morning he said, IIWell
it burned. burning the glac
hwa" mini wifiiyal., 7 hai daiditdifii" haidaid teeYhauw" haififi sindaiI 6
me for it come along." The (explanation there it always came Then
was) out. you stay.
2p6yn the seat of honor back of the fire, CORNER; yi- a prefix common to names of direction; -diak x~kyatci
together with y1-, has the meaning Of UP' HILL and the derived meaning Of EAST. The word as a Fro~m him
whole applies to the bank back of the fire, where the belongings of the men are kept. 50
1aateien
7
2 xee- prefix meaning AWAY FROM, used with verbs of throwing; 4-- first modal; -ii.- third modal;
(see note 38)
-tseL verbal root, TO THROW, TO POUND; class II, con. 1, past def., 3d per, sing. 51
za- proba
28in- prefix of uncertain meaning, but employed of the act of rising from a reclining position: -Ha- negations WI
prefix of iteration; -is- 2d modal of durative force; -dftk-, d 3d modal; -kai verbal root of acts per- 62z& the o
formed with the legs (or other long instrument); class III, con. 3, past def., 3d per, sing. modal; -'we v
19 mitdaic the space in front of the house; mit- is probably the possessive prefix; compare mittsilda
tCeSeLuoen (se(
(see note 131).
'3 dt- proba
30 tee- prefix meaning OUT OF; -yai verbal root TO GO, used only in singular; class I, con. 2, past def.,
Indefinitenes.
3d per, sing. 4 CAtis emp
81 -tat FATHER, not used without a possessive prefix. 5
6 iL hasa r
521xE5L- indirect object 3d per, sing.; -ne verbal root TO SAY, TO SING, TO MAKE A NOISE; irreg. pasl
"6-zan verbi
def., 3a per, sing. 57
mit- pron(
33 ye6 adverb, probably from a demonstrative stem, employed of the most remote. 68
pc- prefix
84 mghikgt LAKE; -nikkpyas compare note 6. This is the name given to Trinity Summit, a mountain
-La verbal rot
of 6,500 feet elevation east of Hzupa valley. of duty or net
357wfii post-position which does not have a pronominal prefix for ad per, sing., except when an 55
1-deL verbi
adult Hupa is referred to.
36 -kyfiff HEART or VITALS, the organ of cogitation.
con. 3, past di
60xa- prefix
37 na- perhaps meaning DOWN, FROM ABOVE, is employed of things coming Into existence; -ija
3d per. dual.
verbal root TO GO, TO COME; class I, con. 1, past def., 3a per, sing. "i LiW monos
38 a- prefix found with verbs of thinking, saying, and doing. -Icut locative
59 tais- probably connected with lta- of taikyowi; -tlie BRUSH, SMALL SHRUBS.
62Com are t
40 infzx- pronominal prefix of which only 'in- is constant, the remainder of the syllable depending 63
m k- posse
on the sound which follows; -xa post-position, AFrER. I 54
Hna- prefix
41 fell- deictic, 3d per. sing.; -te- distributive prefix; -s- 2d modal of durative action; -yai TO GO; Class
a` Lu- GRASS;
I, coii. 3, past def., 3d per, sing. "1The positli
42 -lit verbal root TO BURN, in an intransitive sense only; class I, con. 3, past def., Ba per, sing.
6 711ti- prom
43 -no- prefix indicating the coming to a stop or end; -nil- for -nini-; class 1, con. 2, past def., Ba per.
61s- prefix f(
sing.
SIT, TO REM1AI
44 yisxetii-apparently a verb, of which yi- deictic 3d per. sing. (not an adult Hupa), -s- 2d modal, and 05
lwfinf- prcfi)
-xrfiu the root; compare yisx~an DAY ; -hiti conjunctional suffix WHEN.
45 .ra~seorns to terminate a discussion arid attract attention to some proposition. It is also used to
per. sing., foil
, yai- sign
give assent to a proposition.
Verbal root TO
4" ha'- pronominal prefix of 1st per, sing.; -a post-position meaning IN THE INTEREST OF, FOR THE
initransitive; c
BENEFIT OF.
;1 xi~ pronon
47 a'- prelix found in a few presents where the inception of the act is in the mind of the speaker
(compare §28); -iii- sign of 2d per. sing.; -ya- verbal root TO 00; -L suffix indicating the colitilluatioll
7-o/eC Verbal
of the act over space; class 1, conl. 1, imp. 2d per. sing. Tile vertj is sin
48dalO1(hdiiU, the meaning of this word as a whole is more apparent than that of its parts. It is
Jg
7.1da refix
here, -kiin- of i
employed to introduce the explanation of a mnystery. The lirst syllable, dai- or daid-, is apparerltly
the element which gives the ilidolinitoness to interrogative and indefinite pronouns. elk; class Ill,
7~fcfc- sign of
41 tee- the prefix mentioned ill tceniiiiqai (see 11ote 30), but here it is us~ed of comilig out of the unr
prefix melitioll
rounldinig forest into a glade; -auw)verbal root colinected With -otC UNDULATING MOVEMENT, as Of a
herd. class II, Cull. 1
I
I
[BULL. 40
cai 28 0
Laax
At once hai XoLifn aLtcitdenne xa1 hwa mi i wifiyaL xatehe 5 ' xOSOIi we 52
the his brother he told, " Well me for it come atong." "Well let it kill
21 then, him
C6Lduwenne
said of him, hai dihwW"53 niff enil" neskifn nax tak iLtCiin s5 kisxan "6
the something. You it is firs two three together stand
35 xoikvuUSf 3
mittik 17 yeCl1LaneF5" haiull tcittesdeL 5 9 mhifikittnikkyao xaisdeL 6
it his mind
between you must Then they started. AfiifikOtnikkya6 they went
4 them run ill.'" up.
,syai baiuin
,ent. And Lamatckuttcif 61 tc BnindeL 6 2 haiva nlikkyaqattse 6 naLauw 61
L6matckfittcifi t hey came There elks ivere
out. about
idenne xar {
he said, "Well hai Lokut 65 haiuI ' ax6Ltcitdenne nifi dikkyu'fii minna 67
the glade on. Then he said to him, "You here around
,auw 4 haififi sindafi lhwe yeu kai wtinnaiwedate-` haiftui yaixCxLtcwen 70
s came Then you stay. 1 distant along I will sit for Then they smelled
It. them." him.
xokyatci-i 7' xokut danakindlyan"
s of direction; -dsvk
tC 72 haitifi tak tceseLwen 7 4
From him they ran, on him they ran. Then three he killed
ST. The word as a
ept.
60aitcildenne the form used in speaking to children or non-Hupa adults. Compare az6tUcitdenne
l; -iL- third modal;
(see note 3S), which is the form ordinarily employed in speaking to adults.
61za- probably the same as za discussed in note 45; -te- is unknown; -he is used of concessions and
ining position: -na-
negations which are sweeping.
l root of acts per-
62xz- the object; -s- a prefix found in this verb only; -o- regularly indicates 3d per. of imp.; -L- 3d
sing.
modal; -we verbal root TO KILL (this form of it occurs in pres. indef. and imp.), compare -wen in
compare mifttrUda
tceseLwen (see note 74).
63di- probably connected with the demonstrative stem de; -hliti9 suffix often employed to give
i I, con. 2, past def..
indefiniteness. This word is often used to avoid a word of iI1 omen.
64 evl is employed to point a contrast.
66iL has a reciprocal force; -tcii post-position, TOWARD.
L NOISE; Irreg. past
w -zan verbal root employed of the standing position of trees.
5
7mit- pronominat prefix; -tiik post-position BETWEEN.
;e.
68ye- prefix INTO, the correlative of tce-; -I 3d modal (-fi- sign of 2d per. sing. is dropped before it);
immit, a mountain
-La verbal root TO RUN (the past has -Lat); -ne' suffix, often found in the imperative, having the force
of duty or necessity; class IV, con. 1, 2d per. sing. imp.
,., except when an
69-deL verbal root TO GO, used only of the dual or plural. Compare teiUesyai (see note 41); class I,
con. 3, past def., 3d per. dual.
60xa- prefix up, here up A HILLSIDE; the deictic (tcit-, is not used after za-); class I, con. 3, past def.,
nto existence: -ya
3d per. dual.
61 iOmonosyllabic noun GRAsS, LEAF; -7a- probably BORIIER; -tc- diminutive suffix; -kilt- UPON;
-teiii locative suffix TOWARD.
62Comjare tccniiyai (see notc 30), the singuilar. This is the dual.
iyllable depending 63
mik- possessive prefix; -kya- ANTLERS; -qoUsc SHARIP, POINTEI) (?). '
e4na- prefix used of indefinite motion over the ground. -Comparc tceftattU (see note 49).
n; -yai TO GO; class
&',L(-GRASS; -k-ilt ON.
e6The position of the speaker. Compare haiya, the morc remote positioll.
, 3a per. sing.
2, past def., Sa per.
4 vfnin- pronominal prefix; -na post-position AROUNID, ABOUT.
6
8s prefix found in the present of a few verbs (compare -.s- 2d modal prefix): -da verbal root TO
SIT, TO REMnAIN; -i suffiix, perhaps fron -nue (see note 5S).
, -s- 2d modal, and
9livfin- prefix use(d of pursuit or attemopteid action; -w- 2d mo(lal of inceptive force; -c- sign of 1st
per..sing., found only in the definite tenses, -da- verbal root TOsiT: -tCsulffix used to express the future.
Itisalsousedto
°OyIai- sign of plural, einployed of anliinals, etc. (for adult Hlipa -ya- is used); -xz- object; -tfwen
verbal root TO S5MELL, it hts L preceding it when the verb is transitive, bult does not have it wvheII it is
EREST OF, FOR THE
iltransitive; class It, COII. 1, paxt (ef., 3a per. pl.
71z6- proliomilnal prefix; -kya- lost-POsitloll AWAY I'RLLM; -4ciOi locative suffix.
ind of the speaker
7! -alte verbal roolt TO MOVE IN AN UNIDUI.ATiNG lINE. It is employed of the motiolL of a pack-train.
g the continuation
The verb is singular, sice e the hanih aIIa whole is the subject. Class 11, con 3. inst dcf., 3a per. sing.
7d3(- iprcfix whliclh literally meLaLs ON' S(METIIING HIGH10ER Tit IN TIIE GRO'Ni), perhaps figurative
of its parts. It is
here, -kill- of uniLcertaiin force; -di- 3d Iiio1lal; -uan verlbal root uised of thc movements ol deer aund
aid-, is apparently
elk; class IIl, cou ld, lpst def, 3a ler. sing.
is.
N tr- sign of 3d he'r, it v arilanLt for tIis- atlld tcis- found i tsi. i o ,sser
a. / ca (below); -or.-, se- is tlic
ing out of the sur
prefix mentioned iii mote 68, -,s- 2d miiodal, is dropped before L 3d modal; -aceu verbal root To KIl.L;
MOVEMENT, as of a
class 11, con. 3, past def., 3d per. sing.
U
- _. 1-- -.- I - -11-
I ---I---,
156 BUTREAUT OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

BOAS]
mikkyaq~ttse baiaili Lenaivanillai 7 5 baiya x~kht valweL7 6 haiifti

elks. Then they buiilt a fire. Therie on them .,it became Then tcitdenn(
night. he said,
X6Lif ax6LtC~itdenne dikky~ffi tcin" doji d~3xalwi17 9 xa6 naidiL 7 9 haiftfi k
his be said to him, "Here they say it is no one spends Come let us go
brother the night. home. Then a
menesgit " hai dikkyfti-i nehelveLte"8 haiu'fi dfinLftiihIwadifi- 82 xo-dje1 0 '
I am afraid." "The here we will spend Then several times his mind
the night."
aX6LtCitdenne yddifihit " x~tcii-i 8
tcawintcwdi aX6Ltcinne 85 MiL hai diki
he said it to him. Finally on his hie cried. He kept telling him with the lh
accoiuit
neskin
naidiL haiftiu kftt wilweL x~tesdfihwen " haiftif kittewestcee 87 firs
" Let us Then already itwvas night. It grew dark. Then the wvind blew.
go home." hai mik
the
yfldififhit aX6LtCitdenne xa-e tCWitC Lekilla"8 kfit ainfiwinsen 89
Finally he said to him, "Well, firewood gather. Already you have decided,
xaitefien
hwelweLte " hai'fti kfit Leyakillau Lenavanillai xz~hw6W 92 it looked for
'1 will spend Then already they gathered it. They builit a fire. Some wa-y them.
the night."' minnaikil
akitd~wenne9 3 xOwiflLithaiyalhitd~jit haiy6 adenne xa-8 naidiL dau9 5 it embrac
itsounded. It thundered. And then that one said, "Well, letusgo "No,"
home." teekinnif!
he shot ou
75 ie- prefix employed of motion mutu~ally toward or position near each other; -nai- (na) iterative
55 Note the
prefix often employed of habitual acts; -ya sign of plural; -nill, for -Bin- because of the following 1;
lai verbal root employed of moving or handling more than one object; class I, con. 2, past def., 3d thinking.
per. p1. The fire may have been ceremonial for the dressing of the elk. 57 tin- the fo
7Bye- sign of plural; -I- 3d modal, often of passive force; -weL form of a verbal root indicating the In az6Ltcitd,-
passing of the night. The verb may be considered as an active form with the object prefixed, tl~e position rend4
subject being some natural element or supernatural being, or as a passive form of which the subject is 6 dui- negat
the young men in question. SURFACE OF T
77 Of uncertain derivation, but probably connected with the root -W -si TO SPEAK. POSS~SSION. 'I
78 d5- negative prefix; -swil form of the verbal root discussed above;- HAND.
79 ne- iterative prefix used here with the meaning of returning whence they had set out; -diL.ver- 98-na IteratJ
bal root TO GO, other forms of it are -dii and -deL (see note 69); class I, con. 3, pres. indef., 1st per, dual. "IOxac- Prot
80 sac- object; -vcs-, of which u- is a prefix of uncertain meaning, and -s-, 2d modal (some sign for the initial positioi
0i X65-Posses
first person singular would be expected, hut a number of verbs have the first and third persons alike
in form); -qit verbal root TO FEAR; class IV, con. 3, pres. def., 1st per, sing. 102-dae verbi
83
81 nehe- object us, or subject of passive WE. 10 n&- prefix
82 dsin- stem or prefix found in expressions meaning SEVERAL OR NONE; -Loalf MANY, MUCH' -ku'6e -n6-; -xIWs yer
expresses uncertainly or indefiniteness; -diil locative suffix, but in numbers means TIMES. 10s -mn verbi
83 Ila- probably connected with the demonstrative stem ?15; -dil locative suffix common with I act without re
con. 2, past de
adverbs of time and place; -hit conjunctional suffix THEN-.
54 -tcswii verbatl root TO CRY, TO WEEP. 106-xO- prefiix
a -tcbi-, leein- would be expected, but the verb is quite irregular; -ne verbal root TO SAY; irreg., pare yeilLanee
Oust., 3d per. sing.
86 xi3- prelix giving absolute and imperson~al force to the verb, used especially of wveather condi- object i~snot I
tions; -lc- distribution; -s- 2d modal; -dt- 3d modal- -lueen verbal root, no doubt connected with -hei'i per, sing.
in Lularhi BLACK.
87 kit- prefix always found with the blowing of tlse wind, it may give the idea of continuiousnes~s to the act; cla~ss I
thle act; -sve- formative element which gives a durative force to verbs, especially in the passive; 258xa- prefix
-tecl verbal root indicating thle action of the Winid. Hupa); tell- prc
88 Le- see note 75; -ki- perliaps giving the force of local distribution; -I- for ilton account of the fol- sing.
lowing 1: -la shorter forni of the verbal root -bte (see note 91); class 1, coi. 1, 2d per, sing. inup. I'll -xll- objec
89 at- isppparen~tly the same prefix wvhicls occurs is axojLtitdlcnsic (below); -,Pl(- prefix of unknown usO7ni- pron,
force; -scai verbal root TO T~IINK, otlier fornis of it are -sill, -sic; irreg. class I, con. 1, 2d per. sing, imp. la HSAND. It W
h'iou--object or ~subject
NiR or I. with great fore
51-kit- cointraction for -4kivml-; -lou. verbal root; class T, con. 1, past def., 3d per, sing. "I da- prefix
Xuu- 'ii AY OR M1ANNER; -1110-0c, comspare dihavi)_ (see Isote 53). regards some p
.0 -kit- emlSSoyed ii t le 1)10(0 of -trit- wviei the subljecot is some unknown ageit
1127tCc- prefix
91x5-se note 92. -Lit v-erb~al roit emploved if nois'es suds as a footfall T]his verb in its imper- root TO SnOOT;
sonalI form is ii~ed for tI noi,uie of th- earl ho mke as wsellI as oufthundner. 213 nit- p3055cR
Evideiitly connected wvith du;- tile liegative Isrelix. OF TH E GROUND
L,7 6 haiunff tcitdenne' 5 kuft dai' x6' finniLdenne" 7 naidiL domukkainasifina 9
ie Then he said, "already some in vain I said to you, 'Let us go You did not want to."
time ago home.'
1
ie
naidiL"7
let us go
haitfi kilye anakitdenne x9 djox' 00 xfindifi haiyahitdjit xiwfifi
home. Then again it sounded still closer. And then for him
ilhwbdifi8 2 xodje"' tconda"lO' ax6LtCitdenne nax hai neskin mittfik yeflianee

ral times his mind was sorry. He said to him, "Two the firs between you must
run in
ine 85 miL hai dikkyfifi noninxfts' 03 miL haiflu kURt n6ltn 104 miL hai
ig him with the here it lights when." And already it dropped. Then the
neskin mittAk yexonan... haiyo naltn Laaix yikyUwifiyan`
;ewestcee 87 firs between they ran in. That one lit. Immediately it began to eat
wind blew. hai mikkyaq6ttse Laaiux vinneLyan 1'° haivahitdjit Laaiux xo'
the elks. Really it ate them up. And then at once in
iftwinsen 89 vain
i have decided, xaitenien' 0 lXoLtsan 0' 9 xokfttcifi yalton Laaiax bai neskifn
xshw6w 92 it looked for It found them. On them it jumped. Really the firs
Some way them.
minnaikitdelaii'i haififi x' mfikkft danadiiwiLeal... yuidiiihit adtini
didiL dau9 5 it embraced. Then in vain at it he shot. Finally all
tusgo "No,"
)me."
tcekinnifnits1 12 haiyaL hai x6Lin aLtCitdenne nittsitdfikana'we uS
he shot out. And the his brother he told, " Your quiver
i- (na) iterative 96Note the omission of the prefix a- when the object stands directly before a verb of saying or
,he following l;
thinking.
2, past def., 3d
97 an- the form a- takes when followed by n; -niL- indirect object of 2d per. sing. Compare -zbL,
in azUcitdenne (below). These indirect objects are really adverbial phrases containing a post-
indicating the position rendered in full by WITH YOU.
et prefixed, the
98do- negative prefix; -ndk- pronominal prefix; -kai- post-position AFTER; -na- prefix OVER THE
Ihthe subject is SURFACE OF THE GRoUND; -8-2d modal; -ifl- sign of 2d per. sing.; -'a verbal root TO HAVE IN ONE'S
PosSESSION. The literal meaning of this phrase is said to be, YOU DID NOT CARRY AFTER IT IN YOUR
HAND.
-na- iterative prefix. Compare akitdenne (see note 93), employed of the first occurrence.
!t out; -diL ver- Imz4 dj- probably for z6tC RIGHT, EXACT, tc having become dj because of their change from final to
!f., 1st per. dual.
initial position.
)me sign for the
I0 z5- possessive prefix; -dje MIND.
rd persons alike
2-dae verbal root TO WASTE AWAY.
I' nd- prefix denoting a position of rest on the surface of the ground; -nill- 2d modal required by
-no-; -ztxa verbal root TO PA85 THROUGH THE AIR.
Y, MUCH; -1Lou'
IN -tAn verbal root TO JUMP, TO &LIGHT. As is usual with Hupa verbs, the root defines the kind of
MES. .
act without reference to the fact of its beginning or ending, which is expressed by prefixes. Class IV
common with
con. 2, past def., 3d per. sing.
106-.z- prefix of unknown meaning; -an verbal root TO RUN, used of dual and plural only; com-
pare yeUiLane' (p. 155); class I, con. 1, past def., 3d per. dual.
TO SAY; irreg.,
16' yi- deictic of the third person when not a Hupa adult; -kyfi- 1st modal prefix used when the
object is not known or not definitely named; -yan verbal root TO EAT; class I, con. 1, past def., 3a
weather condi-
eted with -huyin per. sing.
107 -neL- contraction for -nuwiL-, of which the prefix evidently has reference to the completion of
the act; class 11, con. 1, past def., 3a per. sing.
,ntinuousness to
104 ra- prefix indicating i'URsUIrT or SEARCH (the form zai- is due to the subject not being an adult
in the passive;
Hupa); teft- probably a contractioli for -Muzfii-; -cn verbal root TO l.OOK; clasq I, con. 1, pastdef., 3a per
ount of the fol- sing.
1F7-z5- object; -L- 3d modal; -tsan verbal root TO SEE, TO FIND; ('lass II, con. 4, past, 3aLper. Sillg.
silng. imp. 110 tnin- pronominal prefix; -nai- post-position AROUND; -lai verbal rootapparently connected with
ix of unkknown
la HAND. It was explailed thatt ti1C Wiings had teeth onl them; these the bird drove into the tree
I per. sing. imp.
with great force.
111da- prefix P'OSITION JIlHllElt THAN TIIE EARTH, -naddt- inidicating at position perpendicular ns
regards some plane; -'a- verbal root TO HlAVE POSITION: -l suffix denoting repeated acts.
112 tce- prefix OUT OF; -kbi- prefix used of ateLs coliipleted, the mcans being exhlauisted: -its verbal
root TO SHOOT; class 1, con. 2, pest def., 3d per. sing.
-b in its imper-
113 nit- possessive prefix, -tsitdfikoeanaEl THE QUIVER OF FISHER-SKIN; -Ha- prefix OVER TIIE SURFACE
OF TH E GROUND; -we verbal root TO CARRY.
U
hwiiwUiLWUlL"1 haiyaL. xowaY1LwaLI` yidi fihit X6Lfikai" 6l tesyayei"I7

Throw to me." And he threw it to Finally dawn came
him.
x6adtindifi yiidifihit naxaits... nactses nandiyan" 5 haiyahitdjit
everywhere. At last two only arrows were left. And then
missa-ekiflits"~ haivahitdjit naltsit"2 tsisseLWen haiyaL tcenaYndeL
he shot in its And then it fell. He killed it. And they came out.
mouth.
natesdeL ku't tcisseLWeii haiya medildifil naindeL a'tifika-'fnte...
They started AlIready he killed it. There Medildifi they arrived. All kinds-
home.
ada... tcittes-an"2 bai~ift La towifikyau.. yax oLtCitdenne medil
for be came to own. Then Once the river wa They said to him, "Canoe
himself high.
taintfiw"16 hai d~1lex~tc~yawenne... X6 wflnnalyaYsdeL ...
take out of The he did not do it. In vain they tried.
the water."
2 3
d~hetaya'istan ' haiya xanalsdeL haiuffh Lftunnflflh tceniiiyai
They did not take There they came tip Then alone he went out.
it out, again.
hai medil xa~istan taikya.w mlittsitdae " datc~iwintan -haiyf~ka
The canoe he hrought up. Sweat-house its roof he put it onl. This waly
2
kittese~x anfiwest~e 1
Smart his nature was.
114htvii- indirect object; -'WftL- from the prefix -wa- (used of handing an object to any one) and L
3d modal, a becomes ft in 2d per. sing., probably because of the accent; -WfiL, verbal root TO
THROW A LONG OBJEcr; class II, con. 2, 2d per, sing. imp.
1
" zfiz- indirect object; -iL, -'niL would be expected; -waL another form of the root in h)'AlLVWtL;
class II, con. 2, past def., 3d per, sing.
ll686-see note 86 above; -L-, prefix found with many adjectives; -kai root of adjective WHITE. The
"Dawn maiden " is meant by xOd~lkai.
21
?-yjei suffix giving emphasis to verb indicating the accomplishment of acts which are gradual, or
which require several attempts.
I11 nlaX- TWO; -aifs limiting suffix ONLY.
119di- 3d modal; -yan verbal root used of the position of certain ohjects, such as baskets, etc.
1IO0 mi8- possessive prefix; -$at- MOUTH.
121na- prefix DOWN; -I- 3d modal; -tsit verbal root TO FALL.
2
12 a'til ALI.; -ka- suffix with adjectives and adverbs, KIND, WAY; -le verbal root TO APPEAR, To
HAVE A CERTAIN NATURE.
1523areflexive pronoun; -aposgt-positionF~oR. Comparehoa (see note 46).
124 Compare tCiLcan, note 7, p. 153.
I25 f6- the more common word for water in Athapascan dialects (in 1lupa it is found in compounds
and is applied to the ocean); -kyeai adjectival root TO BECOMEF LARGE.
l~ta- prefix OUT OF THE WATER; -inl- sign of 2d per. sing.; -tilwv verbal root emlployed of long
objects only; this form is confined to the indefinite tenses; class I, ,onl. 1, 2(1 ler. silng. inlp.
127do. negative prefix; -he- adds emphasis to the neglltion (seec note 51,Ip. 155); -x5- not know
deictic; -ne verbal root TO DO A SPECIFIED ACT; irreg. past def., 3d per. sing.
28
' wilin see note 35.
70
I -tan verbal root, another form of -Idc(see Ilote 126).
1IaLfl- probably from La' ONE.
13172,1(1- possessive prefix; -t~sitdac ROOF ()
157 wes see note 87; -fe (see note 1122).

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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

WITH ILLUSTRATIVE SKETCHES

By ROLAND B. DIXON, P. E. GODDARD, WILLIAM JONES

PLINY EARLE GODDARD

88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULi.. 40

Page §§ 20-88. Discussion of grammar-Continued Page

§§ 79-86. Syntactic particles-Continued

By PLINY EARLE GODDARD

§ 1. DISTRIBUIMON OF THE ATEAPASCAN FAMILY

92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

94 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

series are represented by stops, but mostly by surds only. In the

98 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS]

i he picked up § 5. Enumeration of Grammatical Processes

102 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS]

§ 10. Denominating Concepts OPENING.

§ 11. Predicating Concepts In the third

the objects being characterized as long, round, flat plural in number,

hose denot- § 16. Time

Leyanillai they built a fire

re Future acts which are contingent on human will or outward cir-

106 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL. 40

formation, fall into five classes: xaslintau r'

§§ 18-20 kosky )bulli

As far as is known, the only prefixes employed in noun-formation

1. -XOi INHABITING; added to the nanic of a place.

2. -tat FREQUENTS. Used of plants or animals.

108 108 ~~BUREAU

§ 23. Verbs as Xoutns

ik) nanhya it comes down (rain)

Possession is indicated by prefixes which are shortened forms of

limiting noun or pronoun. Many nouns, upon taking the prefixes,

,he prefixes, Verbs (§§ 28-75)

ForWm)ative Elemnents (§§ 29-50)

6. Le- has the general meaning of the converging or nearness of ob-

10. na- (2) or nana expresses motion downward or toward the

18. da- rie

tasyahuun,one ought to go away 215.8 (ya to go)

tresses motion 25. tsai- means AWAY FROM in expressions of fleeing.

116 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

§ 32. Adverbial Prefixes, Second Position Several elei

mn maniLtewit he pushed it back 163.1 few ca

118 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40

120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

§ 36. Pronominal Prefixes, Sixth Position

with the intransitive meaning; and L is connected with a transitive

122 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS]

§ 39. Temporal Suffixes

Certain suffixes are temporal, but also have a modal force.

It predicts a 8. -miiA. This suffix, which is not of frequent occurrence, indicates

There are two suffixes which appear to be adverbial.

§ 45. Variation of Verbal Roots

The greater number of verbal roots undergo a change of form or

126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 40 BOAS ] I

is characterized by stronger vowels: for example, a is found in the I -yan,

nd in the -yan, -yqen, -yauw to eat

esent defi- §48. Roots with Two Forms