Covered in This Tutorial: Ohm's Law
Covered in This Tutorial: Ohm's Law
Covered in This Tutorial: Ohm's Law
A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller one. Using just two
series resistors and an input voltage, we can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the input.
Voltage dividers are one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics. If learning Ohm’s law was
like being introduced to the ABC’s, learning about voltage dividers would be like learning how to
spell cat.
The Circuit
A voltage divider involves applying a voltage source across a series of two resistors. You may see it
drawn a few different ways, but they should always essentially be the same circuit.
The Equation
The voltage divider equation assumes that you know three values of the above circuit: the input
voltage (Vin), and both resistor values (R1 and R2). Given those values, we can use this equation to
find the output voltage (Vout):
Calculator
Have some fun experimenting with inputs and outputs to the voltage divider equation! Below, you
can plug in numbers for Vin and both resistors and see what kind of output voltage they produce.
5
Vin = V
1700
R1 = Ω
3300
R2 = Ω
3.30
Vout = V
Or, if you adjust Vout, you’ll see what resistance value at R2 is required (given a Vin and R1).
Simplifications
There are a few generalizations that are good to keep in mind when using voltage dividers. These
are simplifications that make evaluating a voltage dividing circuit just a little easier.
First, if R2 and R1 are equal then the output voltage is half that of the input. This is true regardless
of the resistors' values.
If R2 is much larger (at least an order of magnitude) than R1, then the output voltage will be very
close to the input. There will be very little voltage across R1.
Conversely, if R2 is much smaller than R1, the output voltage will be tiny compared to the input. Most
of the input voltage will be across R1
Applications
Voltage dividers have tons of applications, they are among the most common of circuits electrical
engineers use. Here are just a few of the many places you’ll find voltage dividers.
Potentiometers
A potentiometer is a variable resistor which can be used to create an adjustable voltage divider.
A swing of about 2.45V from light to dark. Plenty of resolution for most ADCs!
Level Shifting
More complicated sensors may transmit their readings using heavier serial interfaces, like
a UART,SPI, or I2C. Many of those sensors operate at a relatively low voltage, in order to conserve
power. Unfortunately, it’s not uncommon that those low-voltage sensors are ultimately interfacing
with a microcontroller operating at a higher system voltage. This leads to a problem of level shifting,
which has a number of solutions including voltage dividing.
For example, an ADXL345 accelerometer allows for a maximum input voltage of 3.3V, so if you try to
interface it with an Arduino (assume operating at 5V), something will need to be done to step down
that 5V signal to 3.3V. Voltage divider! All that’s needed is a couple resistors whose ratio will divide a
5V signal to about 3.3V. Resistors in the 1kΩ-10kΩ range are usually best for such an application;
let’s
3.3kΩ resistors (orange, orange, red) are the R2’s, 1.8kΩ resistors are the R1’s. An example of
voltage dividers in a breadboard, level shifting 5V signals to 3.24V. (Click to see a larger view).
Keep in mind, this solution only works in one direction. A voltage divider alone will never be able to
step a lower voltage up to a higher one.
Application Dont’s
As tempting as it may be to use a voltage divider to step down, say, a 12V power supply to
5V,voltage dividers should not be used to supply power to a load.
Any current that the load requires is also going to have to run through R 1. The current and voltage
across R1 produce power, which is dissipated in the form of heat. If that power exceeds the rating of
the resistor (usually between ⅛W and 1W), the heat begins to become a major problem, potentially
melting the poor resistor.
That doesn’t even mention how inefficient a voltage-divider-power-supply would be. Basically, don’t
use a voltage divider as a voltage supply for anything that requires even a modest amount of power.
If you need to drop down a voltage to use it as a power supply, look into voltage regulators or
switching supplies.
Our goal is to calculate Vout, what if we applied Ohm’s law to that voltage? Easy enough, there’s just
one resistor and one current involved:
Sweet! We know R2’s value, but what about I2? That’s an unknown value, but we do know a little
something about it. We can assume (and this turns out to be a big assumption) that I1 is equivalent
to I2. Alright, but does that help us? Hold that thought. Our circuit now looks like this, where I equals
both I1 and I2.
What do we know about Vin? Well, Vin is the voltage across both resistors R1 and R2. Those resistors
are in series. Series resistors add up to one value, so we could say:
Ohm’s law at its most basic! Vin = I * R. Which, if we turn that R back into R1 + R2, can also be written
as:
And since I is equivalent to I2, plug that into our Vout equation to get:
And that, my friends, is the voltage divider equation! The output voltage is a fraction of the input
voltage, and that fraction is R2 divided by the sum of R1 and R2.