Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence

Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

Excellent Alan – you touch on all the main parties, and the issues in a very

intelligent manner - you get an A+ for this – well done – Mari

History of Muslim secessionist struggle

Faith-based and territorial conflicts between Muslim and local and foreign intruders

in southern islands of the Philippines began as early as sixteenth century (Steven, 2004,

p15). Prior to the coming of the Spaniards in 1521, Southern Philippines were already

home of early Muslim settlers from Sumatra, Indonesia and other Asian countries. These

Muslim settlers have already forged connection with Arabs and Islamic missionaries as

early as 1210 (Tyner, 2005, p.13). As early as 1300s, Muslim Sultanates are already

governing the arching southwestern group of islands consisting of southern Palawan,

western and southern areas of Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago. The sporadic home and

ethnic diversity of Muslims represent a richness of politically and ethnically diverse

community who has established varying economies and life ways (Andersen, Reed, &

Sardalla, 1996, p.131). These pre-colonial social, political and economic order in Muslims

populated areas portrayed self-sufficiency and nationhood. In 16th century, when Luzon

and Visayas islands were colonized by the Spaniards, Mindanao island remained not

subjugated to Spanish rule. From then on, the Muslim populated areas in southern

Philippines became known for evasion of local dominion and colonial rule by the Spanish

regime, the United States regime and the Philippine government since 1521, 1898 and

1946 respectively.

The Spanish colonization in 1521 marked the emergence of westernized nationhood

of the whole archipelago that later on was named Philippines in honor of King Philip II of

Spain (Knowlton, 1964; Andersen, Reed and Sardalla, 1996, p). The westernize
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

“Filipinization” of the whole archipelago was successful in Luzon and Visayas but not in

Mindanao. For the three hundred years of Spanish regime, Muslims communities in

Mindanao remain unconquered. For this same reason, the Spanish government called

Muslims as “Moro.” This word was used by Spanish to refer to Muslims in Southeast Asia

that implied little regard of ethnolinguistic and cultural differences, contempt of Christian

doctrine, ignorance, savage and polygamous among others (Donnelly, 2004, p 2;

Andersen, Reed, & Sardalla, 1996, p.132-3). According to Tyner, after the mock battle

between Spaniard and American in 1898, the Spaniards sold the Philippines to the US for

$20 million under the Treaty of Paris. This Treaty, gave the US authority to govern

Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. The inclusion of Mindanao as a colony of Spain was

contestable because, Spaniards were not able to conquer the Muslims at all. To resolve

this, the US government prepared the Bates Treaty that was signed between the Muslim

Sultanate and US government in 1899. The Bates Treaty stipulated that the US will not

interfere with the Islamic religion and customs and a pledge that the US will not sell Jolo

or any island of the Sulu Archipelago to any foreign country without the permission of the

Sultan. After five years, Bates treaty was abrogated due to the alleged inability of the

Sultanate to subdue the resistance of Muslim elements against US colonial government

(2005, p.14-5). With the Bates Treaty, the US was able to subdue the chieftains but not

the entire Muslim community. In 1946, after the declaration of independence of the

Philippines from the US, President Quezon continued the policy of “Filipinization” as a

battle cry to unite all inhabitants of the Philippines. The independence from the US was

not totally recognized by the Muslims. The Muslim of Mindanao continued to fight for the

recognition for a separate nation. From then on the Philippine government initiated
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

negotiations and peace talks with the Muslim communities but due to lack political will,

mismanagement of peace processes, funding constraints, involvement of regional and

international Muslim allies, the said attempts did not proceed as envisaged. Today,

Filipino hegemony and Catholic hegemony and radicalization of the Muslims continue to

pervade the Philippines and remained as locus of the Christian-Muslim conflict.

According to Steven, separatist sentiments among the Muslim finally hatched as a

form of resistance after the government-led migration of Christians into the homeland of

Muslims and the declaration of Martial Law in 1970s. Modern movement for Muslim

separatism started among Philippine Muslim students and intellectuals in the late 1960’s.

This secessionist movement gained popular support as an aftermath of sectarian violence

in Cotabato in 1970 and the declaration of Martial Law (Mc Keena, 1996, p.3). The

Muslims in Mindanao are divided into three major and ten ethnolinguistic groups who are

sporadically dispersed in islets and mainland of Mindanao. The combined area of their

homeland comprise one third of the national territory. The Muslim’s territory is rich is

natural resources. Mindanao is considered as the food basket of the Philippines. Territorial

tensions between Christians and Muslims started to heighten when migration of Christians

had outnumbered the Muslim with 711,000:424,000 Muslim to Catholics ratio at the end

of 1970. This migration was followed by uneven distribution of land between native

Muslim and Christian settlers. In Basilan, one of the Muslim areas, the Christian owned

75% of land, 5% ethnic Chinese controls 75% local trade (Torres, 2001, p. 169; Donnelly,

2004, p. 3). The ensuing competition on land resource, animosity, burgeoning influx of

non-Muslim had ignited “Christian-Muslim conflicts. Ethnic, migration and tenurial

problems have awakened the spirit of nationhood among the Muslims.

Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

The founding of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was spearheaded by

young Muslim scholars. The MNLF pulled support from regional and international

Islamic nations. According to Tyner, some of MNLF founders are from the Muslim

Independence Mindanao (MIM), one of the earliest secessionist group in Mindanao which

are fighting for the recognition of Mindanao as an independent Islamic state (2005, p. 16).

The MNLF was formally established in Pulao Pangkor, Malaysia with the help of

Malaysian government in 1969 with the young Nur Misuari as leader (Noble, 1976, p

409). The relationship of Muslims in Mindanao with Southeast Asian Islamic nations

started as early as 1210. The early Muslim settlers in the Philippines originated from

Sumatra, Indonesia. Sabah, Malaysia even served as training grounds of MNLF private

armies and served as safe house whenever the Philippine government ran after the MNLF.

To alleviate this problem, President Marcos forged alliance with the ASEAN; but this

formal alliance did not have a considerable effect with MNLF rebellion against the

Philippine government (Noble, 1976, p).

At the height of Martial Law, militarization against the Muslim was at its peak. The

1972-75 Civil War between MNLF and the Armed Forces of the Philippines caused

120,000 casualties. MNLF sought help from Libya. The Libyan government imposed oil

embargo against the Philippines. This oil embargo and political pressures from the allies

of MNLF forced Marcos to make peace with the MNLF by forging the 1976 Tripoli

Agreement. In this peace covenant, MNLF pledged to narrow down their claim for Islamic

independence into a Muslim regional autonomy. The MNLF’s concurrence to this

provision disgruntled many MNLF members that resulted in the break up of MNLF into

two factions eventually.

Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

The pro “Filipinization” faction sided with the government; while the Islamic

secessionist faction broke away from the MNLF. The Pro-Islamic and nationalist faction

called themselves as Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). The MILF has twelve to

fifteen thousand armed men who are linked to Al-Qa’ida and Jemaah Islamiyaa. Under

the Aquino government, MNLF signed an agreement Finally, in 1990, Abdurajak

Janjalani broke away from MILF and founded the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), Janjalani

used the pro-nationalist ideology of MNLF and acceptance of autonomy from the central

government as an organizing battle-cry while founding the ASG. Today, the MNLF,

MILF and ASG are the three major groups of Muslims in Southern Philippines that

continue to adhere to the Islamization of Mindanao and aged struggle for ultimate

independence and nationhood recognition (Donnelly, 2004, p3; Mc Keena, 1998, p.3).

Main stakeholders in Muslim-Christian conflict

The MNLF, MILF and ASG act as the main negotiators from the secessionist side.

The ideological differences among the three main actors in the peace agreement

complicate the conflict further. The MNLF, led by Marxist Nur Misuari, are branded to

adopt Marxist rather than Islamist ideologist and are advocates of nationalist agenda. For

these reasons, the MILF broke away, because, the MILF break away group believed that

Islam teaching must be the core governing principle of the secession and must not be

clouded with Marxist and western nationalist ideologies. The ASG is another splinter

group, also believed in Islamist separatist ideologies but rather terrorist in approach. ASG

is a self-sustained separatist who are linked to the Islamic group in the Middle East and
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

south Asia and uses kidnap-for-ransom and terrorism as source of fund and unique

identity (Tyner, 2005, p.18).

The Republic of the Philippines, as represented by peace negotiators, has

sovereignty over Mindanao as part of the Philippine Archipelago based on nationally,

regionally and globally recognized laws. One ?? among the power of the Philippines over

Mindanao is the maximum use of natural resources, specifically public lands that are

suitable for agriculture subject to the prior rights of previous settlers and indigenous

communities over their ancestral land (1987 Constitution of the Philippines, Art. XIII,

Sec. 6). Since, the Muslim-populated areas in Mindanao are well suited for agriculture and

there was landlessness problem in Luzon, the Philippine took action to open the Muslim-

populated land for Christians from Luzon who are landless (Steven, 2004, p.15). On one

hand, the migration of Christian to Mindanao alleviated the landlessness problem in

Luzon. On the other hand, territorial tensions between Christians and Muslims started to

heighten when migration of Christians had outnumbered the Muslim with

711,000:424,000 Muslim to Christian ratio at the end of 1970. This migration was

followed by uneven distribution of land between native Muslim and Christian settlers. In

Basilan, one of the Muslim areas, the Christian owned 75% of land, 5% ethnic Chinese

controls 75% local trade (Torres, 2001, p. 169; Donnelly, 2004, p. 3, McKeena, 1998, p

116). (Repeat – see above..) Whenever ethno-religious conflict arises, the Philippine

government is duty-bound to maintain peace and order (Constitution of the Philippines,

Art. II, Sec.5). At this juncture, peace keeping between the Muslim and Christian must be

mediated by the government. In mediating this, the Philippine government is also duty-

bound to respect the rights of the indigenous communities. The Indigenous Peoples Rights
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

Act of 1997 stipulates that: “The State shall recognize and promote all the rights of

Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs) hereunder enumerated

within the framework of the Constitution” (Chapter I, Section 2). The dilemma of

pursuing welfare of landless Filipino and intrusion into the rights of the Muslims as an

indigenous community over their ancestral domain, culture and life ways makes it difficult

for the Philippine government to pursue inter-ethnic development and sustainable peace

and order simultaneously.

The Christian migrant community in Muslim-populated areas in Mindanao is also

one of the stakeholders in this conflict. According to Mc Kenna, the massive migration of

Christian into Muslim territories started as early as the founding of the Philippine

Commonwealth in 1935. Even earlier that this, in 1913, the American colonial

government had already spearheaded establishment of Christian agricultural colonies in

Mindanao. The hidden motive of the American colonizers was to “civilize” the Muslims

by exposing them with Christian communities from the other two large islands in the

Philippines: Visayas and Luzon. The intention of the Philippine Commonwealth

administration is to develop the agricultural economy of Mindanao. By 1946, after the

Philippine was given her independence from American colonial government, the

migration of Christian in Mindanao was motivated by the intention to alleviate the

worsening armed rebellion of peasants in Luzon. This rebellion was triggered by

inequality of land distribution between the affluent and marginalized farmers in the

Philippines (1998, p.114-5). Today, inequities in land redistribution schemes between

Christian and Muslim in favor of the Christians still prevail and can ignite another conflict

between them.
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

The civilian Muslim community is about 3 million. This is about 3% of the 85

million Filipinos as of 2007. Muslims are considered an indigenous community. Under the

Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, the Philippine government is duty-bound to

respect their right over their ancestral domain, right to practice customary laws and right

to self-determination (Chapter I, Section 2). Another salient provision of the said Act is

the notion of “free and prior informed consent” which mandates that any activity or

program that concerns the indigenous community must have consent from the tribal

councils or any similar indigenous leadership structure before the said activity or program

is implemented in their ancestral domain. The said provision says:

Free and Prior Informed Consent - as used in this Act shall

mean the consensus of all members of the Indigenous Cultural
Communities/Indigenous Peoples to; be determined in accordance
with their respective customary laws and practices, free from any
external manipulation, interference and coercion, and obtained
after fully disclosing the intent and scope of the activity, in a
language an process understandable to the community
(Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, Chapter II, Section 3)

This provision clearly states that the Philippine government of any institution

which is planning to implement any activity or program in a Muslim territory must seek

permission from the indigenous community; and that the process of securing permission

must be free from coercion, external manipulation or interference that may influence or

blur the authentic decision made by the indigenous community. It impliesy that, there

should be total participation from the end of the indigenous community before any

program, such as land reform and migration of Christian, will be executed in the Muslim-

populated areas in Mindanao. It also implies that, the decision from the leaders of MNLF,

MILF and ASG is not an entire representation of the Muslim community. Failure to get
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

the “free and prior informed consent” of the entire Muslim communities is a violation of

the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997.

The regional and international Islam communities are also key players in the

Christian-Muslim conflict in Mindanao. As early as 1200s, the Arabs traders, Malaysian,

and Indonesians have already established contacts with the Muslim settlers in southern

Philippines. According to Tyner, the ASG are self-financed kidnap-for-ransom and

terrorist group that may be receiving assistance from the Islam communities in Middle

East and South Asia. Quoting from the New York Times, an allegation that MILF and

MNLF have connections with the al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah, former Presidential

spokesperson Ignacio Bunye says that the Philippine government cannot totally discount

the said news, and being mindful that terrorism is a global movement, there is a possibility

that MILF and MNLF are indeed connected to global terrorists. Going back to history, the

oil embargo made by Libya for the Philippines in 1970s had forced President Marcos to

talk with the MNLF, hence, the Tripoli Agreement was signed in 1976. (Donnelly, 2004,

p3; Mc Keena, 1998, p.3).

The United States has been a major player in the peace negotiations and conflict

resolution. After the 7/11 terrorist attack, ASG was reclassified as terrorist organization.

Consequently, in January 2002, 600, full-battle-geared US troops merge with 4,000

Filipino troops and conducted anti-terrorist training in Basilan, Mindanao (Steven, 2004).

The military exercise between the Philippine and U.S. troops in southern Philippines

commenced after the 7/11 terrorist attack. The presence of US military forces in the

Philippines is seen by China as a strategy to reinstall its military power over Southeast

Asia. This rebuilding of military presence is primarily a move versus global and regional
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

terrorism that is often linked to Muslim-led terrorism. The Philippines airspace and sea

were open to U.S. troop and Philippine contingents were even sent to Afghanistan to fight

terrorism. This bold move by the Arroyo government is sending an all-out-war against all

Muslims in the Southeast Asia including the Islamic secessionist in southern Philippines

(Banlaoi, 2002).

Main challenges

The Separatist movement received partial autonomy and not the total

independence that they are fighting for. After struggling for 300 years of attempt of

Spanish rule, only after the coming of American colonial regime that recognition of

autonomy was given to the Islamic separatists in southern Mindanao (Islam, 1998, p 442).

According to Tyner, the Bates Treaty that was signed in 1899 between the American and

Muslim stipulates that the American colonial government will not interfere with the

practice of Islam and customary law in Muslim-areas in Mindanao but the overall

administration still came from the central government(2005, p 14-5). In 1977, President

Marcos started to create provincial government in Muslim-areas but this did not go well

because it was centralized governed. In 1987, the establishment of the Autonomous

Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) did not cover the fifteen Muslim provinces instead

only four provinces voted to organize themselves under one umbrella administration

(Anderson et.al., 1996, p. 145). This means that it may not be a real, representative

government of Muslims in Mindanao. The corrupt practices and mismanagement of the

ARRM by Governor Nur Misuari was another reflection of poor centralized governance.

Governor Nur Misuari was tried for corruption. According to Bacani, the corruption was
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

rooted on nepotism, loosely managed cash advances, low morale of the Muslim leaders

low ownership of autonomous government based on the aged issue of colonial dominion

among others.(2003, p 1-3). The mismanagement of the ARMM is a reflection of poor

centralized governance that may deflect on the incapacity of the Philippine government to

deliver quality public goods and services.

In a fresh attempt to alleviate the problem of marginalization of the Muslims in

Mindanao, the Arroyo government has initiated an expansion of the ancestral domain

claim of the Muslims. Based on Reuters’ website, in November of 2007, the ancestral

domain claims of Muslims are being planned to be relocated and expanded. This move by

the Arroyo administration aims to end the independence clamor from the Muslims

(Reuters website: 2007). Throughout the 40 years of attempts of the Philippine

government to address the claim of the Muslim separatists towards an independent Islamic

state, the Philippine government cannot go beyond giving them an autonomous region.

This inability to address the original demand of independence may alleviate the

secessionist problem but it will not end it.

Main possibilities

The idea of peaceful coexistence between the Muslim and Christian in Mindanao

can be given another chance. The recent move of the government to relocate and expand

the ancestral domain claim of the Muslims can be complemented by a pro-active peace

agreement, ceasefire and infusion of development projects that are aimed at peaceful

coexistence of Muslim and Christians. I believe, there remains a chance of having the

Christian and Muslims work and live together. The eradication of discrimination in
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

employment, giving equal representation in all sectors of the society, reconstructing image

for the savaged “Moro” into civil and peace-loving Muslims, putting equality and equity

in land ownership between Muslim and Christians and recognizing the practice of Islam as

a national indigenous religion in Philippines are some of the means to promote

coexistence.

The other extreme possibility is granting the secessionist the Islamic state that they

want. This is a very complicated possibility it will need amendments of the Philippine

Constitution and laws on sovereignty and territorial domain. I am not a legal expert, but I

think the Philippine government can give secessionist a chance to govern themselves

totally independent from the Republic of the Philippines. I think, there is a way of

granting the secessionist to “pilot test” a totally independent Islam Republic in southern

Mindanao in a period in time.

Indeed, there are a number of solution formulas to the aged Islamic secessionist

rebellion, but I still believe that the Filipino hegemony and discrimination of the Muslims is at

the locus of intersectionality of historical, ethnic, economic, political, religious and social

spectrum of the separatist rebellion. The issue goes back to power contestation, if the Philippine

government can only relinquish some of its powers and sincerely and willfully give Muslims the

recognition they claim for and practice Islam in harmony with all religion in the Philippines,

peaceful coexistence is always a possibility.

Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

Reference:

Andersen, James N., Reed, Roberto R., Sardalla, Gaspar L. (1996). Critical Issues in Philippine Research: A
selected and annotated literature review on the women’s movement, conflict in Luzon’s Cordillera,
Muslim autonomy, and recent political resistance. California: Center for South and Southeast Asia
Studies University of California.

Bacani, Bendicto (2003) Corruption, Conflict and Culture. ARRM Rountable Series, Center for Autonomy
and Governance, Notre Damme University, Philippines Retrieved on December 19, 2007 from
http://www.kaf.ph/pdfdb//39_pub.pdf

Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2002) The Role of Philippine - American Relations in the Global Campaign against
Terrorism: Implications for Regional Security. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of
International and Strategic Affairs, (24)2: pp. 294-312.

Donnelly, Charles. (2004) Terrorism in the Southern Philippines: Contextualising the Abu Sayyaf Group as
ana Islamist Secessionist Organization. A paper presented to the 15th Biennial Conference of the
Asian Studies Association of Australia in Canberra 29 June – 2 July 2004.

Edgar C. Knowlton, Jr. (1964) The Naming of the Philippines and of the Marquesas Islands, American
Speech: (39) 4. pp. 302-304.

Islam, Serajul Syed (1998) The Islamic Independence Movements in Patani of Thailand and Mindanao of
the Philippines Asian Survey, (38)5 : pp. 441-456.

Mc Kenna, Thomas M. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the
Southern Philippines, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.

Noble, Lela Garner (1976). The Moro National Liberation Front in the Philippines
Pacific Affairs, (49) 3 pp. 405-424.

“Peace derivatives and probabilities in Muslim Mindanao (Part 1)

An Analysis of the Arroyo Administration’s Conflict Management in the Southern Philippines”
(2003, August 12) Association for Asian Research, Don Agrasada, Retrieved on December 10, 2007
from http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1498.html

Philippine Court Convicts 14 in Kidnapping Case.

(2007, December 7). The New York Times, p. A14.

Philippine Catholics afraid of Muslim homeland deal.

(2007, December 5). Reuters, Retrieved on December 10, 2007 from
http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSSP3702420071205

Reuters official website retrieved on December 19, 2007 from

http://www.reuters.com/article/email/idUSMAN313492._CH_.2400
Muslim Separatists in the Philippines & their claim for Islamic independence
Alan Ibale
Coex1210a: Coexistence and Conflicts -Theories and Analysis
Professor Mari Fitzduff

Steven, Rogers (2004). Beyond the Abu Sayyaf.

Foreign Affairs: (83) 1, p15-20, 6p

Torres, Jose Jr. (2001). Into the Mountain: Hostaged by the Abu Sayyaf, Quezon City, Philippines, Claretian
Publications.