Human

Development:
ADOLESENCE

By:
C. Settley

2016
 Adolescence
• The stage between childhood and adulthood.
• Physical change: size and form.
• Cognitive skills.
• Social involvements.
• Views about themselves.
• Period of ‘storm and stress’- emotional turmoil/rebellious.
• Cultural and social environment plays a major role in shaping
behaviour and experiences.
• Biological changes are universal.
• This is the period in which the individual is no longer a child, but not
an adult.
 Adolescence

• Early Adolescence: 11-14 years

• Middle Adolescence: 14-18 years
• Late Adolescence: 18-21 years
• Read ‘ Transitions into adulthood’. Page
54 in Middleton.

• Note that certain traditional societies

celebrate the commencement of
adolescence.
 A Stormy phase?
• The term 'storm and stress' was
coined by G. Stanley Hall in
Adolescence, written in 1904. Hall
used this term because he viewed
adolescence as a period of inevitable
turmoil that takes place during the
transition from childhood to adulthood.

• The perception of young people as

emotional volcanoes ready to explode
has taken on a life of its own.

• NB. Not all adolescence go through

‘a stormy phase’.
 A Stormy phase?
•1) Conflict with parents:
•Adolescents tend to rebel
against authority figures as
they seek greater
independence and
autonomy.
 A Stormy phase?
• 2) Mood disruption: Hormonal changes and the
psychological stress of adolescence can cause
uncontrollable shifts in emotions.
 A Stormy phase?
• 3) Risky behavior:
• The combination of a
neurological need for
stimulation and
emotional immaturity
lead to increased risk-
taking behavior during
adolescence.
 Developmental tasks of an adolescent -
Page 388 in Human development textbook
• Acceptance of changed physical appearance.
• Development of gender role identity.
• Development of cognitive skills and acquisition of knowledge.
• Development of own identity.
• Development of independence from parents and other adults.
• Selection of and preparation of a career.
• Development of social responsible behaviour.
• Acceptance of and adjustment to certain groups.
• Establishments of heterosexual relationships.
• Development of strong emotional bonds with another person.
• Preparation of marriage and family responsibilities.
• Achievement of financial independence.
• Development of moral concepts and values that could serve as guidelines
for behaviour.
• Development of a value system based on realistic and scientific world view.
• Development of a philosophy of life.
 Physical development
• Females:
• breast development
• changes in body shape and height
• growth of pubic and body hair
• the start of periods (menstruation).
 Physical development
• Males:
• growth private parts
• changes in body shape and height
• erections with ejaculation
• growth of body and facial hair
• changes to voice.
 Physical development
• Brain: Changes in the teenage brain affects behaviour and social skills.
Improved self-control and skills in planning, problem-solving and decision-
making.

• Bones, organs and body systems: Changes in size and capacity. Lung
performance improves, limbs grow, and bones increase in thickness and
volume. The chest and shoulders get broader in boys. In girls, the hips and
pelvis get wider.

• Clumsiness and coordination: Because children grow so fast during this

period, their centres of gravity change and their brains might take a while to
adjust. Individuals might experience more clumsiness or poor coordination
for a while.
 Physical development
• Physical strength and sports skills: Muscle strength and size increase
during this period. Hand–eye coordination will continue to improve over
time.

• Nutrition and weight: Weight gain and develop new nutritional needs.
Teenagers’ stomachs and intestines increase in size, and they need an
increase in energy, proteins and minerals. Foods with plenty of calcium and
iron are particularly important at this age to support bone growth and blood
circulation.

• Sleep and rest: Sleep patterns change, with many children starting to stay
awake later at night and then sleeping until later in the day. Also, the brain
re-sets the body clock during puberty. Children going through puberty need
more sleep than they did just before puberty started.
 Physical development
• Hygiene: Sweat glands in the armpits and groin area are activated for the
first time during puberty, and this can lead to increased body odour.

• Acne and skin problems: Glands in the skin on the face, shoulders and
back start to become more active during puberty, producing more oil. This
can lead to skin conditions such as pimples and acne.
 Adolescent growth spurt
• The human adolescent growth spurt is the
rapid and intense increase in the rate of
growth in height and weight that occurs
during the adolescent stage of the human
life cycle. The human adolescent growth
spurt is noted in virtually all of the long
bones of the body and most other skeletal
elements.
• Page 389 in Human Development
 Strengths of adolescents and
young people- page 56 in Middleton
• Positive contributions:
• They are energetic and enthusiastic
• They are creative and full of ideas
• They are capable of great loyalty
• They are concerned about the principles
of truth and justice
• They wish to improve their communities
• They believe that they can change the
world.
 Cognitive development
in adolescence (Formal operational thinking)
• From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move
from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to
note that:
• Each child moves ahead at his or her own rate in ability to think in
more complex ways.
• Each child develops his or her own view of the world.
• Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork
long before they can use them for personal problems.
• When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a
child’s ability to think in complex ways.
• The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-
making. This can occur in either positive or negative ways.
 Cognitive development:
Early adolescence:
• Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making
in school and at home.

• Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.

• Begins to question authority and society standards.

• Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on a
variety of topics.
 Cognitive development:
Middle adolescence:
• Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes.

• Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns.

• Often questions more extensively.

• Often analyzes more extensively.

• Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?).

• Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I?).

• Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want?)

• Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans.

• Begins to think long-term.

• Uses systematic thinking begins to influence relationships with others.

 Cognitive development:
Late adolescence:
• Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal
decision-making.

• Has increased thoughts about more global concepts such as justice, history,
politics, and patriotism.

• Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns.

• May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views.

• Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions.

• Begins to focus thinking on emerging role in adult society.

 Absolute thinking
• Kramer, Kahlbach & Goldstone (1992) are of the opinion that the
thought of adolescents are characterised by absolute thinking.
Absolute thinkers:

• Categorise things into fixed characteristics.

• They believe that the world is inherently stable and fixed. Any change that occurs is
the result of external forces.
• Perceive that the environment has a more important influence than the individual.
• They are of the opinion that there is only one cause for a certain result.
• They tend to believe that there is no exception for a rule.
• They believe that their existing knowledge cannot be contradicted by facts obtained.
• They place things into categories that are not changed.
 Egocentrism
• Adolescent egocentricity: Adolescents
think that others perceive them the same
way they perceive themselves.
• They believe that their own thoughts are
shared by others and are prominent in the
thoughts of others.
• The inability of adolescents
to decenter from their own focus.
 Egocentrism
• Adolescent egocentricity manifests in 2 forms:
• 1) the imaginary audience (the inability of
adolescents to distinguish between their own
ideas and conceptions and those of others)

• 2) personal fable (the inability of adolescents to

distinguish between ideas that are unique to
themselves and those that are universally
applicable to humankind)
 Egocentrism:
Imaginary audience
• Is the result of becoming extremely self
conscious.
• They think they are the focus of all attention,
• That they are the interest of all others.
• As if they are being watched by an audience
(Buis & Thompson, 1989).
• The effects are evident in adolescents’
increased concern about their physical
appearance.
• Eg paying attention to hairstyles and clothing.
 Egocentrism: Personal fable
• Results from the conception of adolescents that
they are unique and their personal experiences
are unlike those of others.
• Because adolescents think of themselves as
unique and special, they think they are
invulnerable and indestructible.
• They might think that something may happen to
others but never to them.
• The personal fable is also related to high risk
behaviour.
Reasons for the emergence of
adolescent egocentrism
• The entry into new social environments.
• Identity development may lead to feelings of
uniqueness and invulnerability.
• Greater in girls than in boys probably due to
socialisation.
• Parental rejection enhances self consciousness
and egocentrism.
• Brought about by formal operational thought.
 Personality development
• Erikson’s theory: identity vs identity confusion
• Identity crisis: temporary period of
identity crisis.

• Psychosocial moratorium: when adolescents

find themselves and their roles as adults.
Investigation of careers and ideologies,
fantasizing about roles and identifying with other
people.
 The development of an identity
• In order to develop an own identity, adolescents have to master tasks:
• Ego-synthesis /adolescent have to form a continuous, integrated, unified
image of the self.
• He/she should feel that he is still the same person, regardless of time or
changes.
• It is the development of an own identity with the integration of all
experiences
• To create a whole picture of themselves regardless of changes
• That takes place over time.
• Forming of socio-cultural identity/ it include the value-orientations of his
culture.
• Adolescents are able to integrate and create and identity that follow within
the values of their culture .
 The development of an identity
• Establishment of Gender-role identity/ they establish their male
or female role.
• Whereby adolescents reaches sexual maturity.
• They identify with being male or female and incorporate the
expectations at the gender.
• Career identity/ Adolescents realise their strong points and talents
in order to make a career choice.
• Own value system/ rethink certain values in order to form own
basic philosophy
• Which may serve as an anchor to their lives.
• To be able to decide for themselves which values they would like to
apply to their own lives that will result in an own identity.
 Identity confusion
• When adolescents are indecisive about
themselves and their roles.
• Results in the following:
• Identity foreclosure:
• Identity foreclosure is a commitment to something without personal
exploration of self. This often results in delays of optimal
psychological health and self esteem.
• Negative identity:
• When adolescents adopt an identity that is opposite what is
expected of them. Usually occurs when adolescents feel that the
roles their parents and society expect them to fulfill are unattainable
or unappealing, yet they cannot find any alternatives that are truly
their own.
 Factors which influence
identity development
• Self activity:
• Cognitive ability- ?

• Influence of parents-?

• Cultural historical influences- ?

 Social development
Page 444 in Human Development
• Parent adolescent relationship:
• Conflict
• Generation- gap
• Autonomy and attachment:
• Cognitive autonomy- making decisions and assuming responsibility for these
choices.
• Behavioral autonomy- making choices regarding friendships.
• Emotional autonomy- being self reliant and independent of their parents and being
able to exert self control.
• Moral/value autonomy- forming an own value system that could serve as guideline
fro their own behaviour.
• Attachment bonds
• Separation anxiety
• Parenting styles
 Social development-
• Peer group relationships:
• Structure of the peer group
• In adolescence, the peer group is more structured and exclusive
than during middle childhood.

• Dexter Dunphy (1963) engaged in participant observation, whereby

he followed up contacts with young people in their various social
settings. He tried not to interrupt their conversations and dressed
casually (in the same style as the young people). Dunphy made
observations about the structure and functions of groups of young
people. The observations remain undisputed.
 Stages of peer group formation
• Dunphy found that in early adolescence (Stage 1), young people
formed cliques, usually small groups of the same sex. Each clique
was relatively isolated from the others. These cliques met often to
plan social activities and share secrets and gossip. Membership
requires conformity (particularly in terms of dress) and their is often
a group member whether it is realised or not. In order to have
continued membership with the clique it is required that members
share similar rates of progress in establishing and forming close
personal relationships with members of the opposite sex.
 Stages of peer group formation
• Crowds formed in Stage 2 when these unisex cliques interacted with
one another. You had to belong to a clique before you could belong
to a crowd. Crowd activities commonly seen on weekends, at the
beach, shopping malls, parties etc.

• In Stage 3 there were changes in the structure of the crowd with the
higher ranking clique members forming heterosexual cliques-
reflects the start of the process of dating.

• By stage 4 there was a fully developed crowd, composed of a

number of couples in close association with one another.

• In Stage 5 couples begin to go their separate ways

 Social development
• Conformity
• Refers to shaping actions and beliefs to align with the opinions and
behaviors of others.
• Adolescents typically feel pressure to conform.
• Teens unable to develop a sense of autonomy to deal with peer
pressures in middle school often continue with the struggle to create
self-esteem and confidence in high school.

• Belonging: Noted psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests a hierarchy of

human needs, and one of the needs on the hierarchy is the urge to belong
and be accepted by friends, family and peers. Teens want to belong to a
family, but most teenagers also want to establish trust relationships with
peers. Teens join gangs and cliques and select friends in an effort to feel a
sense of belonging. One way teens achieve this sense is to dress and act
like friends or members of the clique or gang. Conformity for some teens
helps satisfy the belonging need.
 Social development
• Friendships
• Generally adolescent friendships exist within a large social structure of peer
relationships.
• Each adolescent has a role to play, with each being aware of their status
within that group. The same principal applies with close friendships.
• Popular children hang out with popular kids, successful kids with other
successful children etc.
• While the peer group is responsible for setting standards for
unacceptable/acceptable behaviour, it is in the close relationships that
children find a sense of security and support. It is a place where children
can voice their feelings and exchange information without feeling pressured
or threatened.
• Young teens struggle with who they are and who they’ll become when they
grow up. These are scary issues for kids this age so they often feel
confused and anxious. Belonging to a group of friends provides some
answers to these questions.
 Social development
• Young men and women view and use friendships very differently.

• GIRLS:
• In early adolescence, the focus of friendship is generally common activities, with emotional
commitment quite minimal.
• Towards mid-adolescence there is a strong emphasis on loyalty and support as young women
become most anxious about rejection or exclusion from same-sex friendships.
• In later adolescence, friendships become a lot easier as they are starting to develop more of a
sense of self identity. It is at this stage that young women tend to appreciate each other’s
differences and individuality.

• BOYS:
• Young men’s friendships rarely reach the depth of intimacy that young women may achieve.
Larger peer groups are generally more important than individual friendships.
• Middle-adolescent boys have tended to describe their friends in similar ways to pre-adolescent
girls, with no emphasis on emotional support, security or closeness.
 Social development
• Romantic relationships

• Group activities
• Group dating
• Informal dating
• Serious involvement
 Moral development
• Kohlberg theory
• For Piaget, the highest stage of moral development,
characteristic of adolescence, is moral autonomy.
Dependent on the attainment of formal or abstract
reasoning ability, moral autonomy commonly begins at
puberty. In a game situation, like monopoly, chess,
dominos- the adolescent reveals interest not only in the
rules by which the game is played but also in possible
new rules to make the game more interesting or more
challenging.
 References
• https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/media-spotlight/201309/storming-adulthood
.
• https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/Encyclopedia/Content.aspx?ContentTypeID=90&Co
.
• https://www.goconqr.com/en/p/230410-dunphy-s-formation-of-social-groups--1963--
• http://www.livestrong.com/article/559761-conformity-in-teenagers/
• Asher, S & Gottman, J. (1981). The Development of Children's Friendships.
Cambridge University Press, Melbourne.
• Rubin, R. (1980). Children's Friendships. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
• Slee, P. (2002). Child, Adolescent and Family Development. Cambridge
University Press, Australia.
• Marijose- PPP Template