Buildng Construction PDF
Buildng Construction PDF
Buildng Construction PDF
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 7
Types of Buildings STAIRS
CHAPTER 2 Introduction
Stairs
BUILDING DRAWINGS
Ladders
CHAPTER 3 Ramps
Elevators
SITE WORKS
Escalators
Site Survey
CHAPTER 8
Site and Soil Investigation
Site Selection DOORS AND WINDOWS
Setting out
Introduction
CHAPTER 4 Doors
Windows
FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 9
Shallow Foundations
Deep Foundations ROOFS AND ROOF COVERINGS
CHAPTER 5 Introduction
Types of Roofs
WALLS
Shell And Dom Structures
Introduction Prefabricated Building Systems
Types of walls
CHAPTER 10
External walls
Internal walls FINISHINGS
Cavity walls
Opening in walls
CHAPTER 6
FLOORS
Introduction
Ground Floor
Upper Floor
Floor Finishes
1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
A construction is something made by man for one purpose or another. It may be a road, a bridge,
a dam, a dwelling place, building, etc.
Building is defined as any structure for what so ever purpose and what so ever material constructed
and every part of their whether used as human habitation or not and includes foundation, walls,
floors, roofs, etc. the art of constructing building for different purpose according to its design and
specification is called building construction.
A building can be generally considered as a structure consisting of floors, walls and roofs
erected to provide covered space for different uses such as residence, business, entertainment,
workshop, etc.
Buildings come in a wide amount of shapes and functions, and have been
adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors:
Building materials available
Weather conditions
land prices
Specific uses
Aesthetic reasons
ground conditions
Building - consists not only of the house, but also the site, road, paths, the yard, the garden, the
gate, the fence, etc.
The practice of planning, designing, constructing, and operating buildings is most usually a
collective effort of different groups of professionals and trades. Depending on the size,
complexity, and purpose of a particular building project, the project team may include:
III. Contractor
These are groups established mainly as commercial companies, that contract to construct
development projects.
Responsibility of contractors:
Carry out a full site investigation prior to submission of tender,
Submit tender,
Plan, Program, Control the construction process.
Notify the consultant about delays, discrepancies,
Effect all payments to his employees, suppliers, subcontractors,
Rectify all defects on completion of works, etc
Provide post occupancy repair & maintenance if required.
A. Statutory Authorities
These bodies offer technical advice during design and construction in their respective areas.
E.g. EEPCO, AAWSA, Fire Authority - requires meeting their specific requirements. Thus early
information to these authorities is required.
These bodies offer the basic Land permit and building permit.
Building Team:
Architect
Civil Engineer – Structural, Sanitary and related designs
Construction Manager – Supervising the Planning and Construction Phase
Urban Planner
Quantity Surveyor
For construction of house among other factors the following requirements must be satisfied:-
A site on which to build a house
Permission for building house from local authorities
Materials for building a house
Skilled laborers for erection of house
Financial sources and
Professionals, such as architect and engineer.
As each one of these requires money, the financial aspect is therefore very important and the cost
must be always considered during all the planning and building stage.
All buildings are classified into various types depending up on the following basis:-
residential building
These shall include houses occupied by persons where living accommodations are
provided. Private residences, apartment building, dormitories, hotels, etc. are included
in this category.
Educational building
This shall include any building used for educational instructions, such as schools,
colleges and university buildings.
Institutional building
These shall include any building which is used for purposes such as; medical or other
treatment or care of persons suffering from physical and mental illness or disease and
care of infants or people detained involuntarily for a period of time. These building
provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants and include hospitals, prison, etc.
Assembly building
These include any building or part of building where a group of people congregate or
gather for amusement, recreation, social, political, religious and similar purposes. For
instance, theaters, exhibition halls, place of worship and public transport terminals are
included in this category.
Business building
The building used for transaction of business for the keeping of accounts and records
and other similar purpose are called business building. Garages, barber, shops, city
halls, are classified in this group.
Mercantile building
Any building or part of it which is used as shops, stores, market, and for display and
sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail.
Industrial building
Any building in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated,
assembled, finished or processed.
Storage building
The building used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares, or
merchandise, vehicles or animals are called storage building. Ware houses, cold storage,
etc. are examples of storage building.
Hazardous building
The building is used for the storage, handling, manufacturing or processing of highly
compostable or explosive material are called hazardous building
1.2.2 Classification based on types of construction material
Under this categories, building are classified on the bases of resistance to fire of the elements of
the buildings. All materials deteriorate in excess of heat and the degree of fire resistance denotes
the time a particular element of structure will continue to function in a fire.
Sub-structure
Super structure
Sub-structure: is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil.
Super-structure: is that part of the structure which is above the ground level, and which serves
the purpose of its intended use.
The Loads in a building are commonly classified as: dead loads, super imposed or live loads and
wind loads.
Dead loads: are static loads due to the weight of the respective structural members, i.e. the wall
partitions, roofs, slabs and all other permanent fixtures in the building.
Live loads: also called as super-imposed loads, consist of moving or variable loads, due to
people or occupants, their furniture, temporary stores, machinery, etc.
Wind loads: are loads, which can cause uplift on a building and reduce the pressure on the
foundation on the windward side and increase pressure on the leeward side. The effect of wind
pressure increases with the height of the building.
2. Dimensional stability
Refers to the resistance to dimensional changes in building materials and structures caused due
to:
Elastic and plastic deformations as a result of applied loads
Expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature and moisture content.
3. Comfort and convenience
Should be satisfied by proper planning of the buildings and its units.
Optimum utilization of space
Lighting considerations
Orientation
4. Resistance to moisture penetration
The presence of moisture in any building structure deteriorates the materials strength,
reduces durability and could cause partial or total failure of the structure.
5. Fire protection
A building structure should not ignite easily
A building should provide means of fire escape
A building should be designed to reduce the spread of fire
6. Heat insulation
The building should be designed in such a way to maintain fairly constant temperature of the
internal environment independently of the varying climatic conditions externally.
7. Day light and ventilation
Day lighting is essential to promote the activities carried in the building and to create pleasant
inside environment.
Ventilation is essential to prevent undue concentration of odours, fumes, dust, etc. and maintain
suitable condition for the user of the building.
8. Sound insulation
The insulation of noise is a very important requirement for buildings such as hospitals,
educational institutions, offices and residential building located in noisy areas.
9. Durability
The durability of a building is defined as the time over which a building remains serviceable and
depends mainly on
Type of building materials
Environmental exposure
Quality of workmanship
Degree of maintenance, etc.
10. Security
Due considerations should be given in designing and constructing external walls and
openings to protect a building against burglary or theft
11. Economy
The designer must exercise economy at every stage of planning, design, construction,
maintenance
CHAPTER 2
BUILDING DRAWINGS
The building of any structure is described by a set of related drawings that give the Builder a
complete, sequential, graphic description of each phase of the construction process. In most cases,
a set of drawings begins by showing the location, boundaries, contours, and outstanding physical
features of the construction site and its adjoining areas. Succeeding drawings give instructions for
the excavation and disposition of existing ground; construction of the foundations and
superstructure; installation of utilities, such as plumbing, heating, lighting, air conditioning,
interior and exterior finishes; and whatever else is required to complete the structure.
Construction Drawings
Generally, construction or "working" drawings furnish enough information for the Builder to
complete an entire project and incorporate all three main groups of drawings-architectural,
electrical, and mechanical. In drawings for simple structures, this grouping may be hard to
discern because the same single drawing may contain both the electrical and mechanical layouts.
In complicated structures, however, a combination of layouts is not possible because of
overcrowding. In this case, the floor plan may be traced over and over for drawings for the
electrical and mechanical layouts.
Construction drawings are prepared so that designers can communicate their requirements to the
contractor in a clear, concise and unambiguous manner.
They are also used:
To prepare bill of quantities
As part of contract document
Building construction drawings:
Shouldn’t be unnecessarily congested or complicated
Clarity is most important
Written descriptions should be as brief as possible
Should be Consistent with completeness
Should be well dimensioned and should be drawn to scale
The lettering used should be clear
Construction drawings can be prepared:
By hand assisted by various templates or
Computer software programs ( Ex. AutoCAD)
The use of computer programs in building drawing:
Enables users to produce any type of drawings quickly, precisely, and efficiently
Enables editing, adding or deleting texts to drawings
Enables editing, adding or deleting texts to drawings
Enables printing to required sizes and color
It can easily be communicated via networks and e-mails and integrated with other programs
Enables to reduce contract time and eases communication between parties in construction.
Minimizes the need for storage space
Construction Industry uses mainly drawings and specifications for communication.
Drawings - present the pictorial view of the building items, with brief written descriptions and
Specification - presents the technical details, method of fabrication, test, measurement and
related details
Drawing Equipment’s
The manual production of drawings requires:
Drawing Board/Table
Writing and Lettering - Medium Pencil (HB or F)
Size of 50 x 62 cm (A2) Drawing Paper
Drawings – Hard Pencil (2H)
Drawing Paper, Tracing Paper, Blue
Ruler (cm or mm), T – Square, Set Square (45o or
Print
30o/60o)
Drawing Pencils Accessories - Eraser, Drawing Tape, Templates
Very Soft (6B) to Very Hard (9 H)
1. Site Plan
A site is a parcel of land which is made up of one, two or more plots.
A site plan is a drawing showing various properties in terms of their owners, locations,
elevations, states of development and features such as roads, utility supply lines, etc.
Components of a site plan
Survey beacons: these are concrete pillars located at principal corners of the site and at every
change in the direction of boundaries. They define the boundary and area of the site.
Elevations: these are the different heights on the surface of the site in relation to a standard
reference point known as the bench mark (BM).
Locations which have equal elevations are joined together using contour lines.
These lines help to define the topography of the land within a site.
Site orientation: these refers to a system of defining the site in terms of its direction to the north,
south, east and west.
Orientation is important in planning the building area to make into consideration such
factors as the direction of rain, wind and sun within the site.
Physical features: these are permanent objects or features existing within the site or adjoining
sites which are used for referencing or identification of the site.
Ex. Existing buildings, trees, roads, fences, etc.
Access road: these shows the means of reaching the site.
Utilities:
A site plan shows utility supply lines such as for water, electricity and gas.
The scales used in drawing a site plan are:
For small sites: Scales of 1:100, 1: 200
For large sites: Scales of 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2500
Sketch drawings are preliminary drawings prepared for showing the general arrangements
of buildings.
They are often drawn free hand in pencils.
They comprise plans of the most important story, one or more elevations and a cross-
section of the building.
It provides more specific information about the design of the building than any other
plan.
They are prepared to show the design materials, dimensions, and final appearance of the exterior
of a building.
Elevation drawings are projected from the floor plan of an architectural drawing.
Side View
4. Detailed drawings
It shows a particular item on a larger scale than that of the general drawing in which the item
appears. Or, it may show an item too small to appear at all on a general drawing.
Sectional drawings reveal the internal construction of an object.
Detail drawing are prepared to the extent necessary and depending on the complexity of the
building.
They can be prepared to a scale of 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, or 1:20.
They usually show specific details, such as in stair cases, gutter to down pipe connections,
wall to foundation connection, metal and wood joineries, etc.
CHAPTER 3
SITE WORKS
Before buildings are built on any land, it is essential for the builder to examine the proposed site and
its soil in some detail. For instance two adjacent housing sites may not have identical ground
conditions, so types of foundations used for each may have to vary.
Site Investigation: - this is an all-embracing term covering every aspect of the site under investigation.
Site Investigation for New Works: - the basic objective of this form of site investigation is to
collect systematically and record all the necessary data which will be needed or will help in the
design and construction processes of the proposed work. The collected data should be presented in
the form of fully annotated and dimensioned plans and sections. Anything on adjacent sites which
may affect the proposed works or conversely anything appertaining to the proposed works which
may affect an adjacent site should also be recorded.
Site investigation consists of determining the profile of natural soil deposits at the site taking the soil
sample and determining the engineering properties of the soil. It also includes the in situ testing of the
soils.
The above purposes can usually be assessed by establishing the physical, chemical and general
characteristics of the subsoil by obtaining subsoil samples which should be taken from positions on
the site which are truly representative of the area but are not taken from the actual position of the
proposed foundations.
Site selection has an important bearing on planning, design and construction of buildings. It is expected
that an architect have either to make a choice of suitable site on to plan his building structure to suit
the available site. Natural defects of the site will involve considerable expenditure on construction and
maintenance of the building. While unsatisfactory conditions in the neighborhood of locality will cause
unhappy living conditions on one hand and possible deterioration on the other hand.
In the selection of building site, the following more important general principles should be
considered in mind.
The site should be selected in view of the general scope or purpose of the building on the basis
of desired privacy.
The plot should be preferably be in a locality where the various community and utility facilities
such as, water supply, electricity, hospital, schools, police, and fire protection and means for
transport are available.
A site which comes within the limits of an area where the by-law of local authorities enforce
restrictions regarding proportion of the plot to be built up, vacant spaces to be left in front and
sides, height of building, etc., should be preferred.
Area of the plot should be such that the house constructed, keeping in view of the restriction
of local authority, would meet the requirements of the owner, preferably with future
extensions.
The site should be situated in a locality which is already developed or which is fast developing
to secure happy living conditions.
A site should be abandoned under adverse circumstances such as, unhealthy, noisy, or in
crowded localities; on reclaimed soil or water logged areas and in immediate neighborhood of
rivers carrying heavy floods.
This task is usually undertaken once the site has been cleared of any debris or obstructions and any
reduced level excavation work is finished. It is usually the responsibility of the contractor to set out the
building using the information provided by the designer or architect. Accurate setting out is of
paramount importance and should therefore only be carried out by competent persons and all their
work thoroughly checked, preferably by different personnel and by a different method.
The first task in setting out the building is to establish a base line to which all the setting out can be
related. The base line very often coincides with the building line which is a line, whose position on
site is given by the local authority in front of which no development is permitted.
The outline of building will have been set out and using this outline profile boards can be set up to
control the position, width and possibly the depth of the proposed trenches. Profile boards should be
set up at least 2m clear of trench positions so they do not obstruct the excavation work. The level of
the profile cross board should be related to the site datum and fixed at a convenient height above
ground level if a traveler is to be used to control the depth of the trench. Alternatively the trench
depth can be controlled using a level and staff related to site datum. The trench width can be marked
on the profile with either nails or saw cuts and with a painted band if required for identification.
NB. Corners of walls transferred from intersecting cord lines to mortar spots on concrete foundations
using a spirit level
Framed buildings are usually related to a grid, the intersections of the grid lines being the center
point of an isolated or pad foundation. The grid is usually set out from a base line which does not
always form part of the grid. Setting out dimensions for locating the grid can either be given on a
drawing or they will have to be accurately scaled off a general layout plan. The grid is established
using a theodolite and marking the grid line intersections with stout pegs. Once the grid has been set
out offset pegs or profiles can be fixed clear of any subsequent excavation work. Control of
excavation depth can be by means of a traveller sighted between sight rails or by level and staff
related to site datum.
1. First of all, the corners of the building are marked and then the lengths of the sides are
checked by diagonal measurements.
2. The axial lines (center lines) of the trenches are marked with the help of profiles, sighting
rails, strings and pegs.
3. The off-sets are measured from axial lines and the frontage lines are placed in their correct
position relative to local requirements.
4. The position of cross walls should be measured along the main walls and squared from
these wails if desired, the total width of trenches being carefully outlined.
CHAPTER 4
FOUNDATIONS
Generally foundation is therefore, that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which the loads are transmitted.
Functions of Foundation
Foundations serve the following purposes:
1. Reduction of load intensity: Foundation distribute the loads of superstructure, to a larger
area so that the intensity of the load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of
the sub soil.
2. Even distribution of load: foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the
superstructure evenly to the sub soil.
3. Provision of level surface: foundations provide levelled and hard surface over which the
superstructure can be built.
4. Lateral stability: it anchors the superstructure to the ground, thus imparting lateral
stability to the superstructure.
5. Safety against undermining: it provides safety against scouring due to burrowing animal
and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements: minimizes the distress on the superstructure due to
expansion or contraction of sub-soil because of moisture movement in some problematic soil.
I. Isolated Footings
- These footings are sometimes known as column footings and are used to support the
individual columns, piers or other concentrated load.
- Most column footings are slab footings with two-way reinforcements and constant
depth.
- Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly compressible soils, by
making the weight of the structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil
excavated (Floating).
Raft foundation is not suitable:
For steeply sloping sites where excavation would be excessive,
To frame buildings with heavy concentrated loads where raft thickness and
reinforcement would be excessive.
Rafts may be divided into three types, based on their design and construction
1. Solid slab system: is a solid reinforced concrete slab generally uniform thickness.
2. Beam slab system: consists of up-stand or down-stand beams that take the loads
of the walls or columns and spread them.
3. Cellular system: consists of top and bottom slab separated by and reinforced with
vertical cross ribs in both direction.
2. Deep Foundations
Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their
base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m
below finished ground level.
Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at
depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
Deep foundations are of the following types.
A. Pile foundations
B. pier foundation
C. caisson or well foundation
A. Pile Foundation
This is an element of a construction placed in the ground either vertically or slightly inclined
to increase the load carrying capacity of the soil.
Pile foundations may be adopted:
1. Instead of raft foundation where no firm bearing strata exists at any reasonable depth
and the loading is uneven.
2. When a firm bearing strata does not exist but at a depth such as to
3. When a firm bearing strata does not exist but at a depth such as to make strip or
spread footing uneconomical
4. When pumping of sub-soil water would be too costly or timbering to excavations too
difficult.
Based on basic design function Piles may be of four types:
I. End bearing pile
II. Friction pile
III. Combined end bearing and friction pile
IV. Compaction Pile
End Bearing Pile
Used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum. Such piles are
used to carry heavy loads safely to hard strata. Multi-storied buildings are invariably founded
on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are minimized.
Loose Loose
soil soil
Hard strata
Fig 4.6. End bearing
pile
Friction Piles
Are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction-load carrying material by means of skin
friction along the length of the pile. Carrying material by means of skin friction along the
length of the pile.
Such piles are generally used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very great.
Side friction
Fig 4.7 Friction Fig 4.8. Combined End bearing and friction
pile pile
Combined end bearing and friction piles: Transfer the superimposed load both through
side friction as well as end bearing.
Compaction Piles
Used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity. The
compaction piles themselves do not carry a load. Hence they me be of weaker
material (e.g. timber, bamboo, etc.)
The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled in
its place thus forming a ‘sand pile’
CHAPTER 5
WALLS
1. INTRODUCTION
Wall is one of the most essential components of a building it is defined as a vertical member of a
building, the width of which exceeds four times its thickness. The primary function of wall is:
To enclose or divide space of a building to make it more functional and useful.
To provide privacy and afford security
Give protection against heat, cold, sun and rain
Also to provide support to floors and roofs.
Functional requirement of walls are:
They should be able to support upper floors and roof together with the parts of the building
(i.e. Strength and stability).
Walls must be resistant to dampness.
Walls should provide adequate thermal insulation.
Walls should serve as sound barrier.
Walls should be fire resistant.
In case of fire, the wall should not disintegrate but should continue to bear its load and enclose the
space.
2. TYPES OF WALLS
A distinction between various types of wall can be made in two different ways:
Foundation walls
- The function of foundation wall is to transmit loads coming from the super structure.
- Load bearing capacity and resistance against effect of the underground, such as swelling
pressure, uplift pressure and chemical attack should be taken into consideration.
Basement walls
- The function of basement wall is to:
Support vertical loads (if load bearing)
Resist lateral loads, and
Protect the building from dampness.
External walls:
- Have generally to fulfill several purpose. For instance the wall of an ordinary house
usually has
To support the first floor and the roof
To keep the interior warm and dry and give protection from street noise and from the fire.
Partition wall (internal wall):
Partition wall is a thin internal wall which is constructed to divide the space with in the building
in to rooms or areas. It may be load bearing or non-load bearing. A load bearing partition wall is
called an internal wall.
Generally Internal walls are basically required to separate rooms and they should have sufficient
sound and heat insulating capacity and also should be water repellent.
Load bearing walls:
- Carry vertical loads in addition to self-weight
E.g. External walls
- The strength must be sufficient to carry the loads placed on it.
3. EXTERNAL WALLS
Aesthetic requirements
Skilled labor availability
Function of the wall to be constructed
Fire resistance requirement
- Walls made up of stone, brick, hollow and solid concrete blocks, etc. Are included in this
category.
A. BRICK WALLS
Brick wall is made of Brick units bonded together with mortar. Brick and mortar are essential
components of brick walls (masonry). Brick walls are widely used both as load bearing and as
non-load bearing walls.
The nominal dimension of bricks is 60mm x 120mm x 250mm, for height (h), the breadth (b), and
Length (l) respectively.
Fig 5.Brick
Brick wall (masonry) is sometimes preferred over other types of walls for the following reasons:
Bricks are of uniform size and shape, and hence they can be laid in any definite pattern.
Bricks are light in weight and small in size. Hence they can be easily handled.
Brick do not need any dressing.
The art of brick laying can be understood easily.
Ornamental works can be easily done with bricks.
Light partition walls can be easily constructed in brick masonry.
Terminologies
Course: A course is a horizontal layer of masonry units.
Stretcher: A stretcher is the longer face of a brick as seen in the elevation of the wall.
Header: A header is the shorter face of a brick as seen in the elevation of the wall.
Lap: Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of
Bed: Bed is the lower surface of the brick when laid flat.
Closer: It is a portion of the brick with the cut made longitudinally and is used to close up bond
at the end of the course.
Queen closer: It is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.
King closer: It is obtained by cutting the triangular piece between the center of one end and the
center of the other side.
Bevelled closer: A special form of king closer in which half width is maintained at one end and
full width is maintained at the other end.
Mitred closer: It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width.
Bat: It is the portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus, a bat is smaller in length than the
full brick.
Half bat: equal to half the length of the original brick
A three-quarter-bat: its length equal to three-quarters
Bevelled bat: A bat with its width bevelled
Racking back: It is the termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.
Toothing: It is the termination of the wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the end
projects.
b. Single Flemish bond: Comprised of double Flemish bond facing and English bond
backing and hearting in each course. This bond combines the strength of English bond
and appearance of Flemish bond.
i. Garden wall English bond: The header course is provided only after 3-5 stretcher
courses.
ii. Garden wall Flemish bond: Each course contains one header after 3-5stretchers
continuously placed, throughout the length of the course.
iii. Garden wall monk bond: Type of garden wall Flemish bond in which each course
contains one header after two successive stretchers.
Shape factor: takes into account the effect of shape of the brick, i.e. Ratio of its height to
thickness.
Joints in Brickwork
Joints are the weakest part of a masonry structure and they require special care in laying and
finishing. The purpose of finishing joints is to improve the appearance of brickwork and to make
it more water proof.
The finishing of joints as the brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing whereas finishing of
joints after the brickwork has been completed is whereas finishing of joints after the brickwork
has been completed is called pointing.
e. When the brick work is to resist lateral loads, such as retaining walls etc.
f. When the brick wall is to carry heavy compressive loads.
g. When the brick work is to be used in seismic areas.
Brickwork can be reinforced in one of the following way:
i. Reinforcement may consist of iron bars of expanded metal mesh.
- Usually the metal mesh is provided at every third course.
iii. For walls that have to withstand pressure vertical reinforcement passing through openings
made in special types of brick is passing through openings made in special types of brick is
employed.
E. Because of larger size of the blocks, the number of joints in the masonry is less. This results in
saving in mortar.
F. Because of hollow space, the resulting wall has better insulating properties against sound, heat
and dampness.
G. Blocks can withstand the atmospheric actions, and do not require plaster or any other
covering.
4. INTERNAL WALLS
Partition Wall
A partition wall is a thin internal wall which is constructed to divide the space with in the
building into rooms or areas. A partition wall may be either non load bearing or load bearing.
Generally partition walls are non-load bearing.
Requirements to Be Fulfilled
Should be strong enough to carry its own load
Should be strong enough to resist impact to which the occupation of the building is likely
to subject them.
Should have the capacity to support suitable decorative surface.
Should be stable and strong enough to support suitable decorative surface.
Should be as light as possible.
Should be as thin as possible
Should act as sound barrier, especially when it divides two rooms.
Should be fire resistance.
Types of partition walls
Partition walls are of the following types:
Brick partitions Metal lath partitions
Clay block partitions Solid plaster partitions
Concrete partitions Timber partitions
Glass partitions Corrugated sheet
partitions
5. CAVITY WALLS
Cavity wall or hollow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls, called leaves or
skins, with a cavity or gap in-between. The thickness of the two leaves may be equal if it is non-
load bearing wall or the thickness of the inner may be increased to meet the required structural
strength. The inner and the outer leaves of the wall should not be less than 10cm in thickness
throughout the height of the wall.
For a cavity wall to be effective, it is essential that the leaf is entirely disconnected from the
outer leaf, except for ties. The cavity varies from 4-10cm. The two leaves are securely tied
together with suitable bonding steel ties or sometimes with special bonding bricks. The ties
should be placed at intervals not exceeding 1m horizontally and 40 cm vertically.
Advantages of Cavity Walls over Other Walls
i. Damp prevention: There is no direct contact between the inner and outer leaves of the wall
(except at the wall ties). Hence the external moisture (dampness) can’t travel inside the building.
ii. Insulation: The cavity between the leaves is full of air which is bad conductor of heat. Hence
the transmission of heat from external face to the internal face is very much reduced (about 25%
greater insulating value than solid masonry)
iii. Acoustic: cavity walls reduce sound and noise pollution.
iv. Economy: they are cheaper and economical.
v. Load reduction: loads on foundations are reduced because of lesser solid thickness.
Precautions on Cavity Wall Construction
Damp proof course should be built into separate widths under each leaf of the wall and
divided by cavity.
No mortar or any other thing should get accumulated in the cavity.
Cavity should be free from projections. iii. Cavity should be free from projections.
The contact b/n inner and outer wall should be least.
Head of openings should be carefully attended to for damp prevention.
Ties must be of rust proof materials and should be able to prevent transmission of water
from inner surface to the outer surface.
1. Timber Lintels
Timber lintels: are the oldest type of lintels and are not commonly used nowadays. They cannot
take greater load and are vulnerable to fire and decay. They are relatively costlier, structurally
weak and vulnerable to fire and decay. They can be made from a single section. They can also be
made by joining two or three timber pieces with the help of steel bolts. To increase the strength
of the lintel, steel plates may be provided at top and bottom. Such lintels are called flinched
lintels.
2. Brick Lintels
Brick lintels are not structurally strong and they are used only when the opening is small (less
than 1m), and loads are light. The depth of brick lintel varies from 10cm to 20cm. It is
constructed over temporary wooden centering. The bricks with frogs are suitable for the
construction of lintel. Since the mortar filled in the frogs increases the shear resistance.
3. Steel Lintels
Steel lintels are provided where the opening is large and the superimposed load is large. It
contains rolled steel sections or channel sections either used singly or in combination of two or
more units. When used singly, the steel joint is either embedded or covered with stone facing to
increase its width to match with the width of the wall. But when one or more units are used they
are kept in position by tube separators.
4. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels
RCC lintels have replaced practically all types of lintels because of their strength, stability, fire
resistance, economy and ease of construction. They can be used in any span. Its width is kept
equal to the width of the wall. Determination of depth depends upon the span and the magnitude
of loading. Longitudinal reinforcement is provided at the bottom to take up the tensile stress.
Depending upon the condition shear reinforcement may also be provided. RCC lintels are also
found in pre-cast forms.
CHAPTER 6
FLOORS
1. INTRODUCTION
The major purpose of floors is to support the inmates of a building together with their belongings
(i.e. Furniture, Equipment, and Sometimes the internal partition.). Floors are provided to divide a
building in to different levels for creating more accommodation one above the other with in
certain limited space.
Primary functions of a floor:
i. Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of people and
furniture.
ii. Exclude the passage of water and water vapor to the interior of the building.
iii. Provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.
iv. Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.
To perform its function a floor must satisfy the following requirements:
Adequate strength and stability,
Adequate fire resistance,
Sound insulation,
Damp resistance, and
Provide thermal insulation.
Prevent growth of vegetable matter and other living organisms inside the building.
In the traditional floor construction, a floor is needed to have a clean, smooth, impervious, level
and durable surface. Floors are classified as ground floor and upper floor.
The floors resting directly on the ground surface are known as ground floors. While the other
floors of each storey, situated above the ground level are known as upper floors.
A floor is composed of two essential components:
Sub-floor, base course or floor base
Floor covering or simply, flooring
The floor base is a structural component, which supports the floor covering.
2. GROUND FLOOR
For ground floor, the objective of floor base is to give proper support to the covering so that it
doesn't settle and to provide damp resistance and thermal insulation.
Ground floors are further subdivided into solid floors, suspended floors and basement floors.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION By: Mesfin.A
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Solid Floors
The floors supported directly on the ground are known as solid floors.
Suspended floors
These floors supported above the ground level. Suspended floors do not rely on the ground for
support and are usually made from timber.
Basement Floors
These are floors resting at the lowest/basement level. Resistance to moisture ingress is one of
the main criteria in the design of basement floors.
Functional Requirement of Ground Floors
For good performance of a ground floor, it should be able to perform the following:
1. Support without failure the loads imposed on it.
2. Prevent dampness inside the building by providing a damp proof membrane in or
below the floor.
3. Prevent the growth of matter and other living organisms.
4. Be reasonably durable so as to require minimum maintenance or replacement
work.
5. Provide a surface finish with a standard of appearance, comfort, cleanliness, and
heat retention.
2.1. SOLID FLOORS
A domestic solid ground floor consists of three components:-
1. Hardcore: - a suitable filling material to make up the top soil removal and reduced level
excavations. It should have a top surface which can be rolled out to ensure that cement grout is
not lost from the concrete. It may be necessary to blind the top surface with a layer of sand
especially if the damp proof membrane is to be placed under the concrete bed.
2. Damp-proof Membrane: - an impervious layer such as heavy duty polythene sheeting to
prevent moisture passing through the floor to the interior of the building.
3. Concrete Bed: - the component providing the solid level surface to which screeds and finishes
can be applied.
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3. UPPER FLOORS
They are supported either on the walls or on columns. The structural design of upper floor has to
be such as to support the loads set up by the use of the building, in addition to the self-weight
and weight of partitions etc. However, the flooring materials are practically the same as that used
for ground floors.
An upper floor can be constructed either from timber or concrete (Cast in situ and precast
concrete) and it composed of three parts:
i. The structural element,
ii. Upper surface or floor finish, and
iii. Lower surface or ceiling.
Functional Requirements of Upper Floors
For good performance of a upper floor, it should be able to perform the following:
1. Sustain its own weight and any other weights imposed on it.
2. Offer fire resistance especially in very tall buildings.
3. Minimize noise transfer from upper floor to the lower floor.
4. Be reasonably durable – minimum maintenance and replacement.
5. Provide an acceptable surface finish which is safe, comfortable, clean and of good
appearance.
6. Prevent dampness.
Some of the common upper floorings depending up on the material used for construction and
arrangement of beams and girders are as follows.
3.1. Concrete Floors (R.C.C. Floors)
Floors of modern buildings are invariably made of reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) for
different advantages:
Moderately cheap,
Quite durable,
Easy to construct,
Fire proof and damp proof,
Can be used in large spans, etc.
R.C.C floors can be cast in situ or prefabricated.
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4. FLOOR FINISHES
Floor Finishes are usually applied to a structural base but may form part of the floor structure as
in the case of floor boards. The choice of floor finishes depends on the use to which the floor is
likely to be employed. The following are the factors that affect the choice of flooring materials:
1. Initial cost: The cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of building, and its
likely use.
2. Appearance: covering should give pleasing appearance, it should produce a desired color
effect and architectural beauty.
3. Cleanliness: the flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be non-
absorbent.
4. Durability: the flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes,
disintegration with time and decay.
5. Damp resistance: flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness.
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6. Thermal insulation: the flooring should offer reasonably good thermal insulation.
7. Sound insulation: flooring should insulate the noise. It should not be such that noise is
produced when users walk on it.
8. Fire resistance: Flooring material should offer sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers
are obtained between different levels of building.
9. Smoothness: the flooring material should be smooth, and should have even surface. However
it should not be slippery.
10. Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks, in
prints etc.
11. Maintenance: the flooring material should require least maintenance. However, whenever
repairs are required, it should be such that repairs can be done easily with least expenditure.
The materials used for floor finish or floor covering are:
Bricks Tiles
stones Marble
Concrete Wood (timber)
Terrazzo Asphalt
Mosaic PVC or plastic
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CHAPTER 7
STAIRS
1. INTRODUCTION
Access in buildings can be classified into categories:
Moving
Stationary
Moving
An elevator, a staircase or a belt that moves by using different kinds of electrical or hydraulic
driving motors. For example:
An elevator or lift
Escalator
Conveyor
For the case of handicaps there are moving chairs
Stationary
Most widely used access in buildings. There is no any motor that drive the system, rather it is
fixed.
Stairs,
Different kinds of ladders,
Ramps, Corridors.
2. STAIRS
A stair is a set of step leading from one floor to the other and are provided to afford a means of
communication between the various floors of a building. Because a stair provides vertical
transportation, it is a part of the means-of-egress (exit) system of a building. It is also a relatively
hazardous element because injuries due to falls from stairs are common. For this reason, stair
design is stringently controlled by the building codes.
The room or enclosure of the building in which the stair is located is known as stair case. The
opening or space occupied by the stair is known as stair way. Steps arranged in series and placed
in an enclosure is called Stair Case. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as stair
way.
Stairs should be designed properly to provide proper:
Ventilation
Light (Natural)
Location: Near Main Entrance for Public Buildings and Centrally for easy access and
privacy in Residential Buildings.
Primary Function of Stairs
1. Provide a means of circulation between floor levels.
2. Establish a safe means of travel between floor levels.
3. Provide an easy means of travel between floor levels.
2.1.TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGIES
Step: is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent.
It is comprised of a tread and a riser. A stair is composed of a set of steps.
Tread: is the horizontal member of stair up on which a foot is placed.
The tread of public buildings must be wide enough to provide safe footing.
Going: is the horizontal distance b/n the nosing or front edges of two consecutive steps.
It is usually 30cm for public buildings so that it is wide enough to provide safe footings.
Riser: is the vertical member of a stair.
Rise: Is the vertical distance b/n the upper surface of two consecutive steps.
The rise of public building is about 15cm while a higher value can be used for private
buildings.
Nosing: it is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser.
It is usually rounded off from the architectural point of view.
Flight: is a continuous set of steps b/n floors and/or landing.
Landing: It is the level plat form at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors.
It facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest.
B. Width of stair:
It should be wide enough to carry the user without much crowd or inconvenience.
Width of stairs depends up to its location in the building and the type of the building
itself.
If a domestic building, a 90cm wide stair is sufficient while in public building, 1.5-1.8m
width may be required.
C. Length of flight:
From comfort point of view, the maximum number of stairs in a flight is preferably 10 - 12
but should not be more than 15.
Minimum number of stairs should not be less than 3
D. Pitch of Stair
Pitch: - The angle of stair way with the horizontal
Its ascent should relatively be easy. The pitch of stair should not be more than 420or less
than 200. The preferred angle is 300 - 350.
Stairs for public building should have a pitch of 38° and for private buildings the pitch
should not be more than 42°.
E. Head room
It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and overhead structure
(i.e. ceiling etc.)
Building codes generally require the head room to be a minimum of 2m (80in) at any
point on the stair.
F. Step Dimension
The rise and tread should be so selected that it will ensure comfortable ascent or
descent on stairs.
The minimum width of landing should be equal to the width of the stair (not be less
than the width of a stair.).
The rise should be between 100mm((for hospitals, etc.) to 150mm for public building
while a higher value can be used for private buildings i.e. maximum rise of 220 mm.
The going should be between 220mm to 300mm.
The following rules are used as a guide line to obtain satisfactory proportion of steps in a stair.
i. 2* Rise + Going = 55 -70 [cm]
ii. Rise + Going = 40-45 [cm]
iii. Rise * Going = 400-450 [ cm2]
iv. Adopt Rise = 14cm and Going= 30 cm as standard; then for every 20mm
subtracted from going, add 10mm to the rise.
- For example, 15cm x 28 cm, 16cm x 26 cm, 17cm x 24cm etc.
G. Balustrade
Open well stairs should always be provided with balustrade, to provide safety to the users.
Wider stairs should have hand rail to both the sides.
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solid risers. The clear vertical distance between the treads of open-riser stairs cannot exceed
100mm (4 in).
Fig 7.5 Newel quarter turn stairs (L-shape stairs) (a) without winders and (b) with winders.
L-shape stair: Where the space is limited, the landing of an L-shape stair can be used for steps,
yielding trapezoidal (pie-shaped) treads, referred to as winders, Fig 7.5(b). Stairs with winders are
not as safe as those with rectangular treads and their use in an exit stair is strictly controlled by the
codes.
6. Continuous stairs
Type of stairs which do neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are
geometrical in shape.
Continuous stairs may be of three types:
i. Circular stairs
ii. Spiral stairs and
iii. Helical stairs.
i. Circular stairs
A circular stair with circular plan
configuration may consist of all winders and
can take many shapes
CHAPTER 8
1. INTRODUCTION
DOOR: is an open able barrier secured in a wall opening and is provided to give access, protection,
safety and privacy to the inside of a room of a building. It serves a connecting link b/n the various
internal portions of building.
Basically a door consists of two parts:-
i. Door frame
ii. Door shutter
WINDOW: is a vented barrier secured in a wall opening. The function of a window is to:-
Admit light and air to the building,
Give a view to the outside,
Provide insulation against heat loss, and
Give a measure of resistance to fire.
2. DOORS
Size of Doors
The size of the door should be such that it would allow the movement of largest object or tallest
person likely to use the door. As, a rule the height of a door should not be less than 1.8m - 2.0 m.
The width of the door should be such that two persons can pass through it walking shoulder to
shoulder.
The common width height relations are:
i. Width = 0.4 to 0.6 height
ii. Height = (width + 1.2) meters.
The following are the generally adopted size of doors for various type of buildings
Doors of residential building
i. External door: 0.9-1.2m width and 2-2.1m height
ii. Internal door: 0.8-0.9m width and 2-2.1m height
Door Frames
A door frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members forming an enclosure, to which
door shutters are fixed. The vertical members, one at each side, are known as posts while the
horizontal top member connecting the posts is called head. The size of the frame is determined
by allowing a clearance of 5mm to both the sides and the top of the opening. The cross-sectional
area of the posts and the head is generally kept the same.
Door frames are made of the following materials:-
Timber
Steel section
Aluminum sections
Concrete, and
Stone
Timber Door Frames
Timber frames are more commonly used because they look much better than the other materials,
and they can be polished, if desired.
3. WINDOWS
The selection of size, shape, location and number of windows in a room depends up on the
following factors:
Windows should be selected or designed to resist wind loadings, be easy to clean and provide for
safety and security. They should be sited to provide visual contact with the outside.
Based on the above factors, the following thumb rules are in use:
Breadth of window = 1/8 (width of room + height of room)
The total area of window-openings should normally vary from 10-20% of the floor area
of the room, depending upon climatic conditions.
The area of window opening should be at least one square meter for every 30-40 cubic
meter of inside content of the room.
In public buildings, the minimum area of windows should be 20% of floor area.
For sufficient natural light, the area of glazed panels should at least be 8-10% of the floor
area.
Types of Windows
1. Fixed Windows
These windows are provided for the sole purpose of admitting light and/or providing vision to
the room. The window consists of a window frame to which shutters are fixed and shutters are
fully glazed.
2. Pivoted Windows
The shutters are allowed to swing round pivots fixed to the window frame.
The frame of the window shutter is similar to that of an encasement window.
The shutter can swing or rotate either horizontally, or vertically.
4. Sliding Windows
These windows are similar to siding doors. The shutters move either horizontally or vertically on
small roller bearings. Suitable openings or grooves are left in the frame or walls to accommodate
the shutters when they are slides to open the window. They are provided in train, buses, shops
and bank counters.
CHAPTER 9
1. INTRODUCTION
A Roof is defined as the upper most part of the building, provided as a structural covering, to
protect the building from weather. It consists of structural elements, which support roof
coverings. The structural elements may be trusses, beams, slabs, shells or domes.
The roof coverings may be corrugated metal sheets, RC slabs, tiles, etc.
Requirements of a roof
The requirements of a good roof are summarized as follow:
i. It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the superimposed dead and live
loads.
ii. It should effectively protect the building against rain, sun, wind, etc and it should be
durable against the adverse effects of these agencies.
iii. It should be water proof and should have efficient drainage arrangements.
iv. It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
v. It should be fire resistant.
vi. It should provide adequate insulation against sound.
2. TYPES OF ROOFS
The general types of roofs are:-
Pitched or Slopping roofs,
Flat roofs or terraced roofs, and
Curved roofs.
The selection of the type of roof depends upon:
Shape or plan of the building,
Climatic conditions of the area,
Type of construction materials available.
Pitch Roofs
- Have slopping top surfaces.
- Are suitable in those areas where rainfall/snow fall is very heavy
- Use to cover satisfactorily those buildings with limited width and Simple shape
Flat Roofs
- Considered suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions where Rainfall is moderate
and snow fall is not there.
- Are equally applicable to buildings of any shape and size.
Curved Roofs
- Have their top surface curved.
- Are provided to give architectural effects.
Roof Trusses: - these are triangulated plane roof frames designed to give clear spans between
the external supporting walls.
ii.Queen-Post Truss: Differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical posts, rather
than one. The vertical posts are known as queen posts. The tops of queen post are
connected by a horizontal piece known as straining beam.
These trusses are suitable for spans b/n 8m - 12 m.
The various types of roof coverings materials commonly used are: thatch, wood, tiles, asbestos
cement sheet, galvanized corrugated iron sheets, aluminum sheeting, etc.
i. Thatch Roof Coverings
- It is one of the most ancient types of roof covering and is mainly used in village areas.
- Thatch roof cover is suitable for rural buildings mainly because the cost is very low and
thatch is abundantly available in those regions.
It is required that a sheet should be strong enough to carry, without buckling, the load of full
grown man.
A shell is structural curved skin covering a given plan shape and area where the forces in
the shell or membrane are compressive and in the restraining edge beams are tensile. The
main factors of shell roofs are:
Advantages:
3.2.DOMES
Domes are double curvature shells which can be rotationally formed by any curved geometrical
plane figure rotating about a central vertical axis.
These are shells curved in two directions. They are one of the oldest types of construction.
Advantages:
CHAPTER 10
FINISHINGS
1. INTRODUCTION
Building finishes are used to give protective coating to the surface which preserves and protects
the materials used in building from weather effects such has rain water, heat, frost, etc. and to
provide decorative finishes which add to the appearance of the material surfaces and building as a
whole. Plastering, pointing, white washing and color washing, painting, varnishing, and
distempering, etc. are among the various types of building finishes some of them are
discussed in the following sections.
2. PLASTERING
Plaster: - is a wet mixed material applied to internal walls as a finish to fill in any irregularities in
the wall surface and to provide a smooth continuous surface suitable for direct decoration. The
plaster finish also needs to have a good resistance to impact damage. The material used to fulfil
these requirements is gypsum plaster. Gypsum is a crystalline combination of calcium sulphate
and water.
Plastering is the process of covering rough surface of wall, columns, ceilings and other building
components with thin coat of plastic mortar to form a smooth durable surface.
- objectives of plastering:
To protect the external surface against penetration of rain water and other
atmospheric agencies.
To give Smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
To give decorative effect
To protect surfaces against vermit
To conceal (hide) inferior materials or defective workmanship.
Some requirements of a good plaster are:
It should provide a smooth, non-absorbent and washable surface.
It should not contract in volume while drying and setting otherwise it will crack and give
an unsightly appearance.
It should adhere firmly to the surface and resist the effects of weather agencies such as
rain, heat, etc.
It should offer good insulation against sound and high resistance against fire.
It should provide the surface with the required decorative effect and durability.
Brighten the ornamental appearance of the grains ofthe unpainted wood surfaces,
Protect the structural wooden surfaces from atmospheric action,
Give brilliancy to the painted surface and also to papered walls and
Protect the painted surface from atmospheric actions in order to increase the
durability of the paint film.
FINISHINGS
Distempers are considered to water paints, consisting of whiting (i.e. powdered chalk), glue or
casein as a binder, and suitable proportion of coloring pigments if desired. These
distempers form a cheap, durable and easily applied decoration for internal use on plastered,
cement concrete and various wall board surfaces.