Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale - ESI 2007-: January 2007
Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale - ESI 2007-: January 2007
Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale - ESI 2007-: January 2007
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MEMORIE
DESCRITTIVE DELLA
Editors
GUERRIERI L., VITTORI E.
SYTEMCART - 2007
Direttore responsabile: Leonello SERVA
REDAZIONE a cura del Servizio Cartografico, coordinamento base dati e tavoli europei
Dirigente: Norman ACCARDI
Capo Settore: Domenico TACCHIA
Coordinamento Editoriale, allestimento digitale dei testi: Maria Luisa VATOVEC
SYSTEMCART - 2007
Preface
The idea of an Intensity scale based on coseismic environmental effects started to ripe early in the '80s
following the macroseismic surveys of strong earthquakes, in particular, for Italy, those occurred in 1976
(Friuli) and 1980 (Irpinia-Basilicata). In fact, during such surveys, it was often observed that intensity
could not be reliably evaluated only based on damage to artefacts. This was specially true for sparsely
populated areas and for the highest degrees, because it was extremely difficult to estimate damage above
degree X. Environmental effects, although sometimes widespread, were generally overlooked even if
some of them do not suffer of such limitations. Among them was particularly impressive the observation
of jumping stones, which sometimes were found higher than their original position, clear evidence of
peak acceleration exceeding gravity.
It must be underlined that the compilers of the earlier macroseismic scales already at the end of XIX cen-
tury judged useful to define the intensity degree based on effects not only on man and man-made struc-
tures, but also on the environment.
The intensity scale ESI 2007 (Environmental Seismic Intensity scale) results from a reviewing process of
previous versions lasted for eight years and carried out also under the patronage of INQUA (International
Union for Quaternary Research). To this revision have participated many qualified geologists, seismolo-
gists and engineers from many countries, under the coordination of the Italian Geological Survey of the
Italian Environmental Agency.
The ESI scale does not substitute the traditional ones, but integrates them, allowing to define the ear-
thquake intensity on the basis of the whole set of coseismic effects. It can be applied not only to future
earthquakes, but also to reassess historical events. Therefore, I believe that, if properly applied, the ESI
scale will provide valuable information in many areas for a better assessment of seismic hazard.
Prefazione
L’idea di una scala di intensità basata sugli effetti cosismici sull’ambiente è iniziata a maturare a partire dagli anni '80 a
seguito dei rilievi macrosismici di forti terremoti, in particolare per l’Italia quelli del 1976 (Friuli) e 1980 (Irpinia-
Basilicata). Infatti, nel corso di tali rilievi si osservava spesso che l’intensità non poteva essere stimata in maniera affidabi-
le sulla base dei soli danni sul costruito. Ciò valeva in particolare per le aree scarsamente abitate e per i terremoti più forti,
in quanto risultava estremamente complesso stimare il danneggiamento sopra il decimo grado. Gli effetti ambientali, pur talo-
ra numerosi e diffusi su tutto il territorio venivano invece trascurati sebbene alcuni di loro non soffrissero di simili limitazio-
ni (tra essi, l’effetto che più mi colpiva erano le impronte sul terreno di sassi che si ritrovavano nelle immediate vicinanze,
anche a monte, indicazione sicura di picchi di accelerazione superiori a quello di gravità).
Va detto che gli Autori delle prime scale macrosismiche già alla fine del XIX secolo avevano ritenuto utile definire il grado
d’intensità sulla base degli effetti non solo sull’uomo e sulle strutture antropiche, ma anche sull’ambiente naturale.
La scala di intensità ESI 2007 (Environmental Seismic Intensity scale) è il risultato di un processo di revisione delle pre-
cedenti versioni durato otto anni e realizzato anche nell’ambito delle attività dell’INQUA (International Union for
Quaternary Research). A tale revisione hanno collaborato numerosi e qualificatissimi geologi, sismologi e ingegneri prove-
nienti da varie parti del mondo coordinate dal Servizio Geologico d’Italia dell’APAT.
La scala ESI 2007 non si sostituisce a quelle tradizionali ma le integra, consentendo di definire l'intensità sismica sulla
base di tutti gli effetti a disposizione. Essa è potenzialmente utilizzabile non solo per terremoti futuri ma anche per la revi-
sione di terremoti storici. Pertanto, sono convinto che, se adottata correttamente, la scala ESI 2007 potrà fornire in molte
aree utili indicazioni anche per la rivalutazione della pericolosità sismica.
MICHETTI A.M. (1), ESPOSITO E. (2), GUERRIERI L. (3), PORFIDO S. (2), SERVA L. (3),
TATEVOSSIAN R. (4), VITTORI E. (3), AUDEMARD F. (5), AZUMA T. (6), CLAGUE J. (7),
COMERCI V. (3), GÜRPINAR A. (8), MC CALPIN J. (9), MOHAMMADIOUN B. (10),
MÖRNER N.A. (11), OTA Y. (12), ROGHOZIN E. (4)
ABSTRACT - The Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI ded only when effects on humans and on manmade struc-
2007) is a new earthquake intensity scale only based on the tures i) are absent, or too scarce (i.e. in sparsely populated
effects triggered by the earthquake in the natural environ- or desert areas), and ii) saturate (i.e., for intensity X to XII)
ment. The coseismic effects considered more diagnostic for loosing their diagnostic value.
intensity evaluation are surface faulting and tectonic After its official approval at the 17th INQUA Congress, the
uplift/subsidence (primary effects), landslides, ground use of the ESI 2007 scale will be proposed to national insti-
cracks, liquefactions, displaced boulders, tsunami and tutions (geological surveys, academic and research institu-
hydrological anomalies (secondary effects). The ESI 2007 tes, departments for civil protection, environmental agen-
scale follows the same basic structure as any other XII cies, etc.), dealing in the field of earthquake intensity and
degree scale, such as the MCS, MM, MSK and EMS scales. seismic hazard.
This type of intensity scale was proposed to the scientific
community since the beginning of '90s. The idea was defi- RIASSUNTO - L’Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI
nitely accepted in 1999, when a first version of the scale was 2007) è una nuova scala di intensità dei terremoti basata
developed by a Working Group of geologists, seismologists esclusivamente sugli effetti ambientali. Tra questi, quelli
and engineers sponsored by the International Union for considerati diagnostici per la valutazione dell’intensità sono
Quaternary Research (INQUA). In the following years, this la fagliazione superficiale e i sollevamenti/abbassamenti tet-
version has been revised and updated. tonici (effetti primari), i fenomeni franosi, le fratture, le
The ESI 2007 scale is the result of the revision of previous liquefazioni, gli tsunami, le variazione idrologiche (effetti
versions after its application to a large number of earthqua- secondari). La scala ESI 2007 è strutturata come le altre
kes worldwide. In the frame of INQUA SubCommission scale a XII gradi, quali le scale MCS, MM, MSK ed EMS.
on Paleoseismicity, this activity was conducted by academic Già dagli anni '90 questo tipo di scala di intensità veniva
and research institutes coordinated by the Geological proposta all’interno della comunità scientifica per essere
Survey of Italy - APAT (for further details, successivamente accolta e sviluppata in ambito internazio-
s e e h t t p : / / w w w. a p a t . g o v. i t / s i t e / e n - nale, sotto l’egida dell’INQUA (International Union for
GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/default.html). Quaternary Research), da un Gruppo di Lavoro costituito da
For intensity levels lower than IX, the main goal of this new geologi, sismologi e ingegneri. Nel 1999 ne veniva redatta
scale is to bring the environmental effects in line with the una prima versione, più volte aggiornata negli anni succes-
damage indicators. In this range, the ESI 2007 scale should sivi.
be used along with the other scales. In the range between X La versione ESI 2007 è il risultato della revisione delle pre-
and XII, the distribution and size of environmental effects, cedenti sulla scorta delle informazioni ottenute attraverso
specially primary tectonic features, becomes the most dia- l’applicazione della scala a un gran numero di terremoti
gnostic tool to assess the intensity level. Documentary in tutto il mondo. Tale attività è stata condotta, nell’ambito
report and/or field observations on fault rupture length dell’INQUA SubCommission on Paleoseismicity, da
and surface displacement should be consistently implemen- Università e Istituti di ricerca a livello internazionale
ted in the macroseismic study of past and future earthqua- coordinati dal Dipartimento Difesa del Suolo - Servizio
kes. Therefore, the use of the ESI 2007 alone is recommen- Geologico d’Italia dell’APAT (per maggiori dettagli
(1) The application of the INQUA scale to case studies was conducted within the INQUA Scale Project Working Group by
the Authors and by the following scientists:
· R. AMIT - Geological Survey of Israel.
· G. BESANA - Nagoya University, Furo-cho Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
· K. CHUNGA - Università dell’Insubria, Como, Italy.
· A. FOKAEFS - Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, Greece.
· L.E. FRANCO - INGEOMINAS, Bogotà, Colombia.
· C.P. LALINDE PULIDO - Universidad EAFIT, Departamiento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Medellin, Colombia.
· E. KHAGAN - Geological Survey of Israel.
· N. LIN YUNONG - National Taiwan University, Taiwan.
· S. MARCO - Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv, Israel.
· A. NELSON - US Geological Survey, Denver, USA.
· I. PAPANIKOLAU - University College London, Department of Earth Sciences, BHRC, London, UK.
· G. PAPATHANASSIOU - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
· S. PAVLIDES - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
· K. REICHERTER - Aachen University, Germany.
· A. SALAMON - Geological Survey of Israel.
· C. SPERNANZONI - University of Roma Tre, Italy.
· P.G. SILVA - Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Salamanca Sapin.
· J. ZAMUDIO - Istituto Geofisico del Perù, Lima.
Definition of intensity degrees
Definizione dei gradi di intensità
From I to III: There are no environmental effects that can be used as diagnostic.
a) Rare small variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recorded,
as well as extremely rare small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in
springs and wells, especially within large karstic spring systems, which appear to be most prone to this
phenomenon.
b) In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height not exceeding a few centimeters may develop,
commonly observed only by tidal gauges, exceptionally even by naked eye, typically in the far field of
strong earthquakes. Anomalous waves are perceived by all people on small boats, few people on larger
boats, most people on the coast. Water in swimming pools swings and may sometimes overflows.
c) Hair-thin cracks (millimeter-wide) might be occasionally seen where lithology (e.g., loose alluvial depo-
sits, saturated soils) and/or morphology (slopes or ridge crests) are most prone to this phenomenon.
d)Exceptionally, rocks may fall and small landslide may be (re)activated, along slopes where the equili-
brium is already near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose and generally saturated soil.
e) Tree limbs shake feebly.
a) Rare variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recorded, as
well as small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs and wells.
b) In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height of decimeters may develop, sometimes noted also
by naked eye, typically in the far field of strong earthquakes. Anomalous waves up to several tens of cm
high are perceived by all people on boats and on the coast. Water in swimming pools overflows.
c) Thin cracks (millimeter-wide and several cms up to one meter long) are locally seen where lithology
(e.g., loose alluvial deposits, saturated soils) and/or morphology (slopes or ridge crests) are most prone
to this phenomenon.
d) Rare small rockfalls, rotational landslides and slump earth flows may take place, along often but not
necessarily steep slopes where equilibrium is near the limit state, mainly loose deposits and saturated
soil. Underwater landslides may be triggered, which can induce small anomalous waves in coastal areas
of sea and lakes.
e) Tree limbs and bushes shake slightly, very rare cases of fallen dead limbs and ripe fruit.
f) Extremely rare cases are reported of liquefaction (sand boil), small in size and in areas most prone to
this phenomenon (highly susceptible, recent, alluvial and coastal deposits, near-surface water table).
10
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
a) Significant variations of the water level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are locally recor-
ded, as well as small variations of chemical-physical properties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs
and wells.
b) Anomalous waves up to many tens of cm high flood very limited areas nearshore. Water in swimming
pools and small ponds and basins overflows.
c) Occasionally, millimeter-centimeter wide and up to several meters long fractures are observed in loose alluvial deposits
and/or saturated soils; along steep slopes or riverbanks they can be 1-2 cm wide. A few minor cracks develop in paved
(either asphalt or stone) roads.
d) Rockfalls and landslides with volume reaching ca. 103 m3 can take place, especially where equilibrium
is near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose saturated soil, or highly weathered / frac-
tured rocks. Underwater landslides can be triggered, occasionally provoking small anomalous waves in
coastal areas of sea and lakes, commonly seen by intrumental records.
e) Trees and bushes shake moderately to strongly; a very few tree tops and unstable-dead limbs may break
and fall, also depending on species, fruit load and state of health.
f) Rare cases are reported of liquefaction (sand boil), small in size and in areas most prone to this phenomenon (highly
susceptible, recent, alluvial and coastal deposits, near surface water table).
Secondary effects: The total affected area is in the order of 100 km2.
a) Springs may change, generally temporarily, their flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Some small
springs may even run dry. Variations in water level are observed in wells. Weak variations of chemi-
cal-physical properties of water, most commonly temperature, may be observed in springs and/or
wells. Water turbidity may appear in closed basins, rivers, wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sul-
phureous, are locally observed.
b) Anomalous waves up to 1-2 meters high flood nearshore areas and may damage or wash away objects
of variable size. Erosion and dumping of waste is observed along the beaches, where some bushes
and even small weak-rooted trees can be eradicated and drifted away. Water violently overflows from
small basins and watercourses.
c) Fractures up to 50 cm wide and up to hundreds metres long, are commonly observed in loose alluvial deposits and/or
saturated soils; in rare cases fractures up to 1 cm can be observed in competent dry rocks. Decimetric cracks arecommon
in paved (asphalt or stone) roads, as well as small pressure undulations.
d) Small to moderate (103 - 105 m3) landslides are widespread in prone areas; rarely they can occur also
on gentle slopes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / saturated soils; rock falls on
steep gorges, coastal cliffs) their size is sometimes large (105 - 106 m3). Landslides can occasionally dam
narrow valleys causing temporary or even permanent lakes. Ruptures, slides and falls affect riverbanks
and artificial embankments and excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment or weathered /
fractured rock. Frequent is the occurrence of landslides under the sea level in coastal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; branches may break and fall, trees may be uprooted , especially along steep slopes.
f) Liquefaction may be frequent in the epicentral area, depending on local conditions; the most typicalò effects are: sand boils
up to ca. 1 m in diameter; apparent water fountains in still waters; localised lateral spreading and settlements (subsiden-
ce up to ca. 30 cm), with fissuring parallel to waterfront areas (river banks, lakes, canals, seashores).
g) In dry areas, dust clouds may rise from the ground in the epicentral area.
h) Stones and even small boulders and tree trunks may be thrown in the air, leaving typical imprints in soft
soil.
se, temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence and landsliding. Basins may appear or be
emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups reaching 15 meters
and more devastating flat areas for kilometers inland. Even meter-sized boulders can be dragged for long distances.
Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with noteworthy changes of the coastal morphology. Trees nearsho-
re are eradicated and drifted away.
c) Open ground cracks up to several meters wide are very frequent, mainly in loose alluvial deposits
and/or saturated soils. In competent rocks they can reach 1 m. Very wide cracks develop in paved
(asphalt or stone) roads, as well as large pressure undulations.
d) Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are frequent, practically regardless of equilibrium state
of slopes, causing many temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments,
and sides of excavations typically collapse. Levees and earth dams incur serious damage. Significant
landslides can occur even at 200 - 300 km distance from the epicenter. Frequent are large landslides
under the sea level in coastal areas.
e) Trees shake vigorously; many branches and tree trunks break and fall. Many trees are uprooted and fall.
f) Liquefaction changes the aspect of extensive zones of lowland, determining vertical subsidence possi-
bly exceeding several meters; numerous large sand volcanoes, and severe lateral spreading can be observed.
g) In dry areas dust clouds arise from the ground.
h) Big boulders (diameter of several meters) can be thrown in the air and move away from their site for long distances down
even gentle slopes., leaving typical imprints in soil.
XII - COMPLETELY DEVASTATING - Effects in the environment are the only tool
for intensity assessment
thquake size and its intensity field, complemen- 1.3. - THRESHOLD FOR SURFACE FAULTING IN VOL-
ting, de facto, the traditional damage-based macro- CANIC AREAS
seismic scales. As a matter of fact, with the out-
standing growth of Paleoseismology as a new The focal depth and the stress environment of
independent discipline, nowadays the effects on an earthquake obviously influence the occurrence
the environment can be described and quantified and the size of the observed effects. Two crustal
with a remarkable detail compared with that avai- earthquakes with the same energy but very diffe-
lable at the time of the earlier scales. Therefore, rent focal depths and stress environment can pro-
today the definition of the intensity degrees can duce a very different field of environmental
effectively take advantage of the diagnostic cha- effects and therefore largely different local inten-
racteristics of the effects on natural environment. sity values. This is particularly important in volca-
This is the goal of the ESI 2007 scale. Its use, nic areas, where tectonic earthquakes with low
alone or integrated with the other traditional sca- magnitude and very shallow focus (in the order of
les (see chapter 2), affords a better picture of the 1-4 km) can generate primary effects (e.g.,
earthquake scenario, because only environmental AZZARO, 1999). To take this into account, the
effects allow suitable comparison of the ear- threshold for surface faulting in volcanic areas has
thquake intensity both: been set at intensity VII, whereas for typical ear-
thquakes (focal depth 5-15 km) primary effects
· in time: effects on the natural environment start from intensity VIII.
are comparable for a time-window (recent, histo-
ric and palaeo seismic events) much larger than
the period of instrumental record (last century), 2. - HOW TO USE THE ESI 2007 SCALE
and
When suitable EEEs are documented, the ESI
· in different geographic areas: environmental 2007 scale allows independent estimates of epi-
effects do not depend on peculiar socio-econo- central and local intensity. Through a straightfor-
mic conditions or different building practices. ward procedure (fig. 2) these values can be used
for intensity assessment alone or together with
1.2. - PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS damage-based traditional scales to produce a
“hybrid” intensity field. The use of the ESI 2007
Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEEs) scale as an independent tool is recommended
are any phenomena generated in the natural envi- when (case A in fig. 2) only environmental effects
ronment by a seismic event. They can be catego- are diagnostic because effects on humans and on
rized in two main types: manmade structures are absent, or too scarce (i.e.
· primary effects, the surface expression of in sparsely populated or desert areas), or suffer
the seismogenic tectonic source (including surfa- saturation (i.e., for intensity X to XII).
ce faulting, surface uplift and subsidence), typical- As shown by the processing of many ear-
ly observed for crustal earthquakes over a certain thquakes worldwide, typically the ESI 2007 used
threshold value of magnitude. Being directly lin- alone can define the intensity degree with an
ked to the size, hence the energy of the earthqua- acceptable level of accuracy starting from intensi-
ke, these effects in principle do not suffer satura- ty VII, when environmental effects usually beco-
tion, i.e., they saturate only for intensity XII, this me diagnostic. This accuracy improves in the
being an obvious inherent limit of all macrosei- higher degrees of the scale, in particular in the
smic scales. range of occurrence of primary effects, typically
· secondary effects: phenomena generally starting from intensity VIII, and with growing
induced by the ground shaking. Their occurrence resolution for intensity IX, X, XI and XII.
is commonly observed in a specific range of Obviously, when environmental effects are not
intensities. For each type of secondary effect, the available, intensity has to be assessed by damage-
ESI 2007 scale describes their characteristics and based traditional scales (case B).
size as a diagnostic feature in a range of intensity If effects are available either on manmade
degrees. Hence, in some cases it is only possible structures and natural environments (case C),
to establish a minimum intensity value. allowing to estimate two independent intensities,
Conversely, the total area of distribution of in general the intensity has to coincide with the
secondary effects does not saturate and therefore highest value between these two estimates. Of
it can be used as an independent tool for the course, expert judgment is an essential compo-
assessment of the epicentral intensity Ι0 (par. 3.2). nent in the process of comparing intensitiy asses-
17
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
sed using different categories of “receivers”. the epicenter. Several techniques can be applied
This procedure allows generating a “hybrid to assess I0; for instance, POSTPISCHL (1985) defi-
field” of local intensities, i.e., derived from the ne I0 as “the value of the closed isoseismal line
integration of ESI 2007 and other intensity scales. having the highest degree and including at least 3
This is deemed to be the best intensity scenario different data points”.
because 1) it takes into account all the effects trig- Surface faulting parameters and total area of
gered by the earthquake, 2) it is in agreement with distribution of secondary effects (landslides
the original definition of intensity, and 3) it allows and/or liquefactions) are two independent tools
the comparison of earthquakes in time and in to assess I0 on the basis of environmental effects,
space over the largest chronological and geogra- starting from the intensity VII.
phic window. SURFACE FAULTING PARAMETERS: The ranges
reported in Table 1 are based on the analysis of
2.1. - PROCEDURE TO USE THE ESI 2007 SCALE AS surface faulting parameters and intensity data
A SELF INSTRUMENT FOR INTENSITY ASSESSMENT available for more than 400 shallow crustal ear-
thquakes worldwide (SURFIN, SURFace faulting
Evidently the ESI 2007 scale is a tool to assess and INtensity database; INQUA scale Project,
both epicentral and local intensities. 2007). The use of this simple table for I0 asses-
sment requires particular attention when the
2.1.1. - Epicentral intensity (Ι0) amount of surface faulting is close to the boun-
daries between two intensity degrees. In this case
Epicentral intensity (I0) is defined as the inten- it is recommended to choose the intensity value
sity of shaking at epicenter, i.e. what intensity we better consistent with the characteristics and
would get, if there were a locality that matches distribution of secondary effects.
DATA INTENSITY
COLLECTION ASSESSMENT
HISTORICAL A
EARTHQUAKES
NATURAL
Revision of effects ENVIRONMENT
IESI
from historical
documents
B IMCS
RECENT HUMANS + IMM
EARTHQUAKES MANMADE IMSK
AVAILABLE
EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES IEMS
Revision of effects
from macroseismic and IJMA
geological surveys
C IMCS
HUMANS + IMM
FUTURE
MANMADE
EARTHQUAKES STRUCTURES IMSK
IEMS MAXIMUM
Ad hoc macroseismic
and geological field
AN D
IJMA VALUE
surveys =
NATURAL
INTENSITY
ENVIRONMENT IESI
Fig. 2 - Logical scheme for the use of ESI 2007 scale alone or together with damage-based traditional scales. We show only the most commonly used scales,
however, any scale can be integrated with the ESI 2007 scale following the same methodological steps.
- Schema logico per l'utilizzo della scala ESI 2007 da sola o insieme con le scale tradizionali basate sui danni. Qui sono considerate solo le scale maggiormente usate, tuttavia qual-
siasi scala può integrarsi con la scala ESI 2007 seguendo un approccio metodologico analogo.
18
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
TOTAL AREA OF SECONDARY EFFECTS: Starting According to this approach, a Site can be defi-
from intensity VII, the ESI 2007 scale considers ned as any place where a single environmental
the total area of secondary effects as diagnostic effect has occurred. The description of one effect
element for I0 assessment. Even in this case, for has to be done at this level.
each intensity degree table 1 only lists the order of One Locality may include several sites and
magnitude of the total area, and the chosen value presents a level of generalization, to which inten-
of I0 has to be consistent with primary effects. sity can be assigned. It can refer to any place,
The definition of total area should not inclu- either inhabited or natural. It has to be small
de the isolated effects occasionally located in the enough to keep separated areas with significantly
far field. In fact, the occurrence of these effects is different site intensities, but large enough to
most likely due to peculiar site conditions. include several sites and consequently to be repre-
Evidently, only a sound professional judgment sentative for intensity assessment. Therefore, the
can establish which effects should be inclu- locality has to be defined by expert judgment.
ded/excluded in the definition of total area. REGULAR GRID: in case a systematic field sur-
vey of the affected area provides a homogeneous
distribution of environmental effects, which is
TAB. 1 - Ranges of surface faulting parameters (prima- still uncommon for modern earthquakes but
ry effects) and typical extents of total area (secondary highly advisable for future earthquakes, it is
effects) for each intensity degree. recommended to divide the territory into a regu-
- Valori di riferimento per ciascun grado di inten- lar grid with a cell size that depends on the scale
sità relativo ai parametri di fagliazione superficia- of the field survey. It should be possible to assign
le (effetti primari) e all’area totale degli effetti a local intensity to each cell. The resulting distri-
secondari. bution of local intensities allows to define the
PRIMARY SECONDARY map of isoseismals. However, with this approach
I0 EFFECTS EFFECTS the comparison and integration with “standard”
Intensity SURFACE
MAX SURFACE macroseismic intensity values may become quite
DISPLACEMENT
RUPTURE
/
TOTAL AREA difficult.
LENGTH
DEFORMATION
IV - - - 2.2. - CORRELATION BETWEEN ESI 2007 AND
V - - - TRADITIONAL MACROSEISMIC SCALES
VI - -
VII (*) (*) 10 km2 In principle, the correlations of intensity sca-
VIII Several hundreds Centimetric 100 km2 les, degree by degree, should be never allowed
meters
IX 1- 10 km 5 - 40 cm 1000 km2 because each scale classifies the effects in a diffe-
X 10 - 60 km 40 - 300 cm 5000 km2 rent way. Hence, for the comparison of two ear-
XI 60 – 150 km 300 –700 cm 10000 km2 thquakes it should be advisable to use the same
XII > 150 km > 700 cm > 50000 km2 intensity scale, even if it is necessary to reclassify
(*) Limited surface fault ruptures, tens to hundreds meters long with cen-
all the effects. For instance, in the MSK64 scale
timetric offset may occur essentially associated to very shallow earthqua- the concepts of “typical” damage and building
kes in volcanic areas. types are used. As a result this is a scale of con-
stant intervals. The MCS and Modified Mercalli sca-
2.1.2 . - Local intensity (IL) les, based on maximum effects, are scales of order.
As a consequence intensity VIII is much easier to
The local intensity is essentially assessed get in original Mercalli than applying MSK64.
through the description of secondary effects. Indeed, the “classic” twelve degrees scales,
However, even the local expression of primary though they included environmental effects, were
effects, in terms of maximum displacement of a not able to differentiate intensities above IX,
fault segment, may contribute to its evaluation. because (a) they did not make difference between
The evaluation of local intensity can be done in primary and secondary effects, (b) they did not
two different ways: use quantitative approach for the effects on natu-
LOCALITY - SITE: this approach is recommen- re. Therefore, it is expected that when we deal
ded when the descriptions of environmental with the strongest earthquakes the application of
effects are not homogeneously surveyed over the the ESI 2007 scale will yield an intensity value
territory, which is common for historical ear- that is different, and more physically meaningful,
thquakes. The main advantage of this procedure is from that obtained with the others scales. That is
that it allows the comparison with local intensities exactly the reason why it is necessary to develop
deriving from traditional macroseismic scales. this new intensity scale.
19
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
As a matter of fact, in the practice of macro- 3.1. - MAIN GROUPS OF INTENSITY DEGREES
seismic investigation, very often one is obliged to
compare earthquakes intensities classified with The ESI 2007 scale starts where environmen-
different scales. This has promoted the use of tal effects become regularly observed in favorable
conversion tables, such as those proposed by conditions, i.e. at intensity IV. The scale is linear
KRINITZSKY & CHANG (1978), REITER (1990), and and works well up to XII degree. In the first ver-
PANZA (2004). On the other hand, the application sion of the scale, intensity I, II and III were also
of such kind of tables has often caused the intro- defined using environmental effects (MICHETTI et
duction of additional uncertainties, such as the alii, 2004). It is important to remark that several
use of half-degrees or fractional degrees. effects on nature, especially concerning water
In order to avoid these inconveniences, the bodies and hydrogeological phenomena
correlation among the most important intensity (MONTGOMERY & MANGA, 2003 and references
scales has to be simply based on one-to-one rela- therein), but also instrumentally-detected primary
tionships. As discussed in MICHETTI et alii, (2004), tectonic deformations (permanent fault offset
due to the level of uncertainty inherent in the measured at the INFN Gran Sasso, Italy, strain-
structure itself of the macroseismic scales, and in meter; cf., AMORUSO & CRESCENTINI, 1999), have
case a conversion between scales is a step that been observed for very low intensity. Perhaps
cannot be absolutely avoided, the best we can do future investigation will allow a new revision of
is to consider all the twelve degrees scales as equi- the scale in order to include environmental effects
valent. This includes also the Chinese macrosei- suitable for intensity assessment in the range
smic intensity scale, which has been originally from I to III. However, after 4 years of applica-
designed to be consistent with the MM scale (e.g., tion at a global scale through the INQUA scale
XIE, 1957; WANG, 2004). Nevertheless, the corre- project, it was clear that with the knowledge avai-
lation with the 7-degrees JMA intensity scale lable today, effects on natural environment in this
(KRINTIZSKY & CHANG, 1977; REITER, 1990; range are not diagnostic.
HANCOX et alii, 2002), and with other scales not Therefore, comparing the ESI 2007 with the
based on twelve degrees, inevitably requires grou- other 12 degrees scales, we can identify three
ping of some intensity degrees. main subset:
I) From I to III: There are no environmen-
tal effects that can be used as diagnostic.
3. - STRUCTURE OF THE SCALE
II) From IV to IX: Environmental effects are
The ESI 2007 scale has been developed to be easily observable starting from intensity IV, and
consistent with the Modified Mercalli macrosei- often permanent and diagnostic especially star-
smic scale (MM-31, WOOD & NEUMANN, 1931; ting from intensity VII. However, they are neces-
MM-56, RICHTER, 1958) and the MSK-64 ( sarily less suitable for intensity assessment than
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale), since these effects on humans and manmade structures.
are the most applied worldwide and includes Their use is therefore recommended especially in
many explicit references to environmental effects. sparsely populated areas;
More in general, the new scale was carefully
designed in order to keep the internal consistency III) From X to XII: Effects on humans and
of the original twelve degrees scale, as discussed manmade structures saturate, while environmen-
in depth by MICHETTI et alii, (2004). A great deal tal effects become dominant; in fact, several types
of work in seismic hazard assessment is accompli- of environmental effects do not suffer saturation
shed in the world, and intensity is a basic parame- in this range. Thus, environmental effects are the
ter in this. Any “new word” in this research field most effective tool to evaluate the intensity.
must not result in dramatic changes. The members
of the WG are aware that, by definition, the twel- 3.2. - TITLE AND DESCRIPTION
ve-degree macroseismic scales are based essential-
ly on effects on humans in the range of intensity The title reflects the corresponding force of
II to V, on damage in the range of intensity VI to the earthquake and the role of environmental
IX, and on natural environment in the range effects.
of intensity X to XII. The ESI 2007 scale is therefo- In the description, the characteristics and size
re really useful only for the assessment of the of primary effects associated to each degree are
highest intensities. But, as mentioned above, reported firstly. Then, secondary effects are
to avoid any confusion, the classical numbering described i) in terms of total area of distribution
is kept. for the assessment of epicentral Intensity (star-
20
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
NOAA - NGDC, Boulder, Colorado USA, 73 pp. V. COMERCI Eds.), 115 pp., Roma.
MICHETTI A.M., ESPOSITO E., GÜRPINAR J., MOHAMMADIOUN MICHETTI A.M., LIVIO F., CHINGA K. ESPOSITO E.,
B., MOHAMMADIOUN A., PORFIDO S., ROGOZHIN E., FANETTI D., GAMBILLARA R., MARTIN S., PASQUARÈ F.,
SERVA L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E., AUDEMARD F., PORFIDO S., SILEO G. & VITTORI E. (2005) - Ground effects of
COMERCI V., MARCO S., MCCALPIN J. & MÖRNER N.A. the Ml 5.2, November 24, 2004, Salò earthquake, Northern Italy,
(2004) - The INQUA Scale. An innovative approach for asses and the seismic hazard of the western Southern Alps. Rend. Soc.
sing earthquake intensities based on seismically-induced ground Geol. It., 1 (2005), Nuova Serie, 134-135, 2 ff.
effects- in natural environment. Special paper APAT, Mem. PAPATHANASSIOU G., VALKANIOTIS S. & PAVLIDES S.
Descr. Carta geol. d’Italia, 68. (E. VITTORI & V. (2007) - Applying the INQUA Scale to the Sofaeds 1954, Central
COMERCI Eds.), 115 pp. Greece, earthquake.
MONTGOMERY D.R. & MANGA M. (2003) - Streamflow and PORFIDO S., ESPOSITO E., VITTORI E., TRANFAGLIA G.,
Water Well Responses to Earthquakes. Science, 300, 27 June GUERRIERI L. & PECE R. (2007) - Seismically induced ground
2003, 2047-2049. effects of the 1805, 1930 and 1980 earthquakes in the Southern
PANZA G.F. (2004) - Correlation among intensity scales. Apennines (Italy). Boll.Soc.Geol.It. (Ital .J. Geosci.), 126, No.
Downloadable from http://www.apat.gov.it/ site/en- 2, Roma.
GB/Projects/INQUA_Scale/Documents/, 15 p., Trieste. SALAMON A. (2005) - Seismically induced ground effects of the
PAPADOPOULOS, G.A. & F. IMAMURA (2001) - Proposal for a February 11, 2004, Ml=5.2 northeastern Dead Sea earthquake.
new tsunami intensity scale. Proc. Internat. Tsunami Geological Survey of Israel, Report 30/04.
Conference, Seattle , 7 - 9 August 2001, 569 - 577. SERVA L., ESPOSITO E., GUERRIERI L., PORFIDO S.,
POSTPISCHL D. (1985) - Catalogo dei terremoti italiani dall’anno VITTORI E. & COMERCI V. (in press) - Environmental Effects
1000 al 1980. CNR-PFG 114, 2B: 238 pp. from some historical earthquakes in Southern Apennines (Italy) and
REITER L. (1990) - Earthquake Hazard Analysis. Issues and macroseismic intensity asseessment. Contribution to INQUA
insights. Columbia University Press, New York, 254 pp. EEE scale project. Quaternary International (2007),
RICHTER C.F. (1958) - Elementary Seismology. W.H. FREEMAN doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.03.015.
& CO, San Francisco, 768 p. SILVA P.G. (2006) - La Escala de Intensidad Macrosísmica de
SERVA L. (1994) - Ground effects in intensity scales. Terra Nova INQUA (EEE Intensity Scale): Efectos Geológicos y
6, 414-416. Geomorfológicos de los terremotos. Journal of Quaternary and
WANG J. (2004) - Historical earthquake investigation and research Geomorphology: Cuaternario y Geomorfología, 20 (1.2).
in China. Annals of Geophysics, 47 (2/3), 831-838. TATEVOSSIAN R.E. (in press) - The Verny, 1887, earthqua-
XIE Y. (1957) - A new scale of seismic intensity adapted to the con- ke in central Asia: Application of the INQUA scale based on cosei-
ditions in Chinese territories. Acta Geophysica Sinica, 6-1, smic environmental effects. Quaternary International (2007),
35-47, (in Chinese). accepted manuscript.
CHUNGA K., ZAMUDIO Y., MARÍN G., EGRED J., Spain) - first results.
QUIÑÓNEZ M. & ITURRALDE D. - The 12 Dic, 1953,
Earthquake, Ms 7.3, Ecuador-Peru border region: A Case Study ICTP IAEA Workshop on the Conduct of Seismic Hazard
for Applying the New INQUA Intensity Scale. Analyses for Critical Facilities Trieste, Italy, 15-19 May 2006.
ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S, GUERRIERI L, VITTORI E. & ABDEL AZIZ M. - INQUA intensity assessment for the 1995
PENNETTA M. - INQUA intensity Scale Evaluation for the 1980 Aqaba earthquake.
Southern Italy “Historical” Earthquake. AMIT R. - The use of paleoseismic data and ground effects
FOKAEFS A., G.A. PAPADOPOULOS & PAVLIDES S. - Testi- (INQUA Scale) of strong earthquakes for seismic hazard evalua-
ng the New INQUA Intensity Scale in Greek Earthquakes. tions of the Dead Sea Rift.
GUERRIERI L., TATEVOSSIAN R., VITTORI E., COMERCI KINUGASA Y. - Use of geological data for seismic hazard asses-
V., ESPOSITO E., MICHETTI A.M., PORFIDO S. & SERVA L. - sment and siting of the nuclear facilities in Japan.
The Database of Coseismic Environmental Effects as a Tool for LALINDE PULIDO C. - Active tectonics and earthquake ground
Earthquake Intensity Assessment within the INQUA EEE Scale effects in Colombia, with examples of applications of the INQUA
Project. Scale.
KAGAN E.J. , AGNON A., BAR-MATTHEWS M. & AVNER MC CALPIN J. - Paleoseismology and Maximum Magnitude esti-
AYALON - Damaged Cave Deposits Record 200, 000 Years of mates in extensional terranes.
Paleoseismicity: Dead Sea Transform Region. MICHETTI A.M. - Introduction of the INQUA Intensity Scale.
PAPATHANASSIOU G. & PAVLIDES S. - Using the INQUA MOHAMMADIOUN B. - The INQUA Scale Project: A better
Scale for the Assessment of Intensity: Case Study of 14/08/2003 link to dynamic source parameters and maximum magnitude determi-
Lefkada Earthquake, Greece. nation.
TATEVOSSIAN R. - Study of the Verny, 1887, Earthquake MUELLER K. - Assessing Mmax on Active Thrust Faults in
in Central Asia: Using Environmental Effects to Scale the Intensity New Madrid (USA) and the Northern Po Basin (Italy).
ZAMUDIO DIAZ Y., MARIN RUIZ G. & VILCAPOMA NELSON A. - Earthquakes accompanied by tsunamis: their
LAZARO L. - Applying the INQUA Scale to Some Historical and paleoseismic records and application to the INQUA intensity scale.
Recent Peruvian Earthquakes. OTA Y., AZUMA T. & LIN N. - Paleoseismological study and
seismic hazards resulting from major recent active faulting in Japan
EGU General Assembly 2006, Vienna, Austria, 06 April and Taiwan, and examples of INQUA scale intensity maps.
2006, Session “3000 years of earthquake ground effects PAPATHANASIOU G. - Applications of the INQUA Scale in
reports in Europe: geological analysis of active faults and Greece.
benefits for hazard assessment” PORFIDO S., ESPOSITO E., GUERRIERI L.& VITTORI E. -
AZUMA, T.& OTA, Y. - Comparison between seismic ground Application of the INQUA Scale to Italian earthquakes.
effects and instrumental seismic intensity- an example from a study on REICHERTER K. - Paleoseismology and the study of earthqua-
the 2004 Chuetsu earthquake in Central Japan. ke ground effects in the Mediterranean Region.
GIARDINA, F.,CARCANO C., LIVIO F.. MICHETTI, A.M., SERVA L. - The concept of the Intensity parameter in the Intensity
MUELLER, K., ROGLEDI S., SERVA L., SILEO G. & VITTORI scales.
E. - Active compressional tectonics and Quaternary capable faults in SILVA P.G. - Fault activity and earthquake ground effects in
the Western Southern Alps. Spain: applications of the INQUA Scale in the Iberian Peninsula.
GUERRIERI L., ESPOSITO E., PORFIDO S. & VITTORI E. TATEVOSSIAN R. - Geological effects in the macroseismic inten-
- The application of INQUA Scale to the 1805 Molise earthquake. sity assessment, and the application of the INQUA Scale in former
MICHETTI A.M. - The INQUA Scale Project The INQUA Scale USSR.
Project: linking pre-historical and historical records of earthquake VITTORI E. - Relationships among surface rupture parameters
ground effects. and intensity.
REICHERTER K.R., SILVA P.G., GOY J.L., SCHLEGEL U.,
SCHÖNEICH S. & ZAZO C. - Active faults and paleostress history OTHER CONFERENCES
of the Gibraltar Arc area (southern Spain) - first results.
PAPANIKOLAOU I.D., PAPANIKOLAOU D.I., LEKKAS E.L. ASHOORI S., GHADYANI A., MEMARIAN H. & ZARÈ M. -
- Epicentral-near field and far field effects from recent earthquakes in Estimation of the Earthquake Intensities in Iran based on ground
Greece. Implications for the recently introduced INQUA effects (application of INQUA scale); two cases studies.
Scale. LALINDE C.P., ESTRADA R. B.E. & FARBIARZ J. F. -
SILVA BARROSO P.G., REICHERTER K., BARDAJÍ T., LARIO Preliminary application of the INQUA scale to the recent
J., PELTZER M., GRÜTZNER C., BECKER-HEIDMANN P., GOY Colombian earthquakes. X° Congreso Colombiano de Geologia,
J.L., ZAZO C. & BORJA F. - The Baelo Claudia earthquake pro- Bogotà, April 2005.
blem, Southern Spain. PAPATHANASSIOU G. & PAVLIDES S. - Lefkada. 14th
SILVA P., G.REICHERTER K.R., BARDAJÍ T., LARIO J., MAEGS, Turin, September 2005.
PELTZER M., GRÜTZNER CH., BECKER-HEIDMANN P., GOY VITTORI E. - The INQUA EEE scale. WS Regional
J.L., ZAZO C.& BORJA F. - Surface and subsurface paleoseismic Cooperation on natural hazards: tools for risk management,
record of the Baelo Claudia area (Gibraltar Arc area, southern Yerevan, Armenia, October 26-28, 2005.
APPENDIX I
Photo: E. Vittori
Photo: R. Amit
Photo: E. Vittori
Photo: A. Ovsyuchenko
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
29
Photo: E. Vittori
Photo: E. Vittori
Photo: B. Slemmons
30
MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
Photo: L. Guerrieri
Source: SERVA L., BLUMETTI A.M. & MICHETTI A.M. (1988) - Gli effetti sul terreno del terremoto del Fucino (13 gennaio 1915); tentativo di interpretazione
dell’evoluzione tettonica recente di alcune strutture. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 35, 893-907.
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
31
Photo: T. Azuma
1811-1812 New Madrid (USA) earthquakes (Mw between 7.2 and 8.3).
Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee, USA. This lake was formed by coseismic uplift triggered by a blind thrust that caused the inundation of the forested area in
foreground.
- Questo lago si è formato per il sollevamento cosismico innescato dalla riattivazione di un sovrascorrimento cieco che ha provocato l’inondazione dell’area forestata in primo piano.
Photo: T. Azuma
34 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
Source: Murphy Corella, P. (2005) Field Report for the January 29th 2005 earthquakes in Lorca, Spain. http://www.proteccioncivil-
andalucia.org/Documentos/SismoLorca.htm
35
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
Photo: S. Porfido
April 12, 1998 Bovec, Slovenia earthquake (Md = 5.6) - Two rock falls reactivated along the Mt. Cucla mountain slope.
- Due frane di crollo si sono riattivate lungo il versante montuoso di Monte Cucla.
July 12, 2004, Kobarid, Slovenia earthquake (Md = 5.1). Two small landslides along the Kobarid - Bovec road.
- Due piccole frane lungo la strada Kobarid - Bovec.
Photo: E. Vittori
INTENSITY SCALE ESI 2007
37
Photo: E. Vittori
38 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
Photo: E. Esposito
Photo: E. Parra
Photo: E. Parra
40 MICHETTI A.M. ET ALII
Photo: E. Parra
ESI 2007 F or m
ESI 2007 Form
This 2 pages - form has to be used for field surveys immediately after the earthquake and for the revision of
environmental effects from historical sources. It is designed at the site level (one different form for each different site).
Fields in Italic should be filled when required information is available.
A complete Guide to Compilation is available at the end of this Form.
Authors & Institution
1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3._____________________________________________________________________________________________________
4._____________________________________________________________________________________________________
5._____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Earthquake
Earthquake Code __________________ Earthquake Region _____________________________________________
Year________ Month ______ Day_______ Greenwich Time______________Epicentral Intensity_______ Intensity type______
Magnitude_______________ Magnitude type________________ Focal Depth (km) _______ Depth accuracy_______
Latitude __________________ Longitude__________________________Earthquake References_________________________
Surface faulting (yes/not): _________________ Map of rupture zone (available /not available) _________________________
Maximum Displacement (cm) ______Total Rupture Length (km)______ Slip-sense ____________________________________
Surface faulting References_______________________________________________________________________________
Area of max secondary effects (kms) _________ Reference for secondary effects _______________________________________
Locality
Locality Code______________________ EEE-Survey Date ______________ Surveyors _______________________________
Locality ______________________ Town/District______________ Locality length (m) _________ Locality width (m) ________
Latitude _________________ Longitude ____________________ Altitude (m) __________ Location accuracy ______________
Distance from epicentre (km) _________ Local PGA (g) ______ Geomorphological setting_______________________________
Local Macroseismic Intensity _____________ Intensity type______
EEE site
EEE Code__________________ EEE type____________________ Site length (m) _________ Site width (m) _____________
Site position _____________________Latitude __________ Longitude ___________ Altitude (m) ______ Loc. accuracy _____
Description ________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes on the site ____________________________________________________________________________________
Bedrock lithology_______________________________________ Soft sediment lithology __________________________
Strength_____________________________________________ Structure______________________________________
EEE Site References __________________________________________________________________________________
Hydrologic anomalies
Surface water effects____________________________________ Ground water effects________________________________
Temperature Anomaly Temperature change (°C) ________ Discharge anomaly Discharge change (l/s)_________
Chemical anomaly Change chemical components________________ Gas emission Gas element _____________
Duration of anomaly (days) __________ Time delay (hrs) __________ Velocity_______________________________________
Anomalous waves/tsunami
Max wave height (m) _________ Width (m) ___________ Length of affected coast (km) ________ Time delay (min) _________
Description____________________________________________________________________________________________
Ground cracks
Origin________________________________ Strike (°) ______ Dip (°) _____ Areal density (Nr/m2) _________________
Shape___________________________ Max opening (cm) _______________ Length (m) ___________________________
Slope movements
Type_________________________________ Max dimension of blocks (m3) __________Total volume (m3)________________
Linear density (Nr/m) ____________ Areal density (Nr/m2) ____________________ Humidity__________________________
Time delay (hrs) _____________________ Width (m) _____________________ Slip amount (m) __________________
Liquefactions
Type____________________________________ Max diameter (m) _____________ Linear density (Nr/m) ________________
Areal densit y (Nr/m2) ________ Max lowering/uplift (m) _________ Shape _________________________________________
Humidity_________________________ Depth of water table (m) ___________ Water ejection Sand ejection
Velocity ____________________________________ Time delay/advance (hrs) _____________________________________
Other effects
Three shaking Dust clouds Jumping stones Other__________________________________
Description_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Sketch
Earthquake
Earthquake Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table “Earthquake” It is composed by 11 digits:
o 2 digits for country code for Regional Working Group (i.e. GR for Greece) that can be different from the country of epicentre;
o 8 digits for date (yyyymmdd);
o 1 digit according to the type of shock (m = main shock; a = aftershock; f = foreshock).
Earthquake Region: “epicentral area, country” or “name of the earthquake” (i.e. San Francisco, California, US);
Year, Month & Day: the date of the event. Please specify if it original date or converted date.
Greenwhich Time: when available, please specify.
Epicentral Intensity & Intensity type: MCS= Mercalli, Cancani, Sieberg; MM = Modified Mercalli intensity; EMS98 = European
Macroseismic Scale; MSK64 = Medvedev, Sponhauer, Karnik; JMA = Japanese Meterological Agency-Intensity Scale. If you do not
know the intensity type, please select “Not identified”.
Magnitude & Magnitude type: select from the menu (Ml / Mb / M / Ms / Md/ Mw / MbLg / Mm).
Focal Depth & Depth accuracy: in km.
Latitude, Longitude & datum: two numerical fields for the coordinates of the epicentre. Datum must be WGS84.
Earthquake References: the Agency providing source parameters and/or a list of data source for the earthquake.
Surface faulting: YES or NOT, according to the SF reference cited below. If there is no information about surface faulting,
please select “Unknown”.
Map of rupture zone: click the option if it is available.
Max D & SRL: maximum displacement (in cm) and Surface Rupture Length (in km) of the rupture zone.
Slip-sense: choose the option (normal/reverse/oblique/right-lateral/left-lateral).
Surface faulting References: the data source for surface faulting parameters (published paper and/or a personal observation).
Area of maximum secondary effects: the size (in km2) of the area where maximum secondary effects occurred.
SecEff References: references for the definition of the area of maximum secondary effects.
ESI epicentral intensity: epicentral intensity assessment based on EEE effects at the total affected area level.
Locality
Locality Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table “Locality”, composed by the first 8 digits of the locality name (truncated).
Es: SANFRANC.
EEE-Survey Date: when the EEE effects of this locality have been described.
Surveyors: the list of surveyors.
Length & Width: the size of locality in meters.
Locality and Town/District: the name of the locality and the closest town/district.
Latitude, Longitude, Altitude & Location accuracy: the coordinates and the elevation (m) of the centroid of locality area.
Accuracy in km.
Distance from epicentre: in km.
Local PGA: peak ground acceleration data (in g), when available.
Geomorphological setting: select a geomorphological environment from the list (Mountain slope /Mountain
valley/Hillslope/Alluvial fan/Bajada/Delta/Alluvial plain/Alluvial terrace/Marsh/Sea-river cliff/River-lake bank/Sea-lake shore/Arid-
semiarid flat/Desert).
Local Macroseismic Intensity: local intensity values according to classical traditional scales (do not confuse with ESI intensity!!).
EEE site
EEE Code: it is the primary key (univocal) for the table “EEE Effects”, composed by 11 digits (8 digits of locality code + 1 + 2 digits
for counter). Es: SANFRANC101. If another earthquake recorded in this database has hit the same locality you should insert 2
(instead of 1) between the 8 digits for locality code and the 2 digits for counter ). Es. SANFRANC201.
Site position: describe the position of the site within the locality (50 digits).
Length & Width: the size of site in meters.
Latitude, Longitude, Altitude & Location accuracy: the coordinates and the elevation (m) of the EEE site. Accuracy in m.
Description: a description of the effect as reported by the original observer (essential for historical earthquakes). In this field you
should include description of the evolution in time of the effect.
Notes: any additional information on the site.
Bedrock lithology: select from the menu
(Intrusive/Volcaniclava/Pyroclastic/Metamorphic/Shale/Sandstone/Conglomerate/Limestone/Salt).
Soft sediment lithology: select from the menu (Soil/Clay/Silt/Sand/Gravel).
Strength: select from the menu (hard/semi-coherent/soft).
Structure: select from the menu (massive/stratified/densely cleaved).
EEE Site References: cite the document supporting the EEE description.
EEE type: select the dominant type of EEE effect in this site: Surface faulting - Slope movements - Ground cracks - Ground
settlements - Hydrological anomaly – Tsunami - Not geological effects.
Surface faulting
Strike, Dip & Slip vector: in degrees.
Slip sense: . it can be different from the general trend of movement. Select from the list (normal/reverse/oblique/strike-slip dextral/
strike-slip sinistral).
Vertical Offset & Horizontal Offset: in cm.
Displaced features: type the displaced features (i.e. alluvial fan deposits, limestone, erosional terrace, etc.);
Length of fault segment: in km.
Scarp: select single/multiple.
Associated features: select from the menu (Gravity graben/Push-up/Pull-a-part/Mole track).
Hydrologic anomalies
Surface water effects: select from the menu (Surface waters effects/Overflow/Waves/Water fountain/Discharge variation/
Turbidity of river/Seiches/Temporary sea-level change/Temporary lake-level change).
Ground water effects: select from the menu (Drying up of springs/Appearance of springs/Temperature/Chemical component/
Turbidity of springs).
Temperature Anomaly &Temperature change: in case, click the option and estimate the change in °C.
Discharge anomaly & Discharge change: in case, click the option and estimate the change in l/s
Chemical anomaly & Change chemical components: in case, click the option and record the anomalous chemical component.
Gas emission & Gas element: in case, click the option and record the anomalous gas element.
Duration of anomaly: in days.
Time delay: in hours.
Velocity: select from the menu (Extremely slow/Very slow/Slow/Moderately rapid/Rapid).
Anomalous waves / Tsunami
Max wave height: in meters.
Width: the width of inundated land from the coast to the inner land, in meters.
Length of affected coast: in km.
Time delay: in minutes.
Ground cracks
Origin: select from the menu (slide/ground settling/detachment/ground shaking).
Strike & Dip: in degrees.
Areal density: Nr/m2.
Shape: select from the menu (straight/Sinuous/Curvilinear/Max opening).
Max opening: in cm.
Length: in meters.
Slope movements
Type: select from the menu (Rock fall/Debris fall/Toppling/Rock slide/Debris slide/Avalanche/Mudslide/Debris flow/
Earth flow/Mud flow/Slow slide/Slow earth flow/Slow mud flow/Lateral spread/Sackung).
Max dimension of blocks: in cubic meters.
Total volume: in cubic meters.
Linear density & Areal density: in Nr/m and in Nr/m2.
Humidity: select from the menu (very wet/moderately wet/dry).
Time delay: in hours.
Width: the width of the sliding material (along the slope) in m.
Slip amount: approximately, the amount of slip in m.
Liquefactions
Type: select from the menu (Liquefaction/Compaction/Subsidence/Bulge/Sinkhole/Ground failure)
Max diameter: in meters
Linear density & Areal density: Nr/m and Nr/m2
Max lowering/uplift: in meters
Shape: select from the menu (Round/Elliptical/Elongated/Squared positive cone / Squared negative cone)
Humidity: select from the menu (Very wet/Moderately wet/Dry)
Depth of water table: in meters.
Water ejection & Sand ejection: in case, click the option
Velocity: select from the menu (Extremely slow/Very slow/Slow/Moderately rapid/Rapid)
Time delay/advance: in hours
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PRIMARY EFFECTS S E C O N D A R Y E F F E C TS
From I to III There are no environmental effects that can be used as diagnostic
Rare small variations of the water level in In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height Hair-thin cracks (millimeter-
wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are not exceeding a few centimeters may develop, com- wide) might be occasionally
LARGELY OBSERVED locally recorded, as well as extremely rare monly observed only by tidal gauges, exceptionally seen where lithology (e.g., Exceptionally, rocks may fall and small landslide may
First unequivocal small variations of chemical-physical proper- even by naked eye, typically in the far field of strong loose alluvial deposits, satura- be (re)activated, along slopes where the equilibrium is
IV Absent
ties of water and turbidity in springs and earthquakes. Anomalous waves are perceived by all ted soils) and/or morphology already near the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, Tree limbs shake Absent Absent Absent ------
effects in the wells, especially within large karstic spring people on small boats, few people on larger boats, (slopes or ridge crests) are with loose and generally saturated soil. feebly.
environment systems, which appear to be most prone to most people on the coast. Water in swimming pools most prone to this phenome-
this phenomenon. swings and may sometimes overflows. non.
In closed basins (lakes, even seas) seiches with height Thin cracks (millimeter-wide and Rare small rockfalls, rotational landslides and slump Extremely rare cases are repor-
STRONG Rare variations of the water level in wells several cms up to one meter ted of liquefaction (sand boil),
and/or of the flow-rate of springs are local- of decimeters may develop, sometimes noted also by earth flows may take place, along often but not necessa- Tree limbs and bushes
naked eye, typically in the far field of strong ear- long) are locally seen where litho- rily steep slopes where equilibrium is near the limit state, shake slightly, very rare small in size and in areas most
Marginal effects in ly recorded, as well as small variations of logy (e.g., loose alluvial deposits,
V the environment
Absent chemical-physical properties of water and thquakes. Anomalous waves up to several tens of cm saturated soils) and/or morpho-
mainly loose deposits and saturated soil. Underwater cases of fallen dead
landslides may be triggered, which can induce small ano- limbs and ripe fruit.
prone to this phenomenon
(highly susceptible, recent, allu-
Absent Absent ------
turbidity in lakes, springs and wells. high are perceived by all people on boats and on the logy (slopes or ridge crests) are malous waves in coastal areas of sea and lakes. vial and coastal deposits, near-
coast. Water in swimming pools overflows. most prone to this phenomenon. surface water table).
Occasionally, millimeter-centimeter Rockfalls and landslides with volume reaching ca. 103 Trees and bushes shake
Significant variations of the water level in wide and up to several meters long frac- m3 can take place, especially where equilibrium is near moderately to strongly; a Rare cases are reported of liquefac-
SLIGHTLY tures are observed in loose alluvial
wells and/or of the flow-rate of springs are Anomalous waves up to many tens of cm high flood the limit state, e.g. steep slopes and cuts, with loose very few tree tops and tion (sand boil), small in size and in
DAMAGING deposits and/or saturated soils; along saturated soil, or highly weathered / fractured rocks. unstable-dead limbs may areas most prone to this phenomenon Absent Absent ------
VI Modest effects in the Absent locally recorded, as well as small variations of very limited areas nearshore. Water in swimming steep slopes or riverbanks they can be Underwater landslides can be triggered, occasionally break and fall, also (highly susceptible, recent, alluvial
environment chemical-physical properties of water and pools and small ponds and basins overflows. 1-2 cm wide. A few minor cracks deve-
provoking small anomalous waves in coastal areas of depending on species, and coastal deposits, near surface
turbidity in lakes, springs and wells. lop in paved (either asphalt or stone) fruit load and state of
roads. sea and lakes, commonly seen by intrumental records. health. water table).
Scattered landslides occur in prone areas, where equili-
brium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / saturated
Significant temporary variations of the water Fractures up to 5-10 cm wide and soils), while modest rock falls are common on steep Rare cases are reported of lique-
Observed very rarely, and almost exclusi- level in wells and/or of the flow-rate of up to hundred metres long are gorges, cliffs). Their size is sometimes significant (103 - Trees and bushes faction, with sand boils up to 50 The total
Anomalous waves even higher than a meter may observed, commonly in loose allu- 105 m3); in dry sand, sand-clay, and clay soil, the volu- shake vigorously;
DAMAGING vely in volcanic areas. Limited surface springs are locally recorded. Seldom, small flood limited nearshore areas and damage or wash vial deposits and/or saturated cm in diameter, in areas most affected
fault ruptures, tens to hundreds of springs may temporarily run dry or appear. mes are usually up to 100 m3. Ruptures, slides and falls especially in densely prone to this phenomenon (highly area is in
away objects of variable size. Water overflows from soils; rarely, in dry sand, sand- Absent Absent
VII Appreciable effects in meters long and with centimetric offset, Weak variations of chemical-physical proper- small basins and watercourses. clay, and clay soil fractures are
may affect riverbanks and artificial embankments and forested areas, many
excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment susceptible, recent, alluvial and the order
the environment may occur, essentially associated to very ties of water and turbidity in lakes, springs also seen, up to 1 cm wide. limbs and tops coastal deposits, near surface water of
or weathered / fractured rock. Significant underwater break and fall.
shallow earthquakes. and wells are locally observed. Centimeter-wide cracks are com- landslides can be triggered, provoking anomalous waves table). 10 km 2.
mon in paved (asphalt or stone) in coastal areas of sea and lakes, directly felt by people on
roads. boats and ports.
Springs may change, generally temporarily, their Small to moderate (103 - 105 m3) landslides are widespre-
Fractures up to 50 cm wide ad in prone areas; rarely they can occur also on gentle slo- Liquefaction may be frequent in the
Observed rarely. flow-rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Some and up to hundreds metres long, epicentral area, depending on local In dry areas, Stone sand even
Anomalous waves up to 1-2 meters high flood near- pes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose The total
HEAVILY Ground ruptures (surface faulting) may develop, small springs may even run dry. Variations in are commonly observed in loose conditions; the most typical effects dust clouds small boulders
shore areas and may damage or wash away objects of alluvial deposits and/or saturated / saturated soils; rock falls on steep gorges, coastal cliffs) Trees shake vigorously; affected
DAMAGING up to several hundred meters long, with offsets water level are observed in wells. Weak variations their size is sometimes large (105 - 106 m3). Landslides branches may break are: sand boils up to ca. 1 m in dia- may rise from and tree trunks
variable size. Erosion and dumping of waste is obser-
VIII Extensive effects in
not exceeding a few cm, particularly for very of chemical-physical properties of water, most
ved along the beaches, where some bushes and even
soils; in rare cases fractures up to
1 cm can be observed in competent can occasionally dam narrow valleys causing temporary and fall, trees may be meter; apparent water fountains in the ground in may be thrown area is in
shallow focus earthquakes such as those common commonly temperature, may be observed in or even permanent lakes. Ruptures, slides and falls affect uprooted, especially still waters; localised lateral sprea- the order
springs and/or wells. Water turbidity may appear small weak-rooted trees can be eradicated and drifted dry rocks. Decimetric cracks are the epicentral in the air, leaving
the environment in volcanic areas. Tectonic subsidence or uplift of riverbanks and artificial embankments and excavations ding and settlements (subsidence up of
in closed basins, rivers, wells and springs. away. Water violently overflows from small basins and common in paved (asphalt or along steep slopes. area. typical imprints
the ground surface with maximum values on the stone) roads, as well as small (e.g., road cuts, quarries) in loose sediment or weathered to ca. 30 cm), with fissuring paral- 100 km2.
Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are locally watercourses. lel to waterfront areas (river banks, in soft soil.
order of a few centimeters may occur. pressure undulations. / fractured rock. Frequent is the occurrence of landslides
observed. under the sea level in coastal areas. lakes, canals, seashores).
Springs can change, generally temporarily, their flow-rate Fractures up to 100 cm wide and Landsliding is widespread in prone areas, also on gentle slo- Liquefaction and water upsurge are Small boulders and
DESTRUCTIVE and/or location to a considerable extent. Some modest Meters high waves develop in still and running waters. In flood up to hundreds metres long are Trees shake vigorously;
Observed commonly. pes; where equilibrium is unstable (steep slopes of loose / frequent; sand boils up to 3 m in dia- In dry areas, tree trunks may be The total
Effects in the springs may even run dry. Temporary variations of plains water streams may even change their course, also because of commonly observed in loose allu- saturated soils; rock falls on steep gorges, coastal cliffs) their branches and thin tree meter; the most typical effects dust clouds thrown in the air an- affected area
environment are a Ground ruptures (surface faulting) develop, up water level are commonly observed in wells. Variations of land subsidence. Small basins may appear or be emptied.
to a few km long, with offsets generally in the chemical-physical properties of water, most commonly Depending on shape of sea bottom and coastline, dangerous tsuna-
vial deposits and/or saturated size is frequently large (105 m3), sometimes very large (106 trunks frequently break are:apparent water fountains in still may d move away from is in the
widspread source of order of several cm. Tectonic subsidence or uplift soils; in competent rocks they can m3). Landslides can dam narrow valleys causing temporary and fall. Some trees waters; frequent lateral spreading and rise from their site for meters,
IX considerable hazard and of the ground surface with maximum values in
temperature, are observed in springs and/or wells. Water
turbidity is common in closed basins, rivers, wells and
mis may reach the shores with runups of up to several meters floo-
ding wide areas. Widespread erosion and dumping of waste is
reach up to 10 cm. Significant or even permanent lakes. Riverbanks, artificial embankments might be uprooted and settlements (subsidence of more than the ground. also depending on slope order of
1,000
cracks are common in paved and excavations (e.g., road cuts, quarries) frequently collapse. fall, especially along ca. 30 cm), with fissuring parallel to angle and roundness,
become important for the order of a few decimeters may occur. springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are observed, observed along the beaches, where bushes and trees can be eradica- (asphalt or stone) roads, as well leaving typical im- km 2.
intensity assessment and bushes and grass near emission zones may burn. ted and drifted away. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level in coastal steep slopes. waterfront areas (river banks, lakes,
as small pressure undulations. areas. canals, seashores). prints in soft soil.
Become leading. Many springs significantly change their flow-rate Meters high waves develop in even big lakes and rivers, which over-
VERY DESTRUCTIVE and/or elevation of outcrop. Some springs may run Open ground cracks up to more Boulders (diameter in
Surface faulting can extend for few tens of km, temporarily or even permanently dry. Temporary
flow from their beds. In flood plains rivers may change their course, than 1 m wide and up to hundred Liquefaction, with water upsurge
temporary or even permanently, also because of widespread land Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are fre- Trees shake vigorously; excess of 2-3meters)
Effects in the environ- with offsets from tens of cm up to a few meters. variations of water level are commonly observed in metres long are frequent, mainly and soil compaction, may change In dry areas, can be thrown in the The total
Gravity grabens and elongated depressions deve- subsidence. Basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape in loose alluvial deposits and/or quent, practically regardless of equilibrium state of the slo- many branches and tree the aspect of wide zones; sand vol-
ment become a leading wells. Even strong variations of chemical-physical
properties of water, most commonly temperature, of sea bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with pes, causing temporary or permanent barrier lakes. River trunks break and fall. dust clouds air and move away affected area
lop; for very shallow focus earthquakes in volca- saturated soils; in competent rocks canoes may even be more than 6 m commonly from their site for is in the
X source of hazards and nic areas rupture lengths might be much lower. are observed in springs and/or wells. Often water runups exceeding 5 m flooding flat areas for thousands of meters opening reaches several decimeters. banks, artificial embankments, and sides of excavations typi- Some trees might be in diameter; vertical subsidence
becomes very muddy in even large basins, rivers, inland. Small boulders can be dragged for many meters. cally collapse. Levees and earth dams may also incur serious rise from the hundreds of meters order of
Wide cracks develop in paved even > 1m; large and long fissures
are critical for intensity Tectonic subsidence or uplift of the ground sur- wells and springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with notewor- (asphalt or stone) roads, as well damage. Frequent are large landslides under the sea level in uprooted and fall. due to lateral spreading are com-
ground. down even gentle slopes, 5,000
assessment
face with maximum values in the order of few are observed, and bushes and grass near emission thy changes of the coastline profile. Trees nearshore are eradicated coastal areas. leaving typical km2.
meters may occur. zones may burn. and drifted away.
as pressure undulations. mon. imprints in soil.
Many springs significantly change their flow-rate Large waves develop in big lakes and rivers, which overflow from their
and/or elevation of outcrop. Many springs may Open ground cracks up to Large landslides and rock-falls (> 105 - 106 m3) are
DEVASTATING Are dominant. run temporarily or even permanently dry.
beds. In flood plains rivers can change their course, temporary or even several meters wide are very Big boulders (diame-
Surface faulting extends from several tens of km permanently, also because of widespread land subsidence and landsli- frequent, practically regardless of equilibrium state Liquefaction changes the ter of several meters)
Effects in the up to more than one hundred km, accompanied
Temporary or permanent variations of water level
ding. Basins may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea
frequent, mainly in loose of slopes, causing many temporary or permanent Trees shake vigorously; aspect of extensive zones of can be thrown in the The total
are generally observed in wells. Even strong varia- alluvial deposits and/or barrier lakes. River banks, artificial embankments, many branches and tree In dry areas
environment become by slips reaching several meters. Gravity graben, tions of chemical-physical properties of water, bottom and coastline, tsunamis may reach the shores with runups rea- saturated soils. In competent lowland, determining vertical dust clouds air and move away affected area
elongated depressions and pressure ridges deve- and sides of excavations typically collapse. Levees trunks break and fall. subsidence possibly excee- from their site for is in the
XI decisive for intensity lop. Drainage lines can be seriously offset.
most commonly temperature, are observed in ching 15 meters and more devastating flat areas for kilometers inland.
Even meter-sized boulders can be dragged for long distances.
rocks they can reach 1 m. and earth dams incur serious damage. Significant Many trees are ding several meters; nume-
arise from
the ground. long distances down order of
springs and/or wells. Often water becomes very Very wide cracks develop in
assessment, due to Tectonic subsidence or uplift of the ground sur- muddy in even large basins, rivers, wells and Widespread deep erosion is observed along the shores, with notewor- landslides can occur even at 200 – 300 km distance uprooted and fall. rous large sand volcanoes, even gentle slopes, 10,000
paved (asphalt or stone) from the epicenter. Frequent are large landslides leaving typical km2.
saturation of face with maximum values in the order of springs. Gas emissions, often sulphureous, are thy changes of the coastal morphology. Trees nearshore are eradicated roads, as well as large pressu- and severe lateral spreading
numerous meters may occur. observed, and bushes and grass near emission and drifted away. along the shores, with noteworthy changes of the re undulations. under the sea level in coastal areas. can be observed. imprints in soil.
structural damage zones may burn. coastline profile. Trees nearshore are eradicated and drifted away.
Are dominant. Many springs significantly change their flow-
Surface faulting is at least few hundreds of km Giant waves develop in lakes and rivers, which overflow from
rate and/or elevation of outcrop. Temporary their beds. In flood plains rivers change their course and even Large landslides and rock-falls (> 1055 - 1066 m3)
long, accompanied by offsets reaching several tens or permanent variations of water level are Liquefaction occurs over
COMPLETELY of meters. Gravity graben, elongated depressions their flow direction, temporary or even permanently, also becau- Ground open cracks are very are frequent, practically regardless to equilibrium Also very big boul- The total
generally observed in wells. Many springs and se of widespread land subsidence and landsliding. Large basins frequent, up to one meter or Trees shake vigo- large areas and changes the ders can be thrown in affected area
DEVASTATING and pressure ridges develop. Drainage lines can wells may run temporarily or even permanen- may appear or be emptied. Depending on shape of sea bottom state of the slopes, causing many temporary or per- morphology of extensive
more wide in the bedrock, rously; many bran- In dry areas the air and move for is in the